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First Ladies and American Women: Representation in the Modern Presidency

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First Ladies and American Women: Representation in the Modern Presidency First Ladies and American Women: Representation in the Modern Presidency Jill Abraham Hummer Winchester. Virginia Master of Arts. University of Virginia. 2003 Bachelor of Arts, Allegheny College. 2000 A Dissertation presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Politics University of Virginia May 2007 11 -Abstract- This dissertation examines the American First Ladies' performanceas a representative from 1920 through the present. I argue that representing women has been one oftheir most important representative tasks. This project applies Hanna Fenichel Pitkin's concepts of representation to reach new conclusions about First Ladies' contributions to the presidency. Drawing on presidency research, as well as women and politics and gender studies literature, this project posits a developmental theory concerning the origin and evolution oftheir representative roles. The implications of their women-focused political representation are analyzed through the concepts oftransgendering and : -i regendering. First Ladies' performanceas a representative has been expressed through several concrete roles. Chapter One examines the work of candidates' wives in reaching out to women voters. Chapter Two focuseson First Ladies acting for women as public liaisons. Chapter Three considers First Ladies' attempts to integrate women into national economic policy and programs through their roles as homemakers and consumers. Chapter Four evaluates First Ladies' lobbying and educative effortson behalf of the Equal Rights Amendment. And Chapter Five analyzes First Ladies' performanceas public diplomats to women abroad. Evidentiary support for this dissertation comes mainly fromprimary source materials contained within presidential library archives around the country. 111 -Table of Contents- Acknowledgments................................................. iv Introduction....................................................... 1 Chapter One: Candidates' Wives and Women Voters .................................51 Chapter Two: The First Liaison: Maintaining White House Ties to Women............... 13 7 Chapter Three: First Housewives and the 'Domestic' Economy. .. .. .. 219 Chapter Four: First Ladies and the Fight forthe Equal Rights Amendment............... 264 Chapter Five: Representing Women Abroad: First Ladies and Public Diplomacy.......... 332 Conclusion: "Abolish Her"? Representation versus Regendering...................... 369 IV -Acknowledgments- I am indebted to numerous individuals and institutions forthe invaluable support they lent to this project. My parents, Tom and Linda Abraham, gave me my education. Without their generosity and provision, this project would truly not have been possible. I am grateful formy husband, Josh Hummer, and forhis loving patience and encouragement fromthe beginning to end of this project. Though we were married last May, I am looking most forward to having this dissertation behind us so that we can finally start our life together. My dissertation committee deserves much credit formoving this project to completion. Steven Rhoads, Professorof Government, University of Virginia, graciously and willing assumed the chairmanship of this committee. I am indebted to him for being such an attentive and responsible advisor. James Sterling Young, Professor Emeritus of Government, University of Virginia, served as a mentor for this project and throughout all my years as a graduate student. I am indebted to Professor Young forgiving me the opportunity to work forthe Miller Center of Public Affairs' Presidential Oral History Program, my most positive and valuable experience during my graduate years. Holly Shulman, Research Associate Professor of Studies in Women and Gender, University of Virginia, has been a very conscientious and dependable advisor. I am indebted to her forhelping to shape this project from a historian's perspective. MaryAnne Borrelli, Associate Professorof Government, Connecticut College, has gone above and beyond the call of duty in mentoring this project. Her work has been instrumental in shaping V my own, and her kindly attention and carefulfeedback have been invaluable. Additionally, Herman Schwartz, Graduate Director for the University of Virginia's Department of Politics, was very helpfulin managing the logistics of the dissertation process from beginning to end. I am indebted to the following institutes that provided fundingin the form of travel grants to support this project: the Gerald R. Ford Foundation, Herbert Hoover Travel Grant Program, Lyndon Baines Johnson Foundation, John F. Kennedy Library Foundation, Harry S. Truman Library Institute, Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute, and the White House Historical Association. The National Archives and Records Administration's presidential library system provided vast and rich resources for this project. I am indebted to the library archivists who greatly helped me navigate my way through the materials. I am grateful to the current and former University of Virginia graduate students forthe advice and camaraderie they provided. Finally, thank you to family and friendswho have prayed forthis project's progression and formy safetyin researchtravels. God has been completely faithfulin answering. Soli Deo Gloria. Jill Abraham Hummer Winchester, Virginia May 2007 1 -Introduction- In the days followingthe September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, Laura Bush delivered the presidential radio address in its entirety. Her remarks signaled the beginning of what would become a major part of her work as First Lady: the fight for global women's rights as part of the broader war on terrorism. She remarked, "Afghan women know, through hard experience, what the rest of the world is discovering: The brutal oppression of women is a central goal of 1 terrorists." She concluded her remarks with a challenge to the American people to join her in helping to advance the dignity and opportunity of women in Afghanistan. In November of 1977, during the height of the debate over the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), three First Ladies-Rosalynn Carter, Betty Ford, and Lady Bird Johnson-were the featuredparticipants at the National Woman's Conferencein Houston, Texas. According to Mrs. Carter, the significance of the three First Ladies appearing on the same platform together at the conference, along with the best known feministleaders, was "to affirmthe continuity in our 2 government's effortsto improve life for all." During the 1970s, First Ladies lobbied hard for the ERA, though this controversial constitutional amendment ultimately failed to pass. 1 Radio Address by Mrs. Bush, November 17, 2001, <http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases /2001/11/20011117.html> (3/9/2006). 2 Press Release, Office of the First Lady's Press Secretary, "Rosalynn Carter's Remarks at the National Women's Conference," November 19, 1977, "National Women's Conference in Houston, TX" folder, Box 3, Mary Finch Hoyt Papers, Carter Library. 2 In 1953, a US. News and World Report article entitled "Mamie Works Hard for Ike: Teas, Receptions, Handshakes" reported that Mrs. Eisenhower daily received and shook hands with 600 to 700 people, mainly women, during the Washington, D.C. social season.3 And throughout the Roosevelt Administration, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt worked hard within the patronage system to secure for femaleDemocratic Party workers appointments within the federal government. All of these examples point to a political relationship that has existed between First Ladies and American women. This project argues that representing women has been one of the First Lady's most important tasks. In exploring the First Lady's female-centered representative role, this project seeks to answer the followingquestions: What differencedoes it make that First Ladies have represented women, their issues and interests within the U.S. presidency? Does the First Lady undertaking this representative role relegate women to the status of second-class constituents of the presidency? Has the First Lady actually advanced women's progress, or has the First Lady's representative work further solidified traditional gender stereotypes? Though the First Lady's role as a women-focusedpolitical representative has gone relatively unexplored by the current literature, it is well established that First Ladies have historically engaged in general political activity. One very prominent example of a First Lady engaging in political activity is Edith Wilson's alleged assumption of President Woodrow Wilson's responsibilities after he had 3 U.S. News and World Report, 9/21/1953, "Eisenhower, Mamie 1942-1969," Vertical File, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library. 3 fallen ill because of a stroke. A great deal of criticism was directed at Mrs. Wilson after people began accusing her of making important governmentaldecisions and signing her name to presidential documents. One U.S. senator even charged that the country was operating under a "petticoat government."4 While this statement questions the legitimacy of the First Lady's political actions, it also points to the underlying gendered character of the presidential branch, which is the starting point of this analysis. Woodrow Wilson's presidency coincided with the height of the women's suffrage movement. The Nineteenth Amendment was added to the U.S. Constitution in 1920, during the last fullyear of Wilson's presidency. Beforethis time, national politics was a very masculine domain, as the national government guaranteed
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