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Home , Armistice Day, Battle of Gumbinnen, Battle of Tannenberg

ORIGINS OF THE SECTION I FIRST WORLD WA R

The war of 1914–18 was not known, until later, as included in the glossary of terms at the end of the the First World War. When it happened, it quickly resource guide. became known simply as the “Great War.” The world had seen nothing like it since the wars following the Impact of WWI—The Watershed French Revolution that ended in 1815 and had no Event of the Twentieth Century? reason to expect a war like it when it broke out on In this section of the resource guide, we will begin by August 1, 1914. Many historians consider World War considering a brief overview of the major impacts of I to be the watershed moment of the twentieth cen- the First World War. Following this, we will analyze tury. By the time the war came to a formal end at 11 the origins and the causes of the war. am on , 1918,1 it had not only devastated Europe, but had also transformed the way states Total Casualties operated. was an event that ushered in monumental changes, destroyed tens of millions of It is difficult to comprehend the cost of World War I lives, brought about the end of the great continental from the vantage point of the United States, which European empires, ushered in new technologies, and suffered “only” 117,000 killed in the war (0.13 per- 2 transformed the global balance of power. cent of the population). For the U.S., World War II was a much greater, i.e., more devastating, war—the The included the U.S. suffered more than three times as many people (also known as the Hohenzollern Empire, or sim- killed in World War II (418,000). But, for many coun- ply Germany), Austria-Hungary (also known as the tries in Europe, World War I was every bit as deadly Habsburg Empire, or simply Austria), and from as World War II. In all, approximately 9 million people October 28, 1914, the Ottoman Empire (also simply died as a direct result of World War I. (This does not called Turkey). joined the Central Powers in include as many as six million civilians who died as October 1915. The Entente (also referred to as the an indirect result of the war.) France and Germany Allies) included the (also known as both lost more than 3 percent of their entire popula- the Romanov Empire), the French Empire, the British tion in the war. If the United States had lost the same Empire, , , Japan, and Greece. Although percentage as France, it would have seen 4 million Italy had been in formal alliance with Germany and dead and 10 million injured.3 Some countries suf- Austria-Hungary prior to the war, the country ended fered even more: 5.6 percent of the entire Serbian up joining the Entente on May 23, 1915. Portugal, population and 3.8 percent of the Ottoman Empire’s Brazil, and joined the Entente in 1916. You population died in the war. The bloodshed was par- should be aware that in this resource guide, we ticularly intense for some groups. For example, 26 will sometimes use the shorthand of “Germany” to percent of the 558,000 Scots who enlisted to fight in refer to the German Empire, “Turkey” to refer to the the war were killed.4 Ottoman Empire, etc. Also, throughout the resource guide you will notice that some terms have been The term “casualties” refers to the total of those boldfaced and others have been both boldfaced and killed, seriously injured, and prisoners of war. underlined. Boldface indicates a key term or phrase. Approximately 15 million people were seriously Terms that are underlined as well as boldfaced are injured, and roughly 7 million were taken as prison-

4 ACADEMIC DECATHLON ® SOCIAL SCIENCE RESOURCE GUIDE *REVISED PAGE 2013–2014 tension among the Great Powers as they jockeyed peace treaty forced France to recognize German for the most advantageous position to benefit from unification and to cede two regions of mixed French the Ottoman Empire’s weakness. It also proved to be and German population (Alsace and Lorraine) to an important reason why Turkey entered the war on Germany. The desire to recover these territories the side of the Central Powers on October 28, 1914.16 was a constant concern for France. By the late 1880s, it became apparent to France and Russia Many German-speaking princedoms and states unit- that Germany’s industrial and military strength was ed to form a single, powerful German state in 1871. outpacing that of either country. Neither France nor By that time, Britain, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Russia stood a chance alone in a fight with Germany. and Portugal had built large overseas empires over Russia probably had more to fear than France, given the preceding centuries. When Britain and France the widely discussed designs that Germany had on became the primary competitors in a race for addi- conquering territories within the Russian Empire. tional colonies in the 1880s, Germany lacked the Moreover, in early 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary, naval power and existing overseas empire to join the and Italy signed the Triple Alliance, pledging mutual competition in a major way, but it did acquire several support in the event of an attack on any of the three colonies in Africa and in the Pacific during the 1880s. countries. In the three decades prior to 1914, Germany’s indus- trial economy and population both grew rapidly, Russia and France signed the Franco-Russian and Germany increasingly became the most power- Alliance in 1892, despite huge differences between ful economy in Europe. Vocal nationalist groups in them—Russia was an absolute monarchy and France Germany complained that it was unfair that such a was a democratic republic. The alliance obligated powerful country had such a relatively small over- each power to go to war if attacked by a member of seas empire. Powerful lobbies such as the German the Triple Alliance. Its aim was to create a balance Naval League and elected officials in the Reichstag of power sufficient to deter Germany from attacking (parliament) pushed the government to build a navy either France or Russia. A key provision of the alli- that could compete with Britain and enable Germany ance required both France and Russia to mobilize to become more of a global imperial power. The their armies and reserves as rapidly as possible and emperor and government’s focus on a naval buildup deploy them immediately in order to force Germany created sharp tensions with Great Britain, though to fight a two-front war. Germany’s efforts were not enough to really chal- These alliances created a rough balance of power in lenge British naval dominance. Realizing that the continental Europe. The one Great Power that could race for colonies was already over and that the path tip the balance was Great Britain. A long history of to empire overseas was unrealistic, German strate- tensions with France and Russia over imperial ques- gists and publicists who wanted Germany to become tions ranging from Egypt to the Russian Far East a greater empire concluded that the better path to and Central Asia kept Germany hopeful that Britain foreign conquest was by land.17 would either join the Triple Alliance or would at least The German right wrote about building a great land remain neutral during a war. But Britain resolved empire by conquering Slavic lands to the East. The many of its outstanding differences over colonial “Pan-German League” published many pamphlets issues with France and signed the Entente Cordiale and articles claiming that there were substantial of 1904. This was not a firm alliance, but it greatly numbers of Germans living in , Ukraine, and improved relations with France. Only two years Russia and that the Slavic peoples of those regions later, military staff from France and Great Britain could be conquered and pushed further to the East began to meet to discuss potential strategies for to create living space for the growing German popu- cooperation in case of war. British suspicion of alli- lation. Such views were far from universally held in ance with autocratic Russia was tempered when Germany. Many of the mainstream parties opposed Russia’s 1905 Revolution brought about Russia’s first the idea of a war of conquest. But expansionist views elected national parliament (the Duma) and intro- were loudly supported in some of the popular press, duced many elements of the rule of law. In August and the basic idea that Germany’s path to imperial 1907, Britain and Russia signed an agreement settling conquest and world power status lay in the conquest the most hotly disputed issues of contention on the of Slavic lands in Europe strongly influenced German borders of their two empires in Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet.19 strategic thinkers.18 While relations improved markedly between Britain THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM AND and the Entente, British relations with Germany Germany’s potential expansion also influenced other deteriorated. Germany chose to continue building Great Powers in Europe. France tried to stop German up its navy and used it twice to challenge France in unification in 1870, but was soundly defeated by a Morocco, spurring the Moroccan Crises of 1905 and combined German force under Prussian leadership 1911. Britain read this increasing assertiveness and in a quick war that lasted only seven weeks. The naval build-up as evidence that Germany was becom-

16 ACADEMIC DECATHLON ® SOCIAL SCIENCE RESOURCE GUIDE *REVISED PAGE 2013–2014 Germany demanded better rations and a conclusion majority said they would not follow the Kaiser if he of the war in the East. But the announcement of the tried to lead military forces in an attempt to restore peace of Brest-Litovsk stopped opposition to the domestic order; half doubted soldiers would even be war. Half the war had been won, and there was a willing to put down a communist uprising if it were promise of grain deliveries from Ukraine.200 to occur. According to Groener, the most repeated theme was, “The troops are fully exhausted at the In contrast to the Austrian and Russian armies, muti- moment; only the ruins [of an army] are on hand.” nies, desertion, or willful surrender to the enemy Groener told the Kaiser that the army would no lon- were extraordinarily rare in the German Army. It ger follow him and on November 10, Wilhelm II was was structured to promote unit-level cohesion, and on a train to exile in the Netherlands, ending 504 for most of the war, soldiers were very efficiently years of Hohenzollern rule.205 and generously provisioned with food and drink. However, the failed Ludendorff offensive of 1918 cre- On October 22, Admiral Hipper prepared to launch ated a new situation. It left many German soldiers in a suicidal sortie of the German fleet against the lightly fortified positions, beyond the reach of supply much superior British fleet plus five American super lines. Hunger and demoralization over the failures of dreadnoughts (battleships) to save the “honor” of the offensive and the retreats that followed led to the the German Navy and thereby ensure its future fund- first major instances of desertion, feigned injury, and ing. The sailors thought otherwise and rose up in mass surrender.201 Estimates run to about one million rebellion. Admiral Hipper sent the mutinous sailors German soldiers “who in the last months of the war to the port at Kiel. From Kiel, the sailors started a left their units without permission.”202 On top of it all, revolution, quickly seizing Hamburg and Bremen. a new, virulent and more deadly strain of Spanish Councils of workers and soldiers were elected, and flu swept through the German Army, claiming one in Bavaria, on November 7 (the first anniversary of in six.203 Immunities were weakened by hunger, and the Bolshevik seizure of power in Petrograd), they the flu also spread through the civilian populations declared a socialist republic.206 On November 9, at home.204 Philip Scheidmann, one of the leaders of the German Social Democratic Party, proclaimed a republic from On September 29, Ludendorff abruptly announced to the balcony of the Reichstag. On the same day, Karl the Kaiser and the civilian leadership that the war Leibknecht, leader of the Communist Spartacus was lost. Popular opinion swung incredibly rapidly. League, proclaimed a proletarian republic in a differ- Wartime censorship on news from the front had led ent part of . people to believe things were going well. The sudden revelation that all was lost was a massive blow. The But, events then followed a course very different popular mood quickly shifted toward demanding from that of the Russian revolutions. The military immediate peace. The Kaiser moved quickly to grant and civilian leadership came to an agreement with sweeping democratic changes in an attempt to get the more moderate Social Democratic Party leader lenient peace terms from the idealistic U.S. President Friedrich Ebert. Ebert was proclaimed Chancellor on . The liberal Prince Max von Baden November 10 and became head of a new “provisional took over as Chancellor of Germany. Organized government” of a democratic republic. In return, labor was granted major concessions, including the he agreed not to fire the old elites in the officer eight-hour workday. Promises were made to extend corps, civil service, and judiciary; agreed to restore suffrage and put the military firmly under the control domestic order; and agreed to fight the revolution- ary movement. The first act of the new government of the civilian authorities. was to accept the agreement as dictated On October 28, the Chancellor introduced the first by the Allies. The Armistice took effect on November major revision of the constitution since 1871. It made 11, 1918, at 11:00 am. The war that nearly everyone the Chancellor and the Minister of War responsible had assumed would last a few weeks had ground to the Reichstag (parliament); required the con- on for 226 weeks. Europe, the undisputed center of sent of the Reichstag for treaties, the declaration the world in 1913, was left in ruins, and the wake of war, the conclusion of peace, and the dismissal of destruction and transformation spread out to and appointment of officers; and ended the broadly change the entire world. defined powers of the Kaiser. In sum, the constitution gave the Reichstag control over military and foreign Section II Summary: affairs. This major reform was introduced under The Course of the War duress, as a preemptive move to improve the chanc- es that U.S. President Wilson would help Germany The Imbalance of Population conclude a more favorable peace. and Economic Might Kaiser Wilhelm II refused to abdicate until General Although the Central Powers had the advantage Wilhelm Groener, the new Chief of Staff, gathered * of a good railway network that could rush forces thirty-nine of Germany’s most senior generals. A from one front to another, from the beginning

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Alsace and Lorraine – These were two French prov- – The Battle of Jutland began when inces with mixed French and German-speaking pop- the German Navy tried to draw the British Navy into ulations that were annexed by Germany from France a trap of waiting U-boats and minefields, engaging at the conclusion of the Franco-Prussian War of in a major battle in a place of German choosing. In 1870–71. The desire to recover the provinces proved May 1916, 100,000 men in 250 ships engaged in a to be a major issue of contention between France and seventy-two-hour battle. It was the largest direct Germany, and it may have been one of the reasons clash among surface vessels in modern history to for French General Joffre’s strategy at the beginning that date. The British suffered greater losses than of World War I, which focused on launching a major the Germans, but strategically the battle changed offensive in the direction of the two provinces rather little. Britain retained its naval supremacy, and the than focusing on defending against the German inva- German Navy returned to port. sion further to the northwest. The provinces were – This British attack on German awarded to France at the end of World War I. positions resulted, in a single day, in casualties that ANZAC – This is an acronym for the Australia and were among the worst in the history of warfare; New Zealand Army Corps, active in the Gallipoli cam- nearly one-fifth of the entire British force was killed paign and elsewhere. on the first day. One of the reasons for the failure of the attack was the German embrace of a strategy of Armistice – An armistice marks the end to hos- “defense in depth,” which held the front lines thinly, tilities, when both parties agree to stop fighting. The reducing the number of troops exposed to bombard- armistice that ended World War I came into effect on ment and possible capture in the event of a success- November 11, 1918, at 11:00 am, “the eleventh hour, of ful offensive. The Battle of the Somme is also unique the eleventh day, of the eleventh month.” Although in that tanks were used for the first time, although the armistice ended the fighting, it still left many they were only marginally effective. questions unanswered that would have to be negoti- ated during the following months. – The Battle of Tannenberg (August 26–30, 1914) was the first of two great vic- – This was the first major tories by the German Army against the invading German attack of the war. The Germans concen- Russian armies in (the second was the trated their attacks on Belgian forts using “monster battle of Masurian Lakes, September 9–14, 1914). guns” to breech the fortresses. Once the fortresses 50,000 Russians were killed or wounded, and 100,000 fell, a series of engagements between the French and taken prisoner in the battle, which stopped Russia the Germans began on August 14 and ended with the from advancing deep into German territory. beginning of the Battle of the Marne on September – At the end of 1915, both sides 6. This series of engagements, known as the Battle concluded that the decisive battles would be on the of the Frontiers, involved over two million soldiers, Western Front. The German commander decided to making it the largest battle in human history to that lure French forces into the exposed salient at the date. historic city of Verdun, and then bombard them – A Russian victory over with deadly, massive artillery barrages. French com- German forces in East Prussia on August 20, 1914, mander Joffre did not think Verdun was strategically this battle convinced German Commander in Chief important, but French Premier Briand insisted that Moltke to dispatch two army corps, comprising it was important to hold the city to keep the morale seven regular divisions (approximately 90,000 sol- of the population high. In all, the two sides shot 10 diers), from France to the Eastern Front to prevent a million artillery shells with 1.35 million tons of steel rapid Russian march to Berlin. Some historians have at each other during the battle. In the end, all the argued that by undermining the attacking forces, the slaughter and expenditure of shells resulted in little early Russian offensive thereby “saved France.” change on the map.

2013–2014 ACADEMIC DECATHLON ® SOCIAL SCIENCE RESOURCE GUIDE *REVISED PAGE 87 August 21 The Germans begin withdrawal to the .

September 29 Bulgaria agrees to an armistice.

October 30 Turkey concludes an armistice with the Allies.

The German fleet mutinies at Kiel. November 3 1918 Trieste falls to the Allies; Austria-Hungary concludes an armistice. continued November 9 Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates and flees to Holland the following day.

Germany negotiates an armistice with the Allies in ’s railway carriage headquarters at Compiegne (in northern November 11 France).

Armistice day; fighting ceases at 11 am.

January 5 Communist revolt in Berlin

1919 January 18 Start of peace negotiations in Paris

May 7–June 28 drafted and signed

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