Hybrid Electric Vehicles for Sustainable Transportation: a Canadian Perspective

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Hybrid Electric Vehicles for Sustainable Transportation: A Canadian Perspective

Mariam Khan1 and Narayan C. Kar2

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Windsor Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract The demand for gasoline in Canada, especially by light-duty vehicles, continues to increase with economic growth and development. Fossil fuel driven vehicles are not only creating financial strain due to fluctuating gas prices but are also polluting the environment and posing health risks to the community. In an effort to promote public awareness, this paper reviews hybrid vehicle technology as a logical step towards sustainable, efficient and environment friendly transportation and discusses the measures taken by the Canadian government to encourage hybrid vehicle sales and to minimize fossil fuel dependency of the transportation sector.

Keywords: Canada, environment, hybrid electric vehicles, policies

shift Canada’s transportation industry to sustain- 1 Introduction able, environment-friendly alternatives and to re- With increasing awareness towards economic view the current hybrid technology as an efficient and environmental concerns associated with fuel solution available to Canadian vehicle owners. The combustion in automobiles, the world is focusing policies, programs and incentives taken by the fed- towards the development of sustainable tech- eral and provincial governments to promote sus- nologies. The transportation sector is one of the tainable transportation and to encourage the public highest consumers of fossil fuels and the largest to adopt this green technology are also discussed in contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions detail. in Canada with gasoline sales constituting 40% of the country’s total domestic petroleum sales 2 Economic and Environmental [1]. This oil dependency, particularly light-duty vehicles, is responsible for a quarter of the total Impacts of Fossil Fuel Based GHG emissions in the country and has become a Vehicles source of economic stress with rising oil prices [2]. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) offer a fuel- 2.1 Increasing trends of global fuel prices efficient solution that combines an electric motor and CO2 emissions based drivetrain with the conventional internal Growth in on-road transportation is closely associ- combustion engine (ICE) to reduce fuel con- ated with the development of the global economy. sumption and vehicle emissions [3]-[5]. These Due to present worldwide trends in population in- HEV benefits have prompted the automakers to crease, expansion in international trade and eco- develop hybrid vehicles, most of which are avail- nomic development, the demand for heavy and able in Canada today. However consumer accep- light duty vehicles is on the rise. With close to 600 tance to hybrid vehicles remains low, mostly due million vehicles on road today, over the next forty to public unawareness of the performance and re- years, 800 million more people are expected to liability of HEV technology as well as the high own cars around the world. In 2002, light-duty ve- initial cost of hybrid cars. This paper attempts to hicles alone accounted for 23% of the total 77 mil- raise public understanding of the growing need to lion barrels of oil consumed per day in the world,

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and is expected to go as high as 32 million bar- assessment by World Health Organization states that rels per day by 2030 [6], making them one of the more than 2 million premature deaths occur due to major users of energy. This absolute dependence air pollution [7]. Owing to its adverse impact on of on-road transportation on the unsustainable re- the global economy and environment, and the pos- source of fossil fuels is beginning to raise serious sibility of complete exhaustion of reserves, use of concerns. With the current growth in industrial petroleum based vehicles is raising concern and is developments and transportation demands, espe- driving the research and industry sectors to look cially in developing countries, the finite fuel re- for alternative solutions. serves are depleting at an alarming rate and will one day run out. Another cause of concern is the 2.2 Effect of growth in light duty vehi- soaring gas prices that have increased exponen- cle transportation in Canada tially over the last few years due to rapid indus- Canada spreads over 9,984,670 km2, making it the trialization of growing economies, depletion of world’s second largest country by total area with a fuel reserves, political factors and speculations. population of 33.5 million. Canada's road network This high fuel cost not only influences the direct spans more than 1.4 million km over its ten prov- expense on transportation but also has a cascad- inces and three territories. It is home to the 7th ing effect on prices of all other commodities and largest auto industry in the world that employs services, creating stress on the economy. well over half a million people associated with Another hazard of fossil fuel combustion in vehi- automotive assembly, component manufacturing, cles is the expulsion of harmful emissions includ- distribution and aftermarket sales and services. ing carbon dioxide (CO ), nitrogen oxides (NO ), 2 x The industry produces about 2.7 million vehicles carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocar- every year and is a major contributor to the Cana- bons. Emission levels of CO , the principle 2 dian economy with a share of nearly 13% of its GHG, have steadily escalated corresponding to current manufacturing GDP of 176 billion dollars. the increasing fuel consumption particularly in In the midst of its progressive expansion in inter- the transportation sector. Figure 1 shows the national trade, economic development and popula- trend of worldwide CO emissions in the past 3 2 tion growth, the country is now facing a sharp rise decades. Although the emission trends of major in the demand for on-road transportation, particu- contributing countries do not show a drastic in- larly light-duty vehicles. In 2007, 1.6 million light- crease, the steady rise of CO is explained by the 2 duty vehicles were sold in Canada, increasing the industrialization of emerging economies. total number of light-duty vehicle registrations to The emissions and pollutants from fuel combus- more than 19 million from 16.8 million in 2000 as tion are not only considered responsible for cli- demonstrated in Fig. 2(a) [8]. Although this drastic mate change, but also degrade air quality that in growth in the transport sector is an indicator of a turn has a far reaching impact on human health. thriving economy, it has also grown to become the Air pollution is linked to cardiovascular and res- largest consumer of petroleum. The number of ve- piratory diseases and is a major environment- hicles on road today, though higher than ever be- related health threat especially to children. An fore, cannot be blamed entirely on high fuel consumption by the country’s transport sector. Can- + %& ada’s vast road network compels people to travel * ! %$ longer distances between its widespread cities. Ac- ) cording to Canada Vehicle Survey, light-duty ve- &

, ( hicles travelled close to 300 billion kilometres in

2007. As a result, motor gasoline sales have

' reached 42 billion litres [1] that constitutes 41% of ( & the country’s total domestic petroleum sales as % & shown in Fig. 2(b). Weather conditions in Canada ! also influence the amount of fuel consumption in

$ $ & automobiles. While the coastal regions enjoy milder temperatures, most parts of the country, particularly the interior and Prairie provinces, experience harsh winters forcing vehicle engines to burn more gas. Thus, due to the growth in the Ca- Figure 1: Worldwide CO2 emission from petroleum nadian transport sector and the vast and diverse consumption. geography along with long distances and harsh

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(a) (b) Figure 2: Growth in transport sector in Canada. (a) Light-duty vehicle registrations. (b) Motor gasoline sales and vehicle kilometres.

Table 1: Status of Canada’s oil reserve as of 2007. ences the expenditure on transportation, produc- Reserves Production Country ing financial strain on vehicle owners, but also (billion bbl) (million bbl/d) has a cascading effect on the prices of all other Saudi Arabia 262 10.7 commodities and services, creating economic Canada 179 3.3 stress and financial uncertainties. Iran 136 4.1 Iraq 115 2 2.2.2 Degradation of air quality due to ve- Kuwait 102 2.7 hicular emissions UAE 98 2.9 Venezuela 80 2.9 An equally alarming consequence of petroleum Russia 60 9.7 combustion in the transportation sector is the Libya 42 1.8 emission of CO2, and toxic pollutants including Nigeria 36 2.4 CO, NOx, hydrocarbons and particulate matter that are known to produce adverse health effects. Canada is amongst the ten highest CO2 produc- weather, the transportation sector draws the larg- ing nations in the world with a per capita emis- est share of oil, making per capita fuel consump- sion close to 22 tonnes. tion in Canada higher than most industrialized In an effort to reduce these emissions, Canada is nations. systematically replacing coal based electricity generation with hydro and nuclear power plants. 2.2.1 Economic impact of fossil fuel based However, rapidly increasing methods of passen- transportation ger transportation and consumer trends shifting With the world’s second largest oil reserves of towards minivans, sport utility vehicles and small 179 billion bbl [9] and a production rate of 3.3 trucks have led to an increase in fuel consump- million bbl per day [10] as shown in Table 1, tion. These heavier vehicles with lower fuel effi- Canada may not have to worry about the deple- ciency emit on average 40% more greenhouse tion of fuel reserves for decades, but dependence gases per kilometre than passenger cars [11], of its transport sector on fossil fuel is beginning playing a pivotal role in continued deterioration to raise serious concerns as Canadians face the of air quality. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show that impact of worldwide oil price escalation. Rapid the transportation sector is the single largest industrial development and urbanization of grow- source of greenhouse gases in Canada, account- ing economies, depletion of worldwide fuel re- ing for about 25% of total emissions within serves, political factors and speculations are which light-duty vehicles are the highest con- amongst the many reasons why oil prices in Can- tributor to air pollution emitting more than 11% ada have almost tripled in the last 10 years. In the of the total CO2 in Canada. Despite preventive current scenario of the global economy, the price efforts, emissions from the transportation sector of gasoline saw a sudden decline as low as that alone rose by about 44 megatonnes, or 32%, in of the 2004 level. This exponential increase or the last fifteen years with a massive 24 mega- sudden fluctuation in fuel cost not only influ- tonne increase in the emissions from light-duty

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Figure 3: Projected CO2 emissions by sector in Canada. Figure 4: Greenhouse gas emissions in Canada.

gasoline trucks [12]. In December 1997, Canada this year and according to the CMA, the cumula- and other developed countries negotiated the tive total between 2008 and 2031 is expected to Kyoto Protocol at the United Nations Framework reach $300 billion. People are now recognizing Convention on Climate Change. The protocol the economic constraints of fossil fuel-based ve- commits Canada to reduce its greenhouse gas hicles and the grave impact of fuel combustion emissions to 6% below the 1990 level, indicated on the Canadian environment and public health. in Fig. 4, during the five-year period from 2008 Attention is, therefore, focused towards the de- to 2012. However, if the current emission trend velopment and promotion of advanced vehicular by the transportation sector continues, green- technologies and alternative fuels that can reduce house gas emissions in Canada are expected to the dependency on fossil fuels in order to de-link exceed the 1990 level by 38.5% by 2010 and transportation demand from fuel consumption 58.2% by 2020 [13]. and emissions. Amongst several possible alternatives, hybrid vehicle technology has proven to be 2.2.3 Health risks associated with vehicular the most commercially viable solution to conven- emissions tional transportation. Toxic emissions from fossil fuel combustion, particularly in vehicles, are not only linked to 3 Alternative Fuel Vehicles climate change but also have a significant impact on air quality and health, resulting in increased 3.1 Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) hospital admissions, respiratory illnesses and Battery powered electric vehicles are one of the premature deaths, especially in urban areas. The first solutions proposed by many to displace ICE Canadian Medical Association (CMA) has re- based drivetrains in automobiles. In electric ve- cently released data that predicts the annual death hicles, traction is provided by an electric motor toll caused by air pollution to reach 21,000 in typically powered by a battery that is the only 2008. CMA warns that 710,000 more people will source of energy on-board. The batteries are re- lose their lives by 2031 due to long-term expo- charged by plugging into a power source through sure to air pollution and the count for acute short- an on-board or external charger. The electric mo- term effects will reach 90,000 deaths. Children tor is controlled by an electronic motor controller are particularly vulnerable since they breathe that signals a power electronics drive to run the faster than adults and inhale more air per pound motor [15]. The motor can also act as a generator of body weight. Air pollution is also known to during braking to regain part of the kinetic en- exacerbate the condition of people with respira- ergy and to store it in the battery as electrical en- tory and cardiovascular diseases that are among ergy. This operation is called regenerative brak- the leading causes of hospitalization and almost ing. Due to the absence of any combustion proc- 80,000 deaths every year [14]. Canadians are ess, BEVs do not require gasoline, have no tail- also suffering the economic impact of air pollu- pipe emissions, have a high efficiency and a tion as higher health care expenditures, non- smooth and quiet operation. attendance of ill workers and several other fac- Initial prototypes of battery electric vehicles tors have cost the country more than $10 billion were developed shortly after the invention of the

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first DC motor in 1831 and up until the early in addition to a chemical battery for energy stor- 1900s, BEVs outnumbered gasoline vehicles. age, they use fuel cells to generate electricity by However, with improvements in the production an electrochemical reaction between electrodes of ICE driven vehicles and the reduction of their in the presence of an electrolyte. Unlike batteries, cost from $850 in 1909 to $260 in 1925, BEVs fuel cells consume their reactants and do not became a more expensive choice and began to store energy but only generate it as long as the disappear from the market [16]. They started to fuel supply is maintained [17]. This fuel can be resurface, however, in the 1960s as environ- hydrocarbon or alcohol based but hydrogen is mental concerns began to arise. General Motors most typically used and it can either be stored in (GM) introduced an electric vehicle, the Elec- pure form on-board or produced from on-board trovair with a 115 hp three-phase induction mo- hydrogen carriers that feed directly to the fuel tor powered by a 512 V silver-zinc battery. cells. A fuel cell system in an FCV serves as the Around the same time period “The Great Electric primary energy source to generate electricity Car Race” cross-country competition between an which is then either used to propel the vehicle or EV from Caltech and an EV from MIT stirred is stored in a battery that does not need any ex- excitement for electric vehicle technology in the ternal charging. The battery serves as a storage USA. However, the BEV technology, especially device for energy generated by fuel cells and also in terms of energy storage, was not mature improves the low power density of fuel cell sys- enough to support commercial production. En- tems that, when serving alone, would require a ergy crisis in the 70s followed by dramatic in- more bulky construction [18]. Furthermore, fuel creases in oil prices made BEVs once again the cells have a slow response that increases the focus of automotive research. In the coming two start-up time of the vehicle. Fuel cell vehicles of- decades, development of high frequency semi- fer a much longer driving range in comparison to conductor switching devices and microcontroller BEVs and produce almost zero emissions. technology led to the improvement of power The concept of fuel cells was discovered by Sir converter devices for efficient control of electric William Grove in 1839, the design of which was motors in electric vehicles. During the last dec- first engineered in 1889. The first successful fuel ade of the 19th century, a number of companies cell was produced in 1932. It consisted of a hy- produced battery powered electric vehicles in drogen-oxygen cell using alkaline electrolytes USA, Britain, and France. and nickel electrodes. In 1959, a practical 5 kW BEVs however have a crucial limitation in that fuel cell system was produced followed by the they have a short driving range due to the limited first ever 20 hp, fuel cell-powered tractor. More capacity of batteries and the absence of an on- recently, several leading auto makers have initi- board charging source. They have a high initial ated research on fuel cells for use in automotive cost, long charging time and smaller capacity. applications with the aim to displace conven- This is why BEVs today are mainly used for tional power sources. Honda developed the FCX small vehicles and short distance applications. which became the first fuel cell vehicle to be ap- Nickel-metal hydride batteries, most commonly proved by the US Environmental Protection used in automotive applications at present, do not Agency (EPA) and the California Air Resources have sufficient storage capacity and energy den- Board (CARB) for commercial use and has been sity to allow wide-scale mass production of certified as a zero emission vehicle by the EPA BEVs. However, lithium-ion batteries are under and CARB. The 2008 Honda FCX offers a fuel research that is expected to provide a specific en- economy of 124 km/kg and 108 km/kg for city ergy and storage capacity which will be higher and highway driving respectively. Although fuel than any other commercially available battery in cells are an emerging technology with immense order to provide a much more extended range for potential to significantly reduce petroleum com- battery dependent automobiles. bustion and harmful emissions, high cost and life-cycle of the fuel cell, storage, production and 3.2 Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) transportation of hydrogen are huge challenges Since the specific energy and energy density of that need to be addressed before FCVs can be- batteries are much lower than that of gasoline, come feasible for commercial production [19]. the development of fuel cells used to generate power for electric vehicles has accelerated in re- 3.3 Hybrid electric vehicles cent years. FCVs are similar to BEVs in their Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) were designed electric propulsion as shown in Figure 5 except, to overcome the disadvantages of gasoline

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Converter Converter Inverter Battery

Battery H2 Tank Battery Gasoline

(a) (b) (c) Figure 5: Vehicles partly or fully driven by electric power. (a) Battery electric. (b) Fuel cell. (c) Hybrid electric.

powered and battery electric vehicles. HEVs and mechanical drivetrains, or as mini, mild, and combine the conventional ICE driven mechanical full based on the degree of hybridization. The drivetrain with a motor propelled electric Honda Civic Hybrid, for example, is a mild hy- drivetrain. Electric power to the motor in a hybrid with a 12kW motor, the Toyota Prius is a brid vehicle is usually provided by a chemical full hybrid with a series-parallel design with a battery. The presence of an on-board electric mo- 50kW permanent magnet synchronous motor and tor allows optimized operation of the engine in GM’s upcoming Chevy Volt is a full hybrid with its maximum efficiency region, thus providing a a series configuration and a 112 kW motor. higher fuel efficiency than ICEVs while the use The first hybrid car design is reported as early as of ICE to charge the battery allows for a much 1899 by Pieper establishment of Liège, Belgium. more extended driving range than BEVs. The It was a parallel hybrid with lead acid batteries electric motor also enables regenerative braking that were charged by the engine during coasting and shutting down the engine during idling fur- or idling. The electric motor, in addition to re- ther increases the efficiency of the vehicle [20]. generative braking, assisted the motor in high power demands. The same year Vendovelli and 3.3.1 HEV technology Priestly Electric Carriage Company of France The two drivetrains in an HEV can be integrated presented a series hybrid with a tri-wheel design in various configurations that give varied opera- with electric motors on the two rear wheels and a tional and performance characteristics. In a series fractional horsepower gasoline engine that did HEV, the ICE propels an electric generator to not propel the vehicle but was only coupled to a produce electrical energy either to charge the bat- 1.1 kW electric generator. Dr. Ferdinand Por- tery or to propel the vehicle by an electric motor sche’s second car was also a hybrid that used an [21]. In parallel HEVs, both the ICE and the mo- ICE to propel a generator which in turn powered tor are coupled to the drive shaft of the wheels, electric motors located in the wheel hubs. allowing the power to be delivered by both The aim of these early HEVs was to assist the sources or in the ICE alone or motor alone modes rather weak gasoline engines. Henry Ford over- [22]. Series-parallel is a more complex design in came many of the challenges in ICEs including hybrids that combines the advantages of both se- noise, vibration, and mass production causing ries and parallel configurations. Due to the opti- self-starting gasoline engines to gain pace in mized operation of the ICE and regenerative 1920s. As a result, like all other alternative fuel braking, maintenance requirements for oil vehicles, HEVs saw a sharp decline. The control changes, exhaust repairs, and brake replacement of electric machines in the absence of advanced are significantly reduced. Hybrids can also be power switching devices was also a hurdle that classified as series, parallel, series-parallel and discouraged the use of electric motors in cars. complex based on the combination of electrical This is why HEVs did not attract attention until

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the 1970s as the converter technology began to of seven years, all hybrids exhibit much lower evolve and the Arab oil embargo and consequent emissions. The Honda Civic Hybrid, for instance, energy crisis triggered the development of alter- emits 1,421 kg, or 31%, less CO2 than the stan- nate fuel vehicles including HEVs. dard Civic. This means that displacement of gas The status of hybrid vehicles took a drastic turn driven cars by hybrid vehicles can have a signifi- with the commercial launch of the Toyota Prius cant impact on the air quality in Canada. In 2006, in 1997 which has sold over a million units since close to 870,000 passenger cars were sold coun- then. Two years later, the Honda Insight was in- try wide. Amongst these, Honda Civic alone sold troduced in North America soon followed by the 70,028 units. If these Civic models were to be Honda Civic Hybrid. There are several hybrid replaced by their hybrid version, Canada could vehicles offered by some of the prominent auto- save 100 kilotonnes of CO2 every year. Hybrid makers around the world that have together vehicles can thus have a huge impact in control- raised annual sales of hybrid units from over ling vehicle emissions countrywide to improve 62,000 in 2002 to almost 400,000 in 2006. These the air quality that can ensure a safer environ- sales have proven that hybrid cars not only offer ment to safeguard public health. a much better fuel efficiency over ICEVs, but are Despite this significant benefit of HEV technol- commercially the most viable technology at pre- ogy, sales of hybrid units in Canada continue to sent despite their comparatively higher purchase remain low. Close to 900,000 passenger cars cost. Most of these mass produced hybrid models were sold countrywide in 2007 out of which are available in Canada but despite their well HEVs could penetrate the market with a share of recognized environmental benefits, fuel savings, merely 1.6%. There are several reasons associ- and government incentives to promote their ated with the slow market diffusion of hybrid sales, consumer acceptance of HEVs remains technology. High initial cost, presumably poor low throughout the country. With growing acceleration, limited cargo and passenger space, awareness of deteriorating air quality and the availability of spare parts and technicians and economic burden of fluctuating gas prices, it has long waiting periods for vehicle delivery are become essential to determine the inhibitors that some of the causes of consumer hesitation in are retarding market diffusion of hybrid electric adapting HEVs. Overcoming these barriers is a vehicles in order to devise systematic strategies challenging task that calls for a two pronged ap- to produce hybrid vehicles that satisfy consumer proach that not only requires the formulation, demands and help encourage buyers to consider regulation and implementation of policies, incen- HEVs in their choice of vehicles. tive strategies and promotional campaigns to support and encourage hybrid vehicles but also 3.3.2 Lifetime emission savings requires strenuous efforts towards the techno- To examine the emission levels of HEVs, a com- logical development of hybrid drivetrain systems parative assessment of hybrid cars was con- so that the drive performance and operational ducted with their corresponding standard coun- features of hybrid cars can compete with the al- terparts. The aim of this study is to determine the ready established and matured technology of amount of emissions that vehicle owners can conventional vehicles. save by driving a hybrid car. In order to determine the emission savings that can be achieved 4 Factors Affecting Consumer in a lifetime of seven years with annual mileage Acceptance to Hybrid Vehicles of 24,000 km by replacing conventional vehicles with hybrids, emissions from hybrids and gas There are several factors that can be held respon- powered vehicles were calculated for 55 percent sible for the rather slow growth in hybrid sales in city and 45 percent highway driving based on Canada and are discussed in this section. their respective fuel economies. Since combustion of one litre of gasoline emits 2.4 kilograms 4.1 Financial limitations of carbon dioxide (CO2) [23], the consequent The high initial cost of hybrids is the main cause emissions from vehicles in their lifetime were of low sales. Most hybrids cost seven to twelve evaluated and are summarized in Table 2. thousand dollars more than their non-hybrid ver- The emission calculations show that the high fuel sions of vehicles of the same class. This increase efficiency of hybrids not only means less spend- in cost is attributed to low demand and higher ing on gas but also translates into reduced CO2 cost of additional electric components, particu- emissions. The analysis indicates that at the end larly the battery. The Ford Escape Hybrid, for

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Table 2: Lifetime emission savings by hybrid vehicles Manufacturer 2008 Model Fuel Economy Annual Lifetime Emission city/hwy Emissions Emissions Savings (l/100 km) (kilograms) (tonnes) (tonnes) Yaris 8.1/6.7 2,837 19.86 Toyota 9.59 Prius 4.9/5.2 4,206 29.44 Escape 10.1/7.2 5,079 35.55 Ford 11.24 Escape Hybrid 5.8/6.4 3,473 24.31 Civic 9.4/6.5 4,560 31.91 Honda 9.95 Civic Hybrid 5.8/5.2 3,139 21.97 Camry 11.2/7.6 5,380 37.66 Toyota 9.95 Camry Hybrid 7.1/6.9 3,952 27.66 Altima 10.2/7.6 5,080 35.56 Nissan 13.04 Altima Hybrid 5.6/5.9 3,218 22.52

example, costs $35,000 compared to the standard traffic signals all adversely affect the vehicle’s Escape that costs $25,000. In some cases, this fuel economy. Some consumers also do not rec- sharp difference in initial price makes it difficult ognize the wide-ranging operational performance for hybrids to payback their purchase cost and fuel efficiency of hybrid cars designed for through fuel savings even after ten years. Car varied requirements. Not all hybrid cars give a prices are higher in Canada compared to the high fuel economy. Mini hybrids give a competi- United States and additional cost increases in hy- tive driving experience but only feature idle-stop, brids discourages consumers to choose hybrid and thus give a very little improvement in fuel vehicles. Moreover, maintenance expenditure is a economy over its non-hybrid version. Honda source of concern to vehicle owners. These fi- Civic Hybrid, on the other hand, shows an im- nancial limitations compel buyers to shy away provement of 3.6 and 1.3 L/100 km for city and from purchasing hybrid cars since many people highway driving respectively over conventional are reluctant to pay the price for just better emis- Civic. Speculations that hybrids are sluggish in sion standards. Efforts are therefore not only re- performance also need clarification as hybrid quired at the development stage to bring down models such as the Camry can now compete with the component cost but also to provide financial any gas driven vehicle of its class. Buyers, there- incentives, rebate and tax exemptions to lower fore, need to be educated on the wide-ranging the differential cost between hybrids and non- vehicle performance and fuel savings offered by hybrids. HEVs available in the market to help them make informed decisions and consider fuel economy in 4.2 Consumer lack of information their choice of vehicle. There are many misconceptions associated with the fairly new hybrid technology that mislead 4.3 Technology challenges consumers. One such misconception is the high The addition of electrical components to the ve- maintenance cost on batteries. Battery replace- hicle traction system makes the design and con- ment can cost two to three thousand dollars, trol of hybrid electric vehicles a challenging task. however most manufacturers now offer 8-10 Drivetrain components have to be designed spe- years/240,000 km warrantees and in coming cifically to HEV application such that the vehicle years, with the progress in battery technology, performance can compete with all other available this warrantee is expected to go up to vehicle automobiles in the market. In this regard, hybrid life. Another reservation towards hybrid vehicles vehicles have several challenges to overcome, is their failure to deliver the fuel economy num- particularly in the design and control of their bers verified by the Environment Protection electric drivetrain for enhanced driving perform- Agency in the US or by EnerGuide labels in ance, advancement in battery technology for Canada. Vehicle owners need to be made aware longer life, lighter weight and higher power den- of the effect of driving habits on fuel economy. sity, and the improvement in the spaciousness of Fast acceleration of a motor vehicle from a start, the vehicles to satisfy consumer expectation. speeding, sudden braking and flooring the gas at While the above mentioned are the most domi-

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nant inhibitors to market diffusion of hybrid ve- • eTV program is currently evaluating a num- hicles, there are several other noticeable issues. ber of vehicles that use alternative fuel tech- Availability of technicians and maintenance nologies including bio-fuel, biodiesel, etha- equipment for hybrid cars is still not common in nol, clean gasoline and diesel, compressed many Canadian cities. Moreover, delivery of hy- natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas. brid vehicles, takes two to six months from the • The program is currently conducting research time of order due to low production. on a number of different advanced vehicle technologies to evaluate their performance in 5 Federal and Provincial Policies Canada, including hydrogen, electric and hybrid electric vehicles. and Incentives to Promote • Advanced engine/power train design refers to Hybrid Vehicles in Canada technologies that can help improve vehicle fuel economy by achieving greater efficien- 5.1 Federal programs and policies cies while emissions control include all tech- The federal government is beginning to recog- nologies that monitor and control the air pol- nize the urgency of encouraging fuel-efficient lutants released from a vehicle. eTV tests vehicles in an effort to control GHG emissions in technologies such as, but not limited to, 42- the country. Within the federal government, sev- volt electrical architecture, engine control unit eral Departments have the responsibility for and advanced transmissions, to improve transportation and the environment, particularly power train design and emissions control sys- Transport Canada and Environment Canada. tems, balanced against the need for perform- They are dedicated towards improving the qual- ance and safety. ity of Canada’s environment, in with an empha- The eTV program also works in cooperation with sis on reducing emissions from the transportation the automotive industry and consumers to iden- sector through rebates and national programs tify and remove barriers to the introduction of some of which are discussed in this section. advanced technology vehicles in Canada, fosters collaborations with the automotive industry and 5.1.1 Automotive partnership Canada consumers to identify and remove barriers to Automotive Partnership Canada (APC) is being promotion of advanced technology vehicles. established by five partnering agencies within the portfolio of Industry Canada. The objective of 5.1.3 Excise tax this fiveyear, $145 million initiative is to sup- The federal budget for 2007 proposed a vehicle port significant, incremental and collaborative efficiency incentive aimed to encourage the pur- R&D activities to benefit the Canadian automo- chase of fuel-efficient vehicles in Canada tive industry; partnerships between industry and through rebates for highly fuel-efficient vehicles, academia and/or National Research Council. neutral treatment for vehicles of average fuel ef- Automotive Partnership Canada will support re- ficiency and a new green levy on fuel-inefficient search and development activities that include vehicles based on fuel economy ratings. This ex- the improvement of automobile’s environmental cise tax, starting at $ 1,000, will be payable by performance through advanced powertrain, en- the automobile manufacturer or importer at the ergy storage and application of alternative fuels. time of vehicle delivery. The tax will, however, not apply to vehicles manufactured in Canada or 5.1.2 ECOTECHNOLOGY for vehicles exported to other countries. With $15 million in funding, this program con- ducts in-depth testing and evaluation of safety 5.1.4 ecoENERGY for personal vehicles and environmental performance of a range of in- The Ministry of Natural Resources announced novative technologies used in vehicles. Results $21 million in February 2007 for this program of these studies are showcased across the country that provides fuel consumption information and to provide information on the potential of emerg- decision-making tools such as vehicle labels, ing technologies to help reduce the damaging guides and interactive websites. Under this um- impact of vehicles on the environment. Under brella several tools were developed to assist con- this umbrella, the ecoTECHNOLOGY (eTV) sumers in making informed decision on vehicle program evaluates different categories of ad- purchases. EnerGuide labels for vehicles are is- vanced environmental vehicle technologies sued with all new passenger cars, light-duty vans, which are: and pickup trucks not exceeding a gross vehicle

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weight of 3,855 kg that indicate city and highway Support the development and integration of fuel consumption ratings and an estimated annual strategies, transportation planning tools and fuel cost for that particular vehicle. The program best practices to reduce GHG emissions offers teaching tools, on-line resources and pub- Demonstrate, measure and monitor the effec- lications by providing vehicle owners with in- tiveness of a range of integrated urban GHG formation that will help them save fuel and pro- emissions strategies tect the environment through their buying, driv- Establish a comprehensive and pro-active ing and maintenance habits. Under this program, national network for the dissemination of in- the annual ecoENERGY for Vehicles Awards are formation on successful GHG emissions re- presented by Natural Resources Canada's Office duction strategies for sustainable urban of Energy Efficiency for the most fuel-efficient transportation. vehicles sold in Canada to encourage automakers The program supports innovative projects includ- to manufacture low emission vehicles. ing hybrid buses, to attract Canadians to sustainable transportation options. 5.1.5 Moving on sustainable transportation The Moving on Sustainable Transportation 5.1.7 ecoAUTO rebate (MOST) Program was launched in 1999 by The ecoAUTO rebate was an initiative under the Transport Canada to support projects that create ecoTRANSPORT Strategy which aimed to re- awareness and develop tools that can increase duce GHG and air pollutant emissions from the sustainable transportation options for Canadians. transportation sector. Under this initiative, to en- The program fulfils a commitment made by courage Canadians to adopt more fuel-efficient Transport Canada’s first Sustainable Develop- vehicles, the federal government of Canada of- ment Strategy in 1997 and has three major goals fered rebates of up to $2,000 on the purchase or [24]: long-term lease of fuel-efficient vehicles, includ- Development of innovative tools, approaches ing most hybrids that met the required fuel econ- and practices for increasing the sustainability omy standards. The rebate was valid on eligible of Canada's transportation system and the 2006, 2007 and 2008 models purchased between use of sustainable modes of transportation March 20, 2007 and December 31, 2008. Gener- Realize quantifiable environmental and sus- ally cars getting Combined Fuel Consumption tainable development results on Transport Rating (CFCR) of 6.5 L/100 km or better and Canada's sustainable development priorities light trucks getting 8.3 L/100 km or better quali- Provide Canadians with practical informa- fied. CFCR was determined by adding 55% of tion, tools and opportunities for better incor- the vehicle's city fuel consumption rating to 45% porating sustainable transportation options of the vehicle's highway fuel consumption rating. into their daily lives As of Friday March 27, 2009 this program re- MOST has committed funding innovative pro- ceived over 180,000 applications and issued over jects across Canada involving more than 500 en- 167,000 rebates totalling $187.7 million [25]. vironmental groups, community associations, academic institutions, business groups and pro- 5.2 Provincial initiatives fessional associations. With financial support from MOST, these organizations are promoting In addition to the federal programs, several prov- education and awareness, conducting advanced inces have also taken initiative to promote sales research, and developing needed tools to promote of efficient vehicles in their jurisdiction in an ef- sustainable transportation. fort to combat greenhouse gas emissions.

5.1.6 Urban transportation showcase 5.2.1 Ontario The Urban Transportation Showcase Program, an Ontario offers a rebate of the 8% sales tax paid initiative by Transport Canada under the Gov- on alternative fuel vehicles to a maximum of ernment of Canada's Action Plan 2000 on Cli- $2,000. Govt. of Ontario is also considering spe- mate Change, is expected to continue through cial license plates which would entitle high oc- 2009. Its aim is to measure the impacts of strate- cupancy vehicle lanes and parking discounts to gies designed to reduce urban GHG emissions owners of fuel-efficient cars. Various cities in from transportation. Under this program, the fol- Ontario including London and Windsor have in- lowing objectives have been identified [3]: corporated hybrid public transits in their fleet.

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5.2.2 British Columbia [5] D. Hermance and S. Sasaki, Hybrid electric ve- Hybrid and other fuel-efficient vehicles in British hicles take to the streets, IEEE Spectrum, vol. 35, pp. 48-52, Nov. 1998. Columbia (BC) are eligible for a maximum rebate of $2,000. BC is also the first jurisdiction in [6] World Energy Outlook 2004, International En- ergy Agency (IEA). North America to introduce a carbon tax of [7] World Health Report 2002, Reducing Risks, $10/tonne beginning July 2008 which will rise by Promoting Healthy Life, World Health Organiza- $5 a year until 2012. The BC government already tion (WHO). operates a fleet of 584 hybrid vehicles, and since [8] Statistics Canada Report: 2006 Annual Canadian 2007, has had a policy of only leasing or pur- Vehicle Survey, Catalogue no. 53-223-XIE, Aug. chasing HEVs for government use. Under Eco- 2007. taxi Initiative, hybrid taxis have been incorpo- [9] US Energy Information Report: World Proved rated in regular fleet. The number of hybrids in Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Jan. 2007. taxi fleet has been steadily increasing as consti- [10] US Energy Information Administration Report: tutes 36% of all taxis in Victoria. International Energy Outlook 2008, Report no. DOE/EIA-0383, June 2008. 5.2.3 Other provinces [11] Environment Canada Report: Canadian Envi- Provincial sales tax rebate for fuel-efficient vehi- ronmental Sustainability Indicator 2006, Cata- cles in Prince Edward Island is $3,000, the high- logue no. 16-251-XIE, Nov. 2006. est among all Canadian provinces. Saskatchewan [12] Environment Canada Report: Canada’s 2006 provides a 20% rebate on registration fees and Greenhouse Gas Inventory, insurance premiums on fuel-efficient vehicles. http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/inventory_report/2 006/som-sum_eng.cfm, accessed on July 14, Alberta, Manitoba and Quebec also provide a re- 2008. bate of $2,000 on fuel-efficient vehicles. [13] Government of Canada Report: Canada’s En- ergy and GHG Emissions Projections Reference 6 Conclusion Case: 2006–2020, March 2008. [Online]. Avail- This paper demonstrates the growing need for able: http://www.ec.gc.ca/doc/virage- corner/2008-03/571/Annex4_eng.htm, accessed sustainable transportation in Canada and the role on July 14, 2008. of HEVs as a possible solution. Through tech- [14] Statistics Canada Report: Mortality, Summary nology review and comparative analysis it shows List of Causes 2004, Catalogue no. 84F0209XIE, that HEVs can significantly reduce GHG emis- April 2007. sions. This paper summarizes the key initiatives [15] M. Zeraoulia, M. E. H. Benbouzid, and D. Di- and policies adapted by the Canadian govern- allo, Electric motor drive selection issues for ment to encourage the purchase of fuel-efficient HEV propulsion systems: A comparative study, vehicles, particularly hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE Transaction on Vehicular Technology, vol. 55, pp. 1756-1764, Nov. 2006. Acknowledgments [16] I. Husain, Electric and Hybrid Vehicles - Design Fundamentals, Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2003. The work presented in this paper was supported [17] M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, and A. Emadi, by NSERC and Canada Research Chair program Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell in Hybrid Drivetrain Systems. Vehicles: Fundamentals, Theory, and Design, Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2005. References [18] R. Copparapu, D. S. Zinger, and A. Bose, En- [1] Statistics Canada Report: Energy Statistics ergy storage analysis of a fuel cell hybrid vehicle Handbook – Fourth Quarter 2007, Catalogue no. with constant force acceleration profile, in Proc. 57-601-X, April 2008. 2006 North Ame. Power Symp, pp. 43-47. [2] Transport Canada Report: Transportation in [19] S. Rogerson, Road to realism [fuel cell vehicles], Canada – An Overview, Catalogue no. TP Power Engineer, vol. 19, pp. 24-25, June-July 14816E, 2007. 2005. [3] I. Husain, Electric and Hybrid Vehicles-Design [20] C. M. Jefferson and R. H. Barnard, Hybrid Vehi- Fundamentals, Boca Raton, CRC Press, 2003. cle Propulsion, Southampton: WIT Press, 2002. [4] D. J. Santini, P. D. Patterson, and A. D. Vyas, [21] S. Barsali, C. Miulli, and A. Possenti, A control Importance of vehicle costs, fuel prices, and fuel strategy to minimize fuel consumption of series efficiency in hybrid electric vehicle market suc- hybrid electric vehicles, IEEE Trans. on Energy cess, Transportation Research Record, Issue Conversion, vol. 19, pp. 187-195, March 2004. 1738, pp. 11 - 19, 2000. [22] S. Delprat, J. Lauber, T. M. Guerra, and J. Ri-

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maux, Control of a parallel hybrid powertrain: Optimal control, IEEE Trans. on Vehicular Technology, vol. 53, pp. 872-881, May 2004. [23] US Environmental Protection Agency Report: Emission Facts, EPA420-F-05-001, Feb. 2005. [24] Transport Canada Report, Moving on Sustain- able Transportation Program Annual Review 2005, Catalogue No. TP 14323E, Nov. 2006. [25] Transport Canada. [Online]. Available: http://www.tc.gc.ca/programs/environment/ecotr Narayan C. Kar (S’95-M’00- ansport/ecoauto.htm, accessed on Apl. 14, 2009. SM’07) received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Bangladesh University of Authors Engineering and Technology, Mariam Khan (S’06) received Dhaka, Bangladesh, in 1992 and her B.Sc. in mechatronics engi- the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering neering in 2005 from National from Kitami Institute of Technology, Hokkaido, Ja- University of Sciences and pan, in 1997 and 2000, respectively. Technology, Pakistan. She re- He is an associate professor in the Electrical and ceived her M.A.Sc. degree in Computer Engineering Department at the University electrical engineering from Uni- of Windsor, Canada where he holds the Canada Re- versity of Windsor, Ontario, search Chair position in hybrid drivetrain systems. His Canada in January of 2009. The research presently focuses on the analysis, design and focus of her research is to examine the key challenges control of permanent magnet synchronous, induction in hybrid vehicle technology and identify potential and switched reluctance machines for hybrid electric short-comings in current policies for the promotion of vehicle and wind power applications, testing and per- hybrid vehicles in Canada. She is currently developing formance analysis of batteries and development of op- new policy measures and strategies that can increase timization techniques for hybrid energy management market acceptability of hybrids. system. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE.