Durham E-Theses
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
Durham E-Theses The development of the teaching of chemistry in England, 1799-1853 Byrne, Michael S. How to cite: Byrne, Michael S. (1968) The development of the teaching of chemistry in England, 1799-1853, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9867/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk ABSTBACT OP THESIS THE DEVEL0PI4iSi\'T OF THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTHY IN* BiJGLAWDj 1799-1853 o The thesis traces the developnent of chemistiy^ teaching in England set against the scientific and educational development of the period» At the end of the eighteenth centuiy, chemistzy was little studied and then only as an adjunct to other professional studieso Chemistry as a profession did not exist and there were no laboratories in which a student could receive a practical training. The year 1799 marks the founding of the Royal Institution and from this time there was a considerable increase in the teaching of chemistry9 partly as a result of the general educational progress which occurred during the first half of the nineteenth century* The mechanics' institute movement enabled many to acquire a more scientific approach to their trade and the new institutions of higher learning^ such as those at London, Manchester and Durham, early recognised the desirability of teaching chemistry and provided facilities for study to many who had for religious or financial reasons been excluded from Oxford and Cambridge. At the same time the teaching methods developed in Gennany, and the success with which chemistry was being applied to agriculture caused great interest in England. Ultimately the wider knowledge of chemistry was reflected in its gradual introduction into schools. The lack of both governmental assistance and of an efficient central organisation for science j hampered the growth of chemistry teaching, but by 1855» THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY IN ENGLAND, 1799-1853 BY MICHAEL S. BYRNE. A THESIS PRESENTED FOR THE DEGREE OF M.A. IN THE UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM APRIL, 1968. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior wrinen consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I should like to thank my supervisor. Dr. D.M. Kni^t Lecturer in the History of Science at the University of D\xrhsm for his assistance in the preparation of this thesis. CON TENTS Page INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I CHEMISTRY AND EDUCATION AT THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 1. The State of Chemistry. 2. The State of Chemistiy Teaching. 3. Scientific Publications. 4> Scientific Societies. CHAPTER II THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY TO THE WORKING CLASSES 8 1. The Early History of the Royal Institution. 2. The Ifechanics' Institute Movement. CHAPTER III CHEMISTRY TEMPING AT THE ANCIENT 24 UNIVERSITIES 1. The Ancient Universities in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century. 2. Chemistxy Teaching at Oxford. 3. Chemistzy Teaching at Cambridge* 37 CHAPTER IV CHEMISTRY TEACHING IN LONDON 1. London University. 2. King's College. 3» The Royal Institution. CHAPTER V CHEMISTRY TEACHING IN THE PEJOVINCES. 63 1. Durham University and the Teaching of Chemistry. 2. The Development of Chemistry Teaching in Manchester. Page CMFTER VI THE EEVELOPMENT OF UBOR&a'ORr INSTRUCTION IN CHEMISTRr 78 1. The Early History of Laboratory Instruction in Chemistry o 2« Kfedical and Pharmaceutical Education. 3. The Royal College of Chemistry. CHAi=TER VII STm: AID FOR SCIENCE 106 1. The Factors leading to the Government School of Mines and of Science applied to the Arts. 2. The Influence of the Great Exhibition of 1851. CHAPTER VIII THE REFORM OF SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC INSTnUTIONS 124 CHAPTER a THE TEAOilNG OF CHEMISTRI IN SECONDMOT SCHOOLS 147 CONaUSION 157 APfENDU I REFEEiENCES BIBLIOGRAFHI INTRODUCTION The subject of chemistry now foms an important part of secon• dary, further and higher education. It owes its position in the educational system to a general recognition of its value as an in• strument of education and its importance in a modem industrialised society. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the pro• fession of chemistry did not exist and the degree to which it was taught was minimal. This thesis constitutes an attempt to dis• cover the ways in which chemistry became a piart of English educa• tion and to what extent this had been accomplished by the mid- nineteenth century. It has been attempted to set the developments against the background of general scientific and educational progress, and to indicate how the organisation of science in England, and Britain's advanced industrial position affected the development of chenistry teaching. The thesis begins with a consideration of the state of chemistry and its teaching at the end of the eighteenth cent\uy. Subsequently the development of chemistzy teaching in mechanics' institutes, viniversities, scientific societies, and schools is dealt with. An attempt has been made to discover the nature of the chemistry taught and the teaching techniques through a study of the published work of the period. A particularly interesting aspect of the study has been the development of laboratory teaching and the continental influences which made this possible. The extent to which a practical training had become available by 1853 shows that chemical educa• tion had its roots in the first half of the nineteenth century. It is hoped therefore that this study of the period reveals some• thing of the origins of chemistry teaching in England. • CHAPTER I. CHEMISTRY AND EDUCATION AT THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. -1 - 1. THE STATE OF CHEMISTHT. In 1789, the French chemist Lavoisier published his Traite elementaire de Chimie. This book popularised Lavoisier's dis• coveries which showed the true natiore of burning, and led to the downfall of the phlogiston theory. These discoveries were the beginning of the development of modem chemistry. The book was translated into English in 1790. (1) The closing years of the eighteenth century were therefore mainly concerned with the diffusion of Lavoisier's researches which paved the way for the great advances of the nineteenth century. Consequently, this period saw no major advance in the progress of chemistry. (2) The English scientist of the ei^teenth century was usually neither a specialist nor a professional. That is to say his con• tributions usxially ranged over a wide field, and that his scientific studies were independent of his occupation. It has been estjjnated that of 106 leading scientists of the century some 40-50 can be classified as amateurs or devotees* The three leading professions represented among the 106 scientists are medicine, technology and the Church and the percentage from each are 20, 15 and 10% res• pectively. (3) For example, Joseph Priestley (1733-1804), one of the most famous of English chemists had studied for the Unitarian ministry during which time he learnt Greek, Hebrew and Latin as well as undergoing a rigorous theological training. He became a tutor at the Acadeny at Warrington and later held several ministries. At - 2 - the time he began his researches his only knowledge of chemistry " was that viiich he had acquired from seme lectures given by a Dr. Turner of Liverpool. During his life he wrote on politics and theology and carried on his scientific work throvigh gifts of apparatus and mon^ frcm such fUends as Josiah Wedgewood and the Earl of Shelburne. (4) Priestley's works included his History of Electricity published in 1767» and his Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air. (3 vols., London, 1774-1777). Similarly Heniy Cavendish, the wealthy but eccentric scientist who had a formal education at Cambridge before devoting himself to science, had no training in science other than in mathematics, but nevertheless made important contributions to chemistzy, heat and electricity. (5) Such men were typical of the English scientists of their time. 2. THE STATE OF CHEMISTRY TEACHING. The origins of chemistry teaching were as a part of medical studies. In the eighteenth century the great source of instruction in the British Isles was the Uziiversity of Edinbvirgh where medicine, chemistzy, materia medica and botory were subjects of study. Joseph Black was appointed to the chair of chemistry in 1766 in which he remained until his death in 1799• His influence vpon the teaching of chemistry is said to be greater than that of any other teacher in the eighteenth century. (6) - 3 - At Oxford, althou^ the first chemistry laboratory had been opened in 1683, little of note had been accomplished with regard to teaching or research, and we get a glimpse of things in 1710 from the remarks of Uffenbach, a German traveller, v4io wrote: "The present Professor of Chemistry, Richard Frewin does not trouble much about it..." (7) Martin Wall who was appointed Public Reader in Chemistry in 1782 gave a course of lectures which were similar to those given by Black. His audience was 14 or 15 and even less than this by the end of the course.