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Home , Achomawi, Bannock War, Fort McDermit, Northern Paiute language, Northern Shoshone, Numaga

ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 2: 3

THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS i BY OMER C. STEWART

UNIVERSITY OF PRESS BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA 1939 THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS BY OMER C. STEWART

ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Vol. 2 No. 3 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS EDITORS: A. L. KROEBER, R. H. LowIE, R. L. OLSON Volume 2, No. 3, PP. 127-149, I map Transmitted November i8, 1937 Issued March 24, 1939 Price 25 cents

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON, ENGLAND

The University of California publications dealing with anthro- pological subjects are now issued in two series. The series in American Archaeology and Ethnology, which was established in 1903, continues unchanged in format, but is restricted to papers in which the interpretative element outweighs the factual or which otherwise are of general interest. The new series, known as Anthropological Records, is issued in photolithography in a larger size. It consists of monographs which are documentary, of record nature, or devoted to the presen- tation primarily of new data.

MANUFACTURED IN THE OF AMERICA 'CONTENTS

Page

Introduction...... 127 The Northern Paiute ...... 128

The bands and their chiefs...... 131

Conclusion ...... 144

Bibliography...... 148

TABLE

1. Summary list of Northern Paiute bands ...... 146

MAP

1. Northern Paiute bands ...... frontispiece

[iii] 46

C, UMATILL

_0 HUNIPU

A L le 44 OA. LIJ z *au 801 0 % HA LAKE M)UNTAIN VER I OME 0 SILVER

MER AKE KLAMATH 00

L. ABER KLA AE TSOSC 0

MI ODO IDU 42 V F- GOOSE,--- 9 Ow 71 L. L. 13 ACH M

a TV,

KAM6 Su4XVII-4 KUR. M"TAIN KUP L-Li LOVELOCK z 0 SINK

5 LLWATER OE 0ANSTIN EVADA TY ...... I

oAUSURN Al oPLACER- VILLE %

4 oHAWTHORNE GEPOR PAKWI MIWOK TS WALPAPI LAND CESSION 39 v LAKE 0 10 20 30 40 50 THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS BY OMER C. STEWART

INTRODUCTION

For all studies in history, ethnography, ar- Northern Paiute . It will be shown that chaeologyt or geography the accurate definition these Indians recognized themselves collec- of "place' is fundamental. This paper is an at- tively as Paiute (n:6mb, "people"), that the tempt to locate accurately the Northern Paiute bands had native names distinctively Northern tribe and to ascertain correctly the subdivisions Paiute, that none owned the designation Snake of this tribe at the time of white contact, about or Bannock, and that the bands were uniformly 1850. Political organization, succession of lead- small, peaceful, almost completely without ers, and population are also considered, inasmuch horses or firearms before 1850. as they help to verify the existence of tribal The geography of the Northern Paiute area is divisions. fairly well known in general outline, but it Certainly, if we have units to set apart, the should be pointed out that the major part of it basis for the formation of those units must be lies within the . Consequently, it is clearl4 defined. The larger unit I have called characterized by small streams which flow into "tribe because it is a group of Indians linguis- landlocked, brackish, or salt lakes. Physio- tically, culturally, and territorially united. graphically, the territory is also known as the The smaller units within the tribe are termed Basin-Range Province because of the numerous "bands" because of their political autonomy, mountains running north and south, which dissect small population, and simple, informal social or- the basin into small, desert valleys. On the ganization. Since no political authority bound floor of the basin shadscale, sagebrush, salt the whole group together, it might have been grass, and greasewood dominate the flora. On the equally correct to have called the inclusive unit ranges grows juniper, with piinon occurring in a nation" and each of the smaller units "." unevenly scattered groves. Jack rabbits and However, since Powell, Kroeber, Steward, and others ground squirrels are the most common fauna, al- have already referred to the subdivisions of the though deer, antelope, and mountain sheep are Northern Paiute as bands, it seems preferable to found in favored localities. The poverty of the retain that designation. landscape is reflected in the small size of each The solution to important problems and the band and the sparse population relative to the evaluation of far-reaching hypotheses often rest large area occupied by this tribe. on the interpretation of group names. In this re- The names and approximate dates of band chiefs port the Indians of southwestern and south- or captains and the names and locations of bands eastern , heretofore called "Snake" and were obtained in the field. These data were con- "Bannock," will be interpreted as part of the firmed with amazing regularity by accounts written seventy and eighty years ago.

1127] THE NORTHERN PAIUTE

The Northern Paiute' belong to the Mono- culturally eastern and western Shoshoneans were Paviotso dialect of the Plateau Shoshonean lan- distinct. The Columbia River was visited by Ross" guage.2 They occupied northwestern , in 1819, and his statement that the Sahaptin southwestern Idaho, southeastern Oregon, and "possessed but a very confused idea of the California east of the Cascade Mountains and Snak's, both as to their names or numbers," ex- the from the Oregon border to plains why Lewis and Clark were misled. Ross south of Owens Lake, except for that part occu- said, "One would call them Bannocks, and another pied by the Washo, from Honey Lake to the north Wurrocks, while a third would have them named fork of . The bands in the region Dogs." Yet he gave the boundaries of the Snake of Mono and Owens lakes, studied by Steward' are territory: Rocky Mountains on the east, "Spanish not included in this presentation. The Northern waters" on the south, the Cascades on the west, Paiute bands here described are Indians formerly and the Blue and Teton mountains on the north. In known as Oregon Snakes, Western Bannock, and such a manner were the Indians south of the Co- Northern Paiute or Paviotso. That they should be lumbia christened; and if we wish to recognize considered as one people will be made clear. priority, "Snake" should be used to designate The differences in the nomenclature for the the Oregon Paiute certainly, and other groups Indians here embraced by one rubric are a result depending on the location of "Spanish waters." of historic accidents. Effects of those acci- This lumping together of all Shoshonean dents are continually reappearing to obscure the tribes did not long continue, for'Ogden (1825), real relationships of these bands.' An examina- Farnham (1849), and Wyeth (1847Y recognized two tion of the first historic accounts treating culturally different Snake groups, the horse- this people supplies an explanation of their di- using, buffalo-hunting "Banacks," and the root- verse generic names. digging, fishing "Shoshonees, or Digger Snakes." In 1805, when Lewis and Clark5 were told by A similar separation was made in 1859 when a the Sahaptin of the Columbia River that the In- visit to the Oregon Snake territory was described dians to the south were Shoshonean, they natur- by Captain Wallen.8 This officer, sent by the ally classified them with the horse-using "Sosone, government to survey a new wagon road for immi- or Snake" tribes they had met farther east. They grants, started near Warm Springs, Oregon, went joined the "Towannahhiooks" of Des Chutes, "the to Harney Lake, which he named, and crossed to river on which the live," with the the . The few Indians he found in eastern tribes, and believed their territory ex- Oregon were peaceful, without horses or arms, tended "to Mexico." If Lewis and Clark had vis- which contradicted the prevalent idea of their ited the Oregon "Snakes," probably they would savage,warlike habits. He called these south- have recognized that linguistically as well as eastern Oregon Indians "Digger Snakes" to con- trast them with the formidable, armed and IMaterial for this paper was collected on Board mounted "Bannach Snakes" of southeastern Idaho. of Research funds, in conjunction with a culture- ,, element survey for the Department of , Thus the designation "Snake," inadvertently ap- University of California, during the summer of plied by Lewis and Clark, remained in spite of 1936. Informants from fourteen Paiute bands were observed cultural differences. interviewed. Since these data might be helpful to The history of the name Paiute (Pah Ute, anyone doing ethnography in the area as well as PTe) forytheId ano westcentral Nev to governmental agencies drafting new Indian pol- Piute) for the Indians of west central-Nevada icies, I have prepared them separately from the has been explained as a combination of the Pai- element-survey report, which may be delayed. ute words pa (water) and ute (direction). The The map accompanying this paper was drafted by Indians spoke of themselves as nomob (people), a Works Progress Administration employee. but probably travelers who had had previous ex- 2Kroeber, 1907, 114; 1909, 267. perience with the Ute used ute to form the last 3Steward, 1933. part of the name for this new Shoshonean group, 4Lowie, 1909, 171, writing concerning the Sho- but added pa to indicate observable differences shone or Snakes, said they roamed in Nevada to a between the two groups. Certain it is that the hundred miles south of the Humboldt River; yet same Indians were known as Snake by some writers in 1924 he placed the Paviotso in Oregon, the and Paiute by others. Fremont,' for example, made territory earlier assigned to the Snakes, with- ade out mentioning that the two were the same. Spier, nondistidistinctionbethenbetween the Indians hee met min 1930, 4, classified the eastern neighbors of the southern Oregon and those near . Klamath as Northern Paiute (Paviotso) and Snake, but admitted "the Snake proper and Bannock may Lewis and Clark, 3:147; 4:76, 366. not have been in Oregon prior to the acquisition 8R 18 2 of the horse." Berreman, 1937 map 2, placed 5 1 Snake, Bannock, and Northern Paiute as subdivi- Ogden, 1910, 208; Farnham in Thwaite, 1904, sions of the Shoshonean stock in southeastern 28:312; W~yeth in Schoolcraft, 1:206. Oregon. Earlier accounts, of course, made the 8Wallen, 222. same error. Flremont, 1845, 212. 1128] STEWART: THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS 129 President Polk,10 likewise, in his message to Kroeber did not denote exact limits of the Mono- Congress in 1848 referred to the 7000 Indians Paviotso dialect and mentioned its subdivisions living west of as "Banarch only in the most general way. The present paper Diggers." Notwithstanding these earlier refer- is an attempt to establish some of these limits ences, Beckwith11 in 1855 stated he saw "Digger and subdivisions as precisely as is possible at Indians" in western Nevada "who call themselves this time. The tribal boundary was naturally es- Pah-Utahs." The following year this was changed tablished through the determination of all the to Py-utes by Agent Hurt in reporting about band limits. "200 Indians on Humboldt sink, 80 at Ragtown, Although almost everyone writing about the 400 in the mountains to the north." With the Indians included in this study has testified to separation of Nevada from the territory, the existence of bands, chiefs, and so forth, no the Southern and the Northern Paiute were placed one has troubled to ascertain systematically their under one supervisor, who did not distinguish number, names, or territorial extent.17 As early the two groups. This mistake was corrected by as 1859 Dodge18 named twelve bands and mentioned Powell13 in 1873. He emphasized the distinction where they were found, but unfortunately he did between the Southern Paiute and the Paviotso, a not attempt to supply the geographical limits name he used for the Northern Paiute, recogniz- occupied by each group. The autonomy of the bands ing the connection of the latter with the so- was attested to by Major Douglas19 in 1870 when called Bannocks of southeastern Oregon. A few he wrote: "The main difficulty encountered in years later, Agent Rinehart,14 of the Malheur carrying out the policy of the Government with Agency, confirmed Powell's idea of the unity be- the Indians of this superintendency is their tween the western Nevada and southeastern Oregon lack of tribal organization. The Pah-Utes, num- Indians. He delineated the same northern and bering fully 5000, are broken up into small bands western boundaries used by Ross a half century of from 50 to 200, each band under the nominal earlier to describe the Snake limits, that is, leadership of individuals elected by themselves, the Blue and Cascade mountains, but said only called captains. These bands act independently of the Indians east of the Snake River should be each other." Members of these small groups, never- called Snakes. Paiute, Yahooskin, and Walpahpe, theless, recognized they were linguistically and occupying the "country bounded by Snake River on culturally related, considering themselves one the east, and the Cascade on the west, the Blue tribe of Paiute20 as opposed to the Shoshoni, Mountains on the north and Goose Lake and Steens Washo, Achomawi, Sahaptin, and other tribes. Mountain on the south, all have been called The position attained by Old Winnemucca (Makoi Snakes indiscriminately," he said, "though none [or Movitawara], "hole in the nose") suggests that of them will own the name .... They all use the the independent Northern Paiute bands were in same language spoken at Pyramid Lake and along process of becoming united under one chief. Old the Lower Humboldt."13 Winnemucca's rale offers an example of cultural Although Powell and Rinehart thus expressed change which was activated by historic contacts the affinity between the Oregon and western Neva- with white men. The picture is not entirely da Shoshoneans, the true relationship of these clear, but we seem to have here an example of tribes was not realized until Kroeber18 demon- the leader of one band being transformed into a strated the unmistakable dialectic unity of the tribal chief by governmental agents desirous of Mono, Paviotso, and "the Shoshoneans of eastern having one authoritative person to deal with, and Oregon called both Snake and Paiute, and probably by an ambitious, educated daughter, Sarah Winne- certain of the Bannock or other Indians of Idaho." mucca, trying to attain self-aggrandizement by exalting her father. In the Indian Service re- °Polk, quoting Meek, 16. ports, starting with-that of Major Dodge (1859), "Beckwith, 1855, 34. Old Winnemucca is nearly always signalized as I9nd. AlT. Rep. , 1855-56, 228. "head chief of all the Paiute," notwithstanding 13 Ind.ellyRp.and55-1933,8 Ind. Aff. Rep., 1873, 75. Kelly, 1932, and Steward, 1933, published 14d. Aff. Rep., 1876-77, 172. complete ethnographic studies of individual bands and mentioned the names of others. Powers and Although these statements are quite defi- Powell located several bands, the names of which nite, the tribal relationships of these Indians appear in the Handbook (Hoige, ed.), having been remained confused. Bancroft, 1883, 422, for ex- taken from their manuscripts in the Bureau of ample, divided the Shoshonean family into Snakes American Ethnology. Curtis, 1926, included the and Utahs. The Snakes, he said, "inhabit south- Paiute in four bands. eastern Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and the northern portions of Utah and Nevada, are sub- Dodge, 1859-60, 741. divided into several small tribes, and include 19Ind. Aff. Rep., 1870, 105. the more considerable nation of Bannocks. The .,0 Utahs occupy nearly the whole of Utah and Nevada, Powell and Ingalls, 1873, 75, insisted that and extend into Arizona and California." Utahs "Paviotso" be used to distinguish the northern included Utah proper, Washo, "Pah-Utes, or as Nevada Paiute from the Southern Paiute. This term they are sometimes called, Piutes, in western and has not been universally accepted; and since the central Nevada, stretching into Arizona and south- Indians term themselves nomo or Paiute at present, eastern Nevada," Pah Vants, Gosh Utes, etc. Northern Paiute should be consistently adopted. KEroeber, 1907, 122; also, 1909. 130 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS statements like the one above by Major Douglas, bands had recognized possession of certain attesting the complete independence of the bands. tracts--pinon ranges, lakes, streams, hunting Dodge enumerates a dozen independent bands with grounds. If other Paiutes obtained food there, as their captains, yet where Old Winnemucca was they did without as much as asking permission, it mentioned he was attributed tribal in addition was always with an understanding that they were to band leadership. Dodge did not visit Old visitors. Seldom did claimed lands overlap, ex- Winnemucca's band but probably obtained infor- cept where two adjacent bands recognized mutual mation concernig it from who use of a district, in which case, the line has was, at the time, living at the home of Major been drawn in the center. Bands in more arid re- Ormsby in Carson City. Undoubtedly Dodge stayed gions traveled more and spent several months each at the home of Ormsby and thus started the asso- year as visitors in the productive areas of their ciation between the army and Sarah Winnemucca, friends. which continued many years. Sarah acted as in- Further indication of the close band relation- terpreter for most officials who visited the ships is found in the number of distinct group Nevada Indians and was in an excellent position names and the number of different local chiefs re- to color the governmental reports. Once the idea membered by certain informants. Nick Downington, a of Old-Winnemucca s exalted position had been Tasiget of Reno, differentiatea seven bands ex- established in the minds of the white people his tending from Oregon to Mono Lake, California, and prestige increased amon$ the Indians. Taking ad- named their "captains." At , Cali- vantage of his daughter s position, he traveled fornia, Steward recorded the names of bands as to various bands and became known as "traveling far as Pyramid Lake; and at Surprise Valley, chief" by the Northern Paiute from Pyramid lake California, Kelly learned of bands as far south to Bums, Oregon; white people called Sarah as the Aga' idoka of . In fact, nearly Winnemucca "Paiute Indian Princess,"' although all informants knew the names of several bands Indians did not credit her with any such distinc- and their leaders, as well as the boundaries di- tion. South of Pyramid, Old Winnemucca was never viding their territories, thus providing a check considered more than a leader of the Pyramid for all information. Lake band. Prior to the arrival of the white peo- By Steward's21 classification of simple hunt- ple, bands united for special hunting, fishing, ing groups according to social organization, the dancing, plinon-nut gathering, rarely for war; but Northern Paiute bands would be "Mixed Groups." no one was generally recognized as possessing any No definite rule for residence or exogamy ex- authority above the local band chief. It seems isted. If personal property was not destroyed at that the Northern Paiute were ripe to become po- death, it was passed on to any relatives who litically united; this, however, never happened. could use it, preferably to offspring. The idea The basic unity of the Northern Paiute appears of real-estate ownership by individual or band from the fact that they pictured exact bounda- was so tenuous it hardly existed, but indefinite ries dividing themselves from surrounding tribes, rights to certain pinon-nut areas were inherited whereas interband divisions were often vague and matrilineally and patrilineally. One could, indefinite. Map 1 (frontispiece) shows bands however, fish, hunt, or gather anywhere. Leader- sharply separated; yet these lines were not al- ship, whether as band chief, "dance captai," or ways conceived so precisely. Band territories "hunting captain," was a reward of personality consisted of a relatively productive area and its and experience, not inheritance.2 environs; the large, sterile, dry stretches sur- rounding the valuable spots were not exclusively tm1Steward., 1936, 331. claimed, and I have arbitrarily divided them be- Douglas, Ind. Afif. Rep., 1870, 105. tween adjacent groups. In spite of some laxness, THE BANDS AND THEIR CHIEFS

The following detailed information concerning the west, John Day, Umatilla, and Cayuse on the the twenty-one bands was obtained through both north, and on the east;28 on the south field work and consultation of the literature. were the Yahuskin and Wadatoka Paiute. Since the northern groups were described first The literature contains several references by the early travelers, I have begun the list to the leaders of the Hunipuitoka (Walpapi). with them, and have proceeded southward. Paulina29 (Pau-li-he, Pafiaina),30 who was moved (1) Hunipuit6ka28 (?) or Walpapi. This band, to the Klamath Reservation and was killed about also known as the Canyon City Indians by Oregon 1867,31 was one of them. Another was tWe-ah-we- informants, occupied the area assigned to the wat," in 1870 chief of the largest band of Snakes "Towannahhiooks" by Lewis and Clark and to vari- at Camp Harney.32 "Old Wiwa" was mentioned as ously designated "Snake" tribes by other earlier chief of the Hunipuit0ka "when the whites came? writers.2' Wallen28 in 1859 was the first to by informants at McDermitt and Owyhee, Nevada, distinguish the territory of this band within and at Burns, Oregon, none of whom were from his the general Snake area when he wrote: "We met band, and by two young Indians at Burns, who ... a band of Digger Snakes, inhabiting the val- claimed to be Hunipuit6ka. ley of Crooked River, and those adjacent, some- The evidence is not entirely convincing that times extending their camps as far north as the the area under consideration was occupied by one headwaters of the John Day and as far south as band. I have presented it as such primarily be- the Two Buttes, forty or fifty miles south of cause no other band was named by informants. When the mouth of Crooked River." This northern-band asked who used to live north of the Wadat6ka of boundary agrees with that set for the Snakes by Burns, all who professed to know mentioned this Ross and Wyeth, mentioned earlier, and coincides one band. The position of Paulina and Old Wiwa with part of the Walpapi cession to the govern- is not clear. It is possible that the latter took ment.6e Our Hunipuit6ka territory thus includes charge of those who were said not to have gone to the northern part of the Walpapi cession plus the reservation. One reference states the area be- the area to the west around Pauline Mountain and longed to one band, another to several. Inasmuch Pauline Lake, which Gatschet27 assigns to the as historical accounts are not sufficiently defi- Walpapi. The boundary, enclosing about 7000 nite, it is best to accept the testimony of liv- square miles, starting at Pauline Mountain (Twin ing Indians. Buttes) in Des Chutes County, runs north through The only indication of band population is con- Jefferson County to the Wasco County line where tained in the Report on Indian Affairs for 1870, Highway 97 crosses; thence east to the John Day in which the Walpapi on the Klamath Reservation River, up the river to North Fork, then up the are numbered at 98. Other Klamath census figures North Fork to the Blue Mountains; thence south do not differentiate the Paiute bands. Although along the Blue Mountains to the head of the a few younger Hunipuit6ka can be found at Burns, Malheur River; thence southwesterly along the they are said to be mostly on the Warm Springs divide between the John Day and the Malheur Reservation, 76 Pi-Ute being there in 1896. Only drainages to Pauline Mountain, the place of be- a careful house-to-house census of these two ginning. The Hunipuitoka were thus surrounded on places could reveal how many still are living. three sides by Sahaptin tribes: the Tenino on (2) Yahuskin (?).6 Goyatoka (tcrawfish 1?] 28a eaters") was the name obtained both and are by To6ka,Tbka, dbka,doka, and dlkadlidikad'i are suffixes which Kelly6' mean "eater"; but are synonymous to nm, "peo-28 ple," and weit or tu-viwarai, "dweller." The suf- Royce, 836. fix is sometimes omitted. In native words the let- 27Gatschet, lxi. ters have the following values: o, mute e as in 28Mooney, 1896; Berreman, 1937; Ray, 1936. French je, le, etc.; ii, the u in German kiihl or French lune; u, pronounced as in German gut; e 29Ind. Aff. Rep., 1865-66, 6; 1867, 100; 1876- pronounced as in French ete; i, pronounced as in 77, 172. French fini; a, pronounced as in English far; g, 30Gatschet, loc. cit. a velar sonant g accompanied by a uvular vibra- tion; r, pronounced as French uvular r; ', repre- "Hodge, Handbook, 2:901. sents a glottalized stop; V, pronounced as 32Ind. Aff. Rep., 1870, 53. Kelly, 205, heardoof the Spanish bilabial V; other letters pronounced Wiwa also. as in English. 3Ind. Aff. Rep., 1865-66, 89. 24Ind. Aff. Rep., 1865, 471: Hoonebooly, Hoone- 34Kelly, 1932, 72, also heardoof the Diihitcya- booey, Nollpahpe, Wallpahpe, and lukespiul Snakes; tikadiU ("deer eaters"), a small group, possibly a Hale, in Gallatin, 1848, 18: Wihinashtas. Nash, subdivision of the Yahuskin, near Silver and Sum- 1937, called the Walpapi Paiute. Berreman, 1937, mer lakes. My informants also named Paavituviwarai perpetrates the error of considering this band the ("white fiint dwellers") as a subgroup at Chewau- mounted, raiding Snakes accused by Teit of causing can Valley, Oregon. Sahaptin migrations. 2 Wallen, 222. [131] 132 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS and me for this band, which occupied the region (3) Wadatka (seed [Suaeda depressa var. of Silver, Summer, and Abert lakes, Oregon. How- erecta Wats. I eaters" r.3of Burns, Oregon. The ever, we were independently told the name was of area of the Wadatoka was partly included in recent origin. My informants knew an older, bet- Hale's Wihinasht4" and the Indian Land Cession ter name existed, but they could not recall it. usually called Walpapi. One of the bands men- References to this band are neither so numerous tioned in the cession is the Wahtatkin or Wa- nor so early as those for the (Walpapi) Huni- tat-kah,45 which almost certainly represents a puit6ka, although as early as 1859 Wallen dis- different spelling of Wadat6ka. There is close tinguished this band from the Walpapi. The Ya- agreement between the northern Wadatoka bound- huskin and Walpapi, classed together as "Snakes" ary obtained by me and the northern limit of on the Klamath Reservation, maintained their in- Snake" territory given by Ross" and Rinehart;"7 dividuality for many years. Gatschet,"5 writing there is similar coincidence of the northern that before 1864 the Yahuskin haunted Goose, Wadatdka boundary and the Southern Sahaptin Silver, Warner, and Harney lakes and Chewaukan boundary described by Spinden.4' and Sycan marshes, provides identification for Discernible boundaries encompassed about the Indians seen at Summer Lake (near Silver 5250 square miles, including streams entering Lake) by Fremont,"6 who distinguished them from Harney and Malheur lakes and Malheur River. From the Klamath in the mountains to the west. The near Hampton, Oregon, the line runs northeasterly Klamath-Paiute boundary of this vicinity has about 100 miles, coincident with that of the been considered by several anthropologists,37 Hunipuitoka, to the south end of Blue Mountains; who agree on all except the area of Sycan Marsh, thence easterly along Blue Mountains about 60 used by both peoples. miles almost to Snake River; thence southeasterly Most of the Yahuskin area of about 5000 square along Cedar Mountain about 110 miles to the north miles lies within the area called by Wallen the end of Steens Mountain; thence westerly about 50 "Big Basin."38 Starting where the Oregon line- miles to the desert east of Juniper Mountain crosses Goose Lake, the western border runs west where the line turns northerly 20 miles to Lit- to include Dog Lake and Drews Creek, then turns tle Juniper Mountain; thence northerly, passing north to pass east of Bly and goes to Gearheart on the west side of Wagontire Mountain, 65 miles Mountain; thence northwesterly through Sycan to Hampton. Marsh to Yamsay Mountain and on to Pauline Moun- Additional historical material concerning this tain; thence easterly along the southern line of band appears in the Indian Service reports of the the Hunipuitoka almost to Hampton, where it establishment of the Malheur Reservation in 1875. curves southeasterly to Little Juniper Mountain Sarah Winnemucca and her father lived there at before going south to Goose Lake. This territory that time, and she wrote a long account of Indian touched the Klamath and Modoc on the west and conditions there.'9 The , which she south, the Hunipuitoka on the north, the Wadatoka blamed on the mismanagement of Agent Rinehart, oc- and KidUtbka on the east. curred shortly after the reservation was founded, Mashenkasket, reported as chief of 100 Yahus- and the reports of the conflict shed much light on kin on the Klamath Reservation in 1867,"3 is the the Indian leaders of that part of Oregon. Of first known leader of the Yahuskin. Chocktoot, course, Sarah attributed tribal leadership to her attributed the chieftaincy in 1873,40 is the old- father, but she also named Oits as sub-chief in est remembered by living informants.41 He had charge of the Harney Lake Paiute. Special Agent charge when the white people arrived. In addition, Turner60 and Rinehart51 considered Oits chief at Kelly recorded Wobinnunbugai as chief of a sub- Malheur. He was also remembered by several liv- group at Paisley, Oregon. ing informants from different bands as the old Numbering 100 in 1867 and 117 in 1870,'2 Pai- Wadatoka leader, Tanoats, Hoitz, Parots, Pamd, utes claiming membership in this band can now be and Hats Johnson being mentioned as variations found at Yainax, Oregon. of his name. Besides Oits, some informants re- 36Gat5chet, 1890, xxxv. called Old Wiwa as chief of the Hunipuito-ka and Wadatoka, as chief of the Wadatoka and Fremont, 1845, 212. Weiser Indians. The Bannock War caused the join- 37Gatschet, 1890, xxxv; Barrett, 1910, 241; ing of several bands and the acceptance of dif- Spier, 1930, 10; Kelly, 1932, 72. ferent band chiefs as over the whole group. Blind 38 Wallen, 1868-69, 222. From Wallen' account, I believe he distinguished the basin in which 4Kelly, 98, was told the Wadatikadu lived at Summer, Silver, and Abert lakes are found as Burns. "the Big Basin." Although part of the "Great 4 Gallatin, 1848 map. Basin," this area of Lake County, Oregon, is a a61 separate basin surrounded by volcanic cliffs. Royce, 386; also Ind. Aff. Rep., 1865, 471. 89Ind. Aff. Rep., 1867, 62. '8Ross, op. cit. '7Ind. Aff. Rep., 1876-77, 172. d. Aff. Rep., 1873, 324. 40 _48pindenA173. 4Hopkins, 168, 222. '1Kelly, 72. m°Id. Aff. Rep., 1876-77, 116. Ind. Aff. Rep., 1870-71, 397. 811nd. Aff. Rep., 1876-77, 172. STEWART: THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS 133 Jim, a Wadatoka now at Burns, arranged the suc- ern Bannock. Ross,60 however, separates the cession of chieftains as follows: Wiwa, Egan, "Wararereekas, or fish eaters," from the buffa- Hoitz, Tsu Paddy, Captain Louie, and Pete Temens, lo-hunting and "Banattees." Hale,61 the present chief. The fact that Pete Temens, likewise, distinguishes the "Panasht or Bannaks" recognized as a Tagot6ka Indian, is, nonethe- near the from the eastern Sho- less, a Wadatoka chief illuminates the native shones. Wallen,6'2 on the contrary, united the attitude toward leaders and reveals the ease with Indians near Boise with those of Upper Snake which an outsider could be accepted. River, yet characterized them as "athletic men, The foregoing evidence, agreed to by several well armed, and formidable." The following year, living informants and confirmed by historical the Oregon Indian Agents6 wrote that the Snake sources, leaves no doubt of the authenticity Indians on Snake River "are by no means to be of the Wadato3ka as an aboriginal band. confounded with the Bannocks and Shoshonees of (4) Koa'aga'itUka ("salmon eaters") of Boise, the Rocky Mountains." Lander6 added to the con- Id&ho. In Hale's Wihinasht area,es but also in- tradictions by locating Bannocks at Fort Boise cluding his Bannock and Powell's" Togwingani, and on the headwaters of the John Day River west the Koa'aga'it6ka occupy a much-disputed and of Blue Mountains, and the Warraricas, "sun- questionable position. By linguistic analysis, flower-seed eaters, below Fort Boise, west of Kroeber5" recognized that the Wihinasht belonged Blue Mountains." Although these accounts are not to the Mono-Paviotso language and wrote: "The definite, they do show that there is as much Shoshoneans of the Wihi~nasht region, that is to historical evidence to unite the Snake River In- say all eastern. Oregon not occupied by the Sahap- dians of the Boise area with the Paiute as with tin, appear in literature most frequently under the eastern groups. Kirkpatrick65 actually did the special names Walpapi and Yahuskin, when they this when he wrote: "The Bannocks, who are gen- are not simply known as Snakes or Paiutes." In erally classed with the Snakes, inhabit the the Handbook,55 on the contrary, the Wihinasht vicinity of Harney Lake"; yet, "the Winnas66 are described as the western Bannock and are lo- band of Snake inhabit the country north of Snake cated in western Idaho north of Snake River. In- River, and are found on the B[P]ay- asmuch as most of the Oregon Paiute territory has ette, Boise, and Sicklyprincipallyrivers. The distinction been claimed by other bands, our problem resolves of the Boise Indians is further suggested by the itself into properly placing the Wihinasht-Ban- separate treaty which was made with them in l865.67 nock. Linguistically this has been done. Powell56 Chief San-to-me-co represented the combined Boise- recognized the affinity of the Bannock and Paviot- Bruneau band, and 600 were removed to the Fort so, and Mooney57 said the Nevada Paiute "claim Hall Reservation in 1869.88 Even there, however, the Bannocks as their cousins, and say that they they were remarkable because they did not par- speak the same language." Kelly'sa KidUt6ka in- ticipate in the plains economy of the eastern formant explained the relationship thus: "I Bannock, but remained at the fort when the others am a Paiute; I am a Bannock; Bannock are Pai- migrated to various hunting and gathering grounds. ute." Kroeber59 demonstrated that the Bannock, Added to the above testimony, which at least although including some groupsweith Ute affilia- is as indicative of Northern Paiute affinity for tions, must be united with the Northern Paiute. the Boise Indians as it is for eastern Bannock Just as the chance giving of the name Snake to relationships, references concerning the historic the Northern Paiute of Oregon obscured their real position of the "Bannock" Captain Egan help to identity, a similar accident misnamed and con- clarify the situation. He was represented by fused the position of the Northern Paiute of Ida- Sarah Winnemucca"' as a Paiute subchief with a ho. We should drop the term Bannock for this west- status similar to that of Oits. Likewise, Agent ern group, reserving it to designate the eastern Rinehart70 distinguishes Egan, "who came from group which is culturally more similar to the the valley of the Weiser," from the Bannock "on Plains tribes. the upper Snake River." But the real key to the Since this suggestion is a definite departure puzzle is the information furnished by modern from established usage, the evidence for it will be presented in some detail. Most early references 1855, 249. make no distinction between the eastern and west- 61Gallatin,"Ross, map. 52Gallatin, 1848, 18, and map. 62Wallen, 233. Powell, in Hodge, Handbook, 2:770. "Ind. Aff . Rep., 1860, 176. 54Kroeber, 1907, 117. 1:12s and 2:951. 64Lander, 1860, 138. Ind. Aff. Rep., 1862, 268. 56Powell and Ingalls, 1873, 45. 6Possibly a different rendering of Wihinasht. Mooney, 1896, 1046. Kelly, 184. Ind. Aff. a 1932, Rep., 1865-66, 189. -kroeber, 1907, 115, and 1909, 267. A Paiute 6a1nd. Aft. Rep., 1870, 183. tradition, heard at Burns, Oregon, tells that the Bannock of are really Northern Paiute 0Hiopkins, 107. who followed the bison when they left southern 701nd. Aft'. Rep., 1876-77, 172. Oregon, and obtained horses from the 8hOshoni. ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS informants. At Owyhee, several Northern Paiute (5) Tagot5ka ("tuber eaters"), now at the Indians stated the territory from Brineau and Duck Valley Reservation, Nevada. Hale and Mountain Home, Idaho, to beyond Weiser belonged Mooney77 included the Owyhee River in the Pa- to the Koa'aga'i. One old woman claimed she was nasht or Bannock area, whereas Hough78 listed from that band, yet did not identify herself with it as Paiute. later references aid in the true the Bannock. It is not entirely clear whether identification of the region, by locating known Captain Egan's Weiser band was distinct from the Paiute leaders within it. Turner,7 for ekam- Boise-Bzneau, "bands so intermarried that they ple, found at "Boulder Creek, 30 miles south of are in fact one people,"7I or whether three Silver City, [Idaho], ....Winnemucca and Leg- bands occupied the area I have included under gins, one of his subchiefs." Sarah Winnemuecca0 one name. Nevertheless, it does seem definitely referred to "Leggins, my cousin's husband," and established that this area was occupied by North- again to "Leggins' band. The Indian .Affairs Re- ern Paiute. Paiute informants said the Said6ka, port of 1880 contains an admission that Leggins or Nez Perce5, bordered the Koa'aga'itoka on the was wrongfully sent to Yakima, since he did not north, and the limits assigned are in general participate in the Bannock War. My Tag-otoka in- agreement with Spinden''72 Nez Pere'e boundary. formants remembered Leggins, "Tsigivaa," and From the Grand Canyon of the Snake River, be- Mawuha as "home captains" under Old Winne- tween the Seven Devil and Powder mountains, the mucca. Tsigiva was in charge when the white boundary runs in a southeasterly direction along people arrived and was said to have been suc- the crest of the mountain, east of the headwaters ceeded by Paddy Caps, also mentioned by Sarah.8 of Weiser, Payette, and Boise rivers, for about From near the Nevada state line where the 100 miles; thence, turning southwesterly, it goes Oregon-Idaho line touches it, the Tagot'oka past Mountain Home and Bruneau, about 65 miles to western border runs northwesterly about 100 the center of the Owyhee Desert; thence about 120 miles to the south end of Cedar Mountain; thence miles northwesterly, passing west of Silver City, northeasterly along the crest of Cedar Mountain Idaho, and Vale, Oregon, to Snake River near about 70 miles almost to Vale, Oregon; thence, Weiser; thence down Snake River about 60 miles to crossing the Owyhee River, southeasterly along the Grand Canyon. The Koa'aga'itofkta area thus the edge of the volcanic plateau for about 100 covered about 7500 square miles, most of which miles, then turns southwesterly for about 60 was desert and mountain, but was crossed by the miles to the-place of beginning. This area, Snake River. Although flowing through deep can- about 6000 square miles, comprises the drainage yons, it furnished an abundant permanent water of the Owyhee River, except its headwaters and supply and provided large quantities of salmon mouth. during certain periods of the year. Incidentally, Nothing with reference to population of this the THnipui, the Koa'aga'i, the Tago, and the band was found except the recent figures, which Wada of Burns were the only Northern Paiute bands include all Paiute on the Duck Valley Reservation living on streams whose water reached the ocean, at Owyhee, 214 being there in 1896. These Paiute the others being entirely within the Great Basin. are principally Tagdt8ka, but many are from other Besides the Nez Perce to the north, the Koataga'i bands. neighbors-were the Shoshoni to the east, Shoshoni (6) Ts6osd'6db tuviwarai ("cold dwellers"), of and Tag6tdka Paiute to the south, Tagotoka and Steens Mountain, Oregon. I met no Tso'st5'dd6; but Wadatoka to the west. Atsakud6kwa, Tago, and Wada, of Burns, affirmed Uncertainty of identification makes popula- the presence of such a separate band around tion figures unreliable, although the reports Steens Mountain. It is possible this band was that the Wannas band numbered 800 persons in reported to Kelly8$ by the name Tidu'iuitidadU 1862,71 the Boise band 400, and the Bruneau band C?) ("berry eaters"), located "beyond Steens Moun 200 in 1865 4 can be taken as an indication. If tain." Old Winnemucca, who one Atsakudo'kwa inforl the area assigned is aorrect, the first figure said became its chief by marrying a T-sods5'0dd womi probably includes the other two. Excevt for the was reported there by Douglasse and Turner.84 Ano one old woman at Owyhee, Dick Stanley s wife, who Atsakuddkwa mentioned that Old Winnemucca was in was of little account as an informnt, no other charge at Steens Mountain during the time Namara'ij Koa'aga'itika were met. Some, however, might ("charitable one [he feeds everyone]") was the still be found at Fort Hall. Although the litera- recognized "home ohief." Similarly, Annie Winne- ture furnishes Poemachah ("heavy man") from Fort mucca, the oldest Paiute at Duck Valley and pos- Boise, and Pasheco or Pachico ( sweet root")78 from the area of the headwaters of John Day 7 6Gallatin, 189. River, other than the two, Egan and Santomeco, 77Kooney, 1893, pl. 88. already mentioned above, the only former Koa'- 78Ind. AfM. Rep., 1865-66, 190. -$ aga'itoka chief remembered by informants was Sol- 7Ind. Aff . dier Bill. Rep., 1876-77, 116. 80Hopkins t 190 an. 20-6. IInd. Aff. Rep., 1865-66, 189. 1IHopkins, 203. I '783pinden, 173. 3Kelly, 1932, 72. '8Ind. Aft. Rep., 1862, 268. 8Indc. Aff. Rep., 1870, 103. Aff. j ' Ibid., 1865-66, 190. 75Land6er, 138. 'Ind. Rep. 1876-77, 174. STEWART: THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS 135 sibly a relative by marriage of Old Winnemucca, southeast before turning south to follow the designated Parohi ("water belly") as a local Lake County-Harney County line about 50 miles chief at Steena Mountain at the time of white to the Nevada-Oregon state line; thence it con- contact. tinues in a southwesterly direction about 50 The territorial boundaries for this band, miles to the south end of Long Valley; thence fixed by the informants from surrounding groups, it goes about 30 miles westerly past the south are mostly in the deserts about Steens Mountain. end of Lower Lake to the south end of Warner The Tag6tolka to the east, Atsakudakwa and Aga - Range; thence northerly it follows the crest ipanina to the south, Kidaitoka to the west, and of Warner Range 60 miles before dropping down Wadat8ka to the north left about 2600 square to touch Goose Lake near Fandango Creek. The miles of desert and desert mountain which in- western boundary, dividing the Northern Paiute formants assigned to the Ts`s6'6ado tuviwarai. and Achomawi, has been similarly identified by As with the Tagoto-ka, early population figures Kniffen,"9 Kelly,98 and myself. Neighboring for this band were not found. Paiute bands are Yahuskin (Goyatbka) to the ('7) Kiduitdkad0i ("woodchuck eaters"),85 of northwest, Wadatl6ka to the northeast, Ts-s&- Surprise Valley, California. This band occupies 6ad and Aga'ipanina to the east, and the Kamb- the area assigned to the Auziyaunmos by Powers86 dtkado to the south. and Kaivaanungavidukw by Powell,87 but Kelly88 The Kidiitbkadn territory of about 5000 square records the name GiduiitikadU or Groundhog-eaters. miles includes the eastern slope of Warner Range, The territory claimed by Kidiit6kaad, as ascer- Surprise Valley, California, and Warner Valley, tained by Kelly and by me, was included in that Oregon, both valleys containing shallow or dry of the Yahuskin by the early Indian agents and lakes with no exterior drainage. Claimed for repeated by Gatschet.8' It appears, however, that hunting was a corner of desert in Washoe County, "Howlock, principal chief of a tribe of Snake In- Nevada. Indians of this band now live at Fort dianas....on Sprague River," with whom a treaty Bidwell and other towns in their old area. was attempted in 1865,990 was leader of the Kidti- _(8) Aza'i inadkado" ("fish lake eaters") or tokado. In the 187O0719' account of the Indians Moadokado ("wild onion eaters")A of Summit Lake, on the Klamath Reservation, the band referred to Nevada. Powell's mentioned the Agaivanuna, a as "150 Snake (lately hostile)" is probably this Paviotso division formerly living at Summit Lake"; same group. This assumption is strengthened by and Kelly'7 called the group Agaitikadu ("fish an 1878'0 account of "Ocheots band of Pi-ute eaters"). Although no Indians claiming to be Snakes, ....who go to their old country about from this band were interviewed, informants Camp Warner in the spring, return to Yainax to from surrounding bands supplied information con- be fed" in the winter. A half-century later Kelly cerning its boundaries, captains, and name. One was told by some informants that "Ochio" was the Atsakiidokwa informant divided the territory, al- first great KidUt6kadb chief, although one Indian lotting the eastern part to a band called MoadS- remembered a great chief Sa'pikamd, Ochio's el- kado, but most Indians insisted that these two der brother. Besides Old Winnemucca, to whom some were names for the same band. informants here also attributed the chieftaincy A reference in Angel's'8 , of all the Paiute, Ochio (? to ca. 1900), Eagle- concerning a chief from the Black Rock country-- ville Sam Townsend (ca. 1900-1916), and Charlie "Sequimata' who is known as Chiquite ('little ) Washo (ca. 1916 to present) were reported Kidiit6- Winnemucca '--might well refer to the leader of kada captains. the Aga'ipa'ina. Still living in 1881, he remem- Except for minor points, the Kidiitbkado bound- bered Fremont's visit in 1844. He is distin- aries given to me agree with those reported by guished from Young Winnemucca by a tale of his Kelly.9 Starting at the north end of Goose Lake, charging the white people regardless of the lat- the line runs northeasterly along the summit of ter chief's order not to do so, thus starting Warner Range about 60 miles; thence, skirting the the Pyramid Lake War of 1860. One informant told north end of Warner Valley, goes about 30 miles me Old Winnemucca had also been head chief at -Summit Lake; but when his son, Lee Winnemucca, *tNick Doownington, Tasiget tuviwarai, identi- attempted to make himself chief there, the In- tied; the woondchuc from a picture 8nd called it dians would not have him. Summit Lake Sam and kidpa Moahavida were named as recent chiefs. A small 8ePowers,- quoted in Hodge, Handbook, 2:858. group still lives at Summit Lake. 87Powe l, quoted in ibid, 1:643. The area allotted to this group by its neigh- 86we70l alot in two subgro int bors covers about 2800 square miles. Beginning at area-:Kai1 tjkadU ("tule-eaters9) near Adelhe the Oregon-Nevada state line where the Washoe Oregon, and Itsunatikadu ("they-eat-them-alive") near CedArville, California. 9Niffen, 1928 map. 8Gatschet, 1890, my. 'tKelly, map. '0lInd. Aff. Rep., 1866-67, 89. '6Powell, in Hodge, Handbook, 1:21. '1Ind. Aft. Rep.,t 1870-71, 397. '7.Kelly, 72. * 'tInd. Aft. Rep , 1873, 324. '8Angel. 'Kelly, 182 and map. 136 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS County line meets it, the Aga'ipainina line runs recalled Pii kwasa ("blue heron") the Yamosdp6 easterly about 40 miles to Disaster Peak Mountain; chief contemporaneous with Idtsa'ama, and said thence goes southwesterly about 80 miles to the he was killed before receiving a white man's center of south of Black Rock name. Range; thence westerly proceeds about 35 miles to Pete Snap also recognized that this band was Rocky Peak; thence turns northerly to continue mixed with the Shoshoni and that it shared with about 40 miles to the place of beginning. Be- them the hunting area on the headwaters of the sides Summit Lake, a deep, fresh-water lake, most Little Humboldt River. Notwithstanding, rather of the country is desert and mountain. Bands sur- definite boundaries were indicated, separating rounding the Aga'ipallina are Kidutokado to the the Yamos5pob from other Paiute bands and from west, Tsbso6'6d6 to the north, AtsakUdokwa and the Shoshoni. Consisting primarily of the Lit- Sawawkt6do to the east, and Kamodokado to the tle Humboldt drainage, 2000 square miles were south. There are no indications as to early popu- assigned to them. Their land stretched between lation. the Santa Rosa Mountains on the west to the (9) AtsakUddkwa tuviwarai ("red butte dwell- source of Little Humboldt River on the east, ers"), of McDermitt, Nevada. Powell99 mentioned and from about the Nevada-Oregon state line to a band at McDermitt by the name of Koyahow, and Osgood Mountains on the south. There is no in- Kelly100 heard of the Kwinaduwaa or Kwi'nodub dication of the aboriginal population, and no ("smoke |?] Indians") at the same lace. Kwina living members of this group were found. riba nomo ("Quinn River people'° was given as (11) Makuhado5kadb (? or Pauida tuviwarai a modern synonym for AtsakUdo-kwa tuviwarai by (?), of Battle Mountain, Nevada. The area at- some Indians I met at McDermitt, but the old tributed to the Makuhadokado" by Sawawaktodo in- name was also generally known. Another reference formants and to the PNidadokado by AtsakUd5kwa to this band was made by Major Douglas"'2 in and Toedokadb informants corresponds to that of 1870, in which he said that "Its-a-ah-mah," chief Powell's Tonawitsowa108 and Itsaatiaga.106 The at McDermitt, refused to settle his band of 140 Tonawitsowa band was said to be part of "a Indians on the Pyramid Reservation. This must be Shoshoni tribe of six bands in the vicinity of the same (Old Horse) Idtsa'ama ("coyote robe") Battle Mountain and Unionville," whereas the who died about 1904, remembered by my informants Itsaatiaga was described as a Paviotso band near as local chief under Old Winnemucca. Unionville. Loud107 confirmed the name of the The AtsakUdokwa territory of about 2700 square Unionville group, spelling it Idzaategaa tekade miles was bounded on the west by the Aga'ipalina, ("coyote-canyon eaters"). on the north by the Ts8so'odo, on the east by the This band occupied a position comparable to Tag6tdka, on the south by the Yamos3pd and Sawa- that of the Yamosopo, and probably intermarried waktodd. The line runs from the Nevada-Oregon with the Shoshoni. Despite Powell s statement border southwesterly along the crest of Santa that these were "Shoshoni" bands, the Paiute- Rosa Mountains about 50 miles to the north end Shoshoni boundary has been quite definitely of Slumbering Hills; thence west about 40 miles fixed just west of Battle Mountain and the moun- to Jackson Mountains; thence northeasterly about tains west of Reese River.108 Since no Makuha 50 miles to Disaster Peak; thence easterly about informant was found, the boundaries were estab- 60 miles to the place of beginning. Quinn River, lished by members of neighboring bands. Sand- a small perennial stream, ends in a marsh which wiched between the Sawawaktbdo on the west and was once an important source of food. the Shoshoni on the east, and extending from the (10) Yamosopo tuviwarai ("half-moon valley Yamosopo on-the north to the Kupaddkad6 on the dwellers"), of Paradise Valley, Nevada. Evidently, south, this band occupied 2500 square miles. In this is the same band Powers103 called Yammus and addition to part of the Humboldt Valley, three Powell30 Yammostuviwagaiya. Except for these two desert valleys--Buena Vista, Pleasant, and Buffa- references no published information was found con- lo--and Sonoma and East mountains were included cerning the existence of this group. Its name in this area. The only chief remembered was comes from the shape of Paradise Valley on the Pauida Sam, and no clues to population were found. eastern slope of Santa Rosa Mountains. Pete Snap, (L2).Saawaktd () tuva an Atsakiidbkwa at McDermitt, was the only Indian ("sagebrush mountain dwellers"), of Winnemucca, who remembered this band as distinct, but Pete Nevada. Powell109 wrote Sawagativa and Loud110 - Sawakate for the name of the Winnemucca band. 'Powell,9Powell, in HodgeqHedge, Handbook)1:729,'Handbook, 1:729. Sawawakt'6doi informants gave less information con- °°E.Kelly, 72. cerning "old times" than most Indians of a simi- llIndians now living at Winnemucca, Nevada, called the McDermitt Indians Payapadokado ('Thon- in Handbook.,2:777. poisonous) wild parsnip eaters"). 105Powell, Hodge, lo2Ind. Aff. Rep., 1870, 103. Ibid. 1:626. 303Powers, in Hedge, Handbook,2:987. Tran- 107LToud and Harrington, 153. lated "big plains." 10Bimpson, 1878, 110; Steward, 1936, 104Powell, in Hedge, Handbook, ibid.: "A Mono 1°0Powell9 in Hedge, Handbook, 2:481. ban6.rormerly living in Paradise Valley, W. Nev." 110Loud and Harrington, 153. STEWART: THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS 137 lar age, which might be a reflection of the early hunting season and thus made the boundaries dif- disintegration of their band due to immigrant ficult to ascertain. Actually, the Kamo band was contact. Old Winnemucca was the only chief dating. allotted that territory which others did not back to white contact remembered by them, although claim. In spite of the unattractiveness of the Annie Winnemucca of Duck Valley and Pete Snap of terrain, it was in this area that Beckwith118 McDermitt each recalled Captain John as a local saw several bands of about 50 Indians each. leader of that band, and Annie added Captain Dave, Surrounding the Kam6d6kad8 were the Kidtt and Captain John's brother. Aga'ipa'nina to the north, the Sawawakt6do- and Their area of 3000 square miles extends from Kiupa to the east, the Kuyui, Tasiget, and Wada Osgood and Sonoma mountains on the east to Jack- (of Honey Lake) to the south, and the Achomawi son Mountain on the west, and between Slumbering to the west. The western boundary at Fredonyer Hills and Santa Rosa Mountain on the north and and MacDonald mountains, Lassen County, Califor- Table Mountain on the south. They were thus bor- nia, agrees with the eastern Achomawi line as dered on the west by the Aga'ipaiina and Kamd, described by Merriam110 and Kniffen117 in their on the north by the Atsakudokwa and Yamosopo-, on Achomawi studies. the east by the Makuha, and on the south by the (14) WadaddkadU ("wada-seedll8eaters"), of Kupa. Honey Lake, California. Although Royce"'9 placed (13) Kam'ddokado ("jack-rabbit eaters'), of all of Honey Lake within Washo territory, and Gerlach, Nevada. The earliest specific reference Dixon12 put it in country, several writers, to the area now considered is in Dodge's'll report both early and recent, considered it belonged to already quoted. He wrote, "Wun-a-mucca (The the Northern Paiute.21l The Paiute-Washo and the Giver) is the head chief of the Paiute nation. Paiute-Maidu boundaries identified by my Washo, He generally stays on Smoke Creek,.near Honey Paiute, and Maidu informants are almost identi- Lake; his family and small band .... number 155." cal to those published by Merriam. Since Dodge did not visit this band, his infor- Starting on the western shore of Honey Lake, mation is not entirely without question; yet it the line runs along the eastern edge of the is possible that Old Winnemucca was a local chief Sierra Nevada, over Thompson and Diamond moun- there before he started traveling about. It is tains, about 25 miles, to the hills northeast of impossible to say whether most Indians at that Susanville, California; thence northeasterly time held him as a tribal chief. Several refer- about 20 miles to the flat west of Shinns Peak; ences, such as that of Douglasl12 mentioned thence easterly about 15 miles almost to the above, in which Old Winnemucca was given the Nevada-California state line; thence southerly principal chieftainship and yet each band was near the state line about 40 miles; thence north- said to have acted independently, suggest the westerly about 15 miles to the southeast edge of contrary. Since Sarah Winnemucca was living at the lake. The Wadadtkado thus claimed about 800 Major Ormsby's at Carson City the year Major square miles, in which was the major part of Dodge visited western Nevada, I strongly sus- Honey Lake, the lower Susan River Valley, and pect that Dodge obtained most of his information part of the Sierra, in addition to the desert of bands he did not actually visit from her, who edge. It is the smallest band in the territory even then was often mentioned in army reports of the Northern Paiute and the only one completely connected with the Paiutes. in California. Two other indirect references combine to Although Dixon122 appraised Honey Lake Valley clarify the position of the Kamodokado and es- "the least desirable part of Maidu" territory, tablish it as a separate band. Angel11 listed by Paiute standards it was extremely fruitful. Sa-a-ba as chief of the Smoke Creek Indians, and 11 The growth of probably enabled this small Kelly was told that Sa'ihidaa formerly led the area to support a band more ably than a much band directly to the south of the Kiditbka, al- larger area would have done in Nevada where though the band name was not remembered by her acorns did not grow. Besides the Maidu and Acho- informant. Conceivably these are different ren- mawi neighbors on the west, the Wada joined the derings of the same name. No Kambd6kadb informant Kamb to the north, the Tasiget to the east, and was located, but both a Sawawakt~db and an Acho- the Washo to the south. mawi stated Captain Dick had charge of this band. Sam Fox, the Achomawi, gave Captain Dick's Pai- 115Beckwith, 1855. ute name as Tawami and said he died about 1920. 1926, map. In 18Merriamt spite of approximately 3900 square miles I37 ifen 1928, map of territory, the Kamo'dokado possessed few really 2. 98: wada is Buaeda depressa var. productive places. Most of the area was in the erecta Wat9. Smoke Creek and Granite Creek deserts. Numerous 139Royce 1896, 836. antelope, the only abundant food except the jack .10Dixon, 1905, 124. rabbit, attracted neighboring Indians during the Dixo, 185 PlH. 11Dodge, 741. book), 1881,f Angel, 1881, Merriam, 1926, 1121nd. and. 118 Aft. Rep.,t 1870, 103. Kelly, 1932. slS, l*Kly 72. 12 Dixon, 195124. 138 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Corroborative evidence was found in the litera- own territory. Dick Mauwee, "' however, consid- ture for the names of the band and of the chiefs. ered Young Winnemucca home chief of both the Powell""" stated the Waratika, a Paviotso band, Tasiget and Kuyui, and it is known he spent his lived at Honey Lake, and Kelly As called a band last years at Wadsworth,12t in Kuyui territory. at the same place Wada'tikadU. Angel"'8 wrote Although history books contain many accounts of that No-jo-mud was "an early chief at Honey Lake, the Indians of this part of western Nevada, the and Hozi-a, another Honey Lake leader, (was) data are not particularistic enough for band reo- later killed by Captain Dick the present ognition. At the time of the Pyramid Lake War of chief." Captain Dick Wright(ukwi ) was also 1860, for example, several chiefs (including mentioned by my Wada and Kuyui informants as some Bannock), among them Young Winnemuccawere the chief preceding Joaquin, who died in 1935. at the reservation; but the clues for the exact My Tasiget informant, Nick, said Adavugaya ("big identification of their bands unfortunately are jaw") was his grandfather and chief at Honey lacking. Lake when the white people arrived. This was The Tasiget area of about 1000 square miles partly confirmed by Susie Buster, my Wada inform- was joined on the west by the Washo and Wada, ant, who remembered that Nick's mother's father on the north by the Kamo, and on the east and had been chief there, but did not remember his south by the Kuyui. Most of the territory was name. Dave Gibson, the Kuyui informant mentioned desert, Winiemucca and Spanish Spring valleys above, told of a chief named Adavur6, who fought and Lower Truckee Meadows being the most habit- against the Indians although he was' able spots. said to have been a Tasiget. Since Hozi-a of (16 Kuyuiddkado" ("Kuyui [black sucker Angel is probably Ochio, the Kidjutoka chief, and (Chamistes cujus)] at eaters"), of Pyramid Lake, Captain Dick might be the same as assigned to Nevada. Evidence for the existence of this band the Kam6, there is little certainty possible was furnished by Campbell,le° Powers, 151 and with regard to the succession of chiefs of the Powell"" in the latter part of the last cen- Wadadbkadb of Honey Lake. There can be no tury, and by Loud385 Kelly, 3" and Steward 155 doubt, nevertheless, of the existence of this in recent years. Its name is familiar to Indians band as an independent group with its own from Burns, Oregon, to Owens Lake, California, chief. a distance of more than 500 miles; among all the (15) Tasiget tuviwarai ("between dwellers"), Northern Paiute no other band was as widely of Winnemucca Valley, Nevada. No historic refer- known. Information concerning the leaders of ence was found which certainly distinguishes the group is not so definite; although there is this band as a separate group. Three informants, no scarcity of chiefs. Dodge218 found four bands however, two from Pyramid Lake and Nick Downing- located within the territory now recognized as ton, who claimed to be a Tasiget tuviwarai, were Kuyui and gave their leaders. These were To able to name old chiefs for this band. My main Repe's (Lean Man's) band of 360 on the Truckee reliance rests upon Nick because of his age--at River near "Lower Crossing"; Genegals ((Dancer's) least 85--and his reliability as an informant. band of 290 near the mouth of the ; The scarcity of references to this group is Watsequeordots (Four Crows's) band of 320 on the probably a result of the early formtion of the shores of Pyramid Lake; and the band of Winne- Pyramid Lake Reservation and the absence of any mucca, The Second, mentioned previously. Such a really desirable locations for permanent habita- grouping might have been brought about by pres- tion within the Tasiget territory. sure from the white people, or it could -have One published account might possibly refer to been merely the annual congregation of bands in- the Tasiget. It is by Dodge 126 concerning a band to this area for food. Several neighboring groups of 280 Indians "below Big Meadows, Truckee River," under "Tonoyiet (woman helper)." This land was Waterman, 1911, 13, used lDick as an inform- claimed for the Tasiget by Nick, but he did not ant, and said bh lived for a long time at Long mention Tonoyiet. In the same report Dodge lists Valley, California, the border between Tasiget "Winnemucca's (The Second) band" of 300 on "Lower ai an Mud Lake." Whether this refers to Young Winne- Angel, 185: Young Winnemucca, "Chief a~t Pyramid only." "An Indian ,s3tatesman' niucca ("Namaga'a"),Miuca Na~galall)whowhom NicNick remmberdremembered astheas the twhoC possessed itellect eloquence, and courage Tasiget captain under Old Winnemucca, is not pos- combined." sible to ascertain. Such could easily be so. ,Al- s2Snyder, 1917, 31-86. though Mud Lake (Winremucca Lake) is in Kuyui isd f territory, Nick said the Tasiget camped near Coo-er-Re bandatRep. 86 119. 700 Indians oL Pyramid Lake when food was not available in their wib in Handbook, wait. t33owers,, Hodgey 743, Cooyuwee- -25Powell, in Hodge, Handbook,2:916. 152Powell, in Hodge, Handbook, 743, Kuyuidika. 124Kelly, 72. *Kelly, 72. -11~~~~~~~oud and Harrington, 153. if Angel, 150. 1'Kelly, 72. D~todge, 742. S~tewards 1933, 236. '6Dodge. STEWART: THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS 139 went each spring to the Truckee River to get fish. and the lower Truckee River. The Virginia Moun- Or the groups seen by Dodge might have been ten- tains serve as a western boundary to separate it porary subgroups of the Kuyuiddkado under "dance from the Tasiget; to-the north sterile mud des- captains" or "antelope captains." This appears erts stand between the Kuyui and the Kam6; the likely since- Dodge divided the members of a bare Nightingale Mountains east of Winnemucca southern group, the Tfvuai, in just such a manner, Lake mark the Kuyui-Kiipa line; Truckee Mountains a point discussed later. serve as the Kuyui-Toe boundary. The earliest account of the Pyramid lake In- (17) KUipaddkad5 ("ground- squirrel eaters"), dians is found in Fremont's17 report, and Sarah of Lovelock, Nevada. Powers1' located the Kuh- Winnemucca18 and An'el1" tell of "Captain" pattikutteh on Quinn River, yet he mentioned Truckee's serving as guide for that explorers another tribe as occupying McDermitt, the prin- Sarah claimed him (Truckee) as her grandfather cipal site along it. Possibly the KUpa were and said he was chief of all the Paiute. Since temporarily attracted to this Atsakud5kwa terri- this was never suggested by anyone else, it ap- tory to take advantage of the food and clothing pears tv have been invented by Sarah to establish issued by the amy at Fort McDermitt, for my Old Winnemucca's claim to tribal chieftainship. informants from different bands agreed that the There is no doubt that Old Winnemucca14°0 was in KUpa lived near Lovelock. Loud,1'8 also, learned charge of the Kuyuidokaad at the time of the that the KepA-tekade, as he spelled the word, Pyramid War and was recognized beyond its bounds. occupied the Humboldt Sink region. This band, In addition to the above two, Young Winnemucca11 being along the old immigrant road, was one of was said to have been a Kuyuid3kand chief until the first Northern Paiute groups to feel the 1871, and was 1SO48 followed by Natchez, 14 1870, Cap- disastrous effects of Caucasian contact. It was tain Joe, 1872, and Captain Dare14' ("Numana"), in the Kups territory that members of Walker's 1885. exploring party (1834) shot an Indian for the The information concerning chiefs obtained fun of seeing him fall, an event that was fol- from old Indians still living is also unsatis- lowed by a battle in which more than twenty factory for an exact determination of past lead- others were slaughtered.149 Since the early con- ers. Besides Old and Young Winnemucca, Nick Down- tact proved so calamitous, the Indians soon left ington and Jane Holbrook (Kuyui) attributed to Humboldt Meadows to the immigrants. Consequently, Bull Tom ("Ptisi'ava") the Kuyuiddkadb chieftaincy later travelers150 reported few or no Indians for 1860; but Dave Gibson and Dick Mauwee said he there for a number of years. was an old-time "dance captain;" Other informants Unfortunately the explorers and immigrants named Wogatupa, Lee Winnemucca, Natchez Winne- wrote nothing which identifies the band occupy- mucca (Yaiyuada), Jim, and George as Kuyui chiefs ing this region. The existence of a distinct during the Pyramid War. Add these to the four group there, however, is indicated by School- named by Dodge and the result is complete confu- craft's151 statement that a band "near 'the sink sion. This confusion seems to be an expression of of the Humboldt, under chief Te-me-re-wena (the the disintegration of the native culture. When long man), numbered 600." This same name was the local chief left, as Old Winnemucca did about neither mentioned by my informants nor by other 1861,4I band leadership was open to any able writers. Angel,1 however, learned that "Moguan- person. Sarah14 said the Agent appointed Captain no-ga," known by whites as "Captain Soo," and Dave chief, to serve as a screen for his graft. Captains Bob and Joe belonged to the lower Hum- Regardless of the disruption of the band's boldt Indians. Informants furnished no confirma- political organization, simple as it was, there is tion to either of these records, and as with the no doubt that the Kuyuidakad6 constituted a dis- Kuyuidbkad6, did not agree with one another. tinct band. The territory of about 2000 square Besides Old Winnemucca, the main Paiute chief, miles, quite unanimously assigned to it by my Captain John (Samaranido, "patting raw meat") informants, included Pyramid and Winnemucca lakes and Tsikwunodo were named as Kiipa chiefs at the time of the Pyramid War. "Fremont. The Kupadakadd territory, including about 3600 1SHopkins. square miles, extends from the Shoshoni-Paiute IOAngel, 166: Truckee died in 1860. He "poso- 140 sessed papers attesting to his services under Hopkins, 96. Fremontf given him by that explorer." 147Powers in Hodge, Handbook, 1:732. Af. Rep., 1861-62; Angel, .1 Ind8 1881, 150- 148Loud and Harrington, 153. 1Le onard. 'LAngel-v 151; Campbellf Ind. Aff. Rep. 9 1866, 160 141Angel, 151; Campbell, md. Aft.....Rep., 1866,Remy and Brenchley, 1861. Burton, 1862. ""Ind. Aff. Rep.,, 1870, 74; Hopkins, 96. 151Schoolcraft, 5:201. Ind. Aft. Rep., 1873, 256. l9Angel, 150. Probably this Indian is the 14End. Aft. Rep. , 1885, 147; Hopkins, 96. same as Campbell's Chief Sue Aft. s d R ~~~~~~~~~1866,119), said to be leader (Ind.of 800 8Sidocaw'Rep., 876_77d A72ra. Rp.,~ 1861-62, 223; 1870, 103; on Humboldt Lake and River. 140 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS boundary at Desatoya Mountain"' on the east to Cave excavation."6" Lowiel15 recorded what he the Nightingale and Selenite mountains, the Kuyui thought to be the first part of the above story border, on the west; and from the Pahsupp, Kanma, as an episode of a creation myth. His version and Majuba mountains on the north--separating the named the people "sairu qa'a" and differed from Kiipa from the Kamo, Sawawakt6do, and Makuha--to Sarah's in attributing to the "sai" a foreign the Humboldt and Hot Springs mountains--the Toe- speech and mentioning that some escaped to Cali- d6kad6 line--on the south. The lower Humboldt fornia. This mythical affiliation of the Saidb- River and the marshes of Humboldt Sink, desir- kad6 with the California Indians has real valid- able sources of Indian food, were undoubtedly the ity for Indians at Pyramid Lake and Lovelock, center of habitation. In the surrounding moun- who now designate the Pit River Indians by that tains and deserts, the first explorers saw ground term. As a supposed proof of this identity, at squirrels trapped in large numbers.15' a site on the west shore of , Besides the K1Upadokad6, the Saidokad6 were seventeen miles north of the Nixon store, are said to have once possessed Humboldt Sink; and, fifteen round, shallow depressions, said to be although nothing certain is known about this the remains of Pit River semisubterranean houses. group, a discussion of them here seems apropros. The place is called Tavi sai novil18 ("east A true understanding of this Saidbkad6 problem is Said6ka home"); and Dave Gibson said the Indians made more difficult by several connotations for driven from Humboldt Sink settled there until the word Sai or Said6kadd. As early as 1819, Ross'5 forced to move farther west. Tradition has it learned that "Shy-to-gas" was a Shoshonean name that the Saidokado once returned to the west for the Nez Perce, a meaning confirmed by Gat- shore of Pyramid Lake, where in another war they schet,158 who spelled it "Saiduka"; and it is were defeated and chased back to California. pronounced thus by informants in northern Nevada, When Lowie visited Pyramid Lake he probably Idaho, and Oregon. In the Handbook,157 however, heard the same tales for he wrote, Their prin- "Saidyuka" are designated a Mono-Paviotso group cipal enemies were the Pit River Indians, who of eastern Oregon, and Barry158 interprets the used to live about Stillwater, but were driven name to be synonymous to Snake as a general ap- out to California near Honey Lake. Sometimes they pellation for the southeastern Oregon Indians. would come, however, to attack the Faviotso."'7 After citing Hodge's Handbook reference to the In this statement Lowie seems to take the Kuyui Oregon "Saidyuka," Kelly159 wrote that a group in interpretation of the Saidbkado" myth as history. Kidutfkadb territory was at times called SaidU- There is, of course, some indication that such tikadd ('tule eaters')," but adds that this is was the case. However, in the light of many con- "identical with two of the three Paiute versions flicting interpretations of the word Saidiokadd5, for Klamath." such an unqualified statement is not warranted."18 Campbell's '"Sidocaw,""'10 Sarah WinnemuccaIs In the first place, the Northern Paiute word "Say-do-carah," and Powell 'ls "Lai-du-ka-tu-wi- for the Pit River Indians, recorded by Kelly1"9 wait, a Paviotso band formerly living about the and repeated by all my Idaho and Oregon inform- sink of the Humboldt," evidently refer to the ants1 is Ijijawait. Although Kelly calls them same group. Sarah called them a tribe of barbar- the 'traditional enemies par excellence" of the ians, people-eaters,"1SS yet also defined the Paiute, she reports her most esteemed informant's word as meaning "conquerors" and "enemy." She said denial of such warfare and said the only concrete the "Say-do-carah" had red hair and were extermi- instance remembered was a recent fight between nated by being burned in a cave, a story which the Paiute and Achomawwi near Honey Lake. My Pit acquired exaggerated significance with the dis- covery of red-headed mummies during the Lovelock 18Loud and Harrington, 152-168. 185Lowie, 1924a, 204-205. 15"Watson, in Angel, 178. 18Lo-ad and Harrington, 183 and pl. 68, tell of Leonard and Beckwith. "houses of the Ancient People turned to stone" in 15 5~os 264264. front of a small cave on Winnemucca Lake. In the 15Ross, walls of these are posts which were cut with a 58Gatschet, cited in Hodge, Handbook, 2:67.. steel ax and on the floor were steel fishhooks. 7Hodge 1:932 Dave Gibson knew they were built by Chinese, who 158 fished the lake when he was a young man, because Barry, 1927, 60. he used to haul their fish to market. Chinese 70 were reported on the lake in Ind. Aff. Rep. 159EellKly,70 1885 147. 18°Ind. Aff. Rep.,w 1866 , 119. 17Lowie, 1924b, 194. Lowie, 1915, 17:598, la1Hopkins, 74. denied the value of oral tradition as history. 61Powell, cited in Hodge, Handbook, 1:753. 188Loud and Harrington, 1. Harrington cites the Sai and its to the Pit 183Schoolraft 5.201, tells of a "band of myth application 'Diggers.' numbering about 500, of the Shoshoni 5Riverhe saidIndians,(p.123):but "the-afterlaesexcavationdweler..of the caveer tribe... .under the chief Ne-me-te-kah (Man Eater)," either Northern Paiute or their cultural... .kins- on the Humboldt north of the Kupa. Could this be folk." the barbarians? 189Kelly, 185: "spelled Izi sa wi." STEWART: THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS 141 River informant, Sam Fox, and my Paiute inform- he wrote about will be discussed later, but "Cap- ants confirmed this battle which occurred dur- tain Charley.... the principal chief and spokes- ingthe last century, Sam's uncle having partic- man" cannot be identified with any captain men- ipated in it.170 The Achbmawi have no tradition tioned by my informants. Campbell,37' 1866, said of previous conflicts. Of interest in this con- the 800 Toy Pah-ute on lower Carson Lake (Sink) nection is Kelly's171 statement that "the Kla- were under Chief Johnson. Only Nattie Dick re- math are said to have held Warner and Surprise called other chiefs besides Breckenridge; she valleys prior to the occupancy by the Gidu'- named Viohdd, his predecessor, and Witakova and tikadu " together with her account of a war be- Hitb, both dance captains since his time. tween a tribe of Paiute whose head chief was Our proof of the existence of the Toedokadd Winnemucca" and the Klamath, near Chiloquin. band, fortunately, does not rest upon the exact Since the Klamath are at times called Saidoka~dd identification of its former chief, for, in addi- by their closest Paiute neighbors, a new view is tion to the citations mentioned above, we have presented of our entire problem. Can it be that several references in literature which verify the the ancient "barbarians" of Humboldt Sink were existence of this band. Varied as are the spell- the Klamath? Such is suggested by the remarks ings of the name, Toy-u-wi-ti-kut-teh,175 Toi- of a Toed5kad8 (Stillwater) informant, Nattie wait,176 Toy Pi-ute,17 Toi-tekade,178 ToitikadU,179 Dick, widow of Sam Dick, Lowie's informant of and so forth, all writers have located the band twenty years ago. She said the Saidvdkadd now on Carson Sink near Stillwater. live at T8siyam.t6, which is undoubtedly Pow- This band was known as widely as the Kuyuido3- ell's17` 'Tuziyammos, a Paviotso tribe formerly kadd, fame which might be partly due to its prox- about Warner Lake," with Ocheo as chief. imity to Job's Peak, the mythical center of The problem of the Saidokadd may never be Northern Paiute creation. The 800 Indians ranged solved but this we know: the word connoted over about 6700 square miles of desert and moun- "enemy or "bad"; it was applied to a mythical tain from the principal camps on the edges of people about Humboldt Sink thought to have been the Carson Sink. Their eastern neighbors were the partly destroyed in Lovelock Cave; it has been Shoshoni,180 with whom they were on friendly used to distinguish at least three non-Paiute terms. Because of the early establishment of Fort tribes, the Achomawi, the Klamath, and the Nez Churchill, where all surrounding Indians went for Perc-, and an eastern Oregon Paiute band. The so- a "hand-out," the Toed6kad6 western boundary is lution seems to be dependent upon the correct in- not definitely known. The mountain range between terpretation of the artifacts from the lower Humboldt and Carson sinks separated the ToedSkad'oc levels of Lovelock Cave deposits. from the K~ipadbkad6, and the Desert Mountains (18) Toedokadd ("tule [or rush] eaters"), of served to divide them from the Aga'idokadb to the Stillwater, Nevada. In 1859 more than a thousand south. Although possessing a large diversified Indians under three chiefs were collected to- area, the Toedbkadd arrived half-starved at Pyra- gether near Carson Lake for the visit of Major mid Lake each spring to fish. Dodge,173 Indian Agent. Unfortunately, the terri- (19) Aga'idokadU (" eaters"), of Walker tories of the individual bands were not mentioned Lake, Nevada. The center of activity of the Aga'i- in Dodge's report. He merely assigned to them dokadt was Walker Lake and Walker River, named af- jointly the land around "the lakes and sinks of ter the explorer who was supposed to have visited the Carson and Walker rivers." The chiefs assem- them in the 1830's. Leonard s181 short statement bled were "O-duk-eo (Tall Man)," recognized as of questioned validity contains disappointingly from the Tdvusi band, "Pe-tod-se-ka (White Spot)," meager ethnographic data on the region. Simpson182 probably of the Aga'iddkado band, and "Tosark tells of trout, weighing 20 pounds,-caught by the (Gray Head)," possibly the Toedbkad6 chief, al- Walker Indians, but his other information on the though Breckenridge is now unanimously mentioned aborigines is quoted from Dodge. In his own state- as the great old-time leader of the Stillwater ment, Dodgel88 names Petodseka (White Spot) as one Indians. Only the total figures were given: 848 of the chiefs met at Carson Lake. Although no men, 372 women, and 405 children. Indians south other reference to Petodseka was found and although of Pyramid Lake do not think of Old Winnemucca as an ancient tribal chief over their local captains, but each Indian 174Ind. Aff. Rep., 1866, 119. attributes the greatest honor to . ed . , 11 . the former chief of his own band. This absence of 178Powers, cited in Hodge, Handbook,2:772. special regard for Winnemucca is also noted in a Powell, cited in Hodge, Handbook,2:772. letter by Commander Hooker concerning his visit Lee Ind. Aff. Rep., 1870, ]ll. to Fort Churchill in 1867. Two of the three chiefs 178Loud and Harrington, 153. 17Kelly, 72. 170De Angelo and Freeland 1929, 315, heard of IWasson in 178. this war from the Achomawi aiso. Agl 171Kelly, 186. 181W~~~~~~~~atson; Leonard. 17ley,86 1828iPsons 87. BPowrell, cited in Hodge, Handbook, 2:858. 188Dodge. 17Dodgef 742. 142 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS

this name was not mentioned by my informants, it reliable informant at Walker Lake, claimed to be might easily have been one of the names of Cap- a Pakwid6kad6, only the Indians in the immediate tain Ben, mentioned by Hooker.`8' This is a vicinity furnished any information about them. logical assumption since three living informants Even these Walker Indians, mostly Aga'idokad5, named Captain Ben as chief when the white people could tell little about their southern neighbors. came, and they gave his Paiute name as Ivikoi or Captain Johnson, who died about 1925, was the Kwitaivi ("possessor of white paint"). Sisivas, only chief remembered. said to have been also a captain at the time of With the exception of the land around Haw- Captain Ben, might have been a dance captain. thorne and Soda Spring Valley, dry desert coun- Possibly this is the same as Josephus, who de- try, most of the 2000 square miles claimed for scribed the Ghost Dance to Chapman.'8" Camp- the Pakwid6kad6 was mountainous. Starting on bell186 assigns the leadership of the Walker In- Walker Lake the boundary followed Gillis Range dians to "Chief Oderie and subchiefs Joaquin in a southeasterly direction about 50 miles to and E-seh-dawh, or Young Coyote"; but the area Cedar Mountain; thence along the Mineral-Esmer- of Campbell's Ocki band includes that of the alda county line in a southwesterly direction Aga'i, Pakwi, and T6vusi bands as I have deter- about 30 miles to Candelaria;`9' thence north- mined them. Oderie and Joaquin are identified westerly about 38 miles to Powell Mountain; as belonging to the Tovusi group west of Walker thence along the summit of Wassuk (Walker) Range Lake. Wasson'87 adds to the list of Aga'idokad6 about 20 miles to the shore of Walker Lake at chiefs the name of "Wah-he (Fox), the third Cottonwood Creek. To the east were the Shoshoni, chief of the Pah-Utes and eldest brother of Old to the south the KUtsavidokadi5l6 (Steward's Winnemucca," who tried to start a'rebellion" at Cusavidika) Paiute of Mono Lake, to the west the Walker Reservation, but was killed by San Joa- TNvusidUkad6s, and to the north the Aga'id6kad6. quin, another chief. San Joaquin had probably Dan said this band was extremely small with a gone to the reservation from his own territory population not exceeding 100. It was on the to the west, but would not allow Wah-he to as- western edge of the Pakwidiokad6 territory where sume too much power. Ives"9' met "from four to five hundred Indians, In addition to Campbell's188 band name of commanded by the notorious Captain Joaquin Jim "Ocki," we have Mooney's"' "Agaiktikara," and another called Captain Tom." It is impossible Loud's190 "Agaitekade," Kelly'sll "Agaitekadu," to assign this group definitely to the Pakwi. and Steward's'90 "Agaidika" as alternate ren- (21) TNvusid6kad6297 ("grass-bulb eaters"), of derings, but all undoubtedly signifying the same Smith Valley, Nevada. The problem of equating band. The territory claimed by the Aga'ido-kado ethnographic data recently received from old In- and assigned to them by their neighbors, now dians and the numerous clues obtained from pub- the reservation on lower Walker River and the lished sources is especially difficult with re- north end of Walker Lake, contains about 1750 gard to the T vusidokad5. The first perplexity square miles. If a third of those to see Dodge arises with the determination of the band area. at Carson Lake can be considered from this band, My Tovusi informants said they did not claim its population in 1859 would have been 541. The Mason Valley, although some of their band lived western border, between the Aga'idokad-d and there; they thought it belonged toethe Aga'id- Tovusid6kado, was the summit of Wassuk (Walker) kadtr. Several Aga'idtkad, however, denied this Mountain; the eastern, separating the Northern and said the TAvusi owned both Mason and Smith Paiute and Shoshoni, was Paradise Range, west of valleys. Walker River flows from Smith Valley Ione Valley; the southern, the Aga'id6kad6-Pak- into eason Valley and the mountains separating widokad6 line, was Gillis Range and the middle the two rise only a couple of thousand feet of the lake; the northern, as stated before, was above it, so that they form a geographic unit Desert Mountain. similar in size to the areas of other Northern (20) Pakwidckad_ ("chub eaters"),193 of Raw- Paiute bands. Powers'th8 data would necessitate thorne, Nevada. Although Dan Voorhees, an extremely 9 Steward, ibid., map 1. Steward places the 4Mack, 331. "ozavdika" (alkali eaters), in upper Soda Spring 186Mooney, 1051. Valley; Dan Voorhees, however, said this area was l8eInd. Aff. Rep., 1866, 119. unoccupied before the railroad. 187 '95Hodget Handbook,1:932, Kotsava. Nick remem- Ind. Aff. Rep., 1861-62, 223-229; 1865, 519. bered Captain Wadukoni, possibly Angel's Was-adz- Ind. Aff. Rep., 1866, 119. ze-hah-ago (p. 165), of whom he recorded a resur- 189Mooney, 1051. rection myth. lo°Loud and Harrington, 153. Ives, 1863, 7. '91Kelly, 72. 19Brodiaea capitatum. 192Steward.193 1933, 236. 398Powers, cited in Hodge, ~~~~~~~~~~Tsapakah, Tupustikutteh, Pamitoy,Handbook,2:722,and Poatsitutuh- S93teward, ibid. Steward might have been re- tikuteh. Only Nick Downington named a distinct ferring to this band when he said the Pahumuwitu band for Mason Valley, Tuvadokado were the- ("-nut east of the Aga'idbkad6. eaters"), the word used by Hoffman, 1886, 298, to designate all the Northern Paiutes STEWART: THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS 143 the formation of at least four bands in this and ethnographic accounts. My Thvusi informants, area, but for this my informants gave no justi- for example, said George Old Ducky (Uruwai'avoi- fication. navi, "long chief"), the great leader "of all The determination of the chief for the T6vusi the Paiute," signed the treaty at Fort Churchill is almost as embarrassing as it was for the Ku- for the Tovusi. His exceptional height, empha- yuidtkadb, not from lack of information, but sized by my informants, identifies him as Dodge s rather from an abundance of inexact material. Odukeo and Hooker's20 Captain Big George. Final- Dodge199 mentioned three chiefs occupying the ly, Hadsapoke, whom Dodge located at Gold Canyon, land now determined to have belonged to this one can be recognized as Hazabok, whom Angel described band. His mistake appears to be a failure to as a chief and shaman living in Antelope Valley.20" discriminate between "band chiefs" and "dance Unquestionably this is Atsapo, remembered by my captains," "hunting captains," and so forth. The Tovusi informants, Maggie and Goggles Wright, as whole dilemma is partly explained by information a "dance captain" of their band at the time George obtained from my Tbvusiddkado" informants. Let us Old Ducky was head chief. Tbvusi Sam was another first review Dodge's enumeration of Paiute bands "dance captain." associated with the area in question. He heard In spite of the partial contradictions, there about two, San Joaquin's band of 170 at the is no alternative but to include upper Walker forks of in Carson Valley, and the River, both the east fork in Mason Valley and band of Hadsapoke ("horse stopper"), numbering the west fork in Smith Valley, as belonging 110, in Gold Canyon on Carson River- he visited formerly to the Tovusidokadb. About 2100 square a third, that of Odakoe ("tall man"S, which miles, the Tovusi territory extends from the was one of the three seen at Carson Lake. Al- Aga'id6kadd boundary on Wassuk (Walker) Moun- though the Carson River forks was attributed to tain on the east to the Washo country on top the Tupustikutteh" by Powers, Mooney200 said of Pinenut Mountain on the west; and from the it belonged to the Washo until 1860 when it edge of the Sierra Nevada and Stillwater moun- was acquired by the Paiute in a war; yet both tains--the Kutsaviddkadd line--in the south to my Washo and Tovusi informants assigned it to a short distance beyond Carson River in the the Washo. Angel's201 account of "Yurdy," known north. to the white people as Joaquin and whose band Former aboriginal population figures can only was 'bn the Big Bend of Carson River and south be calculated by adding the numbers assigned by toward Mason Valley," clarifies this situation. Dodge to what has been determined as subdivi- Since Joaquin has been associated with the To- sions of this band. If we assume Odukeo's band vusi, Aga'i, and Pakwidt5kadd, his position might made up a third of the 1625 Indians at Carson be compared to that of Old Winnemucca among the Lake in 1859 and add to that those counted as northern bands, and, since no Indians mentioned Joaquin's and Hadsapoke's bands, our total is him, be due to white men's inaccurate assignment 820. Judging from the character of the land and of . the available food supply, this figure is prob- A more exact recognition of the other two ably too high. chiefs results from the comparison of historical 202Mack, 331: "He stood over six feet tall." 19i{adsapoke's band, Odukeo's band, and Ja Pn03Antelope quin's band. Valley is just west of Smith Val- ley and joined to it by the west fork of Walker 20Xflodge, handbook, 2:920. 2 0'Angel, 150. River. CONCLUSION

The significance of this paper is in estab- nitely establish unity, and on this basis I am lishing the whole Northern Paiute tribal bound- of the opinion that the Northern Paiute took ary; in demonstrating the affinities between possession of their entire territory when they all parts of the Northern Paiute tribe; and in first entered the country and have occupied it revealing the number, size, and political or- up to its present limits for a comparatively anization of the Northern Paiute subdivisions long time. From this it follows naturally that bands). theories of the origin of any part of the tribe In the past, investigators working with must take the whole tribe into account and makes neighboring groups or individual Northern PNi- inevitable the conclusion that archaeology must ute bands have made known parts of tribal bound- combine with ethnology if valid hypotheses of aries, but the limits of the whole territory tribal origin and tribal movements are to be have not before been determined. The total made. Northern Paiute territory, shaped roughly like The discovery of the close affinity of the an isosceles triangle with a 275-mile base at Shoshonean-speaking Indians in southeastern Blue Mountains, Oregon, and with 600-mile sides Oregon and southwestern Idaho with the Indians reaching to a point at Owens Lake, California,2O4 of western Nevada necessitates a decided re- contains approximately 78,000 square miles of the vision of the ethnogeography of the western near desert land of the Basin and Range physio- American desert area. It makes clear that the graphic province of western United States. The Indians occupying this territory in 1850, here- western boundary conforms closely with the edge tofore called Snake and Bannock, were really of the Great Basin, although the Paiute did not Northern Paiute. With a recognition of the true exclusively occupy the slopes of the Sierra affinities of the Indians in eastern Oregon Nevada and the Cascade mountains. The northern south of Blue Mountains, a solid basis is formed boundary, technically beyond the edge of the in- to judge Teit's theory,206 reiterated by Berre- terior basin because it includes streams drain- man,207 that Salish migrations were caused by ing to the ocean, is, nonetheless, coincident the forcing westward of Sahaptin tribes by with the desert sagebrush vegetation zone bound- mounted Snake bands, who appropriated their ary,206 for the volcanic plateau which extends eastern Oregon home. Since Teit's theory was into the northern end of the Great Basin has based upon tales of war between Sahaptin and modified the physiographic scene more than it Snake Indians, its validity rests entirely upon has the vegetation. Consequently, we may assume the accurate recognition and location of the that Blue Mountains, the northern edge of the particular Snake Indians referred to--granting Great Basin flora, is the real border of the Ba- that the tales are true, which is not at all sin. Since both early explorers and my inform- certain. "Snake" was used by the early explor- ants considered Blue Mountains the northern bound- ers, Lewis and Clark, Ross, Ogden, et al., to ary of Oregon Snake (Paiute), we can say that denote all Shoshone-speaking Indians; conse- the northern and western boundaries of the North- quently, it includes groups having markedly ern Paiute tribe coincide with geographic bound- different cultures. This study disproves the aries. The eastern boundary between the Paiute theory that the so-called Oregon Snakes (Wal- and the Shoshoni, both within the Great Basin, papi, Hanipui, Yahuskin, and Wada) were re- does not agree with any geographic boundary. It sponsible for the Sahaptin movements. Both the can roughly be described as a line drawn from earliest historic accounts and the testimony of the 118th meridian at Owens Lake to the 116th Indian informants depict all the Shoshone-speak- meridian at Snake River, Idaho. ing Indians of southeastern Oregon as typically Occupying a single physiographic province, Northern Paiute, without horses or arms until speaking similar dialects of one linguistic fan- after 1850. It is indeed possible that warring,. ily, possessing cultures and traditions in com- horse-riding Snake (Shoshone-speaking Indians) mon, the Northern Paiute bands, without doubt, did move west and cause some other tribal move- formed one tribe. The unity was tenuous, but no ments, but it is more reasonable to think that indications of internal strife were discovered; they followed the easiest route, the route fol- on the contrary, hunting grounds were shared, and lowed by the first explorers across Idaho and Old Winnemucca, in the early days of white con- down the Columbia River, than to picture them tact, nearly united the bands under one political crossing the waterless wastes of southern Oregon. leadership. The cultural uniformity of the tribe Another problem clarified by this paper has and its nice adjustment to its environment defi- also been embroiled because of the use of one term to designate different ethnic groups. "Sai" 204Bteward, 1933, gave a detailed description or 'Saidokak6," a name used in myth and tradi- of the Northern Paiute of Owens Valley and es- tablished this southern limit. 20beit, l928 * land and Desert Shrub."'°Eermn 97 [144] STEWART: THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS 145 tion to distinguish former inhabitants of the Indian Affairs Report 9 locations, 5 names shores of Humboldt Sink from the Paiute, now (1859-1900) connotes "enemyI or "bad"; but it is also a Pai- Powers, 1876 (quoted by ute name for the Nez Perce, the Klamath, and the Hodge, Handbook) 6 locations, 5 names Pit River (Achomawi) Indians. Any deduction Powell, 1881 (quoted by based on the use of this name that one of these Hodge, Handbook) 9 locations, 6 names 1926 4 4 names tribestribes formerly occupnedoccupied humboluHumboldtc Sinkwas eisis open LoudCurtis,and Harrington, locations, to serious question, although such was the prin- 1929 6 locations, 6 names cipal support for a statement that the Pit River Kelly, 1932 10 locations, 10 names Indians once lived at Stillwater, Nevada. Steward, 1933 3 locations, 3 names Finally, I wish to explain briefly map 1 (frontispiece) and table 1 (at end). Band names Such confirmation leaves no doubt as to the on the map are essentially those supplied me by existence of Paiute bands or to their location. informants, although I have in the text cited Equally abundant was the substantiation for the published references to boundaries and bands. old captains or chiefs. Population data by bands When informants disagreed as to the area pos- were less complete and less reliable. Informants sessed by one band, I placed the boundary where did not remember how large the bands were, and I thought it belonged after a careful evaluation most early censuses were by tribes. Where partic- of all the testimony and available published in- ular bands were designated, the figures are prob- formation. In most cases informants corroborated ably accurate. Thus by totaling the figures in the one another and were substantiated by early table that follows we have 6380 as the population sources. Whether the area I have assigned to the of the 14 bands for which early figures are avail- Hunipuit6ka and T6vusidokado" belonged to one band able. This might be slightly too high, but it does or to more than one is the most doubtful part of agree with the early estimates, which set the to- the study. With the exception of Yahuskin, all tal between 7000 and 10,000. the twenty-one band names were supplied by in- These figures show differences in band popula- formants. The evidence, therefore, for the exist- tion densities which agree fairly well with en- ence of the twenty-one bands listed appears un- vironmental differences. Density varies from one deniable, and continued inquiry would, I believe, person for 33 square miles to one person for 2 furnish but slightly more information concerning square miles. The average for the entire North- this subject. For fifteen bands, names similar ern Paiute area was probably one person for 10 to the ones I obtained were found in early litera- square miles. A comparison with bands listed on ture; for all the bands the literature contained Steward's chart of Primitive Bands208 shows that references to a separate group of Indians in the the Northern Paiute resemble the Montagnais, an same area of each of my bands. Confirmation was Algonkian tribe of eastern Canada, with respect as follows: to number of persons per square mile, average size of band, and average square miles of band 2.0%teward, 1936, 341. territory. 146 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS

TABLE 1 Summary List of Northern Paiute Bands

Present. Principal Area aboriginal Other references-rgo in Population band name reiosq.mie (1) Hunipuit6ka Towannahhiooks Snake (Lewis and Clark) Canyon City, 7000 98 at Klam- (Walpapi) Hoonebooly Snake, Hoonebooey Snake, Oregon ath, 1870; Nollpahpe Snake, Wallpalipe Snake 76 at Warm (Ind.Aff.Rep.,1865) Springs, 1890. Wihinashtas (llatin) (All the Pai- ute there.) (2) Yahuskin Yahuskin Snake (Ind.Aff.Rep.,1865) Silver Lake, 5000 117 in 1870 Goyatoka (Kelly) Oregon (3) Wadatoka Wahtatkin Snake, Wa-tat-kah Snake Burns, Ore- 5250 ? (Ind.Aff.Rep.,1865) gon Wihinastas (Gallatin) Wada ti kadU (Kelly) (4) Koa'aga itoka Wihinast, Panasht (Gallatin) Boise, Idaho 7500 800 in 1862 Wararereekas Snake (Ross) (9.3 sq.mi. Bannocks (Lander, et al per person) Winnas (Ind.Aff.Rep.,1862) Togwingani (Powell, in HodgeHandbook) Boise-Bruneau band (Ind.Aff.Rep., 1865) Weiser band (Ind.Aff.Rep.,1876) (5) Tagot6ka Panasht, Bannock (Gallatin) Jordan and 6000 214 in 1890 Leggin's band.(Hopkins) Owyhee rivers (6) Ts6s6'6d6 tuvi- |Td'iuitidadP (Kelly) Steens Mt. 2600 ? warai (7) Kidiit6kadd Tuziyammos (Powers inHodgeHandbook) Surprise 5000 150 in 1873 Kaivaanungavidakw (Powell, in Hodge, Valley, (33 sq.mi. Handbook) Calif. per person) GidUtikadlA (Kelly) (Ft.Bid- Gidiitikad|l (Kelly) well) _ _ (8) Aga'ipa'ninad6- Agaivanuna (Powell, in Hodge, Handbook) Summit Lake, 2000 I? kado" (Moado- AgaitikadU (Kelly) Nevada kadb) (9) Atsakud6kwa Koyahow (Powell, in Hodge, Handbook) McDermitt, 2700 140 in 1870 tuviwarai Kwiniduwaa (Kelly) Nevada (19 sq.mi. per person) (10)Yamosopo Yammius (Powers, in Hodge, Handbook) Paradise 2000 ? tuviwarai Yammostuviwagaiya (Powell, in Hodge, Valley, Handbook) Nevada (11) Makuhadbkadb Tonawitsowa, Itsa'atiaga (Powell, in Unionville, 2000 ? (Pauide tuvi- Hodge, Handbook) Nevada warai) Idza ategaa (Loud and Harrington) STEWART: THE NORTHERN PAIUTE BANDS 147

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Pre sent Principal Area aboriginal Other references region in Population band name sq.mi. (12) Sawawakttd'o Sawagativa (Powell, in Hodge, Handbook) Winnemucca, 3000 tuviwarai Sawakate (Loud and Harrington) Nevada _ _ _ (13) Kamodbkad6 Winnemucca's band (Dodge) Smoke Creek 3900 155 in 1859 Desert, (25 sq.mi. Nevada per person) (14) Wadad8kado Waratika (Powell in Hodge, Handbook) Honey Lake, 800 (of Honey Wada'tika (Kelly3 Califor- Lake) Waru'-dikarfi (Curtis) nia (15) Tasiget tuvi- Tonoyiet's band (Dodge) Winnemucca 1000 580 in 1859 warai Valley, (2 sq.mi. Nevada per person) (16) KuyuidokadU Coo-er-ee (Campbell) Pyramid 2000 970 in 1859 Cooyuweeweit (Powers, in Hodge, Lake, Ne- (700 in 1866) Handbook) vada (2 sq.mi. per Kuyuidika (Powell, in Hodge, Handbook) person) Kuyui-tekade (Loud and Harrington) Kuyui tikadu (Kelly) Cuiyui dika (Steward, 1933) Kuyu'i-tika' r¶ (Curtis) (17) Kilpaddkado T Kuhpattikutteh (Powers, in Hodge, Hand- Lovelock, 3600 800 in 1866 book) Nevada (4.5 sq.mi. KepM-tekade (Loud and Harrington) (Humboldt per person) Sidocaw (Campbell, et al.) Sink) (18) Toedokado Toyyu-wi-ti-kut-tah (Powers, in Hodge, Stillwater, 6700 (541 in 1859); Handbook) Nevada 800 in 1866 Toi-wait (Powell, in Hodge, Handbook) (Carson (8.4 sq.mi. Toy PF-ute (Lee) Sink) per person) Toi-tekade Loud and Harrington) Toitikadu (Kelly) Tae-tika'ru (Curtis) (19) Aga'id6kadiS Ocki (Campbell) Walker Lake 1750 541 in 1859 Agaiktikara (Mooney) Nevada (3 sq.mi. Agaitekade (Loud and Harrington) per person) Agaitekadu (Kelly) Agaidika (Steward, 1933) _ Aghai-tika' rt (Curtis) _____ (20) Pakwid6kado' Pahumu witu, Ozavdika (Steward, 1933) Hawthorne, 2000 100 (20 sq.mi. Nevada per person) (21) Tovvusid6kad6 Hadsapoke's, Odukeo's, and Joaquin's Smith and 2100 820 in 1859 bands (Dodge) Mason val- (2.5 sq.mi. Tsapakah, Tupustikuteh, Pamitoy, leys, Ne- per person) Poatsitutuhtilkuteh (Powers, in Hodge, vada Handbook) BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbreviations: Farnham, T. J. 1849. 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