JOURNALOF THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS I ITH MARCHI949 object whichwould be beautifulto look at, suitablefor its purpose,and, at the same time,practical to make. Exhibition An Exhibitionof winningand commendeddesigns is to be held at the Society's House from21 March-2 April,and will be opento thepublic from 10 a.m.-5.3op.m. on Mondays to Fridays,and 10 a.m.-12. 30 p.m. on Saturdays.It is hoped that Fellows will be able to findan opportunityof visiting this Exhibition, but the Board would liketo stressthat the real benefits of the Bursaries are revealedin theprogress made and experiencegained by winningcandidates during their visits abroad, rather than in the entriessubmitted, by which the fullvalue of theseCompetitions can hardlybe judged. As an example of this, the Juryof the Domestic Solid-Fuel- BurningAppliances Section were able to reportthat Mr. R.T.J. Homes,the winning candidate in this Section, who had also been awarded a Bursaryin the 1947 Competition,had made a greatdeal of progressduring the year, and clearlybenefited fromhis visit to Sweden last summer. Copies ofthe full Report, which contains details of the subjects set, the number of entries,the names of the commended candidates and thecomments and composition of the Juries,may be obtainedon applicationto the Secretary.

1949 Competition A furtherannouncement will be made shortlyof the details of theBursaries to be offeredin the 1949 Competition.

WILLIAM SHIPLEY AND THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS: The History of an Idea

A lecturedelivered on Monday,17th January, 1949

By K. W. Luckhurst,m.a., Secretaryof the Society

Founded in 1754." Behindthe prosaic phrase which appears so regularlyon tfye the Journalof Royal Societyof Arts lies a romanticand generallyunsuspected Our story. founder,William Shipley, was no influentialfigure in London society who could quicklyand easilygather round him a groupof kindredspirits. He was an obscure drawingmaster living in a distantprovincial town and withonly the in slightestfooting London who, nevertheless,succeeded in establishingthere a whichwithin five Society yearsbecame one ofthe leading institutions of the country. And, done he having this, retiredgracefully and returnedto his teachingof drawing. s Shipley achievementwas not attained by the force of personal ambition. 262

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WilliamShipley y"whose public spirit gave rise to thisSociety ". Fromthe painting by Cosway

He showed, it is true, a quiet persistenceand determination,but these were promptedby a deep and genuinepatriotism without the least desirefor personal aggrandisement.When his fellow-memberspaid theirtribute to him by awarding him one of the firstof the Society'sgold medals,the inscriptionthey determined upon was "To William Shipley,whose public spiritgave rise to this Society", and most appropriatelya similardescription still appears beneathhi$ portrait,by his pupil Cosway,in the entrancehall of the Society'sHouse. 263

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The Birth of an Idea The success of Shipley'sproject, however, is due ultimatelynot so much to the forceof his characteras to the Tightnessof the idea, simple,indeed naive, though it was,which he conceivedand on whichhe based his Society.It is fortunate,therefore, thatwe possess,in a pamphletdated 1763 and entitled"A Concise Accountof the Rise, Progressand PresentState of the Societyfor. the Encouragementof Arts, Manufacturesand Commerce",a detailedstory of how theproject gradually formed in his mind. It reallygrew from two ideas, the firstof whichcame to him as he watchedthe horsefair which was held twicea year at Northampton,where he resided.When he saw all the buyingand sellingthat went on at the fair,involving large sums of money,he began to enquireinto the cause of its success. He was told that it was largelydue to the institutionof horse-racingmeetings; and that many of these had recentlybeen promotedby the King and otherswho had presentedplates or prizes for the various races. From this it occurredto Shipley that the giftof a comparativelyfew prizes had thus stimulateda whole industry;and impressed by this discoveryhe began to ask himselfwhether this, same principlecould not be applied to stimulateother industries. He decided thatit could, and subsequent historyproved that he was right,but in the meantimethere remained a second question- where was the money for even a few modest prizes to come from? Until Shipleycould findthe answerto that,the firstidea had to be shelved. His second idea- the solutionto thisproblem - came to him,like the first,from a local circumstance.Shipley was shockedat the highprices which the poor people of Northamptonhad to pay for theirwinter fuel, and as he ponderedthe matter he realisedhow thiscame about. Everysummer the merchantsof the townused to buy in largestocks of fuelat low priceswhich they kept until the winterand then sold at high prices. Shipley probablyhad no generalquarrel with the common principleof buyingin the cheapestmarket and sellingin the dearest.But he was concernedabout the hardshipsuffered by the poor. He decided thereforeto try to raise a fundfrom public-spirited individuals which would enable him, like the merchants,to buy stocksof fuelat summerprices and then,unlike them, sell them to poor people withoutprofit in the winter.The plan succeeded,and in 1751 and 1752,thanks to him and the charitablepeople who supportedhim, the poor people of Northamptonbought their fuel in the winterat summerprices. And then suddenlythe two ideas came togetherin his mind,and Shipleysaw thatthe way to financehis schemefor stimulating industry by meansof prizeswas to raise a fundfrom public-spirited people in the same way as he had raiseda fund for his coal scheme. Convincedthat he had now arrivedat a workableplan, and determinedto put it into practiceon nothingless thana nationalscale, he set out forLondon, realising that only there could he finda sufficientnumber of influential people to supporthim. Shipley already had three friendsin London- none of them men of great - eminence buthe had beengiven an introductionto a Rev.Dr. StephenHales, f.r.s., a distinguishedscientist, and he lost no time in calling upon him. Fortunately, Hales welcomed Shipley's proposals and promisedto mentionthem to various 264

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I ITH MARCH1949 WILLIAMSHIPLEY AND THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS influentialfriends, including Viscount Folkestone and Lord Romney,who subse- quentlybecame respectivelythe firstand second Presidentsof the Society.In the meantime,however, he asked Shipleyto put his ideas downin writingand getthem printed,so that he would have somethingdefinite to put beforethose whom he should endeavourto interestin the scheme. Shipley accordinglyprepared two leaflets,one of thementitled "Proposals forraising by subscriptiona fundto be distributedin Premiumsfor the promotingof improvementsin the liberalarts and sciences,manufactures, etc.", and the other"A schemefor putting the Proposals in execution".In the formerhis generalideas are set forth,in the lattera definite schemefor a society,and rules forthe conductof the proposedcompetitions are laid down, worked out in remarkableand very practicaldetail. When the groundhad been preparedfor him by the privatecirculation of his pamphlets,Shipley returned to London,this time to reside.He now paid a successful visitto Lord Romney,who promisedhis own supportand to obtainthat of Viscount Folkestone.Shipley then settled down to threemonths of hard canvassing.The resultswere not encouraging.Only fifteenpeople promisedto join the scheme,but, nothingdaunted, Shipley felt that the timehad come to call a meeting,and eleven of these fifteen,including Lord Romney,Lord Folkestoneand Dr. Hales, came togetherat Rawthmell'sCoffee House, HenriettaStreet, on 22nd March, 1754, at what is generallyregarded as the firstmeeting of the Societyof Arts. The storythus far has been told in some detail,not merely for its intrinsic human interestbut becauseof thelight which it throwson thebasis ofthis unique as well as ancientSociety, which is the converseof thatof almostall othersocieties. Whereas othersare foundedto promotesome definiteobject , and occupythemselves in finding the best meansto promotethat object, the Societyof Artswas foundedon a means and has occupied itselfsince in discoveringthe best objectsto whichto apply the - means. Hence,the importance of grasping the twoideas or "plan" as theywere so oftenjointly termed - which sent our founderon his way fromNorthampton to London: first,the use ofpremiums as a meansof encouragement ; second, the raising of a public fund to provide these premiums.As we shall see later,the idea of premiumsquickly gave birthto otherideas forthe employment of thefund, but it is upon thesevarious practical conceptions, and notupon theirparticular applications, thatthe long historyof the Societyhangs together.

The History of the Society as a Society Before,however, we considerthe directionsin whichthese ideas actuallyled in practiceit will be as well to surveybriefly the historyof the Societyas a Society. For thefirst year of its life there was butlittle growth, but from early 1755 onwards a rapidexpansion of membershiptook place. Withina fewyears it reacheda size of about 3,000, and thereafter,until its recentincrease, it rangedbetween 2,500 and 3,500. If a listwere prepared of all the famouspeople who have in the courseof its long historybeen membersof this Society,it could surelynot be equalled by any similarbody. There will always,however, be a particularglamour attaching to the rollof our earlymembers, which includes names such as SamuelJohnson and James Boswell,Sir JoshuaReynolds, Oliver Goldsmith,David Garrick,Edward Gibbon, William Hogarth,William Pitt, Samuel Richardson,Laurence Sterne,Benjamin 265

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOURNALOF THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS I ITH MARCHI949 Franklin,Thomas Chippendaleand Sir JosephBanks, to mentionbut a few.Almost all the notabilitiesof a brilliantage are in the list. There has neverbeen any veryprecise qualification for membership. The first public announcementof the formationof the Society,issued in 1754,says: "Some of the nobility,clergy, gentlemen and merchants,having at heartthe good of this country,have latelymet together in orderto formthemselves into a Societyfor the encouragementof Arts, Manufacturesand Commerce", and Shipley, in his "Scheme", in givinga reasonfor the proposedadmission of ladies as well as men, says: "There is no reasonto imaginethat they will be behindhandin a generous and sincereregard for the good of theircountry". It is clear thata certaindegree of social statuswas expected,but more still a generousdesire to serve the com- munity.In accordancewith Shipley's proposal, ladies did in factbecome members at a veryearly date, but it was not until 1941, and the electionof Dame Caroline Haslettas a Memberof Council,that any lady held officein the Society.That was followedonly six yearslater, however, by the appointmentof a lady,in the person of The Princess Elizabeth, to the Society's highestoffice. The Princessis the sixthmember of the Royal House to be President.Except fora fewshort intervals the Societyhas enjoyedthis honour for the last 130 years, althoughit is only since 1908 thatit has itselfbeen entitledto the affix"Royal". The late Duke of Connaughtwas Presidentfor 31 yearsand the annual occasions whenhe presentedthe Society'sAlbert Medal will neverbe forgottenby thosewho were privilegedto attend them. As the Duke, with obvious delightand pride, handed to the recipientthe medal, "instituted",as he used to say, "in memory of mybeloved father", history came alive,for a century,all but threeyears, elapsed betweenthe beginningof PrinceAlbert's Presidency and the last occasionon which his son presentedthe medal which commemoratedit. The Sovereignhas been Patronsince 1901, when Edward VII, who as Prince of Wales had been Presidentfor 38 years,ascended the Throne; and our present King, as Duke of York,became a Life Fellow in 1933 and subsequentlywas elected a Vice-Patron,becoming Patron in 1936. The homesof the Society,and in particular,the beautifulhouse whichit now occupies in the Adelphi, are an interestingstory in themselves,too long to be embarkedupon now. For thefirst twenty years a numberof differentpremises were used, all in the regionof CharingCross, until in 1774 the presenthouse was built by the Adam brothersfor the Society,which has occupied it ever since, firstas tenantand, since 1922,as owner.Its purchasein thatyear, with the aid of generous public subscriptions,averted the threatof modern "development"of the site, and is one of the majorevents in the Society'shistory during the presentcentury. The mostremarkable period in the Society'shistory is undoubtedlythe 1840's. At the beginningof that decade the Societywas on the vergeof bankruptcyand withinan ace of beingclosed down; at the end it accomplishedits greatestachieve- - ment the inaugurationof the Great Exhibitionof 1851; and in betweenit had entirelyreconstituted itself and receivedits Royal Charter. One developmentof thatperiod had particularlyimportant effects upon thewhole futurecourse of the Society's history. This was thedecision taken in 1845to delegate to an electedCouncil the fullresponsibility for the conductof the Society'saffairs 266

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I ITH MARCH1949 WILLIAMSHIPLEY AND THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS and activitieswhich hitherto had restedentirely with the whole Society at itsweekly meetings.Only the increasein administrativeefficiency which was broughtabout by this change could have enabled the Society to cope with the multitudeof importanttasks which it undertookin thenext few decades and whichsoon brought

PrinceAlbert , President 1843-1861. From thedrawing by Hohenberg engravedby Jantes Scott

about a fullrecovery of its prestigeand finances.But it was also a highlyfortunate conjunctionof eventswhich brought to the Societyat thiscritical time a President such as PrinceAlbert, members of such energyand wisdomas HenryCole, and a Secretarysuch as Scott Russell. Not only did theynegotiate these controversial andradical changes, but in theirhands the new administrative machine was employed upon workof the utmostpublic importance. It may also be realised,when the firsthalf of the presentcentury can be seen in 267

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOURNALOF THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS I ITH MARCH; 1949 proper. perspective,that a second and comparablerenaissance took place in the Society in the periodfollowing the FirstWorld War, During the last quarterof a centtirythere has been a remarkableexpansion both of membershipand activity, and althoughthe changeshave been slowerthan they were a centuryago, they may be judged in due timeto have been as real. But theseare earlydays yetto speak in such terms. One furthermatter which cannot be omittedfrom any generalconsideration of the Societyis the respectedplace whichit holds in the centreof a wide circleof "kindredsocieties". Of someof theseit is virtuallythe direct parent. One important and highlyselect society, the Facultyof Royal Designersfor Industry, was actually broughtinto existenceby an Ordinanceof the Council. Withsome othersocieties the link is less officialbut none the less real, the move to found them having originatedwith a group of people, most of whom were firstbrought together as membersof the Societyof Arts.This was the case withthe ChemicalSociety, the Royal PhotographicSociety, the Society of Chemical Industryand the Royal Institute of Chemistry.Of other societies,again, it has been the god-parent, particularlyby means of the importantUnion of Institutionswhich it organised and presidedover last century;for others it has provideda meeting-place,either until they acquired premisesof their own, or more permanently.By a happy traditionthe Journalof theRoyal Society of Arts still demonstratesthis special positionof the Societyas "a motherof societies"by publishingregularly a list of "Some Meetingsof OtherSocieties", which is surelya uniquefeature in a periodical of thischaracter.

The PremiumMethod Considerationof what the Royal Society of Arts has done for othersocieties bringsus naturallyinto the second part of our subject,namely, the workof the Society. At the very firstmeeting of the Society a definitepractical start was made. Specificproposals were put forwardfor the offerof premiums,and at a second meetinga week later it was decided to adopt these and have them printedand published.The offerswere as follows: (1) For the best quantityof cobalt (not less than 20 lb.) produced in this country- £30. (2) For raisingand curingnot less than 20 lb. of madder- £30. (3) For the best drawingby a child under 14 yearsof age- £15. (4) For the best drawingby a child between14 and 17- £15. The list was shortand hastilycompiled, but the offershad definiteindustrial purposeswhich we knowto have been: to stimulatethe home productionof two raw materials(cobalt and madder)which until then had to be importedat heavy cost; by makingavailable cheap dyestuffs,to enable the Britishtextile industry to discontinuesending textilesabroad to be dyed; and to fostei a supply of draughtsmento industry(especially the textileindustry) for the preparationof designs. An interestingdiscovery has recentlybeen made in connectionwith this first 268

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions lini MARCH1949 WILLIAMSHIPLEY AND THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS premiumli$t of the Society.Both the drawingprizes offered in 1754 were divided; among severalchildren, and a shorttime ago a pencil drawingby John Smarty the famousminiaturist, which was awardedthe secondprize of £4 forthe under-14 class,was foundin one of the Society'scellars - surelyone of the mostinteresting recordswe possess.

Pencildrawing by John Smart at the age of 10 or 11, enteredby himfor the Society*s first competition (1754) and awardeda prizeof £4

The firstpremium list was merelya trialeffort, and soon a verydefinite technique- was developedfor the whole business of the prize competitions.With so many, able and distinguishedpeople applyingthemselves to the matterit is not surprising thatthe job was done withgreat thoroughness and far-sightedness.The following considerationshad to be investigatedwith regard to each individualoffer: (1) whether the objectfor which the prizewas proposedwas an importantone withmore than temporaryor local significance; (2) the preciserequirements to be stipulatedas the basis of competition;(3) whetherthe prizeshould consist of moneyor a medal (this mainlydepended on whetherthe offerwas intendedto appeal to aristocratsor ordinaryfolk); (4) how manyprizes should be offeredfor the particularpurpose, and what should be theiramount; (5) how long a period should be allowed to competitors;(6) the most appropriate means of certification;(7) whether competitorsneeded to be givenany preliminaryinformation on the subjectof the offer(for example, when the offerwas forthe cultivationof a new crop,candidates were told where they could purchase the seed); (8) whetherany permanent recordin the formof a writtenaccount, drawings or, in the case ofmachines , a model, should be required.Whenever circumstances required it, long research was undertakeninto the potentialusefulness of an award, beforeit was decided: to offerit. Even at the first meetingin March 1754, a decision as to the proposedoffers was deferreduntil Shipley could report,as he did at the next 269

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOURNALOF THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS I ITH MARCH1949 meeting,what quantitiesof madder and cobalt were importedthe year before into the United Kingdom,so that it mightbe clear whetherit was important to encouragetheir home production. As soon as the Societywas fullyconstituted, all this detailedinvestigation was referredto one of the Committees,of which the six principaldealt respectively with Agriculture,Chemistry, Polite Arts (as they were termed),Manufactures, Mechanics,and Coloniesand Trade. Althoughparticular members were nominated to specificcommittees, attendance arid participation in any committeemeeting was " open to any memberof the Society.They were,so to speak, Committeesof the whole House". Referenceof a matterto a committeewas not a convenientway of shelvingit for some time. Oftena committeewas orderedto meet on a specific eveningwithin a weekand reportback to the Societyat itsnext weekly meeting, and in consequenceit notinfrequently happened that there was a meetingof the Society, or of a committee,on everynight of the week. A Typical Early Meeting It may be helpfulat this stage to eavesdrop,as it were, by means of the Minutes, at a typicalOrdinary (or weekly)Meeting of the Society n the year 1763.It is themeeting on Wednesday,26th January, and it beganat 6 p.m. (There is no recordof thetime at whichit closedbut we do knowthat there was a rulethat no new businessshould be introducedafter 10 p.m. No wonderthat when the Adam brothersdesigned the Society's House theyfound space for a coffeeroom [now the Accountant'soffice] adjoining the meetingroom I) The meetingtook place at the Society'soffices, which were then situated in the Strandon a siteapproximately oppositethe presentWoolworth's shop. The Chairwas takenby CharlesWhitworth. First, the minutes of the last meeting were read straightthrough and the thirteencandidates for membership proposed at thelast meetingwere elected. After that, in accordancewith custom, the minutes wereread throughagain itemby item.The new businessthen began. First,the Secretarysubmitted the draftof a letterof thanksto an ItalianCount who proposedto dedicatea book to the Society.The draftwas approvedand the letterordered to be sent. Nextcame a letterabout madder, which was referredto the Committeeof Mech- anics, presumablybecause it dealt withsome apparatusfor treatingthe product. Then theSecretary produced a letterin Frenchfrom a candidatefor the premium forcasting in bronze,asking for an extensionof the time limit because of an accident. His requestwas referredto the Committeeof PoliteArts. Then came a reportfrom the ExhibitionCommittee. Various details were settled regardingthe nextexhibition of contempoaryart, and the textof the public notice announcingit was approved. Afterthat came a financialstatement from the Committeeof Accounts,and this was followedby a reportfrom the Committeeof Chemistrydealing with claims for the premiumsfor dyeing cloth, for compositions for preserving ships' planks,and for dyeingcotton yarn. New premiumsto be offeredfor a substitutefor borax, zaffreand smalt(these two latter being preparations of cobalt)were also considered, and the variousproposals of the committeewere approved. 270

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I ITH MARCH1949 WILLIAMSHIPLEY AND THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS Then came the reportof the Committeeof Agriculture,proposing a premium for the culture of burnet as a food for cattle. This also was approved,but a recommendationby the Committeeof BritishColonies and Trade to renewthe offer of a premiumfor cochineal was referredback to the committee. It was thenproposed and agreedto ask the Committeeof PoliteArts to consider a premiumfor painting in enamel. Afterthis, in responseto a letterfrom a Britishmerchant at Leghorn,it was decidedto ask the Committeeof Agricultureto consideroffering a premiumfor the plantingand cultivationof vines and olives in Minorca (at that time a British possession)"to serve as nurseriesfor the Britishplantations" (in America).The committeewere orderedto meetthe followingMonday to considerthis. Then a letterwas read fromthe Consul-Generalat Algiers"offering his services to the Societyin givingthem information of anythingthey may want in his depart- ment'' The Secretarywas orderedto send him a letterof thanks. By this time of the eveningthe Great Room evidentlybecame ratherchilly, for a memberproposed that something should be done about the heating,and it was decidedto orderthe Committee of Mechanics to lookinto the matter at theirmeeting the nextevening and suggesthow the stovesin the Great Room mightbe made to give out morewarmth. Then a letterwas read concerningthe preservationof picturesfrom the effects of damp and hot sunshine.This was referredto the Committeeof Polite Arts. As a signthat business was drawingto a close the Registrarnow gave his weekly - reporton claims forpremiums which had been receivedsince the last meeting threeentries for prizes for various types of engravings.These also werereferred to the Committeeof Polite Arts. Finally, six candidateswere proposed for membership,and the meetingwas "adjournedto Wednesdaythe 2nd Februaryat 6 precisely0.And so the members separatedfor a week- exceptfor those who intendedto be presentat the Committee of Mechanics next evening,or the Committeeof Polite Arts on Fridayevening, or the Committeeof MiscellaneousAffairs on Saturdayevening, or the Committee of Agricultureon Monday evening,or the Committeeof MiscellaneousAffairs (again) on Tuesday evening! It must have been exhaustingto be a memberof the Society in those days! But it was only by businesslikemethods and energeticprocedure that so vast an amountof work could be carriedthrough. And whatfun to spend one's leisuretime in the eveningsexercising a practicalinfluence on such a varietyof manufactures and arts and stretchingout a hand to all parts of the United Kingdom,to the NorthAmerican Colonies and one neverknew where next !

The PremiumList for 1764 Have thereever been such prize competitionsas our earlymembers organised in this way? The size and scope of themis almostunbelieveable. Let us take,for instance,the offerspublished in 1764, as theyinclude some thatwe havejust seen being consideredearly in 1763. They occupy 91 pages of text and comprise380 classes in which to compete.. In the agriculturesection there are 92 classes, covering the planting of 271

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOURNALOF THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS I ITH MARCH1949 severalspecies of trees,the growingof a numberof differentexperimental feeding stuffsfor cattle and sheep (includingburnet), the collectionof quantitiesof pure grassseed of namedvarieties, reports on the mostprofitable method of cultivating numerouscrops, the productionof specifiedquantities of madderand hemp,the manufactureof compost,the keepingof bees, and the inventionof new typesof agriculturalimplements. In the chemistrysection there are offersof 23 premiumscovering the production of variousminerals (including a substitutefor borax, smalt and zaffre),varnishes, enamels,pigments and dyes. Underthe headingof PoliteArts there are somefifty separate awards for different kindsof drawing,divided according to thetype of subject and theage and sex ofthe candidate. Particularlynoteworthy are the classes for "the best compositionsof drawingsor ornaments,being originaldesigns fit for embroiderers, calico printers, paper stainersor any otherart or manufacture".There are anotherfifty classes for medals and medallions,clay and wax models, etchingsand engravings,cameos, paintingsin enamel, and statuaryin bronze and marble. Architectureis also represented,and a sum is offeredfor making an accuratesurvey of anycounty to the scale of one inchto a mile. There are 30 classes under the headingof manufactures,most of them for textiles. They include an interestingproposal to encourage experimentswith fibresof three differenttypes which had been discoveredin the plantain,and, amongmore orthodox fabrics, the makingof silk,cotton, linen or woollenquilting in the loom, and the spinningof varioustypes of yarn.There are also prizesfor technicalimprovements for spinning wheels and stockingframes. In mechanicsthere are onlyfive classes, a machinefor grinding and polishing glass, a mill for grindingmadder and a pump for ships. Next, to encouragethe developmentof the Americanand West Indian Colonies prizesare offeredin 123 classes forthe productionthere of raisins,wines, iron, potash,pearl ash, silk, saltpetre, cobalt, log wood, hemp,dried sturgeons, cochineal, and such drugsand spicesas opium,barilla, cinnamon, aloes and sarsaparilla; and the sectionconcludes with an offerto assistwith premiums the workof the botanical gardenswhich were being institutedin the West Indies. Finally,there is a special shortlist of prizesto encouragefishing for turbot and cod in Britishwaters.

Judging the Claims Such was the extentof the premiumlist for a singleyear. But the Society'swork did not finishwith the issue of the list. The entries,or "claims", whichresulted, were the subject of as close a scrutinyas the lists themselves.The greatestcare was takento ensureimpartiality of judgment, particularly in the art competitions, and noeffort or expense was spared to testthoroughly any new inventionor discovery forwhich a claim was made. An interestingexample of the latteris affordedin the case of therespirator invented by a minercalled John Roberts in theyear 1825. The purposeof the mask,which, although the firstknown respirator, was based on the same principlesas a moderngas mask,was to enable people to breathein thick smoke,or "in air loaded withsuffocating vapours". JohnRoberts submitted to the 272

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TheAnnual Presentation ofPrizes in the Society's "Great Room", in 1804(from an oldprint} followingtest, which took place at the Mechanics Institution,Southampton Buildings,and was witnessedby the Secretaryand severalmembers of the Society. In a chamberconstructed of boardsabout fifteenfeet high, moist wood shavings, wet hay,two pounds of brimstoneand a shovelfulof rosinwere set fireto and thedoor was shut.In a fewminutes the chamber seemed full of smoke,so thatsome " firemen,who had enteredthe chamber,were only enabled to remainthere by crouchingon theirbellies". More fuelwas nowput on thefire, and Roberts,with his- apparatuson, enteredthe room,walking erect. The followingdetails are quoted fromthe Transactions: "The temperatureof the roomwas at thistime 68° Fahr.,that of the externalair being48o. In ten minutesthe temperaturehad risento 87o in the upperpart of the chamber.At 19 minutesthe candle on thewindow-board, which had beenburning very dim,went out; at 20 minutesthe temperaturewas qi°, at 22 minutesit was 1040,at 30 minutesthe candle fell downin a meltingstate, the temperaturebeing 11 5°. At 36 minutesRoberts came out of the chamber, having been for the last quarter of an houron a ladderin the upperpart of the chamber,and quiteinvisible from the densityof the smoke.When he cameout he was,as mightbe expected,very hot, and his pulsewas 174, but he did not appearexhausted: he tooksome coffee,and in abouthalf an hourhis pulsehad subsided to itsordinary state. He thusafforded to everyspectator a satisfactory demonstrationof the efficacvof his invention". - Aftersubmitting to thisordeal Robertsreceived his due reward a silvermedal and 50 guineas. It is clear,therefore, that our earlypredecessors expended immense pains as well as largesums of moneyover these trulyremarkable prize competitions.What did theyachieve by them? Lists are, of course,preserved of all the awardswhich were - actuallymade, whichrepresent only a pioportion- but a substantialproportion 27З

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOURNALOF THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS I ITH MARCH1949 ofthose which were offered. Up to theyear 1766 no lessthan £16,625 (a largeamount forthose days) had been expendedin premiums.But whatmatters is the extentof theirinfluence beyond the actualwinners of prizes.A fewclaims can be put forward withconfidence: (1) theyresulted in the reafforestationof very considerable areas of land; (2) theyplayed a predominantpart in the earlierstages of the"agricultural révolution",and were the means of introducingseveral new crops to this country and to the coloniesand of the inventionof new agriculturalimplements; (3) they effectivelyfostered the skillof draughtsmanship; (4) theystimulated the invention of many mechanicaldevices and materiallycontributed to the progressof the IndustrialRevolution.

Awards in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries For ninetyyears the prizecompetitions continued to be the mainfunction of the Society,but as a resultof thegreat changes within the Society duringthe 1840*8 theybegan rapidlyto lose theirpredominance in favourof otheractivities. Awards, however,continued to be made fromtime to time, and since the First World War therehas been a considerablerevival of this old methodof encouragement. In the Competitionof IndustrialDesigns, whichwas held annuallyfrom 1924 to 1933»over £11,000 was awardedin prize money,and undoubtedlythis series,by the publicitywhich it gained,and in otherways, contributed a greatdeal to the revivalof interestin industrialdesign which has takenplace in the last quarterof a century.In the past fewyears a scholarshipcompetition has been held in place of the earliertype of competition,the intentionbeing, by grantinggreater awards to fewercandidates, to concentratethe effectsof the competitionin a few potential -designersof particularpromise. Up to the presentâ further£3,500 has been awarded by way of these bursaries.Another recent revival of the competition methodin the Society has been in connectionwith the Thomas Gray Memorial Trust,the incomeof whichis chieflyexpended in prizesfor navigational inventions and forboys trainingfor the sea. There are threeimportant awards in the Society'sgift which are not so much ^'prizes" as "tributes".These are the AlbertMedal, the SwineyPrize forJuris- prudenceand theR. B. BennettEmpire Prize. The R.D.I. Distinction,which in one sense is a "tribute",as it is onlyconferred on eminentdesigners, is also, likethe old awards, made for purposesof "encouragement",for the intentionis that it shall fosterindustrial design and enhancethe status of designersgenerally. It is clear that Shipley's originalmethod is even yet not altogetheroutmoded, and we may look forwardto manyan interestingand usefulaward still to come.

Exhibitions Earlyin the lectureit was mentionedthat the premiummethod quickly gave rise to othermethods of employingthe Society'sfunds and "encouragingarts, manu- facturesand commerce".The firstof thesewas exhibitions. It is theSociety's proud boast that it not only originated many species of exhibition: it also originatedthe whole genus. The firstmodern exhibition of any kind took place in the year 1760,when an exhibitionot the worksof membersof the Society of Artistswas held in the roomsof the Societyof Arts.It came about in thisway. *74

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I ITH MARCH WILLIAMSHIPLEY AND THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS 1949 > The successfulentries for the Society's awards were exhibitedinformally in the Society'spremises and createdvery great interest. Some artists,noticing what large numbersof people wentto see the drawingssent in forthe competitions,had the idea that people mightgo to see theirown works,and approached the Society of Artsfor its help in arrangingan exhibitionof theirpaintings. The Societyagreed to lend its Great Room, and to organisethe whole thingif the Societyof Artists would producethe exhibits.The exhibitionwas accordinglyheld, and was so great a success thatit was repeatedfor a numberof years.(It will be rememberedthat at the meetingdescribed above arrangementswere being made for the 1764 Exhibition.)Moreover, it led, withineight years,to the foundingof the Royal Academy.The idea of establishinga RoyalAcademy of Artshad longbeen mooted, but no solutionhad been foundto the problemof how to financeit. Here, however, was seen to be the answer.An annualexhibition of thework of artistswas evidently a paying concern and was an appropriateas well as adequate means for the maintenanceof such an institution. A verydifferent kind of exhibitionoriginated by the Societyis the Industrial Exhibition.Like thefirst exhibition of paintings,it arosefrom the Society'soffers of prizes.It soon became apparentthat if usefulnew implementsand machineswere inventedas a result of the Society's scheme, other people must be given an opportunityto see themso thattheir use mightbe encouraged.It thereforebecame the practiceto ask prizewinnersto providemodels (for which the Society paid) and these were collectedin a room knownаз the Repository.It was, of course, more of a museumthan an exhibition,as it was permanentlyopen, but it was in essencethe firstIndustrial Exhibition. A mostinteresting and excellentlyillustrated description of manyof the famous inventionsincluded in this"Repository" was publishedby WilliamBailey, Registrar of the Society,in 1772.This work,which appeals to the mostcasual readerby the beautyof itsengravings, is also ofthe greatest importance to thehistorian as a record of theearly stages in the IndustrialRevolution, and boththe book and thecollection which it describes, made a most significantcontribution to the progressof mechanicaldevelopment.

Fromthe in Machinefor grinding and polishing glass. engravingBailey's Catalogue " ofthe Society's Repository. The collar beam (d) forthe "circumambulating horse is tothe right of the central pivot (c). In theleftforegound is the apparatus for grinding, on theright is thatfor polishing 275

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This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I ITH MARCH1949 WILLIAMSHIPLEY AND THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS Anothermember of the Society'sstaff, a porternamed George Cockings, has also describedsome of these machines,in a "poem" entitled"Arts, Manufacturesand Commerce"which he wroteto celebratehis appointmentto the Society.Let him recountfor us the wondersof one of these inventions,a machinefor grinding and polishingglass : "On Principlesof Skill(well understood) Withplain intelligible Aptitude, To polishGlass, a newMachine comes forth, (Whosefuture Trials may proclaim its Worth;) 'Tis work'dby windyPow'r, or watryForce, Or by a circumambulatingHorse : Two differentWays the Crank, the Runner guides, As o'er a subjectPlate it gentlyglides ; By otherCranks, some Polishers are made At firstťadvance, and thenturn retrograde ; And as theyo'er theSpheres, and Basonspass, Polishthe convex, and theconcave Glass." AlthoughGeorge Cockings may cause us to laughat thisquaint and cumbrousold pieceof machinery(or is it mainlyat his quaintand cumbrousverse ?), we mustnot forgetthat at leastone machine of this design was actually made and putinto operation in London,and thatit came intoexistence because the Society,having learned that the processof polishingglass had been mechanisedon the Continent,with great economic benefit,had taken deliberatesteps, by repeatedoffers of a premium,to encouragea similardevelopment in this country.(We foundit, for example, in the list for 1764.) In doing so they added anothersmall quantityof momentumto the wholemechanising movement of industry. - The originationof a thirdtype of exhibition- the internationalexhibition is probablythe most celebratedsingle achievement of the Society.It is importantto note that the Society did not originatethe idea of internationalexhibitions; the Frenchdid thatin the late i83o's. But it did originatethe firstone ever actually held- the GreatExhibition of 1851. Let thestory of how it came aboutbe toldfrom a contempoaryrecord, in the formof extractsfrom an accountprepared by Scott Russell,the then Secretaryof the Society,by commandof Prince Albert: "The earliestsuggestion of formingin Englandgreat Periodical Exhibitions of the Productsof Industry,in connectionwith the Societyfor Encouragement of Artsand Manufactures,was made by His Royal Highness PrinceAlbert, the President,to someof the membersof the Society,in 1845. "The Englishpeople were then very imperfectly acquainted with the value of such Exhibitions- their influence on the characteras well as the commerceof the nation. They requiredto be educatedfor this object,and educationhad to be provided. Premiumsfor Worksof IndustrialArt and Exhibitionson a comparativelysmall scale,were accordingly instituted for this purpose. The progress,however, of public informationand opinionwas slow.So littlehad taste and talent then taken this direction, thatin 1846hardly any competitors came forward, and it was withdifficulty the judges couldfind subjects worth v of reward. "Beforethe Distributionof Premiumsin June,1846, His Royal HighnessPrince Albertstrongly urged on a Deputationwho waitedon him the necessityof further exertionsin thisdirection; observing that the Manufacturesof England,excelling in solidityand excellence,were outdone in beautyof designby thoseof otherCountries. Z77

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOURNALOF THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS I ITH MARCH1949 His RoyalHighness indicated the subjectsfor which encouragements should be held out. Accordinglya new and enlargedseries of Prizeswere issued,and preparations madefor an enlargedcompetition and exhibitionin 1847.

The Felix Summerlytea pot , partof a Mintotiservice designed by Henry Cole , whichwas awardeda silvermedal in the Society*s competition of 1846, and includedin the1847 exhibition . Although ornate to moderneyes , it is infact much lessso thanthe contemporary fashion and it exertedconsiderable influence in the directionof simplification

"This Exhibition- thefirst of any magnitude - tookplace in theHouse ofthe Society, in March, 1847. The resultwas triumphant.Twenty thousand people visitedthe Exhibition.The lessonwas given.The Manufacturersfound that 20,000 customers had seen theirwares, and had learnedto selectgood frombad." (Then followsa briefaccount of the even more successfulexhibitions of 1848 and 1849.) "It was obvious",continues Scott Russell, "during the progress of these Exhibitions, thatthe public mind was graduallybecoming better informed on thenature and effects ofgreat Public Exhibitions of Industrial Art; and at theend of the Session, in June, 1849, everythingseemed ripe for carrying into effect the plan of His RoyalHighness for a greatNational Exhibition. "It was in June,1849, that Mr. ScottRussell ventured first to submitto His Royal HighnessPrince Albert, and thento statepublicly at theAnnual Distribution of Prizes, that the time seemed to have arrivedwhen it was possible to carrythe original suggestionof His RoyalHighness into effect, with good groundsfor the expectation of success. "Soon afterthis, His RoyalHighness Prince Albert commanded the attendanceof Mr. Scott Russellat BuckinghamPalace, on the subjectof the proposedPeriodical Exhibition.The Princedesired him to stateat lengthhis reasonsfor having said that thewishes of His RoyalHighness had nowa fairchance of being successfully carried out. "On the 30th of June,1849, Mr. Cole and Mr. Fuller,with Mr. Scott Russell, attended by His Royal Highness's command at BuckinghamPalace, when Mr. Thomas Cubittwas summonedto meetthem. It was at this Meetingthat His Royal Highnesscommunicated his views fullyregarding the formationof a Great Collectionof Worksof Industryand Art in London in 1851, for the purposesof Exhibition,and of competitionand encouragement". 278

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I ITH MARCH1949 WILLIAMSHIPLEY AND THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS The minutesof this historic conference are happilyin thepossession of the Society, and they include the followingall-important paragraph drafted in the Prince's own hand: "It was a questionwhether this Exhibition should be exclusivelylimited to British Industry.It was consideredthat, whilst it appearsan errorto fixany limitation to the productionsof Machinery,Science and Taste, whichare of no country,but belong, as a whole,to the civilisedworld, particular advantage to BritishIndustry might be derivedfrom placing it in faircompetition with that of other Nations." Thus was this great exhibitionborn - within this Society. Its subsequent organisationwas placed (as the resultof the Society'srepresentations through the Prince Consort)in the hands of a Royal Commission,but as it contributedthe Presidentof the Commission,one of the two JointSecretaries, and severalother office-bearers,its influence,though not its officialresponsibility, remained. Severalother points of interestemerge from this story. First, that on itsway to the originationof the firstinternational exhibition the Societyof Arts held the first exhibitionsof industrial design ; second,that this series of exhibitions, like the earlier ones, had its rootsin prize competitions; third, that small exhibitionscan have big results.

Exhibitionof British Art in Industry, 1935 - CeramicsRoom

Exhibitions,large and small, played an importantpart in the Society's history duringthe latter half of the century, and, conversely, the Society played an important partin a greatmany of the exhibitions held duringthat period. Generally speaking, 279

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOURNALOF THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS I ITH MARCH1949 however,it may be said that,in keepingwith its history,it has mainlybeen in new formsof exhibitionthat the Societyhas been interested.Thus in 1852 it held the firstpublic exhibitionof photographyand in 1854 the firsteducational exhibition. In morerecent times, the Exhibitionof BritishArt in Industry,organised by the Societyin 1935 in conjunctionwith the Royal Academy, besides having many otherimportant results, such as the foundingof the Facultyof Royal Designers for Industry,established the principleof reservingto the promoterscomplete control over the selection of goods for exhibition. It is upon this principle thatsubsequent design exhibitions, such as Britaincan Make it, have been based and the exhibitionsfor the Festival of Britain 1951 are being planned. The Design at WorkExhibition, sponsored last year by the Societyin conjunction withthe Council of IndustrialDesign, was the firstcollective exhibition of the work of Royal Designersfor Industry.

Lectures and Publications Let us now considera thirdbranch of the Society's activities- its use of the spoken and writtenword. To begin with,the Societywas in no sense a learned society.It came intoexistence to do things.But it was notlong before it was realised that words were an essentialcomplement to deeds. It was all very well to give FarmerX. a medal or a sum of moneyfor a piece of agriculturaladvance carried out by him in his fields,but unless otherpeople heardabout it and copied it, the moneywas virtuallywasted. Yet littlewas done fornearly twenty years to spreadthe invaluableinformation which all the premiumwork brought in. By the unofficial actionof some individual members of the Society, notably Robert Dossie, spasmodic attemptswere made to publishsome of thismaterial, but fora long timethe only methodof gettinga copy of the importantcommunications made to the Society was to pay the AssistantSecretary (with the consentof the Society)twopence per 100 wordsto writeit out by hand! And this,in spiteof the factthat most premium lists(like the one for1764 alreadyquoted) specificallyasked forreports to be sent in by candidatesfor certain classes of premiums.It was onlyin 1783 thatthe first volume of the Transactionsappeared, and these were only published annually, and at even less frequentintervals after 1830. Truly,publicity has not alwaysbeen the Society'sfortel The Transactions, which thus originatedfrom the premiumcompetitions, were likewise largelyconfined in theircontents to thepublication of their results. Though, thereforejthçycontain much of value, their interest decreased with the decline of the premiumsystem ; and when,after the institution of a Councilto conduct the Society's affairs,the natureof the weeklymeetings changed and time became availablefor the readingof papersand the deliveryof lectureswhich had nothingto do withthe offerof premiums,an entirelynew typeof publicationwas called for.An additional circumstance broughtthe matterto a head. As has been mentionedalready, the Societyformed a Unionof Institutions,and one of theservices which it was desired to make available to its memberswas informationregarding the papers which were beingcontributed to thepresiding Society. It was primarilyto supplythis need thatthe Journal was startedin 1852,and, appearingevery Friday, it containeda full 280

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I ITH MARCH1949 WILLIAMSHIPLEY AND THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS reportof the meeting or meetingsof the week. Because information for the associated institutionswas so materiala factor,the originaltitle of the publicationwas The Journalof the Society of Arts and ofthe Institutions in Union. Soon theJournal will be celebratingits centenary,and the present issue is numbered4786 - no mean recordof publication. Of itscontents it is quite impossibleto beginto speak- ofthe range of the topics, the fameof manyof the contributors,and the practicaleffects which they achieved. This series of ninety-sevenvolumes must surely form a recordquite unequalled in its authoritativenessand scope, of progressin almostevery field of human activity. They contain the firstannouncement of many importantinventions - notablysome of Marconi's- and theirinfluence has gone out to the ends of the earth.A remarkableexample of the far-reachingeffects which a singlepaper can have is the lecturedelivered by the late Sir AlbertHoward in 1935 on the Indore processof humus manufactureand duly publishedin the Journal. Copies of this paper are stillapplied forfrom all partsof the worldby people who intendto put its principlesinto practice,and althoughsome aspects of the lecturemay be a matterof controversy,it cannot be questionedthat throughthe improvedsoil fertilityto whichthis lecture has led in so manyplaces it has directlyresulted in the productionof greatadditional quantities of betterquality food of manykinds. Here is Shipley'sprinciple still at work,though in a differentway. Throughthe trifling expenditureconnected with the holdingof a singlemeeting and the publicationof one issue of theJournal , vast resultshave been achieved. In concludingour considerationof this importantaspect of the Society'swork, referencemust be made to themanner in whichthe effectof its meetingsis often greatlymultiplied through the co-operation of the Press. The deliveryof a paperbefore an importantSociety such as thisgives it a "news value" whichits mere publication in ajournai would not achieve.Much of the mostvaluable information imparted to the Societyis, therefore,through the general and trade Press, passed on very rapidlyto an extremelywide audience.

Projects The remainingform of activitywhich must be dealt within this briefsurvey is whatmay perhaps be describedas "projects".As an independentbody the Society has, fromtime to time,used its fundsand organisationfor various undertakings in thepublic service. These haveusually been pioneering efforts of differing kinds which have not been continuedpermanently by the Society* Here again it is easy to trace things back to the premium method. It was only a step from publicly offeringa prize forthe completionof some task to commissioninga particularindividual to carryit out. The firstcase of thiskind arose in connectionwith the supplyof fishto London, whichat thattime was mostunsatisfactory. A certainCaptain Blake approached the Societyin 1761 witha schemefor bringing fish up fromthe portsby road,and his proposal was taken up with enthusiasmby the Society. Prizes were offeredfor designsfor the specialvehicles which would be required,and whenthese had been obtainedand thevehicles were made, Blake was commissionedto organisethe whole scheme. He undoubtedlyachieved considerableresults, assisted by the action of 281

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOURNALOF THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS I ITH MARCH1949 Parliamentin securing,at therequest of the Society, the lowering of turnpike charges on the routeswhich he used. The Societywas not, however,prepared to go on financinghim permanently, but it did not giveup its partin his schemeuntil it had expendedover £3,500 upon it. A verynotable project undertaken hy the Societylast centurywas the establish- ment of the National Training School for Music. The planningof the school and the raising of funds wherewithto endow with scholarshipsall the first studentsoccupied most of the energiesof the Societyfor a period of years.The Society'sconnection with the school,orice it was established(in 1876), lasted for only a few years,as the school was reconstitutedin 1882 as the Royal College of Music. But the resultof its laboursremains. A comparativelyrecent endeavour of theSociety was theraising of a Fund in 1927 forthe Preservationof AncientCottages. The Societyhad noted thatwhile much was being done forthe preservationof larger and more historicbuildings, no provisionwas beingmade, on a nationalscale, for the preservation of ancient cottages

Themain street of West Wycombe , looking west . The house against which a ladderis leaning nowbears a signcommemorating thepart played by the Royal Society of Arts

- one of the richestheritages of our countrysidewhich was rapidlybeing whittled away. A substantialfund was raisedin responseto the Society'sappeal, and by its means the whole village of West Wycombe,and the famousArlington Row in the Cotswolds, were reconditioned,and ultimatelymade over, in a thoroughly habitableas wellas beautifulcondition, to theNational Trust. As withother projects, theSociety did notcontinue this work indefinitely, but it did enough,in a sufficiently 282

This content downloaded from 130.113.111.210 on Mon, 11 Jan 2016 14:00:28 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I ITH MARCH1949 WILLIAMSHIPLEY AND THE ROYALSOCIETY OF ARTS spectacularfashion, to draw the nation'sattention to the problem,and the effects wentfar beyond West Wycombeand Bibury. The greatestof all the Society'sprojects, and theonly one whichit has continued permanently,is its commercialexaminations. These were startedin quite a small wayin 1852in connectionwith the Union of Institutions.It was feltthat some form of examinationheld locallyand offeringpapers in singlesubjects would be a great encouragementto serious spare-timestudy by the members(who were mainly "artisans"). For some twentyyears the examinationscontinued largely to be conductedin connectionwith the Union, but as time wenton therewas a wider demandfor them, and arrangementswere made forentry to be thrownopen to all candidates. The two basic principles, however, were maintained, that the examinationsshould be held at local centresand in singlesubjects. For a considerabletime the examinationscovered a verywide rangeof subjects, includingtechnology, drawing and music, as well as the more strictlyclassroom subjects.The bias was, however,always more particularly towards what are known as commercialsubjects, and it was around this group that our systemfinally crystallised.In the course of the presentcentury the numberof candidateshas increasedenormously. In the year 1900 therewere less than 10,000papers worked; in the year 1948 therewere nearly 118,000. The recentgreat changes in the whole fieldof educationhave not so far affectedthe demandfor - and by inference,the usefulnessof - the Society'sexaminations. In fact,the main anxiety at presentof the staffof the ExaminationsDepartment is lest theybe called on to undertakefresh commitmentsbefore several new typesof examinationinaugurated since the war are "run in" and workingsmoothly. But such a stateof thingsis what we desire above all things,for the Societystands or falls by its potentialityfor usefulness.

Conclusion Two hundredyears ago WilliamShipley was alreadycogitating the scheme which subsequentlygave rise to this Society,and we are now beginningto plan the cele- brationof the bi-centenary of its foundation. Why has theSociety gone on forso long and been so successfuland useful? I would suggest three main reasons: first, becauseit is based on a generalprinciple of publicservice and has no particularaxe to grind.It thusappeals to public-spiritedmen in all walksof life,and of all political and religiouscreeds. Secondly,because its purposeis essentiallypractical. All the time the promptingthought has been "What can usefullybe done now?" and if some usefuljob, withinthe Society'spowers and outsidethe scope of otherbodies, has presenteditself, the Societyhas been ready to take it on. Thirdly,because the Societyhas on so manyoccasions been fortunatein its leaders. On that has dependedits successall the way through. Happily,all these threefactors are persistentqualities whicK we can hope will surviveeven in the verychanged conditions of the presenttime: a broad basis of interest,practical willingness to do a job, and able leaders whom these firsttwo factorsattract and inspire.We may,therefore, look forwardwith confidence to a futureas fullof interest,adventure and usefulnessas the past has been- and still derivingultimately from the idea whichcame to WilliamShipley at the horsefair of Northampton. 283

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