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The Image and Cult of the Black Christ in Colonial Mexico and Central America

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The Image and Cult of the Black Christ in Colonial Mexico and Central America City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 10-2014 Disseminating Devotion: The Image and Cult of the Black Christ in Colonial Mexico and Central America Elena FitzPatrick Sifford Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/332 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] DISSEMINATING DEVOTION: THE IMAGE AND CULT OF THE BLACK CHRIST IN COLONIAL MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA by ELENA FITZPATRICK SIFFORD A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Art History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2014 ©2014 ELENA FITZPATRICK SIFFORD All Rights Reserved ii This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Art History in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Date Dr. Eloise Quiñones Keber Chair of Examining Committee ____________________ ________________________________________ Date Dr. Claire Bishop Acting Executive Officer ____________________ ________________________________________ ___________________________________ Dr. Amanda Wunder ____________________________________ Dr. Timothy Pugh ____________________________________ Dr. Lauren Kilroy-Ewbank Supervisory Committee THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii Abstract DISSEMINATING DEVOTION: THE IMAGE AND CULT OF THE BLACK CHRIST IN COLONIAL MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA by Elena FitzPatrick Sifford Adviser: Dr. Eloise Quiñones Keber Following the conquest of Mexico in 1521, Spanish conquerors and friars considered it their duty to bring Christianity to the New World. Even before the task of conversion began, they introduced Christian images, like the cross, to the native peoples they first encountered. Eventually, local artists began to create the sacred objects. This study is the first in-depth, art historical inquiry into the significance of the most prominent Black Christ crucifix images and cults in various regions of Mexico and Central America from the sixteenth to early nineteenth century. It traces the origin and history of the Black Christ, often found in traditional sacred locations among Nahua, Maya, Mestizo, and African converts and in connection with legends describing associated miraculous events that made the sites pilgrimage destinations. It also examines the misunderstood materiality of the crucifixes, which in most cases began as typical European flesh-colored figures that gradually blackened from exposure and ritual activity. The darkened color came to hold a myriad of connotations, and artists created replicas, deliberately painted black, for churches from New Mexico to Panama. iv This widespread process of dissemination is examined via reproduced paintings, sculptures, and prints in order to trace how the cult grew and changed in each locale, where the image of the Black Christ was constantly resignified. Some churches saw it as a sign of ancient pre-Hispanic sacrality and power, others as a connection to the famed Christ in Esquipulas, Guatemala; in other cases it mimicked the race of its African devotees. Looking at a traditional Christian image—a crucifix—through the lens of the local reveals how different communities, whether indigenous, mestizo, or African, shaped their spiritual landscape using the Black Christ as a powerful emblem of sanctity. Esquipulas also emerges as preeminent among all the Black Christ images, cults, and locales considered, highlighting the often overlooked importance of Guatemala as a progenitor, along with Mexico and Peru, of artistic and cultural developments in Colonial Latin America. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would first like to thank my father, Dr. Richard Collins FitzPatrick, Professor Emeritus of Management at Manhattan College, who instilled in me a love of research, writing, and problem solving. He encouraged me to study art history as early as high school when I first took an Advanced Placement course in the subject. Since then he has been my constant supporter, talking me through the ups and downs of doctoral life and always offering sound advice. Infinite thanks to my mother, Verna Josephs FitzPatrick, who instilled in me a love of our Panamanian heritage, one that inspired my investigations of the Black Christ in Portobelo. She also translated documents, learned how to Skype so that she could keep up with me during fieldwork, and has always helped me with anything and everything that I might need. Only since becoming a mother have I understood the profound depth of her love and dedication to my brother and me. There is nothing like it. Thank you to my darling husband, Justin Dario Sifford, without whom I never would have survived. He spent countless weeks with me in Mexico, Guatemala, and Panama, helping with translating, xeroxing, errand-running, and constant cheerleading. All along he has been my love, my lifeboat, my stalwart supporter, and my best friend. My smart, funny, beautiful daughter Maeve Maria Sifford was a constant motivator even as a distant twinkle in our eyes. As wonderful as it is to complete my doctorate, nothing compares to the joy and pride that she brings to us every day. My adviser, Dr. Eloise Quiñones Keber, has been supportive of my work since day one. I came into graduate school with the intention of studying modern Latin vi American art, but her fascinating courses in Pre-Columbian and Colonial art sparked my interest and ultimately led to this research project. Dr. Keber’s editorial skills and attention to detail have greatly improved my research and writing. I cannot thank her enough for her unwavering support through this whole process. I feel lucky to have had the chance to work with such a dynamic and passionate scholar and person. Many thanks to Dr. Amanda Wunder, my second reader, for her insight and feedback. Her course on art of the Spanish world inspired me to develop a comparative perspective on the Black Christ and devotional imagery on both sides of the Atlantic. She was also incredibly supportive during my pregnancy and journey into motherhood. Third reader Dr. Timothy Pugh encouraged me to pursue the topic after I wrote on the Black Christ in his “Archaeologies of Contact” course. I thank him for his support and for sharing his archaeological expertise during a visit to Guatemala. My fourth reader, Dr. Lauren Kilroy-Ewbank, expressed excitement about my project immediately, and I am grateful for her insight. In Mexico I would like to thank María Sánchez Vargas, the director of research at the Museo Franz Mayer. She was my first contact in Mexico City, and she helped immensely by allowing me access to the library and the museum’s collection. Dr. Pablo Francisco Amador Marrero at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) spent several hours with me going over the finer points of my dissertation. It was he who insisted that the Lord of Chalma (among others) was not originally black, but had become so over time. He urged me to look into the resignification of these objects, and for that I am thankful. Dr. Patricia García, also of UNAM, took time to speak with me about my topic and lent many an encouraging word. She sent some UNAM student theses my way, vii and they richly augmented my understanding of these New Spanish devotions. I would also like to thank the staffs at the UNAM libraries, Archivo General de la Nación, Archivo Histórico del Arzobispado de México, Archivo Histórico Municipal de Toluca, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Archivo General de Centro América, and Archivo Histórico de Centro de Investigaciones Regionales de Mesoamérica. Thank you as well to the CUNY Graduate Center for their financial support through the years in the form of the Chancellor’s Fellowship, the Dean K. Harrison Award, the Doctoral Student Research Grant, and the MAGNET Dissertation Fellowship. My colleagues at the Graduate Center have been with me every step of the way. I cannot thank them enough for their support, both personally and academically. Arden Decker welcomed me with open arms in Mexico City and provided invaluable help when I had difficulty navigating life in a new place. Penelope Ojeda de Huala and Stanley Huala opened their doors to me in Guatemala City. Not only did they save me the expense of a hotel stay, but they were great company. Penelope took me to the Archbishop’s office and they both showed great interest in and support of my topic. Renee McGarry, Miguel Arisa, Ananda Cohen Suárez, and Andrea Ortuño Taylor all helped me to study for orals, which made the process so much more manageable. Thank you to Alessia Frassani for her companionship in Mexico on two occasions. Thank you as well to Lawrence Waldron, Mary Brown, Lorena Tezanos, Jeremy James George, Lauren Kaplan, and Ola Charlotte Robbins for the laughs, the drinks, and the kvetching too. Thank you to my many family members who were supportive yet refrained from asking too many questions. Special thanks to Robert Kennedy FitzPatrick, Christopher FitzPatrick, Anne FitzPatrick, Belinda Sifford, and William Cottrell. I am also incredibly viii thankful to my friends who have put up with me through the years, especially Gisele Hayek, Emily Preston, Gina Hay, Sabia McCoy-Torres, Samantha West Sculley,
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