ISSN 2334-3745

Volume XV, Issue 1 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Table of Content Welcome from the Editors...... 1

Articles Bringing Religiosity Back In: Critical Reflection on the Explanation of Western Homegrown Religious Terrorism (Part I)...... 2 by Lorne L. Dawson

Dying to Live: The “Love to Death” Narrative Driving the Taliban’s Suicide Bombings...... 17 by Atal Ahmadzai

The Use of Bay’ah by the Main Salafi-Jihadist Groups...... 39 by Carlos Igualada and Javier Yagüe

Counter-Terrorism in the Philippines: Review of Key Issues...... 49 by Ronald U. Mendoza, Rommel Jude G. Ong and Dion Lorenz L. Romano

Variations on a Theme? Comparing 4chan, 8kun, and other chans’ Far-right “/pol” Boards...... 65 by Stephane J. Baele, Lewys Brace, and Travis G. Coan

Research Notes Climate Change—Terrorism Nexus? A Preliminary Review/Analysis of the Literature...... 81 by Jeremiah O. Asaka

Inventory of 200+ Institutions and Centres in the Field of Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Research.....93 by Reinier Bergema and Olivia Kearney

Resources Counterterrorism Bookshelf: Eight Books on Terrorism & Counter-Terrorism-Related Subjects...... 151 Reviewed by Joshua Sinai

Bibliography: Terrorism by Region – Southeast Asia...... 155 Compiled and selected by Judith Tinnes

Bibliography: Civilian Casualties of Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism...... 202 Compiled and selected by David Teiner

Preparedness for, and Resilience to, Terrorism: Bibliography of Theses...... 228 (60+ Full-Text Academic Theses (Ph. D. and M.A.) written in English between 2000 and 2020) Compiled and selected by Brody McDonald

Recent Online Resources for the Analysis of Terrorism and Related Subjects...... 233 Compiled and selected by Berto Jongman

Announcements Conference Monitor/Calendar of Events...... 265 Complied by Olivia Kearney

ISSN 2334-3745 I February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Words of Appreciation for Reviewers and Members of the Editorial Board...... 269 by Alex P. Schmid and James J.F. Forest

TRI Best Thesis Award 2019 & 2020...... 271 by Alex P. Schmid

About Perspectives on Terrorism...... 272

ISSN 2334-3745 II February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Welcome from the Editors

Dear Reader, We are pleased to announce the release of Volume XV, Issue 1 (February 2021) of Perspectives on Terrorism (ISSN 2334-3745). Our independent online journal is an Open Access publication of the Terrorism Research Initiative (TRI), Vienna, and the Institute of Security and Global Affairs (ISGA) of Leiden University’s Campus in The Hague. All past and recent issues are freely available online at URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/ perspectives-on-terrorism. Perspectives on Terrorism (PoT) is indexed by JSTOR, SCOPUS, and Google Scholar. Now in its fourteenth year, it has nearly 9,400 registered subscribers and many more occasional readers and website visitors in ac- ademia, government and civil society. TheArticles of its six annual issues are fully peer-reviewed by external referees while its Research Notes and other content are subject to internal editorial quality control. The current issue features fiveArticles . The opening article by Lorne Dawson critically examines whether religious motivations have been misrepresented in relation to religious terrorism. The second article by Atal Ahmadzai examines the written and audio-visual materials used by the Taliban to motivate and operationalize suicide bombings in spite of social and cultural resistance in Afghan society. Next Carlos Igualada and Javier Yagüe explain how the practice of declaring bay’ah (taking an oath of allegiance) has helped al-Qaeda and Is- lamic State pursue global expansion by establishing allegiance relationships with dozens of groups around the world. In the fourth article, Ronald Mendoza, Rommel Jude Ong and Dion Lorenz Romano review some key legal issues regarding counterterrorism efforts in the Philippines. And in the final article of this issue, Stephane Baele, Lewys Brace, and Travis Coan compare the content and discussion of six different /pol boards of “chan” forums, identifying how popularity and extreme content can distinguish one from another amid a fragmented subculture. These articles are followed by two Research Notes. In the first, Jeremiah Asaka examines relationships and patterns of interaction between climate change and terrorism. And the second is an extensive inventory of institutions and centers in the field of terrorism research, compiled by Reinier Bergema and Editorial Assistant Olivia Kearney, Our Resources section open with the CT-Bookshelf wherein our Book Reviews Editor Joshua Sinai provides abbreviated reviews of 8 new publications. This is followed by an extensive bibliography on terrorism in South- east Asia by Information Resources Editor Judith Tinnes, and an equally extensive bibliography on civilian casualties of terrorism and counterterrorism, by Assistant Information Resources Editor David Teiner. Then Assistant Editor Brody McDonald provides a bibliography of academic theses on preparedness for, and resil- ience to, terrorism. Thereader will also find in this issue a list of new web-based resources on terrorism and related subjects by Associate Editor Berto Jongman and a Conference Calendar compiled by Olivia Kearney. Finally, the February issue concludes with some words of appreciation to all the peer reviewers and members of the Editorial Board who have contributed their time and effort towards the continued success of this open source journal, and a reminder that submissions for the TRI Best Thesis Award competition for the Best Doc- toral Dissertation on Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism must be received by 31 March, 2021. The articles and other texts of the current issue of Perspectives on Terrorism have been edited by Alex Schmid and James Forest, the journal’s principal editors. Editorial Assistant Jodi Moore handled proof-reading, while the technical on- line launch of the February 2021 issue of our journal has been in the hands of Associate Editor for IT Christine Boelema Robertus.

ISSN 2334-3745 1 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Bringing Religiosity Back In: Critical Reflection on the Explanation of Western Homegrown Religious Terrorism (Part I) by Lorne L. Dawson

Abstract An unusual feature of the social scientific study of religious terrorism is the erasure of religiosity as a significant motivational factor. This article systematically delineates and criticizes the presence of this peculiar interpretive preference, demonstrating that it is methodologically suspect and theoretically and empirically unhelpful. There are two parts to the critique. Part I (this article), discusses three foundational aspects of the argument: (1) it delineates ten conditions of the critique, to avoid predictable misunderstandings; (2) it specifies three methodological reasons for considering the motivational claims of religious terrorists as potentially important and valid data; and (3) it surveys the history of the study of religious terrorism to identify some extra-methodological influences that may have truncated the analysis of the religious motivations for religious terrorism. Part II (the next article), examines three types of arguments commonly used to minimize the role of religiosity in motivating religious terrorism. Identifying the arguments by the primary interpretive errors they rely on, some arguments (1) mistakenly treat the religious background and knowledge of homegrown jihadists as a sound indicator of their religiosity; others (2) inappropriately apply a modern Western normative conception of religion to homegrown jihadists; and some arguments (3) rely on an overly dichotomized conception of the relationship of social processes and ideology in the process of radicalization. The critique ends with consideration of alternative perspectives, offering a more refined conception of the role of ideology, and more specifically religiosity, in the determination of the actions of religious terrorists. Keywords: Al-Qaeda, extremism, ideology, jihadism, radicalization, religion, terrorism, Islamic State (IS)

Introduction The title of this article may appear ironic. Yet it alludes to a very real problem.[1] Surely religious terrorism is about religion in some significant way. This is the assumption underlying much public discourse since 9/11. In many social scientific analyses of religious terrorism, however, researchers discount the significance of religion as a motivator for religious terrorism. In most cases, they do not explicitly reject the role of religiosity, though there are some prominent exceptions that more or less do.[2] On the contrary, most researchers partially acknowledge its causal role, yet they persistently minimize its overall significance by categorizing the religious motivational claims made by religious terrorists as nothing more than propaganda. They are little more than rationalizations offered by perpetrators guided by strategic thinking or driven by deeper impulses. Researchers argue, or more often simply assume that these thoughts and impulses are rooted in social, economic, and political grievances, which provide a more plausible explanation for the actions of the “religious terrorists.”[3] This interpretive stance renders the authenticity and the explanatory value of the terrorists’ own declarations of the key role that religious commitments play in determining their actions epiphenomenal.[4] Yet there are multiple logical and methodological reasons for doubting the validity of this tendency to eschew the evidentiary value of the religious motivational claims made by religious terrorists. A handful of commentators and researchers have called out this interpretive problem, but their dissent is a minority view in the study of terrorism.[5] The minimization of religious motivations for religious terrorism may constitute a systemic bias in the field of terrorism studies. Its expression, however, is anything but systematic, and this makes mounting a critique challenging. The pervasive and largely implicit presence of the bias also points to the need to engage in a more systematic critical assessment of this issue. The research literature on terrorism is replete with specific statements about the limited or negligible explanatory value of

ISSN 2334-3745 2 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 religious motivational claims. Testing the validity of these assertions, and their premises, requires the kind of close reading of the contexts in which these claims are made that rarely occurs. This study provides a more systematic analysis of the ways in which many researchers discount the religious motivations for religious terrorism, and argues, alternatively, that the religious motivational claims have a constructive role to play, theoretically and empirically, in advancing our grasp of the exact nature of the actions of religious terrorists. This interpretive turn is essential to recognizing both the behavioral and strategic consequences of the religious motivations for these actions, and hence how they also can be countered most effectively. The following brief examples illustrate the presence, role, and significance of the bias in question. In her summary analysis of the research on “The Root Causes of Terrorism,” Darcy Noricks discusses the results of a classified MI5 study of several hundred violent Islamist extremists in the U.K.[6] The findings, as reported in the media, surprised many. The MI5 analysts concluded that “a well-established religious identity actually protects against violent radicalization,” and that a “large number” of the extremists studied “were discovered to be little more than religious novices.” Moreover, “few of those involved in terrorism were brought up in religious households,” and finally that “there were large numbers of converts involved; and even the nonconverts were surprisingly illiterate about Islam.” Overall, these findings are thought to buttress the claim that jihadist extremism is not really about religion. As I will argue, there is little warrant, in principle and empirically, for drawing such a conclusion. Such an interpretation is in line, however, with that of other prominent commentators on religious terrorism. In the Washington Post, Jessica Stern, then-lecturer at Harvard Law School and author of Terror in the Mind of God: Why Religious Militants Kill, discussed “Five Myths about Who becomes a Terrorist.”[7] With regard to the third myth, “al-Qaeda is made up of religious zealots,” she states: To the contrary, rank-and-file terrorists who claim to be motivated by religious ideology often turn out to be ignorant about Islam. The Saudi Interior Ministry has questioned thousands of terrorists in custody about why they turned to violence, and found that the majority did not have much formal religious instruction and had only a limited understanding of Islam. According to Saudi officials, one-quarter of the participants in a rehabilitation program for former jihadis had criminal histories, often for drug-related offenses, whereas only 5 percent had been prayer leaders or had other formal religious roles. In a recent (Oct. 14, 2019) interview with Lusail TV (Qatar), Ali Soufan, a former FBI Agent, well-known global intelligence and security consultant, and author of several popular books on the war on terrorism, said: When I was in the FBI, I worked in counter-terrorism and I spoke with many people. Let me tell you, none of these people joined [extremist] organizations out of belief. They joined them for economic, political, and social considerations and the ideology came later. If a person is a believer and has strong belief to begin with, then nobody can take advantage of this belief and lead him [to terrorism]. So, terrorism has nothing to do with ideology. It has nothing to do with religion or ideas.[8] The denial of the significance of religiosity in motivating religious terrorism could hardly be more emphatic. In most cases, it is less so, but the result, in terms of exerting a suppressive influence on the analytic sensibilities of researchers and officials, is much the same, even in cases where the evidence is contrary. Take for example the following passage from Daveed Gartenstein-Ross and Laura Grossman’s frequently cited report on homegrown terrorists in the U.S. and the U.K.: Researchers have provided diametrically opposed views about the role of theology in the radicalization of homegrown Islamic terrorists. Five of the six factors that this study identifies can provide insight into how the individuals in this study understand their faiths (adoption of a legalistic interpretation of Islam, coming to trust only a select and ideologically rigid group of religious authorities, viewing a schism between Islam and Western society, displaying a low

ISSN 2334-3745 3 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

tolerance for theological deviance, and attempting to impose religious beliefs on others). These five factors were found present in the sample frequently enough that it is clearly premature to rule out homegrown terrorists’ religious understanding as an important factor in radicalization. Indeed, while our data cannot be considered conclusive, it seems to us that the individuals’ theological understanding was a relatively strong factor in their radicalization.[9] The findings of this study of 117 jihadists demonstrates that most of the common and strong behavioral indicators of radicalization are religious. Yet the authors are only willing to say that the evidence indicates it may be “premature to rule out homegrown terrorists’ religious understanding as an important factor in radicalization.” The wording, I suggest, points to the hegemonic status of the view that the religiosity of the jihadists does not matter. Each of these illustrative statements rests on interrelated and similar claims reflective of the discourse, and the underlying logic, I am questioning. Delineating the limitations of other more complex and more subtle arguments, which play down the significance of religious motivations, is more challenging. It is necessary, however, if we wish to elevate the discussion. Overall, we need to remember that the views of these experts constitute a denial of the evidentiary value, if not simply the authenticity, of the countless documents, videos, and testimonials authored by jihadists asserting the opposite. There is no reason we should simply believe what the jihadists assert, but before categorically dismissing their views, and in ways that are incongruent with the treatment of more orthodox expressions of religiosity or political ideology, we need to scrutinize the grounds for this dismissal more exactingly. There are two parts to this study. Part 1 (this article), delineates three initial and important aspects of the argument, systematically addressing foundational concerns rarely broached in discussions of the role of religion in motivating religious terrorism. First, to set the stage as carefully as possible, and avoid predictable misunderstandings and objections, I delineate 10 conditions of the argument. Second, three methodological reasons are provided for conceiving the motivational claims of religious terrorists as potentially important and valid sources of data. Third, I survey the shifting history of the study of religious terrorism to identify some of the extra-methodological influences that may have distorted and truncated the discussion of the role of religious motivations for religious terrorism. In Part 2 (the next article), I first examine three types of arguments commonly used, separately and conjointly, to minimize the role of religiosity in motivating religious terrorism. Then secondly, I discuss some alternative perspectives, ones that refine how we should conceptualize the role of ideology, and more specifically religiosity, in the radicalization of terrorists and their actions. I identify the three arguments used to minimize the role of religiosity in terms of the primary interpretive errors they rely on. Some arguments (1) mistakenly treat the religious background and knowledge of homegrown jihadists as a sound indicator of their religiosity. Other arguments (2) inappropriately apply a modern Western normative conception of religion to homegrown jihadists. Yet other arguments (3) rely on an overly dichotomized conception of the relationship of social processes and ideology in their conceptualization of the process of radicalization. As should be clear, but I wish to stress, the argument being advanced is not about whether religion in the abstract or Islam specifically is to blame for jihadist terrorism. I am not offering a critique of religion or Islam by associating them with terrorism. The focus is much more specific and methodological. It is about whether a failure to adequately consider the role of religiosity—the degree of someone’s commitment to the practice of a religion—is hindering the development of a comprehensive and accurate understanding of the causes of religious terrorism.

The Conditions of the Argument Many factors are at play in the controversy over the nature of religious terrorism and the process of radicalization more generally. Therefore, it is important to qualify this argument in a number of specific ways, to minimize misunderstandings.

ISSN 2334-3745 4 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

First, the analysis is limited to explanations of the actions of Western homegrown religious terrorists, which in the contemporary context largely means jihadists.[10] Much of the argument has larger implications, but applying it to other contexts involves consideration of significant cultural, historical, and societal differences that exceed what I can address here. Moreover, even in the context of so-called Western societies, there are discernible differences (e.g., between France and the United States) in the backgrounds and motivations of jihadists that should be kept in mind, but cannot be fully addressed in this analysis. Second, the analysis is restricted to understanding the turn to political violence in terms of the “decisional calculus preceding potential terrorist action,” rather than the “individual qualities or broad societal processes” associated with the radicalization of individuals.[11] The discussion reflects an awareness of debates about the broader contextual matters (e.g., the mental health of jihadist terrorists or the role social marginalization in fomenting jihadism), but the focus is more restrictive. My concern is how scholars have conceived the role of religiosity in becoming a potentially violent jihadist. As Horgan and others have stressed, the processes of joining the jihadist movement and deciding to cross the boundary from talk to action—to engage in terrorism, domestically or as a foreign fighter—are distinct.[12] Just because someone has become “involved” in a terrorist group does not mean they will “engage” in acts of violence. Even more specifically, talk, it seems, is a poor indicator of whether someone will engage in violent acts.[13] In arguing, the explanatory value of considering the evidentiary value of claims about religiosity, I am not challenging this differentiation. Overall, it will be important to determine the nature and the significance of the role played by religiosity in joining an extremist movement versus engaging in violence once involved. For the purposes of this initial discussion, however, my focus is more broadly on both the cognitions and behavior associated with becoming a terrorist, and the initial mobilization into extremism, as well as the decision to perpetrate acts of terrorism.[14] Third, a great many voices have participated in the contemporary debate over the role of religion in religious terrorism, religious apologists, radical atheists, government officials, politicians, and a diverse set of academics from multiple disciplines. This has created a confusing array of arguments and positions. Elsewhere I have sought to clarify the possibilities by framing a descriptive typology of existing approaches,[15] based on two questions that are implicitly structuring the discussion: whether one thinks religion in general is responsible for this kind of terrorism (or not), or just one religion, namely Islam, is especially culpable (or not). Each of the types in the resultant fourfold typology has many further subtypes. Here attention is on the fourth type, “religion is not to blame and neither is Islam,” and more specifically the third sub-variant of this type, the social scientific tendency to minimize the role of religion in terrorism. Given the confusion of voices and perspectives participating in the overall debate, though, aspects of the arguments used in the other approaches (e.g., religion is to blame, but not Islam) often find their way into the analyses under discussion, and hence my counterargument as well. The intent, however, is to keep the focus, as closely as possible, on the one type of argument—the social scientific denial of the relevance of religiosity overall. Fourth, the erasure of religious claims from consideration in explaining religious terrorism is hard to demonstrate empirically. A systematic review of the relevant social scientific literature could be undertaken, but this would involve examining hundreds, if not thousands, of books, articles, book chapters, and reports published since 9/11. Moreover, it is far from clear that such a review would prove convincing to skeptics, since the parameters used to frame the review, and interpret the findings, are unclear at this stage. Lacking clarity in this regard, such a review may seem circular and self-fulfilling in nature. Consequently, this analysis is more preliminary and involves seeking to clarify the points of contention, and the kinds of arguments used to minimize or dismiss the relevance of the claims for the religious motivation for religious terrorism. As such, it is an exercise in consciousness raising about the issue and delineation of the parameters of the debate. This involves bringing a greater measure of analytical order to a confusing situation by delineating some of the thematic ways in which the erasure of religion happens. Fifth, this analysis hinges on making a distinction between religion and religiosity. My concern is with the motivating role of religiosity in jihadist and, hypothetically, other forms, of religious terrorism, and not religion per se. The argument is not about whether religion as a social phenomenon, or any one religion, is a source of terrorism. That is a discussion pertinent to some of the other types of approaches to the issue of religious ISSN 2334-3745 5 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 terrorism noted above.[16] In making my argument, I refer to how scriptures and other aspects of religious ideology are used to explain and justify the actions of religious terrorists, since this demonstrates the presence of religiosity. It is irrelevant, however, whether the uses made of these religious materials, whether texts, teachings, experiences, myths, or symbols, are legitimate (i.e., meet with the approval of authoritative figures or institutions of the religion in question). My concern is with the saliency, strength, and sincerity of the beliefs motivating the actions of the terrorists. As I argue elsewhere, “[f]aulty theology is not a reliable indicator of degree of religiosity or the primacy of religion in someone’s motivations.”[17] Regrettably, this key interpretive distinction is often blurred, or ignored altogether, in many discussions of religious terrorism. In Tom Quiggins’ analysis of al-Qaeda’s ideology, for example, he examines “eight main themes” in the discourse of jihadists, showing how each is interpreted in nine al-Qaeda books and essays, and contrastingly in more classical, mainstream sources.[18] The doctrines analyzed are jihad, bayat, daru Islam, unmah, takfir, shaheed, al-wala wal bara, and hijrah.[19] In quick succession, Quiggin considers each concept, repeatedly demonstrating that the jihadist use of these ideas deviates from mainstream views. Based on this analysis, and in the absence of any other data or argumentation, he concludes: the basic grievances of al-Qaeda (real and imagined) are political, not religious. The window dressing that is used in the documents is almost always religious, as are the justifications for violence. However, problems raised in the texts are those of classic identity politics: oppression, poverty, and exploitation are common themes.[20] As even Quiggins’ superficial analysis of jihadist ideology demonstrates, however, al-Qaeda consistently seeks to frame its objectives in religious terms, engaging in an ongoing and sweeping reformulation of fundamental doctrines of Islam to explain and justify its actions. Yet this effort in theological innovation is interpreted as evidence that al-Qaeda is not really motivated by religion. The logic of this stance is hard to follow. In the absence of other information, it seems Quiggin (and the reviewers of his article) think that the motivations of the jihadists could not really be religious because their views are either unorthodox or because they are poor theologians. Logically, however, that judgment is unwarranted. Sixth, I am not arguing that religion is the cause of religious terrorism. On the contrary, like many of the researchers whose work I criticize, I have sought to understand how persons become religious terrorists in terms of a larger set of psychological and social processes focused on identity formation and change, as influenced by a variety of context-specific social structural variables.[21] My approach, however, allocates a pivotal role to ideology, and in the case of jihadists, more specifically religiosity, in focusing and consolidating the factors fomenting extremism. Its role is present throughout the process of radicalization, though in variable ways and degrees. In its absence, we would have little reason to be speaking of a process of radicalization, as opposed to other kinds of change. The precise role of religious ideas and commitments in the radicalization of each individual and group may differ and must be determined on a case-by-case basis. In doing so, an array of types of data and contextual factors need to be considered.[22] In some cases, religiosity may play an originating role in precipitating a turn toward political violence. In other cases, it may play an operative and mediating role, organizing relatively inchoate feelings and thoughts and linking them to specific actions. In still other cases, religious claims may only serve as a post-hoc justification for actions primarily driven by other motivations. This argument is not about adjudicating between these possibilities, but rather simply that we need to take the full range of possibilities into consideration. Seventh, with others,[23] I am stressing that the religious aspect of this type of terrorism makes a noteworthy difference in the behavior of the terrorists, as individuals and groups, and hence in the consequences of their actions. Thus, we need to recognize its role in motivating the actions in order to grasp these special and specific consequences. As Juergensmeyer stresses, for example, religiously inspired acts of violence constitute ritual performances with a symbolic significance.[24] This means such violence often fails to conform to the dictates of strategic thinking, and hence it is difficult to predict, prevent, or counter without entering into the specific mindset of the perpetrators. In the case of apocalyptic or even just world-rejecting ideologies, this means imaginatively understanding a worldview that is ISSN 2334-3745 6 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 relatively alien to most of us.[25] We cannot afford, then, to miss the role of this religiosity in seeking to counter this type of terrorism or rehabilitate these kinds of terrorists, no matter how difficult it can be to do so.[26] Eighth, as stated, the actual role of religious beliefs and commitments in the radicalization of terrorists is to be determined on a case-by-case basis. It appears that no two individuals radicalize in exactly the same way and there is considerable heterogeneity in who becomes a jihadist and how. Minimally, though, we need to recognize that many terrorists think their religiosity is one of the primary reasons for their actions. In effect, then, it is, until demonstrated otherwise. If we wish to counter this type of terrorism effectively, then we must recognize the nature and implications of this self-understanding.[27] To quote an old maxim in sociology: “If men [sic] define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”[28] We cannot afford to sidestep this fact of social life for the reasons that will be delineated in Part II of this analysis. Ninth, my objective in advancing this critique is not to speculate on why there is an interpretive bias against taking religious motivational claims seriously, and why analyses displaying this bias are accepted so readily in the field.[29] I cannot know what researchers and readers are thinking, and it is not necessary for my constructive ends. While this analysis is polemical, the objective is to improve our understanding of the phenomenon of religious terrorism by ameliorating the problem of specificity. When we seek to understand why some individuals participate in the process of radicalization leading to violence, the set of explanatory conjectures offered—such as political grievances, socioeconomic marginalization, lack of education, mental health concerns, religious beliefs, and so on—invariably apply to a wider set of individuals than the few who engage in political violence. Wide swaths of the public may hold political grievances, for instance, but only a very few will ever turn to violence to address them. Most of the common factors proffered to explain this violence lack the specificity to differentiate who will become violent. This problem is endemic to terrorism studies,[30] and Sageman suggests this issue may serve as a litmus test for progress in the field.[31] Discounting religiosity as an important and independent variable in the motivation of religious terrorism aggravates, rather than ameliorates, the specificity problem, since much of the primary motivational data available isprima facie religious. This applies to the countless testimonies left behind by jihadist martyrs, and the evidence of their online activity, as collected and analyzed by researchers. In a study of the Twitter feed of foreign fighters in Syria and Iraq, for example, Jytte Klausen discovered that “four out of every five tweets reported from the war zone made references to jihadist dogma.” “We assumed,” she says, “that Twitter would lend itself to more practical communications and personal contacts to friends back home. As it turned out, this was largely not the case.”[32] As she goes on to comment, “[t]heir Twitter usage is surprisingly comparable to the way jihadists used online forums in the Web 1.0 environment.” Both “emphasize religious instruction and discussions of jihadist dogma,” and “[t]he continuity of the messaging is striking, even as the technology has changed dramatically.”[33,34] Similarly, in their dialogues with Western foreign fighters in Syria and Iraq, Dawson and Amarasingam found that they used “religious ideas to comprehensively frame their experiences.” Their lives were “saturated with a Salafi-jihadist religiopolitical discourse.”[35] Tenth and lastly, the analysis offered in these two articles is preliminary and somewhat programmatic. Terrorism studies is still a relatively young science that could benefit from greater knowledge translation—bringing to bear information and insights from other fields of study. The objective is to encourage different and more sensitive ways of thinking about the nature and relevance of religious motivations for terrorism.[36] To this end, the first task is to establish that there is a problem with much of the current thinking in the field.[37] Conceiving Religious Motivational Claims as Data There are at least three interrelated methodological reasons why I am not engaging in mere sophistry in saying that much of the primary data available about the motivations of religious terrorists is prima facie religious. First, the field of terrorism studies continues to suffer from a lack of primary data, and especially studies based on data obtained from interviews, most notably with terrorists.[38] In the social sciences (especially anthropology, political science, sociology, and social psychology), one of the most significant kinds of primary data available are the accounts people offer for their actions. While such accounts must always be treated with

ISSN 2334-3745 7 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 circumspection, especially in some contexts more than others (e.g., interviewing pedophiles versus scientists), there is little realistic recourse to relying on these accounts to understand the actions of others. This holds true in terrorism studies as well.[39] The accounts are not the exclusive means for understanding someone’s actions and in the face of contrary evidence, or accounts that are inconsistent or weak, they are open to questioning. The evidentiary value of these accounts cannot be dismissed, however, on some a priori basis, such as because they are religious, or they are from persons who have undergone some indoctrination. We can infer the “causes” of actions from correlations found in other kinds of data (e.g., statistical patterns, the findings of social scientific experiments or brain scans). When those inferences are at odds, however, with the accounts of the subjects of study we cannot simply assume the superior explanatory value of the indirect inferences—at least not when dealing with motivations. When faced with such divergences in data, researchers often resort, explicitly or implicitly, to “false consciousness” arguments. Arguing, however, that the actors lack a proper awareness of their motivations is invariably speculative and subject to potential interpretive biases—biases commensurate with the very biases presumed to be present in the first-person accounts the researchers are seeking to explain away. Second, it is irrelevant whether the accounts offered are social constructs[40] or even fantastic in nature (as understood in multiple ways).[41] As indicated, what matters is whether they instigate and sustain actions. In this regard, I suspect some of the reluctance to accord religious motivations a significant role in explaining religious terrorism stems from a logical mistake implicit to many efforts to explain religious terrorism. Since most social scientists think the ultimate justifications for religious belief are inadequate, they make the epistemological mistake of assuming that such false beliefs cannot be the “real” reasons, or causes, for the actions. On this basis, they assert that there must be some other real, and probably “latent”, reasons for their beliefs and actions.[42] This type of reductive reasoning is very common in social scientific approaches to religious phenomena. It also has long been the subject of dispute.[43] While rarely explicitly stated, doubts about the reality of the objects of religious veneration undergird a skepticism about the veracity of religious claims about religious behavior. Consequently, when it comes to religious terrorism, political or even psychological explanations of the actions of these terrorists are accorded greater veracity than religious ones, without much in the way of argument, because it is assumed nonreligious ways of thinking and behaving are more fundamental and real than religious ones. When it comes to explaining human actions, however, there is no sound historical or logical reason for making such an invidious comparison, or attributing higher epistemological authority to some types of accounts over others. In asserting this point, I am speculating, to some degree, about the motives of social scientists studying religious terrorism, and I said I would refrain from doing so. The clash of secular and religious sensibilities, however, runs through the social scientific study of religion.[44] Moreover, the arguments examined in Part II will show that many scholars of religious terrorism appear to be operating with conceptual and normative understandings of religion that are at odds with those espoused by the religious terrorists they are studying. This means that in their hypothetical dialogue they are literally talking past each other, which results in some significant misinterpretations of the data. In stating this, I am not simply seeking to avoid reductionism per se. As Daniel Pals states well: “In its basic sense a ‘reduction’ is a form of explanation; it arises from the essential (and laudable) desire of all science for simplicity in the face of complexity, its search for singularity in the presence of multiplicity.” As such, “reduction might well be called the cardinal principle of all science.”[45] In fact, in the face of the problem of specificity, I am invoking this “cardinal principle of all science” to justify giving more significance to the religious professions of religious terrorists in explaining and countering this type of extremism. Some types of reductionism, however, are more problematic—such as claims that entail asserting, explicitly or implicitly, that an entire realm of data is explainable in terms of another. “Reduction in this sense tends to presume a hierarchy both of phenomena and explanatory theories.”[46] While it is common for terrorism scholars to note that the causes of terrorism are multiple, and that we need to take a multifactorial approach to

ISSN 2334-3745 8 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 explaining radicalization, there is tendency to treat religious data as decidedly secondary, if not irrelevant, and treat other kinds of data as superior and capable of subsuming the religious data. With the evidence at hand, however, and in the light of a broader grasp of the historical nature and role of religion, the reverse may be true. Political objectives, for example, may be subservient to religious goals and expectations in the decisional calculus of religious terrorists. This should not constitute a novel insight in the analysis of religious terrorists, but the record of research shows it remains a point of contention. Third, we need to offset any suspicions we have of the veracity of the claims made by terrorists, and religious terrorists in particular, with a reiteration of the methodological imperative to prioritize how the subjects of study conceive of their actions. We need to grasp, as sociologists say, their “definition of the situation”. How people understand their social context (e.g., shopping, attending church, or going to a rock concert) informs their expectations. It influences who they interact with, how, and for what purposes. This in turn shapes their self-understanding. This is a core aspect of enacting social life, and hence creating social order and reality. With this in mind, Herbert Blumer argued: “.… if [a] scholar wishes to understand the action of people it is necessary for him (sic) to see their objects [i.e., physical, social, and conceptual] as they see them. Failure to see their objects as they see them, or a substitution of his (sic) meanings of the objects for their meanings, is the gravest kind of error that the social scientist can commit. It leads to the setting up of a fictitious world. Simply put, people act toward things on the basis of the meaning that these things have for them, not on the basis of the meaning that these things have for the outside scholar. Yet we are confronted left and right with studies of human group life and of the behavior of people in which the scholar has made no attempt to find out how the people see what they are acting toward.”[47] As Jeffrey Bale suggests, we need to guard against succumbing to “mirror imaging” in studying terrorism. Analysts, he argues, will often “project their own ways of thinking, their own values, their own frames of reference, and their own fantasies onto [terrorists], including those emanating from very different cultures with very different histories and values, instead of trying to view the world from the [terrorists’] own perspectives and points of view.”[48] This form of parochialism is most conspicuous in the analysis of individuals who profess to live in accordance with a comprehensive religious worldview, and especially an “extremist” one; one which deviates dramatically from the dominant social and political norms that the analysts use to construct their own social reality. This problem continues to loom large in the absence of a sufficient number of interviews with religious terrorists, and interviews with sufficient detail. The number of case studies of domestic jihadi terrorists and foreign fighters is too limited, and those available continue to rely too extensively on secondary sources—media reports, court records, and interviews with the colleagues, friends, and family members of these jihadists. The resultant accounts of their motives and actions are very helpful, but also quite incomplete. More often than not, materials from such accounts are used to illustrate points rather than provide strong evidence for an argument.[49] In most cases, moreover, there is substantial leeway for interpretive discretion, and this state of affairs places an even greater onus on us to prioritize and carefully interpret the limited primary data from the jihadists themselves that is available. To reiterate, though, this does not mean substituting one sort of reductionism for another. The primary data are only one source of data and religiosity is but one aspect of a complex mosaic of motivations influencing the turn to extremist violence. Its role, in conjunction with other variables, needs to be assessed on a case-by- case basis. When the individuals under study forcefully declare its relevance, however, we need to be open to understanding how and why it may have a significant explanatory role.

The Shifting Focus of Attention in the Study of Religious Terrorism To understand why there are problems with the assessment of the religious motivations for religious terrorism in terrorism studies it is important to consider the historical context of the analysis of religious terrorism

ISSN 2334-3745 9 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 since 9/11. In this limited context, I can only present a potted history from the perspective of a social scientist seeking to understand the process of radicalization leading to violence. The excursus highlights some of the major shifts in academic attention that likely influenced the analysis of the role of religious motivations for terrorism. A more detailed analysis warrants further consideration. In the wake of 9/11, analyses of religious terrorism were largely investigative and descriptive in nature. The focus was on gathering information about who was attacking Western targets and why. Delineating the beliefs and ideologies of the individuals and groups involved was a primary concern. This happened against the backdrop of the “clash of civilizations” thesis and a tendency to assume, too simply, that bad actions stemmed from bad ideas.[50] There were important exceptions, such as Juergensmeyer’s interviews with religious terrorists and Wiktorowicz’s field research with Al-Muhajiroun,[51] but much of the analysis of the motivations of the terrorists, especially the 9/11 suicide attackers, tended to focus on the influence of indoctrination, if not some kind of brainwashing.[52] Ironically, from this perspective, while the role of the ideology was front and center, the ideology itself received little attention. Often it was reduced to a simplistic narrative of irrational hostility to the rights and freedoms of Western democracies. The onset of the wave of so-called “homegrown” terrorist attacks, such as the 7/7 London bombings in 2005, sparked interest in developing explanations with more nuance. Attention turned to multifactorial understandings of the process of “radicalization” leading to terrorist violence, since most of the perpetrators of these attacks received little in the way of systematic training and indoctrination, and probably because they were less obviously “other.” The motivational histories of these domestic perpetrators seemed more complex and perplexing, and with increasing cognizance of the specificity problem, attention turned to broadening the explanatory repertoire beyond the direct influence of an appealing yet simplistic ideology of hate. Mounting concerns with fostering Islamophobia, inadvertently or otherwise, also prompted analysts to minimize reliance on explanatory frameworks thought to imply too direct a link between terrorism and Islam per se.[53] This situation fostered a bifurcation of lines of analysis, separating what could have been done more beneficially in tandem. On the one hand, a handful of scholars with appropriate expertise sought to enrich our grasp of religious terrorism by more exactingly and comprehensively studying the nature and history of the Salafi-jihadist ideology.[54] On the other hand, many scholars, with a more social scientific orientation, started studying contemporary jihadism, and formulating theories of Islamist radicalization.[55] The shift in attention to the study of the phenomenon of jihadist foreign fighters in Syria and Iraq, from 2012 onward, especially those traveling from the West, delayed research on the radicalization of homegrown jihadists further. Interest and research dollars were diverted to acquiring more descriptive data on how many people were joining this jihad, from where, who was going, how they were doing it, and why. Likewise, tremendous effort was invested in understanding the nature, rise, spread, and eventual failure of the Islamic State and other aspects of the “war against terrorism” in Syria and Iraq. With time, some of the data on the foreign fighters began to enter the discussion of radicalization more generally, reinforcing and modifying existing views. This research also somewhat reignited the debate over the relevance and significance of ideology, given the unprecedented success of the propaganda of the Islamic State. Overall, though, it tended to delay theoretical developments in the study of the process of radicalization more generally. This overall pattern of knowledge development created a somewhat schizophrenic situation in the field of terrorism studies that was counterproductive. Social scientific studies are replete with discussions of aspects of jihadist ideology, but they rarely reference the detailed analyses provided by the historical and textual analyses, and vice versa. Consequently, many studies of the process of radicalization focused on the analysis of the social and social-psychological aspects of radicalization, using overly simplistic conceptions of the nature of the ideology and the grounds for its appeal, and of the role of the ideology in driving extremism. This tendency was reinforced by the simultaneous turn away from attempts to secure a profile of the terrorists[56] in favor of investigating the influence of social structural factors, social networks, and small group dynamics in determining who radicalizes and how.[57] In key instances, this reorientation resulted in the near exclusion of ideology, and hence religion, from consideration as a significant factor in the process of radicalization.[58]

ISSN 2334-3745 10 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Overall, this research was instrumental in advancing our understanding of what is happening and why. Social identity theory in particular, or more precisely uncertainty-identity theory, came to the fore as a key explanatory framework for radicalization.[59] In several influential instances, however, its ascendance marked the furthest swing of the pendulum away from the earlier and simplistic stress placed on bad ideas causing bad actions. This certainly is the case, in terms of religiosity, with some of the more reductive manifestations that will be analyzed in Part II of this study. Only a handful of scholars have called for reconsideration of the pivotal role of ideology[60], and more recently, for the fuller integration of insights from the vast literature on the nature and functions of ideology.[61] In diverse ways, these authors have started to argue for the integrated study of the coevolution of the social and ideological aspects of radicalization leading to violence, both for individuals and groups.[62] How this is the case will be traced in Part II of this analysis. The study of radicalization has long been impacted negatively by a “hermeneutics of crisis management”.[63] In many ways, the effort to understand the process has been truncated repeatedly by the emergence of new government priorities. In recent years, this has happened again with the understandable demand to develop programs to counter and prevent violent extremism (CVE and PVE). In this context, the need to partner with affected communities heightened the fear of inadvertently fostering Islamophobia, and the flow of government funds generated a large array of studies designed to formulate solutions to the prevention problem well before a clear-enough conception, empirically and theoretically, of the process of radicalization was in place. In this way, the urgency of the practical demand for CVE/PVE exercised a distorting influence on radicalization research, especially with regard to the role of religiosity. It somewhat stigmatized efforts to address this issue, and diverted attention from seriously examining the claims made about the primary motivational role of religiosity by the terrorists themselves. Attention, quite literally, went elsewhere, and inadequate arguments minimizing the role of religiosity passed muster without question.

Concluding Remarks The stage is set, then, for a serious consideration of the specific types of arguments commonly used by social scientists and other experts on terrorism to dismiss the relevance of religion, and more particularly religiosity, in the explanation of religious terrorism, at both the individual and group levels. Such a lengthy preliminary analysis is necessary, given the continued reluctance to treat religiosity as a significant factor, and because the grounds for entertaining this idea are often misunderstood. Empirically the salience of religiosity is an open question that researchers can investigate and debate for every instance of “religious terrorism”; but, theoretically and methodologically, there are no strong reasons for accepting Soufan’s assertion that “terrorism has nothing to do with ideology. It has nothing to do with religion or ideas.” Similarly, while I agree with Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko[64] that “radicalization and terrorism cannot be reduced to the prevalence of bad ideas,” it is misleading to further assert “that the ‘center of gravity’ of the jihadist threat is not a radical form of Islam.”[65] The precise limitations of such arguments, however, will be the focus of Part II of this analysis. In closing, I would like to indicate a few of the curious logical binds faced by those who choose to downplay the role of religiosity in motivating religious terrorism. If, as the MI5 study cited in the introduction states, and Soufan reiterates, “a well-established religious identity actually protects against violent radicalization,” then clearly beliefs and ideas matter. One cannot have it both ways, choosing, on some unstated basis, when they matter and when they do not. Similarly, it is common to observe that ex-jihadists rarely abandon their religious beliefs and commitments altogether, even when they disengage. It is also common to argue that countering violent extremism programs should aim to achieve disengagement rather than full deradicalization, since it is so hard to change the ideology of participants. How, then, is it logical to assume that these same religious commitments played no significant role in motivating their actions? The evidence in hand, to this point, from case studies and large datasets[66], is insufficient to determine, in any precise or generalizable way, when and how religious beliefs and commitments are instrumental in the process of radicalization. Are they merely post- hoc rationalizations for violence, as McCauley and Moskalenko[67] and many others repeatedly assert, or is it more common for some kind of personal religious quest, as conjectured by Dawson and Amarasingam and

ISSN 2334-3745 11 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 others[68], to precede the turn to political violence?

About the Author: Lorne L. Dawson is a professor in the Department of Religious Studies and the Department of Sociology and Legal Studies at the University of Waterloo, Canada. He is the co-founder and co-director of the Canadian Network for Research on Terrorism, Security, and Society (www.tsas.ca).

Notes [1] It also alludes to a long list of “Bringing Back In” articles, an academic genre going back to at least George C. Homan’s classic critique of functionalism, “Bringing Men Back In,” American Sociological Review 29 (5), 1964: pp. 809–818. [2] For example, Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, Friction: How Radicalization Happens to Them and Us. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Marc Sageman, Misunderstanding Terrorism. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017). [3] In Terror in the Mind of God, Mark Juergensmeyer differentiates religious terrorism from other forms by saying it refers to acts of terrorism “for which religion has provided the motivation, the justification, the organization, and the world view” (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003, p. 7). This simple and inclusive definition serves my purposes as well. He does not provide a further definition of what he means by religion. Researchers working on religious terrorism rarely provide such definitions. Yet, as we will see, much depends on the implicit conceptions of religion they use. [4] This orientation is displayed in some media discussions as well, for example Paul Marshall, “Religion and Terrorism: Misreading al Qaeda”; in: Paul Marshall, Lela Gilbert, and Roberta Green Ahmanson (Eds.), Blind Spot: When Journalists Don’t Get Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 31–46; David Gibson, “Does Religion Cause Terrorism? It’s Complicated,” The Christian Century, 11 Sept., 2011; URL: https://www.christiancentury.org/article/2011-09/does-religion-cause-terrorism-its-complicated; and Christopher Massie, “Is ISIS a faith-based terrorist group?” Columbia Journalism Review (17 Sept., 2014); URL: https://archives.cjr. org/behind_the_news/is_isis_a_faith-based_terroris.php. [5] For example, Mark Juergensmeyer and Mona Kanwal Sheikh, “A Sociotheological Approach to Understanding Religious Violence”; in: Michael Jerryson, Mark Juergensmeyer, and Margo Kitts (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Jeffrey M. Bale, “Denying the Link between Islamist Ideology and Jihadist Terrorism: ‘Political Correctness’ and the Understanding of Counterterrorism,” Perspectives on Terrorism 7 (5), 2013, pp. 5–46, and “Introduction: Ideologies, Extremist Ideologies, and Terrorist Violence”; in: Jeffrey Bale (Ed.),The Darkest Sides of Politics, I (New York: Routledge, 2018), pp. 1–4; William McCants, The ISIS Apocalypse (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2015); Mona Kanwal Sheikh, “Sociotheology: the Significance of Religious Worldviews”; in: Luke M. Herrington, Alasdair McKay, and Jeffrey Haynes (Eds.),Nations under God: The Geopolitics of Faith in the Twenty-First Century (Bristol: E-International Relations, 2015); Shadi Hamid, “Shadi Hamid on Islamic Exceptionalism,” Foreign Policy Concepts, 2016; URL: http://foreignpolicyconcepts.com/shadi-hamid-islamic-exceptionalism/; Andrew Lebovich, “How ‘religious’ are ISIS fighters? The relationship between religious literacy and religious motivation,” Rethinking Political Islam series, 2016, Brookings Institution: URL: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Andrew-Lebovich_FINAL-2.pdf Lebovich 2016; Rüdiger Lohlker, “The ‘I’ of ISIS: Why Theology Matters,”Interventionen 7, 2016, pp. 4–15; Lorne L. Dawson, “Trying to Make Sense of Home-Grown Terrorist Radicalization: The Case of the Toronto 18”; in: Paul Bramadat and Lorne Dawson (Eds.), Religious Radicalization and Securitization in Canada and Beyond (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), pp. 64–91; Lorne L. Dawson, “Discounting Religion in the Explanation of Homegrown Terrorism: A Critique,” in James R. Lewis (Ed.), Cambridge Companion to Religion and Terrorism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), pp. 32–45; Lorne L. Dawson, “Challenging the Curious Erasure of Religion from the Study of Religious Terrorism,” Numen 65 (2–3), 2018, pp. 141–164; Graeme Wood, “True Believers: How ISIS Made Jihad Religious Again,” Foreign Affairs (Sept./Oct., 2017); URL: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/ review-essay/2017-08-15/true-believers; Adam Hoffman, “The Religiosity Challenge in Analyzing Islamist Movements,”The Forum for Regional Thinking (07/09/ 2017); URL: https://www.regthink.org/en/articles/the-religiosity-challenge-in-analyzing-islamist- movements; Maarten Boudry, “Disbelief about Belief: Why Secular Academics do not Understand the Motivations of Religious Fundamentalists,” New English Review (May 2019); URL: https://www.newenglishreview.org/Maarten_Boudry/Disbelief_About_ Belief/; Megan K. McBride, “Unforced Errors: ISIS, the BAATH Party, and the Reconciliation of the Religious and the Secular,” Politics, Religion and Ideology 20 (2), 2019, pp. 170–191; Jeppe Fuglsang Larsen, “The Role of Religion in Islamist Radicalisation Processes,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, first online publication 5 May, 2020; Beatrice A. de Graaf and Kees van den Bos, “Religious Radicalization: Social Appraisals and Finding Radical Redemption in Extreme Beliefs,” Current Opinions in Psychology 40, 2021, pp. 56–60. [6] Darcy M.E. Noricks, “The Root Causes of Terrorism”; in Paul K. David and Kim Cragin (Eds.), Social Science for Counterterrorism (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation 2009), p. 39. [7] Jessica Stern, “Five Myths about Who becomes a Terrorist,” Washington Post (Jan. 10, 2010); URL: https://today.law.harvard.edu/ stern-in-the-washington-post-myths-about-terrorists/. [8] Ali Soufan, “Former FBI Agent Ali Soufan: Terrorism Has Nothing to Do with Ideology or Religion; People Join Extremist

ISSN 2334-3745 12 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Organizations for Political, Social, Cultural Reasons,” MEMRI (The Middle East Media Research Institute), 2019; URL: http:// youtube.com/watch?v=Yx6waSfXoOc. [9] Daveed Gartenstein-Ross and Laura Grossman, Homegrown Terrorists in the U.S. and the U.K.: An Empirical Examination of the Radicalization (Washington: Foundation for Defense of Democracies, 2009), p. 55. [10] By “Western”, I most specifically mean Europe, the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, and Australia. In referring to “homegrown”, I am addressing persons born or long residing in the West who have undergone a process of radicalization leading to violence. “Jihadists” refers to individuals subscribing to a Salafi-jijhadist ideology. I am including both domestic terrorists and foreign fighters, those plotting attacks in the countries in which they reside and those who have traveled abroad to join various jihadist groups, such as al-Qaeda, al-Shabaab, and the Islamic State. [11] Max Taylor and John Horgan, “A Conceptual Framework for Addressing Psychological Process in the Development of the Terrorist,” Terrorism and Political Violence 18, 2006, p. 598. [12] John Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2014 and others (e.g., Randy Borum, “Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A Review of Social Science Theories.” Journal of Strategic Security 4 (4) 2011, pp. 7–36). [13] Marc Sageman, “The Turn to Political Violence in the West”; in: Rik Coolsaet (Ed.),Jihadi Terrorism and the Radicalisation Challenge (Farnham, Surrey, UK: Ashgate, 2011), p. 117; Randy Borum, 2011, op. cit., p. 30; Jamie Bartlett and Carl Miller, “The Edge of Violence: Towards Telling the Difference Between Violent and Non-Violent Radicalization,” Terrorism and Political Violence 24, 2012, pp. 1–21; James Khalil, “Radical Beliefs and Violent Actions Are Not Synonymous: How to Place the Key Disjuncture Between Attitudes and Behaviors at the Heart of Our Research into Political Violence,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 37, 2014, pp. 198–211; Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, “Toward a Profile of Lone Wolf Terrorists: What Moves an Individual from Radical Opinion to Radical Action,” Terrorism and Political Violence 26 (1), 2014, p. 72; Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, “Understanding Political Radicalization: The Two Pyramids Model,” American Psychologist 72 (3), 2017, p. 211; Bart Schuurman and Quirine Eijkman, “Indicators of Terrorist Intent and Capability: Tools for Threat Assessment,” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 8 (3), 2015, pp. 7–8; Marc Sageman, 2017, op. cit., pp. 80–81, 136. [14] Lorne L. Dawson, “Clarifying the Explanatory Context for Developing Theories of Radicalization: Five Basic Considerations,” Journal for Deradicalization 18 (Spring 2019), pp. 50–87; Lorne L. Dawson, “Taking Terrorist Accounts of their Motivations Seriously: An Exploration of the Hermeneutics of Suspicion,” Perspectives on Terrorism 13 (5) 2019, pp. 65–80. [15] Lorne L. Dawson, “Debating the Role of Religion in the Motivation of Religious Terrorism,” Nordic Journal of Religion and Society 31 (2) 2018, pp. 98–117, and Lorne L. Dawson, “Religion and Terrorism”; in: Robert Segal, (Ed.)., Wiley-Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell), forthcoming in 2021. [16] Lorne Dawson, 2018, op. cit. and Lorne Dawson, “Religion and Terrorism,” forthcoming, op. cit. [17] Lorne Dawson, 2017, op. cit, p. 40. [18] Tom Quiggan, “Understanding al-Qaeda’s Ideology for Counter-Narrative Work,” Perspectives on Terrorism 3 (2), 2009, pp. 18–24. [19] Ibid., p. 21. [20] Ibid., p. 20. [21] Lorne L. Dawson, “Sketch of a Social Ecology Model for Explaining Homegrown Terrorist Radicalisation,” The Hague: International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, Research Note 8 No. 1, 2017; URL: https://icct.nl/publication/sketch-of-a-social- ecology-model-for-explaining-homegrown-terrorist-radicalisation/; Lorne L. Dawson, “The Social Ecology Model of “Homegrown” Jihadist Radicalization”; in: Akil N. Awan and James R. Lewis (Eds.), Radicalisation in Comparative Perspective (London and New York: Hurst and Oxford University Press, forthcoming). [22] Lorne Dawson, “Sketch” 2017, op. cit. [23] For example, Bruce Hoffman, “‘Holy Terror’: The Implications of Terrorism Motivated by a Religious Imperative,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 18 (4) 1995, pp. 271–284; Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God, 3rd ed. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003). [24] Mark Juergensmeyer, 2003, op. cit.; see also Ivan Strenski, “Sacrifice, Gift and the Social Logic of Muslim ‘Human Bombers’,” Terrorism and Political Violence 15 (3), 2003, pp. 1–34. [25] Lorne L. Dawson, “The Study of New Religious Movements and the Radicalization of Home-grown Terrorists: Opening a Dialogue,” Terrorism and Political Violence 21 (1) 2010, pp. 1–21; Sheikh, 2015, op. cit.; de Graaf and van den Bos, 2021, op. cit. [26] Daniel Koehler, Understanding Deradicalization: Methods, Tools and Programs for Countering Violent Extremism (London: Routledge, 2017).

ISSN 2334-3745 13 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[27] Lorne Dawson, “Debating” (2017), op. cit., pp. 42–43. [28] William I. Thomas and Dorothy S. Thomas,The Child in America: Behavior Problems and Programs (New York: Knopf, 1928), pp. 571–572. [29] In each case, after all, the arguments have passed muster with the editors and reviewers of the journals that published the studies, and they failed to attract much in the way of a critical response from readers. [30] Max Taylor, The Terrorist (London: Brassey’s, 1988); Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), p. 69; John Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism, 1st ed. (New York: Routledge, 2005), pp. 74 and 101. [31] Marc Sageman, “The Stagnation in Terrorism Research,”Terrorism and Political Violence 26 (4) 2014, pp. 565–580. [32] Jytte Klausen, “Tweeting the Jihad: Social Media Networks of Western Foreign Fighters in Syria and Iraq,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 38, 2015, p. 10. [33] Ibid., p. 10. [34] Klausen cites two studies in support of this claim: Edna Erez, Gabriel Weimann, and A. Aaron Weisburd, “Jihad, Crime, and the Internet: Content Analysis of Jihadist Discussion Forums,” (Washington, DC: USDOJ, 2011; URL: https://www.ncjrs.gov/ pdffiles1/nij/grants/236867.pdf, and Edna Reid, “Analysis of Jihadi Extremist Groups’ Videos,” Forensic Science Communications (Washington, DC: FBI, July 2009). [35] Lorne L. Dawson and Amarnath Amarasingam, “Talking to Foreign Fighters: Insights into the Motivations for Hijrah to Syria and Iraq,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 40 (3), 2017, p. 206. [36] Arguing that social scientists studying religious violence must take the social implications of theology seriously, Mona Kanwal Sheikh similarly states that in studying activists who support violent actions “the main question relates to how they viewed the world in a way that would allow these actions to be carried out. What is being examined … is a way of looking at social reality that enables certain action: an ‘epistemic worldview’” (2015), op. cit., p. 138). [37] I may be more sensitive to the issue because of my academic training in the study of religion. I recognize, however, that this also means I bring a bias to the debate, since I have a professional interest in promoting the significance of religion in the study of terrorism. My argument, however, should stand or fall on its merits. [38] Andrew Silke, “Research on Terrorism: A Review of the Impact of 9/11 on the Global War on Terrorism”; in: Hsinchun Chen, Edna Reid, Joshua Sinai, Andrew Silke, Boaz Ganor (Eds)., Terrorism Informatics Knowledge Management and Data Mining for Homeland Security, (Boston: Springer, 2008), pp. 27–50; Bart Schuurman, “Research on Terrorism, 2007–2016: A Review of Data, Methods, and Authorship,” Terrorism and Political Violence 32 (5), 2020, pp. 1011–1026; Lorne Dawson, “Clarifying,” 2019, op. cit., pp. 164–166. [39] John Horgan, “Interviewing Terrorists: A Case for Primary Research”; in: H. Sinchun Chen, Edna Reid, Joshua Sinai, and Andrew Silke and Boaz Ganor (Eds.), Terrorism Informatics: Knowledge Management and Data Mining for Homeland Security. Boston: Springer, 2008, pp. 94–96; John Horgan, “Interviewing the Terrorists: Reflections on Fieldwork and Implications for Psychological Research,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 4 (3) 2012, pp. 198–201; James Khalil, “A Guide to Interviewing Terrorists and Violent Extremists,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 42 (4) 2019: 429–443; Lorne L. Dawson, “Taking Terrorist Accounts of their Motivations Seriously: An Exploration of the Hermeneutics of Suspicion,” Perspectives on Terrorism 13 (5) 2019, pp. 65–80. [40] C. Wright Mills, “Situated Actions and Vocabularies of Motive,” American Sociological Review 5 (6) 1940, pp. 904–913; Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann,The Social Construction of Reality (New York: Penguin Books, 1967); Marvin B. Scott and Stanford M. Lyman, “Accounts,” American Sociological Review 33 (1) 1968. [41] Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1983); Charles Taylor, “Modern Social Imaginaries,” Public Culture 14, 2002, pp. 91–124; Ivan Strenski, “Sacrifice, Gift and the Social Logic of Muslim ‘Human Bombers’,”Terrorism and Political Violence 15 (3), 2003, pp. 1–34; John Calvert, “The Mythic Foundations of Radical Islam,”Orbis (Winter 2004), pp. 29–41; Claudia Strauss, “The Imaginary,” Anthropological Theory 6 (3), 2006, pp. 322–344; Mark Juergensmeyer, “Religious Terrorism as Performance Violence”; in: Michael Jerryson, Mark Juergensmeyer, and Margo Kitts (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Scott Atran, “The Devoted Actor: Unconditional Commitment and Intractable Conflict across Cultures,” Current Anthropology 57, 2016 (Supplement 13): S192–S203; Simon Copeland, “Telling Stories of Terrorism: A Framework for Applying Narrative Approaches to the Study of Militant’s Self-Accounts,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 11 (3), 2019, pp. 232–253; Pieter Nanninga, “‘Cleansing the Earth of the Stench of Shirk’”: The Islamic State’s Violence as Acts of Purification,”Journal of Religion and Violence 7 (2), 2019, pp. 128–157. [42] Edward J. Larsen and Larry Whitman, “Scientists and Religion in America,” Scientific American, 281 (3), 1999, pp. 88–93; Elaine Howard Ecklund and Christopher P. Scheitle, “Religion among Academic Scientists: Distinctions, Disciplines, and Demographics,” Social Problems 54 (2), 2007, pp. 289–307. [43] For example, Daniel Pals, “Is Religion a Sui Generis Phenomenon?” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 55 (2), 1987, ISSN 2334-3745 14 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 pp. 259–282; Thomas Idinopulos and Edward Yonan (Eds.),Religion and Reductionism: Essays on Eliade, Segal, and the Challenge of the Social Sciences for the Study of Religion (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1994); Russel McCutcheon (Ed.), The Insider/Outsider Problem in the Study of Religion: A Reader (New York: Continuum, 1999). [44] For example, Benton Johnson, “Sociological Theory and Religious Truth,”Sociological Analysis 38, 1977, pp. 368–388; Donald Wiebe, “Beyond the Sceptic and the Devotee: Reductionism in the Social Scientific Study of Religion,”Journal of the American Academy of Religion 52, 1984, pp. 157–165; Lorne L. Dawson, “On References to the Transcendent in the Scientific Study of Religion: A Qualified Idealist Proposal,” Religion 17 (4), 1987, pp. 227–250; Eileen Barker, “Presidential Address: The Scientific Study of Religion? You Must Be Joking!” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 34 (3), 1995, pp. 287–310; Ann Taves, Religious Experience Reconsidered (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009). [45] Pals, 1987, op. cit., p. 261. [46] Ibid., p. 262. [47] Herbert Blumer, Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1969), pp. 50–51. [48] Jeffrey Bale, 2013, op. cit., p. 6. [49] For example, Petter Nesser, “Joining Jihadi Terrorist Cells in Europe: Exploring Motivational Aspects of Recruitment and Radicalization,” in Magnus Ranstorp (Ed.), Understanding Violent Radicalization: Terrorist and Jihadist Movements in Europe (London: Routledge, 2010), pp. 87–114; Lorenzo Vidino, “The Buccinasco Pentiti: A Unique Case Study of Radicalization,”Terrorism and Political Violence 23 (3), 2011, pp. 398–418; Daan Weggemanns, Edwin Bakker, and Peter Grol, “Who Are They and Why Do They Go? The Radicalisation and Preparatory Processes of Dutch Jihadist Foreign Fighters,” Perspectives on Terrorism 8 (4), 2014, pp. 100–110; Marion Van San, “Lost Souls Searching for Answers? Belgian and Dutch Converts Joining the Islamic State,” Perspectives on Terrorism 9 (5), 2015, pp. 47–56; Lorenzo Vidino and Seamus Hughes, “ISIS in America: From Retweets to Raqqa,” Program on Extremism, George Washington University, 2015; URL: https://extremism.gwu.edu/isis-america; Francesco Marone, “Italy’s Jihadists in the Syrian Civil War.” The Hague: International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, Research Paper (August 2016); URL: https://icct. nl/publication/italys-jihadists-in-the-syrian-civil-war/; Amarnath Amarasingam and Lorne L. Dawson, “‘I Left to be Closer to Allah’: Learning about Foreign Fighters from Family and Friends.” London: Institute for Strategic Dialogue, 2018; URL: http://www.isdglobal. org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Families_Report.pdf; David Thomson, The Returned: They Left to Wage Jihad, Now They’re ,Back translated by Gregory Flanders (Cambridge: Polity, 2018); Amir Rostami, Joakim Sturup, Hernan Mondani, Pia Thevselius, Jerzy Sarnecki, and Chistofer Edling, “The Swedish Mujahideen: An Exploratory Study of 41 Swedish Foreign Fighters Deceased in Iraq and Syria,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 43 (5), 2020, pp. 382–395. [50] Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?”Foreign Affairs 72 (3), 1993; Bernard Lewis, “The Revolt of Islam,”The New Yorker (Nov. 19, 2001); URL: https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2001/11/19/the-revolt-of-islam ; Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 (New York: Random House, 2006). [51] Juergensmeyer, 2003, op. cit.; Ouintan Wiktorowicz, Radical Islam Rising (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005). [52] Mitchell D. Silber and Arvin Bhatt, “Radicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat,” New York City Police Department, 2007; URL: https://seths.blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/NYPD_Report-Radicalization_in_the_West.pdf; Lorne Dawson, 2010, op. cit.; Simon Cottee, “The Zoolander Theory of Terrorism,” The Atlantic (May 12, 2015); URL: https://www.theatlantic.com/ international/archive/2015/05/zoolander-terrorists-brainwashed-isis/393050/. [53] Jeffrey Bale, 2013, op. cit. [54] For example, Mary Habeck, Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006); Quintan Wiktorowicz, “Anatomy of the Salafi Movement,”Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29 (3), 2006, pp. 207–239; Shmuel Bar, Warrant for Terror: Fatwās of Radical Islam and the Duty of Jihād (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006); David Cook, Martyrdom in Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Joas Wagemakers, “The Transformation of a Radical Concept: al-wala’wa-l-bara in the Ideology of Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi”; in Roel Meijer (Ed.), Global Salafism: Islam’s New Religious Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 81–10; Thomas Hegghammer, “Jihadi-Salafis or Revolutionaries? On Religion and Politics in the Study of Militant Islamism”; in Roel Meijer (Ed.), Global Salafism: Islam’s New Religious Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 244–266; Shiraz Maher, Salafi-Jihadism: The History of an Idea (London: Hurst, 2016); Juan Carlos Antunez Moreno, “Salafism: From a Religious Movement to a Political Force,” Revista de Estudios en Seguridad Internacional 3 (1), 2017, pp. 11–41. [55] For example, Marc Sageman, 2004, op, cit.; Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008); Fathali Moghaddam, “The Staircase to Terrorism: A Psychological Exploration,” American Psychologist (Feb.–Mar., 2005), pp. 161–169; Quintan Wiktorowicz, 2005, op. cit.; Mitchell Silber and Arvin Bhatt, 2007, op. cit.; Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, 2011, op. cit.; Rik Coolsaet, “Terrorism and Radicalization: What Do We Know?” in Rik Coolsaet, (Ed.), Jihadi Terrorism and the Radicalization Challenge 2nd ed. (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011), pp. 259–268; Petter Nesser, Islamist Terrorism in Europe: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); Angela Rabasa and Cheryl Benard, Eurojihad: Patterns of Islamist Radicalization and Terrorism in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Mohammed Hafez and Creighton Mullins, “The Radicalization Puzzle: A Theoretical Synthesis of Empirical Approaches to Homegrown Extremism,”Studies

ISSN 2334-3745 15 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 in Conflict and Terrorism 38, 2015, pp. 958–975; Arie Kruglanski, David Webber, Katarzyana Jasko, Marina Chernikova, and Erica Molinario, “The Making of Violent Extremists,”Review of General Psychology 22 (1), 2018, pp. 107–120. [56] Jeff Victoroff, “The Mind of the Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 49 (1), 2005, pp. 3–4; John Horgan, “From Profiles to Pathways and Roots to Routes: Perspectives from Psychology on Radicalization into Terrorism,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 618 (1), 2008, pp. 80–94; Jonathan Rae, “Will it ever be Possible to Profile Terrorists?”Journal of Terrorism Research 3 (2), 2012, pp. 1–6. [57] Marc Sagemen, 2004, op cit. and Marc Sagemen, 2008, op. cit.; Wiktorowicz, 2005, op. cit.; Horgan, “From Profiles to #Pathways and Roots,” 2008, op. cit.; Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, “Mechanisms of Political Radicalization: Pathways toward Terrorism,” Terrorism and Political Violence 20, 2008, pp. 415–433 and Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, 2011, op. cit. [58] For example, Robert A. Pape, Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism (New York: Random House, 2005); Andrew Silke, “Holy Warriors: Exploring the Psychological Processes of Jihadi Radicalization,” European Journal of Criminology 5 (1), 2008, pp. 99–123.; Arie W. Kruglanski, Xiaoyan Chen, Mark Deschesne, Shira Fishman, and Edward Orehek, “Fully Committed: Suicide Bombers’ Motivation and the Quest for Personal Significance,” Political Psychology 30 (3), 2009, pp. 331–355; Robert Agnew, “A General Strain Theory of Terrorism,”Theoretical Criminology 14 (2), 2010, pp. 131–153; Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, 2008, op. cit., 2011, op cit., and “Understanding Political Radicalization: The Two Pyramids Model,” American Psychologist 72 (3), 2017, pp. 205–216; Michael A. Hogg, “From Uncertainty to Extremism: Social Categorization and Identity Processes,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 23 (5), 2014, pp. 338–342; Olivier Roy, “What is the Driving Force behind Jihadist Terrorism? A Scientific Perspective on the Causes/Circumstances of Joining the Scene.” Speech delivered to the BKA Autumn Conference (Bundeskriminalamt [German Federal Police Agency]), 18–19 November, Fiesole, Italy; URL: www.bka.de/nn_256982/…/ herbsttagung2015RoyAbstract.pdf, and Olivier Roy, Jihad and Death: The Global Appeal of Islamic State (London: Hurst, 2017); Manni Crone, “Radicalization Revisited: Violence, Politics and the Skills of the Body,” International Affairs 92 (3), 2016, pp. 587–604; Bart Schuurman and John G. Horgan, “Rationales for Terrorist Violence in Homegrown Jihadist Groups: A Case Study from the Netherlands,” Aggression and Violent Behavior 27, 2016, pp. 55–63; Marc Sageman, 2017, op. cit.; Bart Schuurman, Edwin Bakker and Quirine Eijkman, “Structural Influences on Involvement in European Homegrown Jihadism: A Case Study.”Terrorism and Political Violence 30 (1), 2018, pp. 97–115. [59] For example, Seth J. Schwartz, Curtis S. Dunkel, Alan S. Waterman, “Terrorism: An Identity Theory Perspective,”Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, 2009, pp. 537–559; Michael Hogg, 2014, op. cit.; Lorne L. Dawson, “Sketch” 2017, op. cit.; Marc Sageman, 2017, op. cit.; J. M. Berger, Extremism (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2018); Arie Kruglanski et al., 2018, op. cit. [60] Alessandro Orsini, “Poverty, Ideology and Terrorism: The STAM Bond,”Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 35, 2012, pp. 665–692; Lorne Dawson, “Sketch” 2017, op. cit.; Lorne L. Dawson, “Debating the Role of Religion in the Motivation of Religious Terrorism,” Nordic Journal of Religion and Society 31 (2), 2018, pp. 98–117; Arie Kruglanski et al., 2018, op. cit. [61] Donald Holbrook and John Horgan, “Terrorism and Ideology: Cracking the Nut,” Perspectives on Terrorism 13 (6), 2019, pp. 2–15; Jeppe Fuglsang Larsen, 2020, op. cit. [62] Fernando Reinares, Carola Garcia-Calvo, and Álvaro Vicente, “Differential Association Explaining Jihadi Radicalization in Spain: A Quantitative Study,” CTC Sentinel (July, 2017), pp. 29–34; Lorne Dawson, “Clarifying” 2019, p. 168; Lorne Dawson, “The Social Ecology Model” forthcoming, op. cit. [63] David W. Brannan, Philip F. Esler, N. T. Anders Strindberg, “Talking to Terrorists: Towards an Independent Analytical Framework for the Study of Violent Substate Activism,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 24 (1), 2001, pp. 3–24. [64] Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, 2011, op. cit. [65] Ibid., p. 221. [66] For example, PIRUS, “Profiles of Individual Radicalization in the United States”; URL: https://start.umd.edu/data-tools/profiles- individual-radicalization-united-states-pirus [67] Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, 2011, op. cit., p. 220.

[68] Lorne L. Dawson and Amarnath Amarasingam, 2017, op. cit.

ISSN 2334-3745 16 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Dying to Live: The “Love to Death” Narrative Driving the Taliban’s Suicide Bombings by Atal Ahmadzai

Abstract Embracing the tactic of suicide bombings first in 2003, the Taliban in Afghanistan quickly emerged as the leading terrorist group in the world that has claimed responsibility for such bombings. Over a period of more than 10 years, the group has indiscriminately carried out hundreds of suicide bombings across the country. How have the Taliban managed to operationalize one of the most notorious bombing tactics against all the existing social and cultural odds of Afghan society? To answer this question, this study, by applying qualitative thematic analysis, examined the contents of the Taliban’s written and audio-visual materials on suicide bombings. Two dominant narratives, namely “Istish-haadi” [seeking martyrdom] and “love to death,” that are at the core of the Taliban’s produced literature on suicide bombings, have supplied the group with dispensable human bombs. These bombers, the study concludes, are “dying to live”. Keywords: Afghanistan, human bombs, martyrdom, political violence, suicide bombings, Taliban bombers, Taliban terrorism.

Introduction Although the history of suicide missions can be traced back to ancient times, suicide bombings are a modern form of political violence.[1, 2] These bombings were pioneered in Lebanon in the early 1980s.[3] They soon spread to other armed conflicts around the world, including Sri Lanka, Turkey, and Chechnya.[4] However, it was only in the post-9/11 world that the incidence of suicide bombings increased exponentially, making sui- cide bombings the outstanding characteristic of contemporary global terrorism (See Figure 1). With the initiation of the War on Terror, suicide bombings have systematically transformed from a unique form of political violence to a full-blown warfare tactic for terrorist groups. These groups, which include the Taliban in Afghanistan, have embraced these bombing tactics to advance their agendas by inflicting unexpect- ed violence and thereby affecting the political climate.[5] While terrorist groups easily find and marshal hundreds of individuals to willingly walk or drive toward an enemy risking death, the phenomenon of suicide bombings has remained an enigma. To unwrap this enigma, scholars have studied different terrorist groups that resorted to the use of this tactic. An overwhelming majori- ty of these studies are focused on suicide bombings in the Middle East, mainly in Palestine, Lebanon, and Iraq. [6] However, one group that, somehow, did not attract that much attention, is the Taliban with their suicide bombings in Afghanistan. Only a limited number of studies have looked at the Taliban’s human bombs. Semple studied the case of the Taliban’s suicide bombings from the perspective of the group’s ideological orientation and organizational struc- ture.[7] Williams provides a general commentary on different aspects of the Taliban suicide bombings.[8] The United Nations Assistance Mission to Afghanistan (UNAMA) describes Taliban’s suicide bombings mainly through the lens of civilian casualties.[9] By utilizing different quantitative approaches, Rome argues that the Taliban’s suicide bombers are incompetent and for that reason do not constitute the group’s main strength. [10] Edwards’ ethnographic approach to suicide bombings in Afghanistan asserts that these bombings have a sacrificial orientation.[11]

ISSN 2334-3745 17 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Figure 1: Frequency Distribution of Suicide Bombings Per Year (1974-2016)*

*Source: The graph is based on numbers provided by the Suicide Attack Database of the Chicago Project on Security and Terrorism (CPOST) ([Dataset]; accessed 26 April 2016)

The present study explores the motivations that lead Taliban bombers to blow themselves up to kill and destroy. The study examines whether Taliban suicide bombers are “dying to win,” “dying to kill,” “dying to expiate,” or, paradoxically, “dying to live.”[12] The article proceeds in four sections. Initially, it briefly describes the methodology used for this study. Subse- quently, the article explores the particularities of the Taliban’s suicide bombings. Within this section, the author sheds light on how the Taliban’s suicide bombings differ from suicide bombings in the Middle East. In the third section, the author explores the narratives that are at the core of the Taliban’s suicide bombings. Lastly, before ending with a concluding note, the article briefly discusses its findings in the light of the relevant literature.

Methodology The Taliban [from the Arabic ‘Talib’ = ‘student’, used by adding -‘an’ as plural in Pashtu] have published and disseminated materials to justify and promote their suicide bombings. This qualitative explorative study aims to analyze the contents of the group’s specific materials on its suicide bombers which are scarce. This is unlike the situation in Palestine or in Iraq with the ubiquity of suicide bombers’ farewell letters or their detailed bi- ographies.[13, 14] To cope with such scarcity, this study mined any type of relevant materials that the Taliban have published, including written (manifestos, books, articles, and poems), verbal (sermons/preaching, bal- lads) and visual (preoperational proclamation and warfare promotional clips) sources.

Data Mining and Cleaning Government and Internet media counter-terrorism measures have made Jihadi electronic prints notoriously unstable.[15] To overcome this challenge in the data mining process, the study conducted a web-based search of the Taliban’s official and affiliated websites as well as a general web search. In total, 19 of the Taliban’s official and affiliated websites (See Table III) and tens of non-affiliated websites were explored. In addition, this study also used YouTube and Facebook, primarily to mine relevant audio-visual materials of the group.

ISSN 2334-3745 18 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Given the ephemeral and migratory nature of the Taliban’s electronic print, it took this study three years (from March 2016 to April 2019) to periodically explore, identify, and scrap the Taliban’s official and affiliated- web sites and social media accounts. In addition, the instability of the group’s media outlets made it difficult to iden- tify a specific coverage time period for the search. To overcome this problem, the author of this article decided to arrange the search and scraping processes periodically/in waves. Over the course of three years, a total of six waves of websites identification, searching, and scraping episodes were conducted. In total, most scraped materials were published or republished between 2012 and 2019 by different outlets. Thesearches were conducted in Pashtu, Dari (Farsi), Urdu, Arabic, and English. Key search words and phrases were translated from one language to another during the data mining process. Subsequently, for redundancy, the key terms and words were conjugated with other terms and phrases that have recursive usage for suicide bombings in mainstream and social media outlets. In total, thousands of pieces of materials containing the key search words and phrases were mined. Most of these materials were reproduced and republished in multiple sources. For that reason, the first step of data cleaning was to address multiplicity by identifying and discarding duplicate materials. The second phase of data cleaning focused on identifying materials that were produced by the Taliban and their affiliated sources. For that purpose, ‘medium of dissemination’ was used as the key identification marker. Only materials that were published and disseminated by the Taliban’s official and affiliated websites were included in the corpus. The organization’s logo was used as the identification marker for visual materials.

The Corpus In total, 50 items, including 2 books, 16 articles/commentaries, 2 of the Taliban’s codes of conduct, 21 suicide bombers’ proclamation clips, and 9 audio sermon/preaching clips were identified as the corpus of this study. [16] In the last 10 years, at least, much has been written in Pashtu, Dari/Farsi, Arabic, and even Urdu languages about the suicide bombings of the Taliban. However, this body of literature is not or cannot be directly related to the group. This study rigorously collected, carefully screened, and robustly processed a portion of the liter- ature that can be verifiably related to the Taliban. As a result, this study considers the corpus as the universe of the Taliban’s publications on their suicide bombings. This corpus represents the period between 2012 and 2019. A reporting bias relevant to the contents of the corpus must be acknowledged. This study assumes that the Taliban may have more recorded preoperational proclamation clips of their suicide bombers than those that the group has released. During data processing, it became evident that the group is highly selective in releasing clips, using only those suicide bombers who have targeted military installations or personnel. Most bombers who have targeted populated and urban areas remained unreported. Such a reporting bias resulted in the in- clusion of a limited number of preoperational clips in the corpus, which may have quantitative effects on the analyses of the study. However, given the thematic similarities among the preoperational clips in the corpus, this study assumes that the qualitative impacts of the reporting bias on the analyses of this study are minimal, if any at all. Subsequently, the study classified the contents of the corpus into two folders. First, the“ Taliban Official” folder included materials reflecting the Taliban’s official standing on suicide bombings, including the books, articles/ commentaries, preaching clips, and military operational promos. Second, the “Suicide Bombers” folder con- tained materials related to the suicide bombers—the preoperational proclamation videos.

Analyzing the Data By applying a qualitative thematic analysis method, this study seeks to comprehend the motives behind the bounded system of the Taliban’s suicide bombings. Operationally, thematic analysis identifies patterns and trends within a set of qualitative data.[17] As such, the method is intended to explore the underlying themes and narratives in the Taliban’s suicide bombings literature. Practically, pertaining to the contents of extremist

ISSN 2334-3745 19 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 media, thematic analysis gives more significance to the language used in the construction of the given ideas and narratives.[18] This distinctive ability of the method allows the study to analyze the use and types of language that the Taliban and their suicide bombers use in their written and spoken materials. This specific method has been used by Macnair & Frank (2017), Khosravi et al. (2016), and Goerzig & Al-Hashimi (2015) to study the contents of extremist/Jihadi media.[19–21] Initially, the audio and video clips were transcribed. To avoid losing meaning, none of the pieces in the corpus were translated. Subsequently, four categories, namely Justification, Occupation/Invasion, Criticism, and Mis- cellaneous, were identified in the transcripts of the“ Taliban Official” folder. Similarly, four categories, name- ly Life, Occupation/Invasion, Afterlife, and Miscellaneous, were identified in the transcripts of the“ Suicide Bombers” folder. After identifying the categories with colour schemes, coding was applied to each coloured text. Subsequently, each section of the coded text was extracted from the documents and compiled in a new document named after the specific category. Four new documents, namely Justification, Invasion, Criticizing, and Miscellaneous with a suffix of“ Taliban Official,” were created from the transcript in the “Taliban Official” folder. The same number of documents, namely Life, Invasion, Afterlife, and Miscellaneous with a suffix of “Taliban Bomber,” were created from the transcripts in the “Suicide Bombers” folder. By size, the heaviest (worded) document within the “Taliban Official” folder was “Justification,” followed by “Criticizing,” “Miscella- neous,” and “Invasion.” Similarly, in the “Taliban Bomber” folder, the heavy-worded document was “Afterlife,” followed by “Life,” “Miscellaneous,” and “Invasion.” In the next stage, different themes were identified within each of the Category Documents. The“ Miscella- neous” and “Invasion” categories did not show any specific themes and the contents were widely scattered around different issues and topics, including but not limited to the“ hardship the Prophet suffered,” “the suffer- ing of Muslims,” “message to family,” “the movement of Taliban,” and the “sacrifice of Taliban.” In the last phase of the analysis, the author examined each thematic area for the existence of underlying rea- soning and narratives. The study focused on identifying the type, nature, and ubiquity of the reasons used in the identified themes. In each theme, a given reasoning or narrative was identified and highlighted. At the end, authoritative/religious reasoning exclusively based on sacred scripts (the Quran and Hadith) and stories, large- ly imaginative, emerged as the two main underlying reasons used in the different thematic areas.

Characteristics of the Taliban’s Suicide Bombings The birth of the Taliban’s post-9/11 insurgency is in parallel with their embrace of suicide bombings.[22] In 2003, the group introduced this tactic in Afghanistan by carrying out its first attack in the capital Kabul.[23, 24] Before this, no evidence exists to suggest the use of this tactic by any domestic actor at any time in the pro- longed warfare history of the country. Similarly, this study did not trace any evidence indicative of the Taliban resorting to suicide bombings prior to 2003. In addition to consulting other sources, the present study system- atically reviewed the online repository of the Taliban Source Project (TSP) but found no evidence suggesting that the group has mentioned, discussed, or even promoted suicide bombings, in an array of terminology, between the period of 1994 and 2003.[25] Subsequently, the group quickly created an infrastructure to train suicide bombers; plan and execute attacks and generate high-quality propaganda materials.[26] Based on the Robert Pape’s CPOST data that was accessed in April of 2016, in more than a dozen years (2003–2015), the Taliban emerged as the leading terrorist organi- zation in the world that has claimed responsibility for the most suicide bombings.[27] Out of the total 5,430 suicide bombings that 104 terrorist groups have carried out across the globe since 1981, the Taliban claimed 774 (14.25% of the total) of them; only second to the 2,520 unclaimed bombings (See Table 1 in the Annex). [28] Similarly, analysis of the Global Terrorism Database (GTD) data (1970–2018) reveals that second to Iraq, Afghanistan has the highest number of suicide bombings, with 1,339 or 19.1% of the total 7,011 carried out since 1970 (See Table 2a in the Annex).[29] This positioned Afghanistan as having the second-highest number among the 49 countries where the most suicide attacks were carried out.[30]

ISSN 2334-3745 20 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Figure 2: Categorizing and Thematic Analysis

From a strategic perspective, the introduction and the rapid expansion of suicide bombings within the Afghan theatre of operation is critical. Some scholars considered this transfer from the Middle East an alarming and dramatic strategic shift in global terrorism.[31, 32] However, paradoxical to this strategic significance, the case of the Taliban’s suicide bombings has not attracted the required scholarly attention. This case has largely remained in the shadow of the most-studied cases of suicide bombings in the Middle East. At both policy and strategic levels, any comprehension of the Taliban’s suicide bombings based on over-gener- alized conclusions of suicide bombings in the Middle East is problematical and in the end misleading. Such an approach may have helped in a preliminary exploration of the Taliban’s “human bombs,” but it cannot amount to an in-depth and robust understanding of this rapidly expanding case of extreme political violence. The dynamics of the two cases—suicide bombings in the Middle East and those in Afghanistan—are different and so are nature and circumstances surrounding suicide terrorism in these two distinctive theatres of oper- ation. The cultural, historical, and strategic attributes and contexts of the two geographic regions need to be taken into consideration. These distinctive characteristics indicate a stark contrast between the dynamics of these two cases.

Differentiating the Taliban’s Suicide Bombings from Those in the Middle East First and foremost, the existence of a customary value system in Afghanistan facilitates a social and cultural context that is different from that in the Middle East. The Pashtunwali code of conduct, in addition to other aspects of life, has shaped the warfare conduct and ethos of Afghans. (For more on Pashtunwali, see: Barfield 2010 [33] and Habibi 1962.[34]) Unlike in the Middle East, where strategic implications of suicide terrorism overshadowed its normative and legal aspects, in Afghanistan these bombings are scrutinized based on the traditional code. The Taliban, in- spired by their fundamentalist religious orientation, disregard the traditional warfare ethos. As a result, they

ISSN 2334-3745 21 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 have based their conduct of warfare on extremist religious thoughts and interpretations. This fundamentalism, including the use of suicide bombings, is largely imported from the Middle East.[35–37] For example, one of the warfare norms of Pashtunwali that defies the conduct of committing suicide in warfare is “Tura”, Literally meaning ‘sword,’ this notion in warfare demands bravery by fighting face-to-face, not even under the cover of the night.[38] Inflicting indiscriminate violence by trickery tactics in the battlefield [the two defining characteristics of suicide bombings] is considered as cowardice.[39] More specifically, in Pashtunwali, bravery is not defined by dying in war. Metaphorically, it is the nature and place of the wound—the one that indicates face-to-face engagement—that defines a warrior’s bravery.[40, 41] Secondly, dying in warfare or for any given cause, per se, is not a virtue of warriorship in Pashtunwali. In the Middle East, this may have been a value within some cultural groups (see Ergil 2000[42]). Here is where a fine, yet critical distinction, between simply dying for a cause and fighting for a cause to the extent of death must be made. In dying for a cause, the virtue is in dying. In fighting to death for a cause, however, the virtue is the cause that needs to be defended to the extreme limit. Pashtunwali promotes defending specific causes and values in- cluding, but not limited to, individual and collective dignity and honor to the extent of death. This distinction has made the practice of embracing death without a fight—characteristic of suicide bombings—unpopular within Afghan traditional warfare ethos. Traditional Afghans will indeed fight to the death, perceiving this as an honorable deed; however, their warrior ethos does not normally include killing themselves deliberately.[43] These cultural values have facilitated a critical and hostile public mindset toward suicide bombings. On the other hand, in the Middle East, at least in some theatres of operation such as Palestine and Iraq, the existence of public support toward suicide bombings is well documented (See [44–50]). The overall social aversion against suicide bombings in Afghanistan can be illustrated by the fact that when the Taliban first resorted to suicide tactics, many Afghans refused to accept that the performers of these attacks were Afghans.[51] This shows that the Taliban has operationalized their suicide bombings in a strategic milieu with strong social and cultural aversions toward killing oneself in war. For these reasons, the Afghan resistance groups fighting against the Soviets in the 1980s avoided the use of suicide bombings. Although thousands of Arab fighters from the Middle East and North Africa with Salafi Jihadist ideology and familiar with suicide terrorism joined the Afghan Mujahideen to fight against the Soviets, these foreign fighters were not allowed to diverge from the local cultural/traditional warfare ethos. However, post 9/11, the Taliban’s new warfare ethos based on a fun- damentalist interpretation of Islamic law, put into question some traditional values and conducts.[52] In order to operationalize their suicide bombings in a social and cultural context that is hostile to using suicide missions in warfare, the Taliban had to rely on more psychological and ideological interventions and arrangements. Based on the mentioned differences, inferring comprehensions about the Taliban’s suicide bombings from the conclusions drawn from suicide bombings in the Middle East is not conclusive, but rather based on over- stretched and stylized facts. To understand the Taliban’s suicide bombings, the phenomenon must be studied and treated as an independent case, surrounded by distinctive social and cultural circumstances including the Afghan cultural resentment to suicide bombings.

Taliban’s Written and Spoken Materials on Suicide Bombings The Taliban’s approach to cope with the social resentment toward suicide bombings is systematic. In addition to disseminating materials, they have included relevant guidelines on suicide bombings in their official code of conduct—the Layeha (For the translated Layeha, see; Clark 2011[53]). In general, the group has disseminated written, verbal, and visual materials. The written texts are mostly conceptual contents, including three books that are rich in religious script and are intended to provide moral-legal legitimacy.[54–56] The conceptual materials heavily rely on complex religious reasoning, which suggest that they are not likely intended for public consumption, but rather for religiously informed debates. The Taliban’s initial written work on suicide bombings originated from Arab Jihadi sourc- es. In 2004, soon after adopting suicide bombings as one of the insurgency’s main warfare tactics, the Taliban

ISSN 2334-3745 22 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 translated and disseminated Yusuf Al-ayeri’s book on martyrdom-seeking operations. In this booklet, Al-ayeri, the founder of Al-Qaeda in the Arab Peninsula, inferred the claimed legitimacy of suicide bombings from Islamic sources. In addition to other sources, his work is dependent on the writings of Ibn Taymiyyah. This medieval-era controversial Islamic theologian wrote extensively on the legal and moral aspects of Jihad-related issues, including its obligatory rather than optional status, killing oneself, civilian casualties, and executing traitors (see; Ibn Taymiyyah (1995).[57]). Contrary to the written materials, the audio recordings of sermons of the group’s ideologues, preachers, and sympathizers are simple in language and are emotionally enhanced and value-laden. These speeches use both religious and mundane/strategic reasoning and are largely intended for public consumption. The visual con- tents that include the group’s operational promos and the suicide bombers’ preoperational proclamations are the only sources that directly depict suicide bombers talking about these operations. Comparing to the frequency of their suicide bombings, the Taliban seldom releases the proclamation clips of their suicide bombers. In addition, the group does not practice writing farewell letters or producing detailed biographies of the bombers. This is different in Palestine, where writing farewell letters among the suicide bombers is common.[58] This may have two reasons. First, to avoid public scrutiny. Tactically, the group does not take ownership and claim responsibility of suicide bombings that target public places with massive civil- ian casualties. Secondly, due to the strong social and cultural hostility/aversion toward suicide bombings, the group safeguards the bombers’ relatives and family from possible social resentment by not releasing most of their suicide bombers’ proclamations.

The Underlining Narratives This study has uncovered the existence of two dominating narratives that the Taliban have used to promote their suicide bombings. The first is an explicit narrative of “Istish-haadi”,[59] while the second is an implicit “love to death” narrative.

1. The Istish-haadi [Seeking Martyrdom] Narrative Since its establishment as a religious militant group in 1994, the raison d’être of the Taliban’s political ideology has been to establish the rule of the divine. It is practically and theoretically not feasible to distinguish what is political for the group and what is religious. They have consistently justified their ideology/political thoughts and warfare ethos and conducts based on the interpretations and narratives they derive from scripture—the Quran and the Hadiths. This also goes for the Taliban’s arguments with regard to suicide bombings—these are exclusively based on religious doctrines. To assert the moral-legal legitimacy of suicide bombings, the Taliban has exclusively based its reasoning on the notion of martyrdom/Shahada in Islam. From the notion of Shahada, they inferred the narrative of mar- tyrdom-seeking or Istish-haad. This narrative is frequent in their materials. In fact, the group officially named their suicide bombings as “Istish-haadi” [martyrdom-seeking] attacks. At the core of this narrative is the debate on Intehar and Istish-haad.

Debate)استشهاد( and Istish-haad )انتحار( The Intehar The Taliban’s written literature on suicide bombings revolves around the two notions of “Intehar” and “Is- -is an Arabic term that is widely used for “suicide.” It also is a well-known and broad )انتحار( tish-haad.” Intehar ly used term in Pashtu and Dari (Farsi); the two main languages in Afghanistan. On the other hand, Istish-haad also an Arabic word, means “seeking martyrdom.” This is not a commonly used term but is widely ,)استشهاد( known among religious scholars. The teaching on suicide in mainstream Islamic jurisprudence is clear: there is a broad-based consensus within all branches and sects of Islamic jurisprudence regarding the legal status of committing suicide, it is forbidden.

ISSN 2334-3745 23 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[60] In their writings, the Taliban do not contest this. Quite the reverse, the group explicitly denounces suicide as a sinful conduct that is religiously outlawed and prohibited.[61] However, the debate does not end there. To provide a full explanation on the issue, the Taliban explored: What constitutes suicide (Intehar)? and, Are suicide bombings suicide? To answer these questions and to differentiate between “Intehar” and “Istish-haad,” the Taliban apply a her- meneutic approach by deriving different meanings from religious texts, differentiating their suicide bombings from killing oneself. The group argues that the fundamental reason for the prohibition of suicide in Islam is not the act of killing oneself per se, but the cause(s) behind the killing. The debate revolves around the mundane and the sacred. If killing oneself is a result of existential problems, including material or emotional attachments or despair, then the act is considered “Intehar,” which is a vice.[62] They argue that as humans owe their life/existence to the divine, individual human beings do not own it and thereby, they do not have any right to either end or waste it for materialistic and mundane reasons.[63] Materialistic association with life is considered a deviation and killing oneself is forbidden because it indicates a materialistic and emotional association to life.[64] For the Taliban, it is not the inherent value of life that led to the prohibition of suicide, but rather the devia- tion from the celestial purpose of life. However, if the reasons for killing oneself relate to nonexistential and divine circumstances—engaging in jihad—then giving up on life is considered Istish-haad.[65] Based on such reasoning, the Taliban oppose referring to their suicide bombings as “suicide attacks” and instead call them Istish-haadi [martyrdom-seeking] attacks. Citing global Jihadist sources, the Taliban argue that giving up on life for religious purposes constitutes a deep-rooted tradition in Islam, and that the legitimacy of Istish-haad is attested by the sacred texts. They de- nounce mainstream Islamic authorities and scholars who have condemned and edicted suicide bombings as religiously outlawed.[66–68] The Taliban claims that as the legitimacy of Istish-haad is explicitly proven in sacred texts, its legal status is therefore beyond opinion, consensus, and reasoning.[69–72]

Sources of Legitimacy The Taliban resort to two sources to claim the legitimacy of their suicide bombings. First, by authoritative reasoning based on the [interpretations of] scripture. Secondly, by applying a circular reasoning that revolves around Jihad, Martyrdom, and Istish-haad. Authoritative Reasoning: The Taliban’s standing on the moral and legal legitimacy of suicide bombings is as- sertive. They claim that such legitimacy is well-grounded in the sacred texts, therefore there is no room for further reasoning. They frequently cite the following Hadith with a decontextualized interpretation as a source of legality. The Hadith reads (translation): The Prophet said, “By Him in Whose Hands my life is! Were it not for some men amongst the believers who dislike to be left behind me and whom I cannot provide with means of conveyance, I would certainly never remain behind any Sariya’ (army-unit) setting out in Allah’s cause. By Him in Whose Hands my life is! I would love to be martyred in Allah’s Cause and then get resurrected and then get martyred, and then get resurrected again and then get martyred and then get resurrected again and then get martyred (Sahih al-Bukhari Book 56, Hadith 15). In addition, the Taliban also cite the following very similar Hadith to support the claim that seeking martyr- dom is religiously recommended as an ultimate goal. It reads (in translation):

Allah’s Messenger said, “By Him in Whose Hand my life is, I would love to fight in Allah’s cause and then get martyred and then resurrected (come to life) and then get martyred and then resurrected (come to life) and then get martyred, and then resurrected (come to life) and then get martyred and then resurrected (come to life).” Abu Huraira used to repeat those words three times and I testify

ISSN 2334-3745 24 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

to it with Allah’s Oath (Sahih al-Bukhari (Book 94, Hadith 1). The Taliban has borrowed numerous similar Hadiths from global Jihadists and Salafi sources that claim legit- imacy of suicide bombings based on holy scripture. Unlike mainstream Islamic jurisprudence that provides highly contextualized interpretations and meanings of the sacred texts, the Jihadist sources, and for that rea- son, the Taliban, take recourse to literal and decontextualized meanings. Circular Reasoning: The group also infers the legitimacy of suicide bombings by applying a circular reasoning, which links jihad, martyrdom, and suicide bombings in a complicated and confusion-inducing logic. The fal- lacy includes justifying the effectiveness of suicide bombings in terms of inflicting violence on the adversaries. [73] Subsequently, they construct the jihad-martyrdom-suicide bombing nexus (See Figure 3). Figure 3: Illustration of Taliban’s Circular Reasoning Used as an Instrument for Legitimizing Suicide Bombings

The argument starts with insisting the necessity and obligation of Jihad due to the helpless circumstance of Muslims in different parts of the world. The argument continues by promoting martyrdom as the desired and divinely recommended outcome of Jihad and a divinely recommended conduct.[74] Subsequently, the argument focuses on proving suicide bombings to be the only conduct with certain and unescapable probability of inducing martyrdom.[75] By referring to the uncertainty of becoming martyred during conventional warfare engagements, Taliban preachers encourage their fighters to adopt suicide tactics as the most practical path for realizing the sense of urgency of martyrdom. Only the martyred are the ones who succeeded. Survival in the battle is a vice…. We don’t know if we will die cursed or blessed. Only embracing the Istish-haad is the salvation…and you all should promote [it] among your families and offspring.[76]

ISSN 2334-3745 25 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Istish-haad Is Not Sacrifice The Taliban’s interpretation of suicide bombings goes beyond the notion of sacrifice. Two factors, the ownership of life and the source of the decision of giving up on life, differentiate their conceptualization of suicide bombings from that of sacrificial conduct. The Istish-haadi narrative is based on the ontological assertion that the soul and body of human beings, and for that reason of suicide bombers, is owned by the divine.[77] Thus, suicide bombers do not own their lives nor souls. This invalidates the notion of sacrifice, as ownership of the sacrificial gift is principally and practically the prerequisite in offering the sacrifice. As life does not belong to the bombers, they cannot sacrifice what is not theirs. The second element that differentiates the Taliban’s suicide bombings from sacrifice is the decision to carry out the act. While sacrifice is often voluntary, the Taliban asserts that choosing the subject for a suicide bombing is not the decision of the bomber, but of the divine. Therefore, the decision can neither be contested nor denied as the attack is not the killing of oneself, but rather the obligation to carry out a decision made otherworldly. This argument constructs a special and chosen identity for the bomber. The Taliban argues that to be chosen for giving up life for the rule of the divine is a privilege that not everyone is entitled to, but only those who are chosen.[78] To support this claim, the Taliban’s sources narrate a verse from the Quran, which reads that God makes martyrs among you (Cf. chapter 3, verse 140 in the Quran).[79] Consequently, the Taliban infers that carrying out suicide bombings is a practice of trading off the earthly life for the one hereafter. However, humans do not have the will to make this choice. It is the exclusive right of the divine to choose subjects for such a transaction. This divine selection, in addition to shaping a chosen identity for the bombers, constructs a sense of inevitable obligation. The suicide bombers, who are already overwhelmed by their chosen status, become indebted to follow up with the decision. The status that is promised to suicide bombers in response to the trade-off is not immortality, but satisfied eternity. Within Islamic teaching, the immortality in the hereafter is universal for everyone. However, trading off life by committing suicide leads to a state of satisfied eternity.[80–82]

2. The ‘Love to Death’ Narrative Analyzing the Taliban’s material on suicide bombings also reveals the existence of a “love to death” narrative. An extreme version of this narrative is characterized by a disdain for life and a love for death. Messages that discourage the love of life and glorify death are plentiful and explicit in the Taliban’s materials, especially in their preoperational proclamations. In the following excerpt from a clip, the bombers fervently speak of their experience as a journey toward the ultimate reality—from the illusive life to a satisfied eternity. While discouraging any attachment with the earthly being, the bombers passionately talk about the hereafter: “… to my [family], when you hear about my martyrdom do not express sorrow but jubilation, as I am returning [the life] back without wasting and investing it in this vice [world]….”[83] They explicitly appeal to giving up on loving life through embracing death, as any attraction toward, or attachment with, earthly life is a divergence and deviation from the ultimate reality: “How can serving yourself, country, home, kids… justify your [earthly] existence in hereafter? … it is not late; come on! Follow this path [suicide]….”[84] In addition, the willingness to detach from life and embrace death is promoted as the exclusive strength of Muslims’ youth’s force: “The true lovers are those who celebrate the message of their death as good news, their pride, and their triumph…They [suicide bombers] know what to love….” [85] However, the Taliban does not consider the “love to death,” narrative as nihilistic, but rather portrays it as a

ISSN 2334-3745 26 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 path toward the ultimate reality. Their bombers predominantly and ardently talk about an alternative realm that is beyond the dimensions of time and space. They preach that the worldly existence is not real but rather an illusion and a wearisome ordeal; and that embracing death is the journey toward the true existence. They sound convinced that what they are chosen for—suicide bombing—will end such an ordeal: “…so, be careful! Shall not be deceived by the colours of the life; shall not be shackled by the love of materials, offspring, and loved ones. All these are contemptuous. Hence! Move towards the battle fields and run towards those paradises that are as expanded as skies and….”[86] These bombers seem ecstatic. They speak of an alternative state, induced by the fact that they will soon transition to an ultimate reality, one that will allow them not to feel the pain and hardship of existence.[87] Such an alternative understanding of life and existence is a recurring theme in the clips of suicide bombers: “My brothers! There won’t be any worries, all the pains and problems of this life will go forgotten... my appeal to all believers! Who want to get satisfaction and peace, come and join us, you will get the eternal peace.”[88] In their proclamations, Taliban suicide bombers convey their message with a pleasant and satisfied demeanour. In addition, the visual effects used to enhance the clips made the images of the bombers more radiant. The explicit speech and the clear outlook of the bombers implicitly exudes a state of satisfaction and peace. The bombers express satisfaction in being the chosen one for trading off the illusive state of existence on earth with the real, satisfied, and eternal one. The intention is to convey the message that the opportunity of Istish-haad that is bestowed upon these bombers induces such satisfaction and peace.

Discussion The Taliban’s conceptual work on suicide bombings is not original. On the contrary, they recycle the radical Islamists and Salafi literature of the Middle East. These sources have inferred the claimed moral and legal legitimacy of suicide bombings from controversial Islamic literature whose history goes as far back as the medieval times, in particular the controversial 13th-century Islamic theologian Taqi-u-Din Ibn Taymiyyah, who has remained a major point of reference within the global Jihadist literature, and for that reason, also in the Taliban’s writings on suicide bombings. In the 18th century, Ibn Abdul Wahab of the Najd, the founder of the Salafi/Wahabi school of thought, has built upon the work of Ibn Taymiyyah.[89, 90] This challenges Edwards’ assertion that Abdullah Azam, the ideologue of the Arab fighters during the Afghan Jihad in the 1980s, was the one who provided a scriptural basis for the promotion of martyrdom and killing oneself and civilians in Jihad.[91] Azam simply tried to contextualize the existing controversial literature to the realities of the late 20th century. Although Arab fighters have promoted and encouraged martyrdom operations, the question that remains unanswered is why suicide bombings could not hold their ground during the Afghan Jihad against the Soviets in the 1980s. While the Jihadist and Islamists were using suicide bombings in Lebanon and later in Palestine in the 1980s, their peers in Afghanistan simply did not. Why? Edwards could not provide an explicit answer to this question. However, the differences in the ideological and cultural orientations of the Arab fighters and the Afghan Mujahideen should have prevented the former in operationalizing their tactic of suicide bombings on the Afghan front. Ideologically, the disconnect between the Arab fighters and the Afghan Mujahideen was obvious.[92] Largely being followers of Hanafi jurisprudence, the Afghan Mujahideen, including their mainstream Sunni scholars of the original Deobandi school of thought, were not accommodating the radical doctrines of Ibn Taymiyyah and Abdul Wahab that Azam was preaching. In addition to the doctrinal disconnect, culturally, the warfare ethos of the Afghans stood in stark contrast with that of the Arab fighters. This may have caused the absence of suicide tactics during the Jihad era. Johnson argues that the absence of suicide missions in Afghanistan before the Taliban was due to the cultural aversion of Afghans to suicide.[93]

ISSN 2334-3745 27 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

However, with the radicalization and proliferation of Pakistani Madrasas, the ideological orientation of the Deobandi school of thought in Pakistan has shifted. The process that was initiated in the late 1970s by the Pakistani dictator General Zia with financial support from the Saudis and the United States was aimed at broader strategic goals.[94] This ultimately caused the emergence of a new generation of Pakistani and Afghan Deobandi Ulema (religious scholars), including the Taliban, whose ideological orientation is guided by radical Islamist doctrines. The contents of the Taliban’s literature on suicide bombings, including the constructed narratives—‘love to death’ and Istish-haadi—and their underlying reasoning, confirm the group’s radical ideological shift. Gopal and van Linschoten (2017) argue that over the past two decades, the Taliban’s ideology has transformed from ‘traditionalist’ Islam to a form of political Islam espoused in the Arab world.[95] Similarly, Giustozzi (2007) asserts that the neo-Taliban’s post-2002 ideological orientation transformed from their original rigid ultra- orthodox Deobandi way of thinking toward a more internationalist Islamist ideology.[96] More specifically, Brahimi (2010) argues that the adoption of suicide bombings by the Taliban is a radical ideological evolution from conservative Deobandi Islam toward fundamentalism/Islamism.[97] While the Taliban has recently publicly rejected any affiliation with the global and regional Jihadist groups such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS, the group’s decision to resort to suicide violence and its underlying logic is inspired by the theological reasoning promoted by the extremist Jihadi groups with a global outlook. The group’s reasoning, logic, and epistemological orientation has converged with the reasoning advanced and promoted by groups ranging from the Muslim Brotherhood to Al-Qaeda.[98] Particular to suicide bombings, the group not only has become more radicalized in promoting indiscriminate violence, but also resorted to promote irrationality among its potential suicide bombers. A deeper scrutiny of the group’s suicide bombings’ corpus points to the existence of an irrational and dystopian understanding of reality and existence. This narrative promotes “love to death” and is prominent in the Taliban’s suicide bombers’ speeches. However, it is not an individual orientation. The foundation is provided by the group’s “Istish-haadi” narrative, which is drawn from a decontextualized and reinterpreted comprehension of the notion of martyrdom in Islam. The group has constructed these narratives to serve two strategic purposes. First, to morally and legally legitimize the violence of suicide bombings. For their individual recruits, these narratives provide a moral cover for the violence they inflict.[99] This is a rational tactic for tackling the strong cultural aversion of Afghan society to suicide bombings, which is largely shaped by the traditional warfare ethos of the Pashtunwali code of conduct. The social resentment to suicide bombings was so strong that initially the Taliban had to rely on non-Afghan human bombs (usually Arabs or Pakistanis).[100, 101] As such, there was a need for the Taliban to dilute this aversion and operationalize suicide bombings by constructing appropriate authoritative/religious reasoning. Thus, they adopted a scriptural Istish-haadi narrative that links suicide terrorism with the notion of martyrdom. Secondly, against the backdrop of the strong local cultural ethos, it was not practical for the Taliban to operationalize their suicide campaigns solely relying on the notion of martyrdom. Therefore, to sustain and perpetuate their campaigns, they constructed an irrational narrative of “love to death.” While both of these objectives are part of a rational strategy, the group has resorted to promote an irrational and dystopian way of thinking among its potential suicide bombers. Taliban’s “love to death” is suicidal and irrational. In their preoperational speeches, the bombers reveal both suicidal tendencies and an irrational and twisted explanation of life. They hold earthly existence to be illusive and the hereafter to be real. Hence for them, embracing death is the journey from an illusive status toward an ultimate reality. The bombers’ denial of the reality of the material world defies Edwards’ assertion of suicide offerings (sacrifice) as a means to materialize the sacred and mundane worlds.[102] In this regard, the main discrepancy between Edwards’ sacrificial assertion and the Taliban’s narratives lies in the conceptualization of the ends and the means.

ISSN 2334-3745 28 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

For Edwards, the logic of suicide as a sacrificial act is to establish and materialize pathways between the sacred and the profane worlds through the mediation and destruction of the victim [the bomber and those killed]. [103] However, for the suicide bombers and the Taliban, martyrdom-seeking is an instrument that facilitates the journey from the illusive material world toward a real, sacred existence. By studying the case of the Pakistani Taliban, Sheikh argues that through suicide bombings, the actor is prioritizing an otherworldly mission over worldly goods.[104] Hence, while Edwards’ ethnographic scrutiny of the Taliban’s suicide bombings is based on the overarching assumption of rationality, the Taliban’s materials point to a dystopian and irrational understanding of existence. Both narratives mentioned here are heavily shaped by specific interpretations of religious texts. Semple argues that the religious case presented in the profiles of the Taliban’s suicide bombers is unsophisticated and largely non-textual. He rightly observed that all Taliban suicide bombers invoke religion, but not in a sophisticated manner.[105] This is true when it comes to the speeches of the bombers. The Taliban’s ideologues and preachers, however, heavily rely on, and cite, sacred text. Some of the proclamation clips were edited with audio effects that narrate verses from the Quran. In addition, the group’s written materials are highly sacred text–based and contain complex religious reasoning. In general, religious text is an inseparable aspect of the Taliban’s narratives on suicide bombings. This is unlike some of the generalized secular and grievance-based assertions for suicide bombings, including those of Pape 2003 [106], Talal 2007 [107], and Egril 2000.[108] On the contrary, the Taliban’s use of religion is similar to Bloom’s argument. Bloom identified similarities between contemporary suicide terrorism with the medieval Shi’a Muslim Assassins in terms of indoctrinating their followers to the level of irrationality and the use of religious rhetoric to justify the infliction of violence.[109] Both the irrational orientation of the bombers and the use of religious rhetoric explicitly exists in the Taliban’s narratives on suicide bombings. To eliminate any possible doubt about the religious legitimacy of suicide bombings, the Taliban avoids resorting to secular reasoning. For example, they do not refer to their Istish-haadi attacks as heroic martyrdom, which may reflect an earthly/secular goal. This is unlike what Hafez found about Iraqi jihadist suicide bombers. Hafez argues that in order to avoid overwhelming their audience by complicated ideological and political discourses, Iraqi jihadists use simplistic narratives of glory and heroic martyrdom.[110] The Taliban does the complete opposite. In addition to the use of complex authoritative/religious reasoning, they resort to logical fallacy and circular reasoning to induce confusion among their listeners/followers. Given the fact that the Taliban has continuously faced strong societal resistance, this may have played a role in the Taliban resorting to the use of complicated authoritative reasoning and logical fallacy. Since the traditional Pashtoonwali code of warfare does not include references to support the newly adopted warfare tactic of suicide bombings, this may have led the Taliban to resort to circular logic and complex religious reasoning. Culturally, the traditional Afghan warfare ethos does not promote embracing death as a value. This both shapes and defines the existence of a deeply rooted social mindset on heroism in warfare; that is to fight face-to-face until the end. This is another reason that the Taliban avoids using the notion of ‘heroism’ in their narratives. Rather, the Taliban exclusively based their argumentation on fundamentalist interpretations of religious texts. This interpretation consists of a dystopian understanding of life and reality and has shaped the Taliban’s ‘love to death’ narrative. The fluidity and highly contextualized nature of religious texts can easily be misinterpreted for constructing erroneous authoritative narratives. Soufan argues that by using scripture, lore, and codes of conduct, organizations like Al-Qaeda often develop their own countercultures which are usually going beyond accepted social and religious norms.[111] This is certainly true for the Taliban’s suicide bombings. Taking advantage of the multiple ways of scriptural interpretation, they have constructed narratives that promote an irrational socialization and a misleading understanding of life and reality. Such alternative understandings/countercultures have generally been overlooked by those scholars who largely dissect suicide bombings under the overarching presumption of rationality. For example, Talal claims that killing oneself is not uncommon in peace and preparing to die is not uncommon in war.[112]

ISSN 2334-3745 29 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

This assertion confuses two completely opposing orientations to life: the glorification of death, and the love of life. Killing oneself in peace is not the same as willing to die in war by carrying out suicide attacks. Killing oneself in peace due to despair and overwhelming existential problems/pains does not constitute the ‘love to death’ orientation of the performer of the act. Quite the reverse, it conveys the message of hopelessness and an inability to celebrate life. It is the extreme form of rejection of not having a life without despair or pains. Here, the end is not dying, but rather ending the pains and despair that overburden life and living. Similarly, altruistic missions and the willingness to kill or be killed on the battlefield is aimed at the ultimate envisioned goal of life and freedom, for oneself and/or for other group members. Here once again, the end is not dying but rather standing up for life and its given associated values to the end. The Taliban’s narratives on suicide bombings neither suggest heroic martyrdom nor altruistic missions, as conceptualized by Durkheim and Johnson.[113–115] The Taliban’s narratives express a strong bond and love, not with life, but with death. Life and existence for the Taliban’s aspiring suicide bombers is illusive, deceptive, and leading to vice. Conversely, embracing death is understood as transcending from this illusive life into a real, eternal, and highly satisfactory state of being. Such orientations may be viewed as what Strenski, Semple, and Fierke refer to as martyrdom.[116–119] However, the Taliban’s understanding of martyrdom induced by suicide is different. They place a distinction between martyrdom induced during regular warfare engagements and the “martyrdom-seeking” operations (suicide bombings). While the notion of martyrdom has a highly contextualized interpretation within mainstream Islamic jurisprudence, the “Istish-haadi” conceptualization is its most radical and fundamentalist interpretation. The Taliban differentiate Istish-haadi attacks with martyrdom in regular warfare engagements by constructing a chosen identity of the suicide bombers. They argue that suicide bombers, unlike regular fighters, are divinely chosen. The purpose of this distinction goes far beyond seeking any political or moral justifications. Rather, it serves as an instrument of recognition and obligation. The bombers, in addition to their special identity/recognition, also have the inevitable obligation to carry out the divine-given mission. Strategically, this closes any potential avenues of retreat by the bombers. In the case of Iraq, Hafez revealed the elevation of the Iraqi suicide bombers’ identity to that of an extraordinary moral being as a result of their ultimate sacrifice.[120] Similarly, the Taliban acknowledge the bombers’ special identity, but the reason for this is not due to sacrifice. It is due to the divine selection of the bombers. As such, the bombers are willing to accept the divine decision by embracing death. Hence, contrary to what has been asserted by scholars like Hafez [121] and Msellemu [122], the motivation to embrace death is not merely seeking otherworldly reward systems of eternity, promises of paradise, or immortality in highly pleasurable circumstances. On the contrary, a complex system of divine recognition, worldly obligation, and otherworldly satisfaction is driving the Taliban’s bombers to embrace death.

Conclusions The Taliban in Afghanistan have embraced suicide bombings since 2003. Within a short period of time, the group developed an infamous industry of manufacturing “human bombs.” They soon became the leading terrorist organization in the world, claiming responsibility for the greatest number of suicide bombings. Two narratives assist the Taliban in supplying their bombing campaigns with large numbers of bombers. First, an Istish-haadi narrative, which is based on authoritative reasoning derived from sacred texts. In addition, the group has resorted to logical fallacy/circular reasoning in producing the desired narrative. This narrative serves as the conceptual foundation for providing moral-legal legitimacy to suicide bombings. However, legitimization does not mean the practicality of these terminal missions, especially in a social and cultural milieu that is dismissive of suicide killing in warfare. To overcome this challenge, the group constructed yet another narrative; “love to death.” It is based on an irrational and dystopian interpretation of the mundane existence. It promotes an alternative comprehension of reality that is beyond the premises of time and space, one which does not bear any relation to rationality.

ISSN 2334-3745 30 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Two aspects of these narratives are prominent. First, martyrdom is the central tenet of the Taliban’s suicide bombing industry. However, their understanding of martyrdom induced by suicide bombings is different. The decision to choose subjects for these bombings does not reside with the bombers, but rather is bestowed upon them by the divine. This renders the decision to embrace death indisputable and binding for the bombers. In addition, such selection renders their actions as solely following through with divine orders rather than committing suicide. The second noteworthy aspect of the Taliban’s narratives is their specific conceptualization of life. They consider death by suicide bombing as a transformation from an illusive and transient earthly existence toward a real and satisfied eternity. This is a crucial element as it promotes the idea of ‘love to death’ whereby death is regarded not as demise, but a passage toward a satisfied eternity. The Taliban resorted to the construction and use of these narratives as a strategic lifeline for their insurgency. Without “human bombs” at their disposal, the insurgency might well have faded away. Resorting to suicide bombings for the Taliban became a rational tactic in order to ensure the continuation and longevity of their insurgency. However, they pay a high price for this as the meaning of life and reality that the Taliban has constructed in their narratives is irrational, dystopian, and suicidal. For the Taliban’s bombers, the decision to embrace the certainty of death with little or no hesitation is beyond any logical and rational justification. These bombers are seeking life by willingly and joyfully embracing death. Scholars have advanced different theses regarding the motives of suicide bombers, including a desire to win, to kill, to expiate, and as a reaction to injustice. However, the message that the Taliban’s suicide bombers explicitly send out regarding their willingness to embrace death is outside the realm of rationality. The absurd message is that they are dying to live.

About the Author: Atal Ahmadzai is a postdoctoral research associate at the School of Government and Public Policy at the University of Arizona, where he is investigating the governance systems of the Taliban. He holds a Ph.D. in Global Affairs/IR from Rutgers-University. As a practitioner and researcher in development studies, Dr. Ahmadzai has firsthand knowledge and field experience in conflict-ridden areas, including Afghanistan.

Notes [1] This study conceptualizes “suicide mission” as a general term that refers to any type of suicide tactic that requires the death of the perpetrator for the success of the mission. The article, however, refers suicide bombings exclusively to those suicide missions that use explosives attached to either human body or the vehicle to carry out the attack.

[2] Pedahzur, Ami., Arie Perliger, and Leonard Weinberg. ‘Altruism and Fatalism: The Characteristics of Palestinian Suicide Terror- ists.’ Deviant Behaviour 24 (2003): 405–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/713840227.

[3] Pape, Robert. Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random House, 2005, p. 14.

[4] Crenshaw, Martha. ‘Explaining Suicide Terrorism: A Review Essay.’ Security Studies 16, no. 1 (2007): 133–62. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/09636410701304580.

[5] Horgan, John. The Psychology of Terrorism. London: Routledge, 2005.

[6] For studies that are focused on suicide bombings in Middle East, see: Shakiki [44], Bloom [123], Pape [3], Moghadam [124], Moghadam [30], Hafez [14], Pedahzur, Perliger & Weinberg [2], Asad [107], Cohen [13], Merari [125], Brynen [126], Crenshaw [127], Schbley [128], Krueger and Maleckova [129], Post et al [130], Schweitzer [131], and Hicks & et al [132].

[7] Semple, Michael. ‘Rhetoric, Ideology, and Organizational Structure of the Taliban Movement.’ Peaceworks, 102 (2014): 12.

[8] Williams, Brian. ‘Cheney Attack Reveals Taliban Suicide Bombing Patterns’. Terrorism Monitor 5, no. 4 (2007).

[9] UNAMA. ‘Suicide Attacks in Afghanistan (2001–2007).’ United Nations Assistance Mission to Afghanistan, Kabul, 2007.

[10] Rome, Henry. ‘Revisiting the Problem from Hell: Suicide Terror in Afghanistan.’ Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 36, no. 10 (2013): 819–38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2013.823752.

ISSN 2334-3745 31 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[11] Edwards, David. Caravan of Martyrs: Sacrifice and Suicide Bombing in Afghanistan. California: University of California Press, 2017.

[12] These are several political theses on suicide bombings developed by various scholars. “Dying to live” is the thesis advanced by the author of the present study.

[13] Cohen, Shuki. ‘Mapping the Minds of Suicide Bombers using Linguistic Methods: The Corpus of Palestinian Suicide Bomb- ers’ Farewell Letters (CoPSBFL).’ Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 39, no. 7–8 (2016): 749–780. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/105761 0X.2016.1141005.

[14] Hafez, Mohammed. ‘Martyrdom and Mythology in Iraq: How Jihadists frame suicide terrorism in videos and biographies.’ Terrorism and Political Violence 9 (2007): 95–115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550601054873.

[15] Shuki, Cohen, 2016, op. cit.

[16] For transparency and possible replication purposes of the study, the researcher has committed himself to make the corpus available upon request to bonafide researchers for these purposes. However, due to the nature of the content and its potential of unintentionally spreading and promoting violence, the corpus will not be made available on a public domain.

[17] Braun, Virginia, & Victoria Clarke. ‘Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology.’ Qualitative Research in Psychology 3, no. 2 (2006): 77–101.

[18] Macnair, Logan, & Richard Frank. ‘“To My Brothers in the West . . .”: A Thematic Analysis of Videos Produced by the Is- lamic State’s al-Hayat Media Center.’ Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 33, no. 3 (2017): 234–253. URL: https://doi. org/10.1177/1043986217699313.

[19] Ibid., 18.

[20] Khosravi, Shadi, Peter Kwantes, Natalia Derbentseva, & Laura Huey. ‘Quantifying Salient Concepts Discussed in Social Media Content: An Analysis of Tweets Posted by ISIS Fangirls.’ Journal of Terrorism Research 7, no. 2 (2016): 79–90. DOI: http://doi. org/10.15664/jtr.1241.

[21] Goerzig, Carolin, & Khaled Al-Hashimi. Radicalization in Western Europe: Integration, Public Discourse, and Loss of Identity among Muslim Communities. New York: Routledge, 2015.

[22] The Guardian. ‘Taliban are back - and with a murderous vengeance’. June 7, 2003. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/ world/2003/jun/08/afghanistan.lukeharding.

[23] The New York Times. ‘Threats and Responses: Afghanistan; Kabul Bombing Killed 4 German Soldiers and Injured 29.’ July 08, 2003. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/08/world/threats-responses-afghanistan-kabul-bombing-kills-4-german-sol- diers-wounds-29.html.

[24] It should be noted, however, that the first ever documented suicide bombing in the country was carried out by two Arab al-Qaeda operatives on September 9, 2001. The perpetrators, disguised as foreign journalists, assassinated the leader of the North- ern Alliance, Ahmad Shah Masood, by detonating a bomb implanted inside a recording camera. Masood was resisting the Taliban’s geographic expansion toward the northern parts of the country.

[25] The repository is compiled and launched by the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI), in cooperation with the University of Oslo. URL: https://www.hf.uio.no/ikos/english/research/taliban-sources-repository/.

[26] Semple, Michael, 2014, op. cit.

[27] At this point, the CPOST database has become inaccessible for a number of years. As communicated to the author of this arti- cle by one of the project administrators, this is due to database renovation.

[28] Chicago Project on Security and Terrorism (CPOST). ‘Suicide Attack Database.’ (Details; accessed April 26, 2016). URL: http:// cpostdata.uchicago.edu/.

[29] National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), University of Maryland. (2019). The Global Terrorism Database (GTD) [Data file]. Accessed on November 24, 2020. URL:https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd .

[30] Moghadam, Assaf. ‘Motives for Martyrdom: Al-Qaida, Salafi Jihad, and the Spread of Suicide Attacks’.International Security 33, no. 3 (2009): 46–78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.2009.33.3.46.

[31] Moghadam, Assaf, 2009, op. cit.

[32] Williams, Brian, 2007, op. cit.

ISSN 2334-3745 32 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[33] Barfield, Thomas.Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2010.

[34] Habibi, Abdul Hai. Pashtu aw Pashtunwala [Pashtu and Pashtunwali]. Kandahar: Pashtu Farhangee Tollana, 1962.

[35] Williams, Brian. ‘Mullah Omar’s Missiles: A Field Report on Suicide Bombers in Afghanistan’. Middle East Policy 15, no. 4 (2008): 26–46.

[36] Semple, Michael, 2014, op. cit.

[37] Rubin, Barnet. ‘Saving Afghanistan.’ Foreign Affairs 86, no. 1 (2007): 57–74, 76–78.

[38] Khadim, Qayamudin. Pashtunwali. Quetta: Pashto Adabi Ghoorzang. 1952 [Reprinted in 2002].

[39] Williams, Brian, 2008, op. cit.

[40] Khadim, Qayamudin, 1952, op. cit.

[41] Rzehak, Lutz. ‘Doing Pashto: Pashtunwali as the Ideal of Honorable Behavior and Tribal Life among the Pashtuns.’ Thematic Paper. Afghanistan Analysts Network, 2011.

[42] Ergil, Doğu. ‘Suicide Terrorism in Turkey.’ Civil Wars 3, no. 1 (2000): 37–54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13698240008402430.

[43] Kurz, Robert. and Charles Bartles. ‘Chechen Suicide Bombers.’ Journal of Slavic Military Studies 20 (2007): 529–547. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13518040701703070.

[44] Shakiki, Khahil. ‘The View of Palestinian Society on Suicide Terrorism.’ In:Countering Suicide Terrorism (Herzilya, Israel: The International Policy Institute for Counter Terrorism), 2002.

[45] Victoroff, Jeff. ‘The Mind of the Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches’. Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, no. 1 (2005): 3–42. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30045097.

[46] Friedland, Nehemia. ‘Becoming a terrorist: Social and individual antecedents.’ In Terrorism: Roots, Impact, Responses. New York: Praeger, 1992: 81–94.

[47] Pedahzur et al. 2003, op. cit.

[48] Post, Jerrold. Ehud Sprinzak, and Laurita Denny. ‘The Terrorists in Their Own Words: Interviews with thirty-five Incarcerated Middle Eastern Terrorists.’ Terrorism and Political Violence 1 (2003): 171–84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550312331293007.

[49] Sageman, Marc. Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 2004.

[50] Hafez, Mohammed, 2007, op. cit.

[51] Williams, Brian, 2008, op. cit.

[52] Rzehak, Lutz, 2011, op. cit.

[53] Clark, Kate. ‘The Layha Calling the Taleban to Account: Appendix 1. The Taleban Codes of Conduct in English.’ Thematic Report, Afghanistan Analyst Network, 2011.

./Seeking Martyrdom or Suicide?!]. 2013a. URL: http://www.nunn.asia/5301] ’!استشهاد که انتحار؟‘ .Baryali, Ahmad Zeya [54] .Istish-haad or Suicide]. [Al-Heydaya Publishers], 2018. URL: https://alhedayat] استشهاد که انتحار .Agha, Sayed Abu Qasim [55] com/1289-2/. [Note: this webpage does not exist anymore].

Martyrdom-Seeking Operations in Islam]. Translated from Yusuf] د شهادت غوښتنی عملیات په اسالم کی .Abdul-Hameed, Atal. 2004 [56] Al-ayeri. Pakistan: Jihad Publications. 2004.

[57] Ibn Taymiyya. Majmu` al-Fatawa Vols. 10, 20 & 28. Madina: Majma` al-Malik Fahd li-Taba`at al-Mushaf al-Sharif. 1995.

[58] Baryali, Ahmad Zeya, 2013a, op. cit.

in the Arabic language is not a hyphenated term. The hyphen placed between the two parts of the term in [استشهاد] Istish-haad [59] the main text of this article is solely for pronunciation purposes.

.[killing oneself] (قتل النفسه) It should be noted that the term used in the Quran for suicide is not “Intehar,” but the phrase [60] “Intehar” is a term from modern Arabic language.

.Istish-haad is Jihad and Suicide is Vice.] Nunn Asia, January 24, 2013]استشهادی ځانوژنه جهاد او انتحاری ځانوژنه فتنه ده .Anonymous [61] URL: https://www.nunn.asia/5970/.

ISSN 2334-3745 33 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[62] Ibid., 61.

.Sacrificial Istish-haadi Attacks.]Kabull.com. March 2, 2017. URL: https://kabull] سرتیري استشهادي بریدونه .Seddiqi, Abdullah [63] ./سرتیري-استشهادي-بریدونه/com

Istish-haad and Intehar from the Perspectives of] استشهاد او انتحار د ناپوه مفتیانو او تکفیری انقالبیانو په تله .Hekmatyar, Gulbadin [64] Ignorant Scholars.] Nunn.Asia.com. February 21, 2018. URL: https://www.nunn.asia/116783/.

The] ”د استشهادی بریدونو په اړه د اسالمی نړی د ستر او تاریخی اسالمی مرکزاالزهر اوسنی شیخ دوکتور احمد طیب فتوا“ .Baryali, Ahmad Zeya [65] decree of the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar on Istish-haadi attacks], Nunn Asia. March 13, 2013b. https://www.nunn.asia/6295/.

Invaders, Religious Pressures, Decrees, and Sermons.] Islamic Emirates of] اشغالګران، مذهبی فشارونه، فتواوی، او وعظونه .Afghan [66] Afghanistan. Da Jihad Ghazh, 2018. URL: https://shahamat1.com/?p=123866.

.Un-Islamic Decrees of Islamic Scholars.] Kabull.com. 2018. URL: https://kabull] دینی عالمانو ته منسوبی بی دینه فتواوی .Fazli, Noon [67] .ديني-عالمانو-ته-منسوب-بې-دينه-فتوا/com

[68] Anonymous, 2013, op. cit.

[69] Baryali, Ahmad Zeya, 2013a, op. cit.

[70] Afghan, 2018, op. cit.

[71] Fazli, Noon, 2018, op. cit.

//:Suicide bombers are Islamic Nuclear Bomb] Kabull.com, 2018. URL: https] استشهادی ځوانان اسالمی اتوم بم دی .Latif, Numan [72] ./استشهادي-ځوانان-اسالمي-اتوم-بم-دی/kabull.com

[73] Agha, Sayed Abu Qasim, 2018, op. cit.

.Exposing the Spell of the Witch!] NunnAsia, 2013. URL: https://www.nunn] د کوډګر ګوډی رسوا شوی! .Hamid, Sayed Wali [74] asia/8029/.

[75] Anonymous, 2013, op. cit.

[76] A voice clip uploaded on YouTube of Mohammad Yasir Wardak, a prominent Taliban preacher and ideologue, who was report- edly killed later in 2014. See URL: https://youtu.be/G4xBFSdgPx8

//:Sayyaf Khan! Istish-haad or Suicide.] Nunn Asia, 2012. URL: https] سیاف خانه! اشتهاد که انتحار؟ )۱ برخه( .Baryali, Ahmad Zeya [77] سیاف-خانه-استشهاد-که- انتحار؟-۱-برخه/www.nunn.asia/5301

[78] Baryali, Ahmad Zeya, 2013a, op. cit.

[79] (Quran 3:140) [Translation]:” …that Allah may test those who believe, and that He may take martyrs from among you. And Allah likes not the transgressors”.

[80] Baryali, Ahmad Zeya, 2013a, op. cit.

[81] Baryali, Ahmad Zeya, 2012, op. cit.

[82] Anonymous, 2013, op. cit.

[83] A preoperational proclamation clip of a teen Taliban suicide bomber that was uploaded on the Taliban’s Al-Amara website. The video was uploaded on YouTube on Sept. 28, 2018. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2N27S8sh_qQ.

[84] Part of a speech of a suicide bomber in a preoperational clip. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B3I5C68JNaI.

./Holy and true love]. Nunn Asia, 2017. URL: https://www.nunn.asia/93049] سپیڅلی او ریښتنی مینه.Raeed, Safiullah. 2017 [85]

-Eternal Life: Martyr] ابدی ژوند:اشتشهادی مجاهد شوکت هللا )حنظله(.Commission of the Cultural Affairs Islamic Emirate of Taliban [86] dom Seeker Shukatullah (Hanzala)]. The date of production of the 22-minute video is not clear. The clip was redistributed by a Facebook account. See URL: https://www.facebook.com/354015902081916/videos/782909928724895/.

[87] See the preoperational proclamation clip of a suicide bomber published on Taliban’s Al-Hijrat website. In the clip, the bomber is shown to crash an explosive-laden vehicle reportedly into the motor convoy of foreign troops. The date of the attack is unknown, but the video clip was uploaded on January 20,, 2019. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wpXZkTUwQZ4.

//:The Caravan of the Heroes]. URL:http] د غازیانو کاروان .Commission of Cultural Affairs, Islamic Emirates of Afghanistan [88] alemara1.org/alemarah/index.php/news/.

ISSN 2334-3745 34 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[89] Rapoport, Yossef & Shahab Ahmed. Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.

[90] Roshandel, Jalil & Sharon Chadha. Jihad and International Security. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2006.

[91] Edwards, David, 2017, op. cit. p. 97.

[92] Edwards, David, 2017, op. cit. p. 108.

[93] Johnson, Thomas. ‘Taliban Adaptations and Innovations.’ Small Wars and Insurgencies 24:1 (2013): 3–27. URL: https://doi.org/ 10.1080/09592318.2013.740228.

[94] Pakistan: Madrasas, Extremism and the Military. Rep. no. 36. International Crisis Group, 2002.

[95] Gopal, Anand, & Alex Strick van Linschoten. ‘Ideology in the Afghan Taliban: A New AAN Report’. Afghanistan Analysts Network. 2017.

[96] Giustozzi, Antonio. Koran, Kalashnikov and Laptop: The Neo-Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan. London. Hurst Publishers, 2007: p. 72.

[97] Brahimi, Ali. ‘The Taliban’s Evolving Ideology. LSE Global Governance’. Working Paper WP 02/2010.

[98] Gopal, Anand, & Alex Strick van Linschoten, 2017, op. cit.

[99] Semple, Michael, 2014, op. cit.

[100] Williams, Brian, 2007, op. cit.

[101] Johnson, Thomas, & Chris Mason. ‘Understanding the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan’. Orbis: A Journal of World Affairs 51, no. 1 (2007). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orbis.2006.10.006.

[102] Edwards, David, 2017, op. cit.

[103] Edwards, David, 2017, op. cit., p. 19.

[104] Sheikh, Mona. ‘Sacred Pillars of Violence: Findings from a Study of the Pakistani Taliban’. Politics, Religion, and Ideology 13, no. 4 (2012): 439–54. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2012.725662.

[105] Semple, Michael, 2014, op. cit.

[106] Pape, Robert. ‘The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism’.American Political Science Review 97, no. 3 (2003): 343–61. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3117613.

[107] Talal, Asad. On Suicide Bombing. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.

[108] Ergil, Doğu, 2000, op. cit. Egril who studied the PKK suicide bombings argues that prolong subjugation, negligence, and per- secution caused frustration among the members of the PKK which brought the group to resorting to suicide bombings. He claims that dying for the cause of independence and liberation is equal to Holy Scripture for the PKK members.

[109] Bloom, Mia. Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.

[110] Hafez, Mohammad, 2007, op. cit.

[111] Soufan, Ali. The black banners declassified: How torture derailed the war on terror after 9/11. New York: Norton, 2020, p. xxiv.

[112] Talal, Asad, 2007, op. cit.

[113] Durkheim, Emile. Suicide: A Study in Sociology, Trans. John Spaulding and George Simpson. Glenco: Free Press, 1951.

[114] Johnson, Kathryn. ‘‘Durkheim Revisited: Why Do Women Kill Themselves?’’, Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 9 (1979): 145–53.

[115] Both authors conceptualized altruistic suicide missions as those committed as an act of duty for the collective benefits/satis- faction of the group and its members to which the suicide committing person belongs.

[116] Semple, Michael, 2014, op. cit.

[117] Strenski, Ivan. Why Politics Cannot be Separated from Religion. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2010.

[118] Fierke, Karin. ‘Agents of Death: The Structural Logic of Suicide Terrorism and Martyrdom.’International Theory 1, no. 1 (2009): 155–184. URL: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1752971909000049.

ISSN 2334-3745 35 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[119] Semple argues that the contents of the Taliban’s preoperational proclamations—including the martyr’s statement, the narra- tion of the valedictory, the collage of pre-martyrdom shots of the martyr, the footage of the operation, as well as ballads—are select- ed to reinforce the martyrdom theme. By examining suicide bombings under the lens of structural logic, Fierke argues that while ‘suicide bombings’ and ‘suicide terrorism’ are the most prevalent terms used for the acts of human bombs, ‘martyrdom operations’ is the most-used term in the Arab World, the Middle East, and among Western Islamists.

[120] Hafez, Mohammad, 2007, op. cit.

[121] Ibid., 121.

[122] Msellemu, Sengulo. ‘From Kamikaze to Jihadist: What Are Its Causes?’ Journal of Education and Practice 7, no. 2 (2016): 144. Msellemu argues that in the jihadist ideology, martyrdom does not signify an end of individual existence, but rather immortality in highly pleasurable circumstances.

[123] Bloom, Mia. ‘Palestinian Suicide Bombing: Public Support, Market Share, and Outbidding.’ Political Science Quarterly 119, no. 1(2004): 61-88. URL: https://doi.org/10.2307/20202305.

[124] Moghadam, Assaf. ‘Palestinian Suicide Terrorism in the Second Intifada: Motivations and Organizational Aspects.’ Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 26, no. 2 (2003): 65-92.https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100390145215 .

[125] Merari, Ariel. ‘The Readiness to Kill and Die.’ In: William Reich (Ed) Origins of Terrorism. Cambridge: Cambridge Universi- ty Press, 1990: 192–207.

[126] Brynen, Rex. ‘The Dynamic of Palestinian Elite Formation.’ Journal of Palestinian Studies 24, no. 3 (1995):31–43.

[127] Crenshaw, Martha. ‘Suicide Terrorism in Comparative Perspective.’ In: Countering Suicide Terrorism (Herzliya, The Interna- tional Policy Institute for Counter Terrorism), 2000: 21–30.

[128] Schbley, Hammond. ‘Torn between God, Family, and Money: The Changing Profile of Lebanon’s Religious Terrorists.’ Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 23 (2000):175-96.https://doi.org/10.1080/105761000412760 .

[129] Krueger, Alan. and Maleckova, Jitka. ‘Education, poverty, political violence, and terrorism: Is there a connection?’ Working Paper No. w9074, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2002. https://doi.org/10.3386/w9074.

[130] Post, Jerrold., Sprinzak, Ehud., and Denny, Laurita. 2003. ‘The Terrorists in Their Own Words: Interviews with Thirty-Five Incarcerated Middle Eastern Terrorists.’ Terrorism and Political Violence 15 (2003):171-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/0954655031233 1293007.

[131] Schweitzer, Yoram. ‘The Rise and Fall of Suicide Bombings in the Second Intifada Yoram.’ Strategic Assessment 30, no. 3 (2010): 39-48. https://strategicassessment.inss.org.il/wp-content/uploads/antq/fe-3014381841.pdf.

[132] Hicks, Madelyn., Dardagan, Hamit., Bagnall, Peter., Spagat, Michael., and Sloboda, John. ‘Casualties in Civilians and Coalition Soldiers from Suicide Bombings in Iraq, 2003-10: a descriptive study.’ Lancet 378, no. 9794 (2011)906-14. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61023-4.

ISSN 2334-3745 36 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Annex

Table I: Top 20 Terrorist Organizations that carried out the highest number of Suicide Bombings (1974–2016)* Total Number of Total Number of Total Number of Lethality # Name of the Organization Claimed Attacks Deaths Wounded per Attack 1 Unknown Groups 2746 24960 58745 9.1 2 Taliban (IEA)** 681 3015 7453 4.4 3 Islamic State 255 3600 7047 14.1 4 Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan 144 2241 5339 15.6 5 Islamic State of Iraq and Syria 125 1175 2823 9.4 6 Al-Qaeda in Iraq 121 1544 3263 12.8 7 Islamic State of Iraq 113 1631 4842 14.4 8 Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam 83 981 1404 11.8 9 Hamas 78 511 3274 6.6 10 Al-Shabaab 72 787 937 10.9 11 Jabhat an-Nuá¹£rah li-Ahl ash-Sham 56 777 1912 13.9 12 Palestinian Islamic Jihad 50 225 1412 4.5 13 Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade 40 107 995 2.7 14 Ansar al-Sunna 28 319 1390 11.4 15 Jama’at Al-Tawhid Wa’al-Jihad 28 357 1110 12.8 16 Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula 26 394 474 15.2 17 Boko Haram 23 212 709 9.2 18 Al-Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb 22 236 1064 10.7 19 Al-Qaeda Central 20 3408 13053 170.4 20 Lashkar-e Jhangvi Al-almi 20 541 1301 27.1 *Source: Analysis is based on Suicide Attack Database of the Chicago Project on Security and Terrorism (CPOST) ([Dataset]; accessed April 26, 2016) **Islamic Emirates of Afghanistan

Table II: Countries where the highest number of Suicide Bombings were carried out (1970–2018)*

# Country # of attacks % (out of the # Country # of % (out of the total) attacks total) 1 Iraq 2668 38.1 17 India 62 0.9 2 Afghanistan 1339 19.1 18 Mali 39 0.6 3 Pakistan 536 7.6 19 Algeria 33 0.5 4 Nigeria 449 6.4 20 Saudi Arabia 25 0.4 5 Syria 364 5.2 21 Indonesia 23 0.3 6 Yemen 225 3.2 22 China 17 0.2 7 Somalia 218 3.1 23 Chad 15 0.2 8 Israel 125 1.8 24 United States 15 0.2 9 Libya 121 1.7 25 Bangladesh 13 0.2 10 Sri Lanka 114 1.6 26 Niger 13 0.2 11 Cameroon 99 1.4 27 Iran 12 0.2 12 Russia 90 1.3 28 Morocco 11 0.2 13 Turkey 76 1.1 29 Tunisia 11 0.2 14 WB and Gaza 71 1 30 Philippines 10 0.1 15 Egypt 68 1 31 All Others 84 2.09 16 Lebanon 65 0.9 Total 7011 100 *Source: Analysis is based on the numbers of the Global Terrorism Database (1970–2018).

ISSN 2334-3745 37 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Table III: Name, address, affiliation, and other characteristics of websites used for retrieving Taliban’s official materials on their suicide bombings # Name Name Address (web)*** Claimed Link with Language Mandate (Local) (English) Affiliation Taliban

Nunn Asia nunn.asia IEA De facto Web- Pashtu News, Current Events نن اسیا 1 site Kabul kabull.com IEA De facto Web- Pashtu News, Current Events کابل کام 2 Com site Shahamat shahamat1.com IEA* Official DNS Pashtu DNS شهامت 3 -Al-Hedaya alhedayat.com Al-He- Unknown Pashtu, Dari, Arabic, Publication and dis الهدایه 4 dayat Pub- Urdu, and English seminating lications Al-Emar- alemarah.org IEA CCA** Pashtu, Dari, Urdu, Disseminating visual االماره 5 ah Videos Arabic, Uzbek, and materials اصدار English Al-Ema- alemara1.org IEA Official Web- Pashtu, Dari, Urdu, News, Current Events االماره 6 rah page Arabic, English Al-Emar- alemarahurdu.net IEA CCA Urdu News, Current Events االماره اردو 7 ah Urdu -Toora toraboranews.com IEA Toora Bora Pashtu Jihadi- and war-relat توره بوړه 8 Bora Jihadi Front ed news and events Al-Emar- alemarahislam. IEA CCA Pashtu Promotion of virtue االماره 9 ah Islam com and prevention of اسالم vice Mujali www.mujali.net IEA CCA Pashtu, Dari, and Disseminating only مجلی 10 [Maga- Arabic languages print materials and zines] magazines Al-Emar- alemarahdari.com IEA CCA Dari (Farsi) News, Current Events االماره دری 12 ah Dari Al-Emar- alemarahurdu.net IEA CCA Urdu News, Current Events االماره اردو 13 ah Urdu Al-Emar- alemarahenglish. IEA CCA English News, Current Events االماره 14 ah English com انګلش

Al-Emar- alemaraharabi. IEA CCA Arabic News, Current Events االماره 15 ah Arabic com عربی Speen spin-saba.com IEA Supreme Pashtu and Dari News, Current Events سپین صبا 16 Sabah Council Al-Ema- alemara1.org IEA CCA Pashtu News, Current Events االماره 17 rah Shahamat shahamat.info IEA Official Web- Pashtu and Dari News, Current Events شهامت 18 site The Voice allfida.org IEA Istish-haadi Pashtu, Dari, Urdu, Jihadi and Suicide د شریعت 19 of Sharia Front Arabic, and English news غږ * (after IEA): Islamic Emirates of Afghanistan ** (after CCA): [Taliban] Commission of Cultural Affairs *** During the data mining process (March 2016 to April 2019), the author visited these webpages at different times. As discussed in the text, these Jihadi and terrorist webpages are highly unstable. They either migrate and emerge with different URL or simply disappear.

ISSN 2334-3745 38 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

The Use of Bay’ah by the Main Salafi-Jihadist Groups by Carlos Igualada and Javier Yagüe

Abstract The practice of bay’ah (the taking of an oath of allegiance) is one of the classic procedures for formalizing relations between individuals or organizations in the Muslim world. The concept has become fundamentally important within the global jihadi movement and is a key element for understanding the establishment and development of different allegiances between the various actors that currently form the movement. Through the use of bay’ah, the two main Salafi-jihadist organizations, al-Qaeda (AQ) and Islamic State (IS), have achieved a global expansion after establishing allegiance relationships with dozens of groups around the world. For this reason, it is important to analyze how this mechanism functions and how it is instrumentalized. Keywords: allegiance, al-Qaeda, bay’ah, Islamic State, jihadism

Introduction The practice of bay’ah is of unquestionable importance in Islamic tradition, solidly grounded on passages from the Qur’an and Sunnah. Nonetheless, the exact origin and meaning of the term is not entirely clear and is open to different interpretations, depending on the classical sources used, some of which predate Islam (such as the Hilf al-Mutayyabin, an oath of allegiance made between different clans of theQuraysh tribe and later used as a reference by the Prophet). Its roots can also be traced back to the Arab tradition of clasping hands to seal an agreement or transaction. The first mention ofbay’ah in the Qur’an dates from 627–628, when the Prophet traveled with his followers to the Ka’bah (Mecca), where they pledged allegiance to him. The pact was formalized by a joining of hands between believers and the Prophet: “Certainly was Allah pleased with the believers when they pledged allegiance to you, [O Muhammad], under the tree, and He knew what it was in their hearts, so He felt down tranquility upon them and rewarded them with an imminent conquest”.[1] In this passage the oath of allegiance is seen as an act of submission and a display of obedience to an authority, in the figure of a leader and this is the most widely recognized interpretation of the bay’ah in the Islamic world. The example was followed by the caliphs who inherited the Prophet’s political and religious work, to whom the Muslim community paid homage once they had demonstrated that they fulfilled the conditions for the position.[2] In the course of centuries, the role of the caliphs as political leaders gradually declined and their powers were assumed by different local governors who effectively exercised their authority over the territories they ruled, thus leading to the emergence of the figure of the sultan. The sultans gradually came to usurp the power of the caliphs, completely appropriating it for themselves.[3] This situation, in which the caliph’s role as a governor was largely nominal, is best exemplified in the Ottoman Empire.[4] Although the sultans did not meet the classic conditions to be named as caliphs (inter alia, including the requirement to be a descendant of the Quraysh clan), they continued to use the traditional bay’ah formula. With the break-up of the Ottoman caliphate in 1923, the idea of pledging allegiance to the caliph became obsolete and the meaning of bay’ah began to acquire a more flexible application, being used by some leaders to legitimize their own rule.[5] There are two forms of bay’ah within the Islamic tradition.[6] The first, known as al-bay’at al-mutlaqah, is viewed as an irrevocable pledge, applying only to the Prophet. According to Islamic belief, the prophets and

ISSN 2334-3745 39 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 messengers of Allah are upright, truthful, wise, and divinely guided and protected from violating the laws of Allah. This guarantees that the bay’ah given to the Prophet can never be misused to commit acts that violate religious doctrines and teachings. The other pledge, known asal-bay’at al-muqayyadah, is a conditional promise given to a person who is not a prophet or messenger of Allah. This form ofbay’ah is subject to the condition established in a hadith which states that “There is no obedience to the creation if it involves disobedience to the Creator”. Such pledges are not absolute and may be revoked if they entail the commission of sins or acts that go against Allah and his precepts. Any bay’ah made to different groups and their emirs or caliphs fall within this second definition of the term. In addition to these two forms of bay’ah, there is also bay’ah uzma [7], meaning “greater pledge”, which is a form of enduring—as opposed to temporary—commitment. Various aspects of this bay’ah, in its modern interpretation, have been introduced by different Islamic groups, ranging from the Muslim Brotherhood, who repeated the oath of allegiance after every meeting of their members [8], to radical groups, such as al-Qaeda and ISIS, which use it as an instrument to expand their global influence by establishing allegiances with other organizations operating within Salafi-jihadist ideology. At the present time, there are different relevant contributions that address the importance of the bay’ah in order to understand the development of the current global jihadist phenomenon, such as that of Wagemakers [9], Milton and Al-Ubaydi.[10] However, this is an issue that has not yet been sufficiently addressed by other contributions despite its importance. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully analyze the way in which the bay’ah has evolved during the last decades and how currently the existence of an oath of allegiance is an essential element in order to formalize an alliance between different jihadist organizations.

The Bay’ah in the Salafi-jihadist Movement Every terrorist group requires a staging of its ideology or agenda, and Salafi-jihadist groups are no exception; the use of bay’ah is a smart and practical way of demonstrating the group’s power, among both its acolytes and its enemies. Nor should we ignore the staged nature of the entire ritual associated with bay’ah, which has now become a kind of initiation rite in which both the giver and the receiver of the allegiance obtain a variety of benefits. Being the recipient of bay’ah gives the pledgee an aura of mysticism and symbolism, both of which are very important to the image of the caliph or the group he represents (although some dissenting voices among scholars believe it to be a form of idolatry (shirk)—the worst sin that can be committed in Salafi-jihadist ideology). Moreover, as discussed, bay’ah is in itself an act of submission, reinforcing the power of the recipient and as such it is a powerful propaganda weapon and a useful tool for proselytism (da’wa). The individual or group making the bay’ah may also be driven by a variety of motivations, several of which may be identified in the present context. On the one hand, the individual or group becomes affiliated to the group or individual receiving thebay’ah , who can provide access, inter alia, to a range of resources, image, followers, and territories—always important from an economic point of view (if we define economy broadly as the resolution of needs). AQ may be considered to have adopted the recitation of bay’ah in Afghanistan in the 1990s as a form of initiation protocol (in addition to its place as a traditional Islamic practice whereby the individual shows submission and obedience to an authority, individual, or group). However, it had no formal implications, comprising as it did an individual choice, and it did not entitle the maker—or rather, it was not a prerequisite—to access training camps and programs, salary, or even promotion within the group. A good example is that of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, better known as KSM, who, although considered to have been the mastermind behind the 911 attacks, “states that he refused to take a formal oath to loyalty to Bin Laden, thus preserving a last vestige of his precious autonomy”.[11] A contrasting example—in which personal importance was given to a formalism not then viewed as a

ISSN 2334-3745 40 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 prerequisite or to have the same significance as it currently does on the jihadist scene,—can be seen in the bay’ah made in 1998 to Bin Laden by Nasser al-Bahri, better known as Abu Jandal.[12]. In his own words, the act was as following: “Bin Laden gave me a text and I swore allegiance. Although, until then, I had been a de facto member of al-Qaida, I stuck to this ritual, which takes place without much ceremony. I raise my hand before Bin Laden, declaring: ‘I swear before Allah that I will help and support you, regardless of my personal interest or my own ideas, in good times and bad, forgetting my personal well-being, and I promise not to question his leadership. “Although this does not change anything in my daily life, it does affect my mood”.[13] On the other hand, the bay’ah also holds out the possibility of joining a larger and/or more powerful group. This confers added status and can give the pledger greater ideological or military projection over other groups, individuals, or areas of interest, since he then becomes part of a greater whole, vastly simplifying the allocation of resources and execution of actions, by making him, in many cases, an executive entity rather than a “decision- making/executive” entity. While there may indeed be a degree of independence in planning and undertaking actions, close ties are maintained with the machinery of media, resources, and propaganda at group level, combined with an element of centrality which is partly what the giver and the recipient of the bay’ah both seek. This win-win arrangement benefits the two parties by tapping into one another’s strengths and reducing their weaknesses. The so called “glocal”jihad can also be viewed within the terms and consequences of the bay’ah, with groups acting locally under a shared flag and ideology, which is a powerful image and a very potent propaganda tool.

The Bay’ah Dilemma Since 2014, local groups wishing to join the global movement [14], have had two main options, depending on their personal interests and ideological affinity, to align themselves with AQ or with IS. Prior to the emergence of IS, the global scene was headed by AQ, with backing for its undertaking coming from groups expressing support and sympathy for the cause. It is important to note that up to that point, following the bay’ah made by Osama bin Laden to Mullah Omar in 2001 (see below), there is little evidence of other bay’ah [15], related to AQ or other jihadist groups, as a formula for joining a group, apart from some testimonial cases, such as, for instance, the oath of allegiance made by Omar Hammami (a.k.a. Abu Mansoor al-Amriiki, an American who went on to become the leader of al-Shaabab) in Somalia around 2006 to Xasan Turky (Hassan Abdullah Hersi al-Turki), who was then (erroneously) considered to be the AQ leader in the area.[16] With the rise of IS and the establishment of its Islamic Caliphate in 2014, that picture changed greatly. Several groups that had previously only expressed more indirect support or sympathy to the cause, chose to go one step further and recite the bay’ah.[17] A number of groups that had previously shown a close ideological affinity with AQ decided to switch their allegiance to IS—something which at the time appeared to be a more advantageous option. However, this trend was generally confined to less significant groups; AQ’s large regional franchises, like the ones in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), and the group created on the Indian Subcontinent in September 2014 (AQIS), remained loyal to AQ. While the irruption of IS had less of an impact on these organizations, splinter groups did emerge within some of them, headed by leaders of a certain importance, who were followed by some of their subordinates in pledging allegiance to IS. In September 2014, for example, Jund al-Khilafa, an Algerian group, split off from AQIM.[18] IS’s ranks have certainly been swelled by a considerable number of groups from the fertile terrain that traditionally favored the spread of AQ’s ideology. Examples include newly founded groups such as Wilayah Khorasan [19], the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS) [20], Islamic State of East Asia (ISEA) [21] and Boko Haram.[22] One essential requirement for formalization of this union is that the bay’ah be accepted by the group that

ISSN 2334-3745 41 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

receives it; only then can a relationship of allegiance be considered to exist between the two organizations. There are no fixed periods for the length of time that must elapse between the issuing of the bay’ah and its public acceptance. In some cases it may be merely a matter of days (in the case of Boko Haram, it took just five days from Abubakar Shekau’s declaration of his bay’ah on March 8, 2015 to its acceptance on the 13th by IS spokesman Abu Muhammad al-Adnani in an audio message, later ratified in Issue No. 8 of Dabiq magazine). In contrast, the bay’ah made by Adnan Abu Walid al-Sahraoui on behalf of ISGS in May 2015 via the Mauritanian news agency al-Akhbar was finally accepted a year and a half later, in October 2016, when Amaq (one of the news agencies associated with Islamic State), publicly recognized this allegiance through the emission of a video that featured al-Sahraoui reading his bay’ah.[23] Using the system of bay’ah pledges, both AQ and IS have been able to territorially distribute and organize their groups and franchises, thereby managing to expand their brand, ideology, and agenda beyond their original spheres of influence. Whereas AQ has done so by establishing regional franchises and alliances with locally consolidated groups, such as al-Shabaab, IS has created numerous provinces (wilayat) which replicate the organizational and functional model of the Syrian/Iraqi caliphate on a small scale.

As mentioned, both have obtained enormous propaganda benefits by claiming responsibility for attacks in regions as diverse as Europe, the Sahel, or Southeast Asia. For their part, the aim of the groups pledging allegiance is to increase their economic, logistical, and human resources, although this is often difficult to quantify. The reality is that the development presented by the different terrorist groups that pledge thebay’ah to AQ or IS is uneven. Some groups have significantly increased their capacity in recent years. These include Jama’at Ansar Bayt al-Maqdis in Egypt—better known as Wilayah Sinai since acceptance of its allegiance in

ISSN 2334-3745 42 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

November 2014—and the entire jihadist movement of Southeast Asia, led by Abu Sayyaf and the Maute Group. In contrast, other groups have seen scarcely any improvement in their situation, despite formal acceptance of their bay’ah, such as the Islamic State in Somalia and Wilayah Khorasan. Both of these organizations arose from schisms within existing groups (al-Shabaab and Tehrik-i-Taliban, respectively), but the alliance with IS has not allowed them to increase their resources sufficiently to allow them to wrest control from the original organizations. The situation of AQIS is similar; since its creation in 2014 it has carried out no major attacks [24] and has been unable to challenge the influence of IS in South Asia.

The Bay’ah of AQ and IS: Some Examples of Different Approaches Generally speaking, AQ has traditionally set more exacting conditions and objectives before establishing a formal alliance with any group or creating a regional franchise. IS, in contrast, has been observed showing more complacency or permissiveness regarding its conditions. Although Issue No. 5 of Dabiq set out clear directives on the establishment of a wilayah, over time, it has become obvious that these requirements have not always been enforced when accepting the bay’ah and establishing provinces in India [25], Turkey [26], and the Democratic Republic of the Congo [27], particularly once IS began to lose territories and influence. It is important to note that AQ and IS have also shown different criteria for assessing and accepting thebay’ah made to them. On many occasions, AQ has been reluctant to have its name used outside its principal areas of operation and direct control, so that its satellite organizations would not be targeted by association with central AQ, especially following the launch of operations against AQ as part of the GWOT (Global War on Terror), primarily in Afghanistan. Moreover, AQ has always been more hierarchical, and “ceding” its name to organizations over which the leadership or Shura council could not maintain complete remote control, in various forms, did not square with its operational or security strategy or image. In contrast, IS decided, as a general rule, to accept and agglutinate a larger number of groups and factions choosing to make bay’ah to it, building on the momentum of its increased fame. For IS, therefore, practically any bay’ah is welcome, since it brings a greater presence, expanded territory, a heightened external image, wider publicity, and, thus, more followers. Comparatively, then, IS might be said to have placed more importance on bay’ah than AQ, bringing a significant degree of formalism to the practice, especially in the way the pledges are staged. This is particularly evident in the latest bay’ah made by different wilayat and IS-supporter groups to Abu Ibrahim al-Hashimi al-Quraysh, following his appointment as the new caliph on October 31, 2019. The first to do so, on November 3, 2019, was Wilayah Sinai, and the last was a small group of adherents in

ISSN 2334-3745 43 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Azerbaijan, on November 30th. With the exception of the pledges made by the Cyber Caliphate Shield (CCS) and by some supporters via Telegram, all of these declarations followed a similar ritual, with clasped-hand gestures and identical recitation formulas. This helped create a greater external perception of unity among the differentwilayat with regard to the pledge-taking, as if it were in some way a preordained procedure or one that followed a priori instructions, rather than a spontaneous act. This may be seen as a maneuver on the part of the IS leadership to give greater legitimacy to the new caliph. Its official channels screened videos showing the bay’ah made to the group as a standardized, regulated act, in keeping with the group’s slogan, Dawlat al Islam Baqiyah wa Tatamaddad (“The Islamic State remains and expands”). Certain differences may also be observed in the content of thebay’ah made to the two organizations, and between the various organizations or individuals taking the oath of allegiance. Although there is no established norm as to the content, length, or formula of the pledge, there are certain points of coincidence between the two groups when it comes to the formula used. A number of different oath-recitation formulas can be observed in both cases. In the case of IS, the formula is more or less standardized. The following is one model: “We give bay’ah to Amirul-Muminin [28], the Khalifah of the Muslims, Abu Ibrajim al-Hashimi al- Qurashi, pledging to listen and obey, in times of delight and dislike, and in times of hardship and ease, and to do so selflessly; and to not dispute the command of those in authority unless we see blatant kufr[29] , concerning which we have proof from Allah, and Allah is witness over what we said!”[30] A good example of the ceremony and formula used in the case of AQ is that made by Abu Abbas al-Sharqui (a.k.a. Aimen Dean) to Osama bin Laden in September 1997. In his own words: “…He extended his right hand with his palm opened upwards and took mine. I noticed how long his fingers were and how soft his skin…Al-Ghamdi…asked me to repeat every clause after him. I recall my exact words as I looked solemnly into the al-Qaeda founder’s eyes. ‘I give you my allegiance to obey, to follow orders during the good times and the bad without disobeying Allah on the path of jihad. I fight alongside you when you declare war and I make peace when you make peace. And Allah is the witness to what I have declared’”.[31] The same formula is used, with certain minor variations, in one of the lastbay’ah received by AQ, from one of its most important franchises, al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), in which the current leader of the group, Khalid Batarfi, a.k.a. Abu al-Miqdad al-Kindi, swore allegiance to Ayman al-Zawahiri, emir of AQ, in an audio message: “To our sheik and our emir, Abu Muhammad Ayman al-Zawahiri, I pledge my allegiance to you, will obey you at all times, and will not dispute your orders. And I pledge you to jihad for the sake of Allah, to establish the law of Allah on the earth, and this allegiance from me and all my brothers in Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.”[32] The usual structure commonly presents several citations from the Quran or some hadith or ahadith as the way of introduction or beginning, to then go on to the personal presentation of the issuer of the bay’ah, indicating on behalf of which group he speaks. After this, the reasons or motivations that have led to the emission of the bay’ah are usually developed and explained, as well as the disposition and submission toward the receiver of the pledge. Usually, the bay’ah ends with some kind of praise to the receiver, some additional quotation from the Quran, the inclusion of some other hadith or ahadith, or some classic Islamic farewell formula. One of the most significantbay’ah —for a variety of reasons—is that made by Osama bin Laden to Mullah Omar in the spring of 2001. Bin Laden’s bay’ah was not made public until July 13, 2014, when it was released by al- Sahab, the media wing of AQ, to give greater argumentation strength to Ayman al-Zawahiri in his criticism speech aimed at Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, who was appointed as caliph without having legitimacy or authority for it, according to AQ’s vision.[33]

ISSN 2334-3745 44 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Speaking on legitimacy, Osama bin Laden’s bay’ah had itself been controversial in its day, and the emir of AQ himself had been reluctant to give it, on the grounds that Mullah Omar had no Quraysh ancestry—a primary requirement for any caliph, according to the literal interpretations of certain Islamic texts by various Arab scholars. Moreover, this bay’ah also appears to have been physically made through a proxy; Bin Laden chose not to meet with Mullah Omar for the occasion, instead charging Mustafa Amid, a.k.a. Abu’l-Walid, with swearing the bay’ah on his behalf.[34] Bin Laden defended Mullah Omar’s right to assume the title of amir al-mu’minim (Leader of the Faith) even though he did not belong to the Quraysh tribe, the original tribe of the Prophet.[35] In his oath, Osama Bin Laden quoted the Prophet, saying that “the one who dies without a pledge in his throat dies an ignorant death”. This same hadith would subsequently be employed by Ayman al-Zawahiri to begin his bay’ah to the Taliban leader Mawlawi Haibatullah, using the video in which Bin Laden quotes it in his oath to Mullah Omar.[36] A version of the same hadith would also be cited by Abubakar Shekau on March 7, 2015, when he pledged bay’ah to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, as the following excerpt shows: “From your brother in Allah, Abu Muhammad Abubakar bin Muhammad al-Shekawi, the leader of JASDJ to the caliph of the Muslims, Abu Bakr Ibrahim b. ‘Awad b. Ibrahim al-Husayni al-Qurashi. We are sending you this message, following what Allah said in the Qur’an: ‘And hold fast to Allah’s bond, all of you, and do not fall apart.’ (Q3:103) And what the Prophet said: ‘Whoever dies when he had not pledged allegiance to an imam (caliph) dies a death of ignorance (jahiliyya).’”[37] In the same bay’ah from Shekau, the formula used for the oath of allegiance can be seen to be similar to that used on other occasions by other individuals and groups: “We announce our allegiance to the caliph of the Muslims Ibrahim b. ‘Awad b. Ibrahim al-Husayni al- Qurashi (Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi) and we will hear and obey him in times of difficulty and prosperity, in hardship and ease, and to endure being discriminated against, and not to dispute about rule with those in power, except in case of evident unbelief regarding that which there is a proof from Allah.”[38] Thebay’ah has also been used by some of the terrorists who have carried out attacks in Europe in recent years. Despite not having any direct link with any terrorist organization, and having received only the ideological influence of these groups or other extremist currents, some of them decided to pronounce thebay’ah toward IS through videos recorded by themselves prior to carrying out their attacks. This circumstance can be understood as part of the self-justification and indoctrination of these individuals, who consider themselves a part of the Salafi-jihadist movement through, among other practices, the recitation of thebay’ah. Such are the cases of Anis Amri, the author of the attack on the Berlin Christmas market in 2016, or more recently that of Kutjim Fejzulai, who in November 2020 killed four people in Vienna. In both cases, IS made these videos public through Amaq and referred to both as “caliphate soldiers”, despite the fact that they did not receive direct orders from the organization when carrying out the attacks.

Conclusions Over the centuries, the bay’ah has been a frequently used mechanism throughout the Islamic world. An understanding of its use and different interpretations and forms is essential to comprehend the development of relationships between participating individuals and organizations. Within the jihadist movement, both AQ and IS have instrumentalized its use as a means of expanding their brand beyond their traditional spheres of influence, establishing long-lasting alliances with other groups of a Salafi-jihadist ideology by way of the bay’ah. The bay’ah has become a key indicator for understanding the global dynamics and interrelations within the current jihadist movement, especially with regard to the relationships between the two main global jihadi groups and their respective affiliates. A study of the use and number of bay’ah received by the respective groups shows that AQ, in keeping with its

ISSN 2334-3745 45 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 general approach, prefers to keep the same “low profile” in its use of bay’ah, not renouncing it, but at the same time neither demanding it nor turning the ceremony into a propaganda exercise as IS has. IS, on the other hand, has spared no resources or planning in making the receipt of bay’ah, if not a requirement, at least a form of initiation rite, which it disseminates globally over its official media. This can clearly be seen at key moments in the group’s development. On April 29, 2019, for example, a video was released entitled “In the Hospitality of the Emir of Believers”, in which Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, making his first appearance in many years, was shown examining the documentation of different wilayat. Over the following months, in a clearly orchestrated operation by IS’s leadership, these same wilayat gradually either renewed their existing bay’ah, or— in the case of the new wilayat or bilad (areas, territories), such as Azerbaijan and Turkey—made the pledge for the first time. These bay’ah were shown in a series of videos entitled “And the best results are for the pious”, released in June and July 2019. The same occurred in November 2019, following the appointment of Abu Ibrahim al-Hashimi al-Qurayshi, when various wilayat swore allegiance to the newly appointed caliph. Again, they were almost identical in their staging, script, and visual devices, suggesting that the bay’ah had been consciously orchestrated, rather than being spontaneous. Possible abuse of the bay’ah could end up being more of a weakness than a strength. Noting that it has become a sort of visual performance intended to produce the greatest propaganda impact, some might interpret the giving of the oath as a sign of idolatry and worship (shirk) of the caliph—or the group he represents—which would be the worst of all sins according to the very ideology defended by the Salafi-jihadist groups.

About the Authors: Carlos Igualada, PhD, Director of the International Observatory on Terrorism Studies (OIET). He collaborates with various Spanish universities and contributes to academic publications of the Spanish Ministry of Defense. His line of research focuses on the evolution of global jihadist organizations. Javier Yagüe, Researcher at the International Observatory on Terrorism Studies (OIET). He has a specialist degree in “Analysis of jihadist terrorism, insurgencies, and radical movements” from the Universidad Pablo Olavide de Sevilla (UPO), and lectures for counterterrorism and jihadism conferences. His line of research focuses on Salafi-jihadist ideology.

Notes [1] Quran, Surat Al-Fath 48:18. [2] For further reading on these requirements, see: Rosenthal, E.I.J, Political Thought in Medieval Islam: An Introductory Outline, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. [3] Wagemakers, Joas. “The Concept of Bay’a in the Islamic State’s Ideology”, Perspectives on Terrorism, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2015, pp. 98–106. [4] Black, Anthony. The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present, New York: Routledge, 2001, pp. 143–144. [5] Wagemakers, Joas, op. cit., p. 100. [6] Saiful Alam Shah Bin Sudiman, Muhammad. “IS Misconception of Bay’at: Nuances in Oath of Allegiance”, RSIS Commentary, no. 188, Singapore: Nanyang Technological University, RSIS Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2017. [7] Stenersen, Anne. Al-Qaida in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, July 2017, p. 94. [8] Carl Brown, Leon. Religion and State. The Muslim pA proach to Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. [9] Wagemakers, Joas. “The Concept of Bay’a in the Islamic State’s Ideology”, Perspectives on Terrorism, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2015. [10] Milton, Daniel & Al-Ubaydi, Muhammad. “Pledging Bay’a: A Benefit or Burden to the Islamic State?”CTC Sentinel, Vol. 8, 2015, No. 3. [11] Bergen, Peter L. The Osama Bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of al-Qaeda’s Leader. New York: Free Press, 2006, p. 301.

ISSN 2334-3745 46 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[12] Nasser al-Bahri, a.k.a. Abu Jandal, was one of Osama bin Laden’s bodyguards. A brief biographical review can be found at URL: https://www.timesofisrael.com/bin-ladens-former-bodyguard-dies-in-yemen/. An interview conducted in 2009 (in French) can be heard here: https://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/l-heure-du-documentaire/abu-jandal-aux-noms-du-jihad [13] al-Bahri, Nasser & Malbrunot, Georges. “Ans L’ombre de Ben Laden: Révélations de son garde du corps repenti, edited by Michel Lafon, Neuilly-sur-Seine, 2010, p. 158. [14] Berger, J.M. The Islamic State vs. al Qaeda. Who’s Winning the War to Become the Jihadi Superpower? Foreign Policy, September 2014; accessible online at URL: https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/09/02/the-islamic-state-vs-al-qaeda/ [15] Hegghammer, Thomas.Jihadi Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, July 2017, pp. 198–199. [16] al-Amriiki, Abu Mansoor. The Story of an American Jihaadi – Part One, pp. 69–70. URL: https://media.al.com/live/other/The- Story-of-an-American-Jihaadi.pdf [17] Milton, Daniel & Al-Ubaydi, Muhammad. “Pledging Bay’a: A Benefit or Burden to the Islamic State?”CTC Sentinel, Vol. 8, 2015, No. 3, pp. 1–7. [18] Porter, Geoff. “What to Make of the Bay’a in North Africa?” CTC Sentinel, Vol. 8, 2015, No. 3, pp. 14–17. [19] Rassler, Don. “Situation in the Emergence of the Islamic State of Khorasan”, CTC Sentinel, Vol. 8, 2015, No. 3, pp. 7–11. [20] Le Roux, Pauline. “Exploiting Borders in the Sahel: The Islamic State in the Greater Sahara”, Africa Center for Strategic Studies, 2019; accessible online at URL: https://africacenter.org/spotlight/exploiting-borders-sahel-islamic-state-in-the-greater-sahara-isgs/ [21] Gunaratna, Rohan. “The Islamic State’s Northward Expansion in the Philippines”,Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, Vol. 9, 2017, No. 5, pp. 1–4; accessible online at URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26351516?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents [22] Milton, Daniel & Al-Ubaydi, Muhammad. “Pledging Bay’a: A Benefit or Burden to the Islamic State?”CTC Sentinel, Vol. 8, 2015, No. 3, pp. 5–7. [23] United Nations Security Council, “Islamic State in the Greater Sahara”, 23 February 2020; accessible online at URL: https://www. un.org/securitycouncil/content/islamic-state-greater-sahara-isgs [24] Sinan, Mohammed. “Al Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent: Comparing the movement in India and Bangladesh”, Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, Vol. 15, 2020, No. 1. [25] “Islamic State Claims ‘province’ in India for First Time after Clash in Kashmir”,Reuters, 11 May 2019, accessible online at URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-kashmir-islamic-state/islamic-state-claims-province-in-india-for-first-time-after-clash- in-kashmir-idUSKCN1SH08J [26] Postings, Robert. “Islamic State Turkey Province Video Claims New Wilayah in Old Turf”, The Defense Post, 11 July 2019, accessible online at URL: https://www.thedefensepost.com/2019/07/11/islamic-state-turkey-province-bayah-video/ [27] Perkins, Brian. “The Emerging Triad of Islamic State Central Africa Province”,Terrorism Monitor, The Jamestown Foundation, 11 March 2020, accessible online at URL: https://jamestown.org/program/the-emerging-triad-of-islamic-state-central-africa-province/ [28] Amir al-Mu’minim is an Arabic title meaning “Leader of the Faithful” and is conferred upon caliphs in the Sunni tradition.

[29] Kufr is one of several Arabic terms used to refer to infidels and unbelievers. [30] Pledge of allegiance published by the unofficial media publisherAsh-Shaff Media Foundation, associated to the East Asia wilayah, related to the appointment of Abu Ibrahim al-Hashimi al-Qurayshi as the new Caliph of Islamic State. [31] Dean, Aimen, Cruickshank, Paul & Lister, Tim. Nine Lives. My Time as MI6’s Top Spy Inside Al-Qaeda. London: One World Publications Ltd., 2018, pp. 92–96. [32] Thisbay’ah was published by the media arm of AQAP, Al-Malllaham, in an audio released on March 19, 2020. [33] More information on Osama bin Laden’s bay’ah, with verbatim excerpts, can be consulted in conjunction with an analysis of its use as an argument against the appointment of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi as Caliph in Thomas Joscelyn’s article “Analysis: Al Qaeda attempts to undermine new Islamic State with old video of Osama bin Laden”, Foundation for Defense of Democracies Long War Journal, July 15, 2015, accessible at URL: https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2014/07/osama_bin_laden_disc.php [34] Brown, Vahid. “The Façade of Allegiance: Bin Ladin’s Dubious Pledge to Mullah Omar”, CTC Sentinel, January 2010, Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp. 1–6.

[35] Stenersen, Anne. Al-Qaida in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017, p. 94.

ISSN 2334-3745 47 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[36] Holbrook, Donsald. Al-Qaeda 2.0: A Critical Reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 269–274. [37] Kassim, Abdulbassit & Nwankpa, Michael (Eds.) The Boko Haram Reader. From Nigerian Preachers to the Islamic State. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. [38] Ibid., p. 408.

ISSN 2334-3745 48 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Counterterrorism in the Philippines: Review of Key Issues By Ronald U. Mendoza, Ph.D., RAdm. Rommel Jude G. Ong PN (Ret.), Atty. Dion Lorenz L. Romano, and Bernadette Chloe P. Torno

Abstract Terrorism has taken root in almost all corners of the world with terrorist organizations thriving in both rich and poor countries. In the Philippines, the Human Security Act of 2007 came into force to address the threat of terrorism to the national security of the country. However, the law has never been fully utilized. To provide law enforcers with a stronger legal measure to address acts of terrorism in the country, President Duterte certified a new Anti-Terrorism Bill as urgent, with Congress adopting the Senate version and approving it in the shortest time possible. Despite opposition from various sectors and growing concerns over some of its provisions, President Duterte signed this into law, officially becoming Republic Act No. 11479 or the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020. This article briefly reviews some key issues of counterterrorism measures in the Philippines. Keywords: anti-terrorism, anti-terrorism law, counterterrorism, human rights, terrorism, Philippines

Introduction On June 1, 2020, President Rodrigo Duterte certified the Anti-Terrorism Bill as urgent. Subsequently, Congress adopted the Senate version and passed it as quickly as possible.[1] The bill was intended to provide measures for the protection of the ordinary Filipino from acts of terrorism, and should have been passed with support and approval under normal circumstances. However, this time is far from normal, and the bill has attracted opposition not only from the left,[2] but from a broader sector of society. This brings us to these questions: what were the compelling reasons to certify the bill as more urgent than say, the extension of the extraordinary powers of the President to address the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the ordinary Filipino and the economy? Is the bill aligned with the Philippine Constitution? Will it solve the domestic security problems festering in the country for decades? What drives the objections against the bill? But perhaps the most disturbing concern among most members of society—do we have a common understanding of what terrorism is and who is a terrorist?

I. Demand and Supply of Terrorism There are two main trends in terrorism: 1) one that involves the supply of access to radical technologies, financing, technology among other terror ‘capacity building’ efforts, which is in part how the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) has rapidly become an international phenomenon; 2) one that is linked to cogent demand for terrorist ideas, influence, and support particularly in poorly governed areas (failed states) and within countries, where pockets of bad governance, poverty, and social injustice fester and weaken social cohesion.[3] The latter is often further highlighted by growing inequality and a ‘left behind’ narrative for minorities, whose young people can be susceptible to terrorist recruitment. This factor highlights why terrorism can spread into both rich countries like the United Kingdom (e.g. 7/7 London bombings in 2005 perpetrated by homegrown terrorists who were far from poor) and developing countries like the Philippines involving both poor and middle-class perpetrators (e.g. Davao City bombing in 2016 perpetuated by three men linked to the Maute Group). Terrorism is an elusive concept having no universally accepted definition. In its broadest sense, it is the use or threat of use of violence against persons [4] and property,[5] instilling fear and causing the intimidation of a larger audience—beyond that of the immediate victims [6] to obtain a political or ideological objective.[7]

ISSN 2334-3745 49 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

While the motives of terrorists may vary, the most common forms of terrorist action include assassinations, bombings, kidnappings, hostage seizures, suicide attacks, and airplane hijackings. The University of Maryland’s Global Terrorism Database (GTD) defines terrorist attacks as “the threatened or actual use of illegal force and violence by a non-state actor to attain a political, economic, religious, or social goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation.”[8] The GTD reports how terrorist attacks have risen from 651 in 1997 to 9,607 in 2018 and reached as high as 16,908 in 2014. Terrorism has become one of the most important threats to the national security of many countries in the world. International empirical studies suggest terrorism is associated with complex contextual factors such as: socioeconomic inequality, deep historical injustice faced by marginalized groups, lack of judicial impartiality, ethnic fractionalization, and political instability. For instance, research findings indicate that some forms of poverty are related to the emergence of terrorism, suggesting that terrorism is more likely to occur when a large percentage of the population lives below the poverty line.[9] Meanwhile, research on the impact of increased or decreased gross domestic product (GDP) per capita on terrorism yields varying results. On the one hand, studies indicate an inverse relationship between the two variables, suggesting that an increase in a country’s GDP per capita makes terrorism less likely due to increasing opportunity costs resulting from people’s higher level of material wealth.[10] On the other hand, Fearon and Laitin suggest a direct relationship between the two variables, as higher GDP per capita also reflects higher state capacity, which may make violent clandestine activities more likely.[11] Freytag et al. meanwhile, find a nonlinear relationship between GDP per capita and terrorism: GDP per capita is negatively related to terrorism only after a certain income threshold is reached. [12] Research findings also suggest that less terrorism is associated with an absence of major human rights abuses [13] and a strong impartial judiciary.[14] Meanwhile, Piazza finds that political instability—indicated by indices of civil war and state failure—is conducive to terrorism.[15] All these factors relate critically to governance— both domestic and cross-national—-emphasizing how counterterrorism initiatives cannot simply be addressed as a policing issue.

Terrorism in the Philippines There is the adage that one man’s terrorist is another one’s freedom fighter. In the context of the Philippine modern history, acts of terrorism have been attributed to the actions of the two groups. First are the secessionist groups in Mindanao—the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and its splinter, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front. In more recent times, the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) came into being, and its permutations—the Rajah Solaiman Movement, which emerged from ‘Balik-Islam’ or ‘Return to Islam’ movement; the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters, an Islamic separatist organization, among others. Second is the Communist Party of the Philippines and its armed component, the New People’s Army. In the early 1970s, MNLF was established and launched a guerrilla warfare campaign to struggle for an independent Moro state, separate from the Philippines. Since then, spin-off terrorist groups have also staked claims in the struggle for ‘Moro Liberation,’ the most notorious of which is the ASG founded by Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani in 1991.[16] According to the Mapping Militants Project (MMP) of Stanford University: Throughout the 1990s, the ASG gained recognition by turning to violence, engaging in bombings, kidnapping, assassinations, and other attacks with a special focus on Christians and foreigners. The ASG also targeted the Philippine military, consistent with the organization’s professed goal of resisting the Philippine government and establishing an independent Moro state.[17] The other major strand of modern terrorism in the Philippines can be traced to the Communist insurgency. With the aim of overthrowing the government, the Communist Party of the Philippines, New People’s Army (CPP-NPA) is considered one of the oldest communist insurgencies in the world. Included in the list of foreign

ISSN 2334-3745 50 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 terror organizations of the U.S. State Department, the CPP-NPA had its ranks swell during the Marcos years, due in part to poverty, political strife, and repression during the dictatorship—from an estimated high point of over 40,000 fighters, the CPP-NPA is estimated now to number only around 4,000.[18]

Terrorist Attacks In the Philippines, the terrorist threat has taken a bloody evolution—from killings, kidnappings, and armed attacks in the past, to a deadly ramp up of suicide bombings in more recent years. Between July 2018 and November 2019, there were six suicide bombings in the country, with evidence that further waves of bombings were set to take place but were foiled.[19] • July 2018: Believed to be a Moroccan citizen, Abu Khatir al-Maghribi allegedly intended to drive and remotely detonate a van-load of explosives toward a graduation ceremony in Lamitan City, Basilan, meant to kill up to 4,000 schoolchildren. However, the van was stopped at a government checkpoint and was believed to be detonated by al-Maghribi, killing 10, to avoid arrest. • January 2019: An Indonesian couple, who had tried to enter Syria but were deported by Turkish authorities, blew themselves up at a cathedral in the southern Philippine town of Jolo, killing 23 and wounding more than 100 during a Sunday Mass. • June 2019: Two men detonated their explosives outside an Army camp in Sulu, killing five, including themselves, and wounding 22 others. The incident has been identified as the first officially confirmed case of a suicide bombing in the Philippines perpetrated by a Filipino, with one of the bombers identified as Norman Lacusa. Investigators have not yet identified the identity and nationality of the second bomber. • September 2019: A woman, believed to be an Egyptian, blew herself up at the gate of a military base in Jolo, causing no further casualties. • November 2019: Suspected suicide bombers were foiled by government forces and two of the three suspected would-be bombers were believed to be the Egyptian bomber’s husband and their son.[20]

ISSN 2334-3745 51 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Table 1: Number of Terrorist Attacks from 2004 to 2018

Source: UM Global Terrorism Database [21]

ISSN 2334-3745 52 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

The suicide attacks were all in the Sulu archipelago, ASG’s stronghold, and were all claimed by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, also known as ISIS).[22] It is worth noting, however, that there have been recent incidents for which ISIS-inspired groups have falsely taken responsibility for terrorist attacks (e.g. 2017 suicide attack in Resorts World Manila). Homegrown terrorists in the Philippines who also sought to align with ISIL/ ISIS attempted to take Marawi City in May 2017, provoking a five-month siege and inspiring foreign fighters to join the fight. Delays in rebuilding Marawi City and returning residents to their properties and homes have raised concerns among highly disgruntled residents that terrorist groups are using this to recruit.[23] Despite the presence of terrorist organizations in the country over the years, Filipino terrorists have not embraced suicide bombing as a tactic. Indeed, most of the suicide bombers in the Philippines are foreigners. However, reports by both the media and the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) confirm that the first suicide bombing perpetrated by a Filipino took place in June 2019. This is a watershed moment in the country, since it signals an escalation of terrorist tactics used by local terrorists. It also demonstrates how ISIS militants have been able to achieve a certain level of support and cooperation from homegrown terrorists in the country.

Figure 1: Number of Terrorist Attacks per Election Term per Major Island Group

Source: UM Global Terrorism Database [24]

Drawing on data compiled by the University of Maryland in the GTD—a dataset of terrorist attacks available publicly, but with certain limitations and aspects that remain contested [25] —an analysis of trends in terror attacks in the Philippines reveals a large spike particularly in Mindanao between 2010 and 2016. The GTD of the University of Maryland compiles information for each attack event, and the database logs different variables such as location, success of the attack, involvement of weapons or explosives, and number of casualties. Table

ISSN 2334-3745 53 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

1 tabulates number of attacks per province from 2004 to 2018. Most of the terrorist activities for that time period have been concentrated in Mindanao, with Cotabato and Maguindanao being the hot spots for attacks. Figure 1 reveals a positive trend line on the number of attacks logged in the database over the last five election terms. However, Mindanao, which has consistently logged more attacks than the two other island groups in the country, has seen a decrease in number of terrorist attacks in 2016—from 1,338 in 2013 to 1,159 attacks in 2016.

II. Anti-Terrorist Bill The Ateneo Policy Center held on June 17, 2020 a closed-door, non-attribution roundtable discussion hosted by defense and counterterrorism analysts. The meeting looked at the Anti-Terrorism Bill from the perspective of invited speakers who have contributed to the discussion and inputs toward the crafting of the bill. The speakers were ably interpellated by Dr. Jennifer S. Oreta from Ateneo’s Political Science Department, who requested and agreed to be attributed of her inputs. In distilling the discussions, four (4) issues were identified, with regards to the Anti-Terrorism Bill. To wit: • First, there is evidence pointing to the risk of terrorist attacks in the country. As noted previously here, there is a positive trend line on the number of terrorist attacks in the Philippines during the last five election years, despite the decrease in the number of terrorist attacks in Mindanao in 2016. Qualitatively, different levels of terrorism appear to be evolving. In terms of the number of fatalities and injuries from logged terrorist attacks, the number has increased over the last five election years. In terms of tactics, the recent ramp up of suicide bombings, and the first officially confirmed case of a Filipino suicide bomber suggest a modification if not development of terrorist tactics used by local terrorists. • Second, there is some evidence that the current legal framework for countering terrorism appears to be inadequate, requiring a consideration of legal reforms as part of the counterterrorism agenda.[26] • Third, part of the problem can also be traced to the array of impediments to counterterrorism strategy, along with the compromised credibility of State institutions critical to countering terrorism, including the country’s key national security agencies and institutions in the judiciary. For instance, the Human Security Act of 2007—the country’s former principal law against terrorism—contained provisions that deterred government and law enforcement agencies from fully utilizing the said law. Moreover, human rights violations across administrations have resulted in a diminished trust if not distrust of the public toward the government.[27] • Finally, in the present context, the reform discussion on counterterrorism appears to be ill-timed, particularly given the still-looming concern over the COVID-19 pandemic, combined with lingering concerns over the potential abuse of State power against legitimate opposition, and over recent human rights issues in the government’s anti-illegal drugs campaign.

Root Problems of Terrorism in the Philippines The roundtable meeting identified key challenges to a successful counterterrorism effort by the government. First, the porous nature of the Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi (BASULTA) littoral areas enhances the weaknesses of border control mechanisms, further aggravated by capability gaps among various state and security institutions—thus creating entry points for terrorists.[28] Second, the ethno-national connection, in terms of language, religion, and customs, facilitates the ease of connection among terrorist networks within the region.[29] Third, dysfunctional political practices and skewed socioeconomic outcomes create “misgoverned spaces”[30] which perpetuate long-standing grievances in certain parts of the country. These spaces provide sanctuary to terrorists and render the local populace vulnerable to terrorists’ coercive influence and recruitment. Further, the hybrid nature of terrorism (i.e. armed groups combined with engagement in political or community issues

ISSN 2334-3745 54 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 to generate support from the people) makes it difficult for the state to counteract terrorist influence. A recent study, for instance, has pointed out that armed conflicts are a consequence of political, economic, and social issues that revolve around “shadow economies” which “include a broad range of actors and motives, ranging from political and economic elites in pursuit of wealth and power to individuals and groups that rely on the shadow economy for their economic survival.”[31] Finally, it is only recently that the state was able to come up with a ‘whole-of-nation’ approach in dealing with terrorist groups. It will take time before it gains sufficient traction.

Human Security Act (HSA) of 2007: An Inadequate Legal Framework? Republic Act No. 9731, also known as the Human Security Act (HSA) of 2007, came into force in July 2007 to help the government and law enforcement agencies to address the threat of terrorism to the security of the country. Upon signing into law, former president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo described the measure as a “legal muscle to help end the paralysis of fear, empowered with a law that identifies terrorism and penalizes it, a law that preserves and protects freedom.”[32] However, the HSA of 2007—the country’s principal law against terrorism—has never been fully utilized, having been used only twice since its enactment: the first time was to proscribe the ASG as a terrorist organization. The second was against a person who was involved in the Marawi siege, but this case was eventually settled out of court.[33] The HSA of 2007 has also been criticized by implementing agencies as ineffective because some of its provisions make it legally and practically difficult to use: “The HSA, with good intentions, has provided numerous safeguards for the protection of the people’s constitutional rights and fundamental liberties. … Wittingly or unwittingly, however, the HSA in the final analysis, titled the scales in favour of one side, disturbing the balance. … The HSA while commendable for extending due regard to human rights, needs to be reviewed as to its efficacy as a counter-terror measure.”[34] Among others, Section 18 provides for only three days’ detention period without a judicial warrant of arrest of suspected terrorists.[35] While this provision may be viewed from a human rights perspective as protection for the rights of individuals, law enforcement officers found the three days too short, especially when gathering evidence in doing a case buildup against suspected terrorists.[36] Furthermore, Section 7 of the HSA of 2007 requires written approval from the Court of Appeals prior to the surveillance and investigation of suspected terrorists by law enforcement authorities.[37] If granted, the person being investigated retains the right to be informed of his/her surveillance and investigation, and to challenge the legality of such acts before the issuing Court.[38] The HSA of 2007 also provides that any person accused of terrorism charges who is later acquitted by court shall be entitled to Php 500,000.00 or around USD 10,400.00 in damages for each day that he/she has been detained or deprived of liberty or arrested without a warrant as a result of such accusation, with the number of damages automatically charged against the appropriations of the police agency or the Anti-Terrorism Council that brought or sanctioned the filing of the charges against the accused.[39] Moreover, a person acquitted from terrorism charges is also entitled to Php 500,000.00 in liquidated damages for each day in which his/ her properties, assets, or funds were seized as terrorist assets, with the number of damages to be taken from appropriations of the police or law enforcement agency that caused the filing of the enumerated charges against him/her.[40] While these provisions serve as protective measures against malicious prosecution of individuals, these have also deterred law enforcement authorities from using the HSA of 2007: the police and the military have never attempted to use this law precisely because of fear that their institution might be penalized to pay hefty fines.[41] In a proposal to provide law enforcers with a stronger legal measure to address acts of terrorism in the country, the Senate approved on third and final reading Senate Bill No. 1083 on February 26, 2020. The provisions of the said bill were adopted by House Committees on Public Order and Safety and on National Defense into House

ISSN 2334-3745 55 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Bill No. 6875 or the proposed “Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020”, certified as urgent by President Duterte on June 1, 2020. The House of Representatives with 173 affirmative votes approved the proposed legislation on third and final reading on June 3, 2020, only two days after the president’s certification. This brings to the fore the effect and legal significance of the power of the president to certify a bill as urgent. Section 26 (2), Article VI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution states that: “(2) No bill passed by either House shall become a law unless it has passed three readings on separate days, and printed copies thereof in its final form have been distributed to its Members three days before its passage, except when the President certifies to the necessity of its enactment to meet a public calamity or emergency. Upon the last reading of the bill, no amendment thereto shall be allowed, and the vote thereon shall be taken immediately thereafter, and the yeas and nays entered in the Journal.”[42] (emphasis added) A certification of a bill as ‘urgent’ means that the enactment of the proposed law is necessary to address public calamities or emergencies. With President Duterte’s certification of House Bill No. 6875 as ‘urgent’, the requirement of separate days for three readings is removed, as well as the requirement for the distribution of printed copies of the bill in final form three days before its passage. This essentially accelerates the legislative process, whereas normally it takes months for bills to be passed by both Houses of Congress. On July 3, 2020, President Duterte signed the bill into law, officially designated as Republic Act No. 11479 or the “Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020”, effectively replacing the HSA of 2007 as the country’s principal law against terrorism, and rewriting some of its provisions, despite opposition from various sectors and growing concerns over some of its provisions. For instance, the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020, like the HSA of 2007, also allows the arrest and detention of suspected terrorists through the Anti-Terror Council (ATC). However, the new law allows law enforcement agents to arrest without warrant and detain anyone suspected of engaging in terrorist activity for up to 14 days, and may be extended by a maximum of 10 days.[43] Apart from increasing the number of days of arrest and detention without a judicial warrant, the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020 also imposes no liabilities for law enforcement agencies if the suspicion turns out to be false.[44] The law also provides for contradicting provisions on extraordinary rendition—Section 3 allows it “without framing formal charges, trial or approval of the court”, but Section 48 prohibits it without providing for penalties for the violation thereof. More importantly, Section 4 of the law fails to state what terrorism is and who is guilty of terrorism in clear and precise terms. Instead, the law provides for an ambiguous and overbroad definition of what qualifies as terrorism, making it susceptible to various interpretations, and to governmental abuse of authority especially when safeguards are reduced. As retired Associate Justice Vicente V. Mendoza puts it, “a statute whose terms are so vague that persons of common understanding must necessarily guess at its meaning or differ as to its application offends due process. And a statute that sweeps unnecessarily broadly both prohibited and protected conduct is overbroad and likewise offends due process.”[45]

III. Addressing the Credibility of State Actors Meanwhile, the country’s national security and law enforcement agencies face lingering issues over credibility and trust. The proponents of the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020 are working on a presumption that the current institutions—the whole gamut of the security, executive, and judicial institutions—would give high regard to human rights and would exercise a robust degree of accountability. However, the strong public reaction against the law could be inferred as a manifestation of diminished trust in key government institutions tasked with implementing the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020. The stigma of extrajudicial killings and the reported abuses committed on behalf of the war against illegal drugs by some police personnel, the controversial red-tagging practiced by some government personalities, and the lingering concerns over human rights violations committed across various administrations are some of the serious factors that affect people’s trust toward the government. In recent years, the government has publicly tagged legitimate organizations and party-list groups as communist fronts (e.g. Gabriela, Kabaataan,

ISSN 2334-3745 56 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 and IBON Foundation). A multiagency report from the Presidential Communications Operations Office (PCOO), for example, submitted a multiagency report to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in May 2020 describing the ACT Teachers Party-List as “Communist Party of the Philippines-created and led above-ground or front mass organization and institution.” Table 2. Complaints, Perpetrators, Victims per Year

Source: 2008–2018 Annual Reports of the Commission on Human Rights [47] In a recent report, the OHCHR describes the Philippines as marked with an overarching focus on public order and national security—including counterterrorism and illegal drugs—often at the expense of human rights, due process, accountability, and the rule of law.[48] Drawing on data from the Annual Accomplishment Reports from the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) from 2008 to 2018, figures show that since 2008, there has been an increasing trend in the number of human rights violations in the country. Table 2 summarizes the number of human rights violation complaints, perpetrators, and victims documented in the country per year, while Figure 2 plots these figures in a graph to show the trend.

ISSN 2334-3745 57 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Figure 2. Summary of Trends – Complaints, Perpetrators, Victims

Source: 2008–2018 Annual Reports of the Commission on Human Rights [49] Furthermore, the CHR has recorded a total of 1,632 cases of extrajudicial killings, 163 cases of enforced disappearances, and 466 cases of torture from 2008 to 2018. Extrajudicial killings have increased almost twofold from 142 in 2008 to 239 10 years later, and reached as high as 530 in 2016.

Table 3. Alleged Extrajudicial Killings, Enforced Disappearances, and Torture Cases per Year

Source: 2008–2018 Annual Reports of the Commission on Human Rights [50]

ISSN 2334-3745 58 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Table 3 summarizes the number of cases of extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances, and torture per year from 2008 to 2018, while Figure 3 plots these figures in a graph to show trends. These incidents of human rights violations committed by state agents, supported by the data indicating an increase in the trend of extrajudicial killings, affect the credibility of the law-enforcement institutions in implementing provisions of the law that may curtail some fundamental rights.

Figure 3. Summary of Trends – Alleged Extrajudicial Killings, Enforced Disappearances, and Torture Cases per Year

Source: 2008–2018 Annual Reports of the Commission on Human Rights [51] Another controversial program where human rights violations have been allegedly committed is the anti- illegal drugs campaign called ‘Double Barrel’. One of its components, project ‘Tokhang’, does “house to house visitations to persuade suspects to stop illegal drug activities.”[52] Related to this, barangay officials compiled lists of suspected ‘drug personalities’ and passed them to the police. However, individuals had no legal recourse to challenge their inclusion in the said list. Police data further reveals that of the 42,286 police’s anti-illegal drugs operations conducted from July 1, 2016, until November 30, 2017, 507 incidents—or only 1.2 percent— were based on an arrest warrant. According to the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency, since the launch of Double Barrel on July 1, 2016, and until January 31, 2020, the police killed 5,601 persons—with other estimates thrice that number. This clearly illustrates the need for a transparent and comprehensive reporting system by State and non-State actors. Soon after the Anti-Terror Law was passed, an incident involving AFP and Philippine National Police (PNP) personnel in Jolo, Sulu resulted in the death of four Army intelligence personnel.[53] The details and the conditions obtaining on the ground that led to this incident are still being investigated, but looking at it from all possible scenarios, it does not look well for the PNP, which will be one of the principal implementors of the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020. Distrust permeates not only among civil society, but also among the state

ISSN 2334-3745 59 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 actors themselves, in this case the AFP and the PNP. This further concretizes the trust deficit and the issue of competence among state actors to implement the law without abuse. This issue of trust also moved many of the different sectors—such as academia, law groups, rights-based organizations, and other vulnerable sectors that may be affected by the implementation of the law—to challenge the constitutionality of the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020. At present, there are 37 petitions pending at the Supreme Court,[54] and these cases have been consolidated and set for oral arguments in February 2021. [55] Some of the common constitutional issues put forward in the petitions are as follows: • Section 4, as previously mentioned, provided a vague and overbroad definition of terrorism such that anyone or any group can easily be tagged as terrorist, especially if an act is interpreted as creating the atmosphere of fear, or is seen as provoking or influencing the government by intimidation. Petitioners argued that the law could be declared unconstitutional as the definition of ‘terrorist’ and ‘terrorist act’ may be void for vagueness and overbreadth, leaving law enforcers wide discretion for its execution. • Section 29, on the provision on warrantless arrest by mere suspicion and without warrant from the court is also a controversial issue, as it allows authorities to arrest and detain suspected persons as long as they have the authorization of the ATC. This is an exception to the general rule that requires court warrant before arrest and detention. • Petitioners also argue that the provision on surveillance and wiretapping may violate due process, as it allows law enforcement agents to conduct the same by mere application, even without a case filed in court. There is a danger, therefore, of abuse that will effectively authorize unreasonable searches and seizure against anyone who has been suspected of being a terrorist. Lastly, it is critical to note that these trust issues extend far beyond the current administration. This might be a signal that there are structural and institutional challenges in implementing policies and laws—so that even well-designed laws must take into consideration these deficits and weaknesses. These issues are rather fundamental and the government will find it difficult to gain the trust and confidence of the public with regards to the law, unless these are addressed.

IV. Assessment of the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020 There is a common understanding amongst various sectors about several implications of the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020 on national security. To wit: • First, the law equips the state forces with a stronger arsenal to prevent acts of terrorism. The increase in pre-charge detention from three days to 14 days, and extendible to another 10 days, without warrant would allow the law enforcers sufficient time to build the case against suspected terrorists.[56] • Second, the expansion of coverage to include extraterritorial terrorist acts strengthens the legal framework for international cooperation. The use of whole-of-nation strategy to address the changing nature of terrorist organizations would trigger agility among state agencies to coordinate efforts, share intelligence, and streamline processes. • Third, the law does not address existing structural problems. Disfunctional governance is still present, added by untuned policy directives between national and local governments as regards dealing with terrorist groups: national government does not deal with certain anti-terrorist measures, while some local governments in Lanao del Sur and Basilan have programs to rehabilitate members of terrorist organizations.[57] • Fourth, there must be a separate effort to strengthen intelligence-gathering capacity, resources, and protocols. Currently, intelligence sharing does not directly contribute to a legal case buildup. As in the past, the intelligence efforts were insufficient to prosecute suspected terrorists. Gaps in the technical

ISSN 2334-3745 60 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

capacity of authorities in managing intelligence continue to exist and the border security issues remain to be problematic. This does not necessarily require an act of legislation, but there should be appropriate mechanisms by which intelligence can be strengthened.

V. Conclusion In summary, the curious prioritization of the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020 amidst the pandemic crisis has affected the public’s perception about the bill’s real intent. In much of the academic community, the ill-timed passage of the law only raised skepticism. To many, the government should have focused its attention on containing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the populace and on resuscitating the local economy. There is merit in coming up with a constitutionally compliant and effective legal tool to combat terrorism, and under normal circumstances it would have been welcomed by the public since it will strengthen the ability of the state to protect society. However, these are not normal times. It does not also help that the prevailing style of governance, the incidents of abuses by law enforcement agencies, and the perceived loss of decency in the way political discourse is being conducted provided a toxic environment fostering distrust in government. Clearly, there is a need to strike a balance between developing an effective legal strategy as an immediate approach, and at the same time addressing the root causes of terrorism, which is rather fundamental in nature and can be addressed only by efficient and effective governance strategies as headway toward trust rebuilding. While the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020 should address the defects of the HSA of 2007, it should also contribute to efforts to address the root causes of terrorism. Addressing the root causes might require government to synergize the law with other strategies or efforts that look at improving the standards of governance and strengthening the local economy, and create opportunities for improved education among the youth, especially for women. The government should also look at capacitating institutions involved in the implementation of the law—law enforcement, judiciary, and human rights groups, among others—and fix the way it manages its strategic communications to the general public, as many state and non-state personalities identified with the government contribute to the confusing discourse on the law. The government should also find the space to address the public’s fear over perceived ambiguity between acts of terrorism and the legitimate exercise of free speech and assembly. The determination of probable cause against persons suspected of committing acts of terrorism or inciting terrorism must be revisited, articulating a convincing justification as to why such determination should be given to the executive branch rather than the judiciary, and outweighing the danger of possible abuse. Provisions to prevent abuses and ensure accountability must be emphasized and strengthened, if only to mitigate against the trust deficit between the general public and the government. Otherwise, the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020, as it is written, would be considered a draconian measure increasing insecurity and terror, rather than offering security and a path to national peace. The irony here is that it may actually exacerbate dissent and terrorism, if abused and unchecked. There is a need therefore to step back and ask again: would the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020 effectively address the current threats of terrorism in the country, given the premises stated?

About the Authors: Ronald U. Mendoza Ph.D., is the Dean of the Ateneo School of Government, Ateneo de Manila University. Previously, he was an associate professor of economics at the Asian Institute of Management (AIM), and the executive director of the AIM Rizalino S. Navarro Policy Center for Competitiveness. He also served as a senior economist with the United Nations in New York. His research background includes work with UNICEF, UNDP, the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), and several nongovernmental organizations in Manila, the Philippines. RAdm. Rommel Jude G. Ong PN (Ret.) is a professor of praxis of the Ateneo School of Government, Ateneo de Manila University. He is also the executive director of the Security Reform Initiative, Inc. (SRI), an independent

ISSN 2334-3745 61 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 think tank that advocates for the adoption of policies, reforms, and agenda in support of the country’s human and national security well-being. Atty. Dion Lorenz L. Romano is the program manager of the Governance Research and Development Program for Bangsamoro of the Ateneo Policy Center, Ateneo School of Government, in partnership with the Institute for Autonomy and Governance. Bernadette Chloe P. Torno is a research assistant of the Governance Research and Development Program for the Bangsamoro of the Ateneo Policy Center, Ateneo School of Government, in partnership with the Institute for Autonomy and Governance.

Notes [1] More specifically the lower house adopted the Senate version of the bill in what many thought was an unusually expedited move. The House of Representatives approved with 173 affirmative votes the proposed legislation on third and final reading on June 3, 2020, despite opposition from various sectors and growing concerns over some of its provisions. [2] Traditionally, the Philippine Left refers to the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), its armed wing, the New People’s Army (NPA), and/or its political front, the National Democratic Front of the Philippines (NDFP). Openly espousing a Maoist ideology to achieve national liberation, the CPP-NPA-NDFP triumvirate claims to speak on behalf of landless peasants, indigenous peoples, oppressed religious minorities, workers, and youth in the country. [3] See for example: Olaniyi Evans and Ikechukwu Kelikume. “The impact of poverty, unemployment, inequality, corruption, and poor governance on Niger Delta militancy, Boko Haram terrorism and Fulani Herdsmen attacks in Nigeria.” International Journal of Management, Economics, and Social Sciences 8, no. 2 (2019): 58–80. URL: https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/200987 [4] H. H. A. Cooper. “Terrorism: The Problem of Definition Revisited”, American Behavioral Scientist 44, no. 6 (2011): 881–893. DOI: 10.1177/00027640121956575; Martha Crenshaw. “The Causes of Terrorism,”Comparative Politics 13, no. 4 (1981): 379–399. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/421717; Walter Enders and Todd Sandler. The Political Economy of Terrorism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Terror 2000/2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2006. Retrieved from www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/terror/terrorism-2000-2001/; United States Code 38 S2656f. 2000; Title 28 Code of Federal Regulations 0.85. 2003. [5] Martha Crenshaw. “The Causes of Terrorism,” 379–399; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Terror 2000/2001; Title 28 Code of Federal Regulations 0.85. 2003.

[6] Walter Enders and Todd Sandler, op. cit. [7] Martha Crenshaw. “The Causes of Terrorism,” 379–399; Walter Enders and Todd Sandler. The Political Economy of Terrorism; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Terror 2000/2001; Andrew Heywood. Politics. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan; Tim Krieger and Daniel Meierrieks. “What Causes Terrorism?,” Public Choice 147, no. 1–2 (2011): 3–27. DOI: 10.1007/s11127-010-9601- 1; Sue Mahan and Pamala L. Griset. Terrorism in Perspective. Los Angeles: SAGE Publ., 2013. [8] University of Maryland Global Terrorism Database. June 2001–January 2020; URL: https://www.start.umd.edu/research-projects/ global-terrorism-database-gtd. [9] James D. Fearon and David D. Laitin. “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War,” American Political Science Review 97, no. 01 (2003): 75–90. DOI: 10.1017/s0003055403000534; Andreas Freytag, Jens J. Krüger, Daniel Meierrieks, and Friedrich Schneider. “The Origins of Terrorism: Cross-Country Estimates of Socio-economic Determinants of Terrorism,” European Journal of Political Economy 27, (2011): s5–s16. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2011.06.009; Tim Krieger and Daniel Meierrieks. “What Causes Terrorism?,” 3–27; Quan Li. “Does Democracy Promote or Reduce Transnational Terrorist Incidents?,” Journal of Conflict Resolution49, no. 2 (2005): 278–297. DOI: 10.1177/0022002704272830. [10] S. Brock Blomberg and Gregory D. Hess. “The Lexus and the Olive Branch: Globalization, Democratization, and Terrorism.” In: Terrorism, Economic Development, and Political Openness, edited by Philip Keefer and Norman Loayza, 116–147. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008; Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler. “Greed and Grievance in Civil War”,Oxford Economic Papers 56, no. 4 (2004): 563–595. DOI: 10.1093/oep/gpf064; Quan Li and Drew Schaub. “Economic Globalization and Transnational Terrorism,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 48, no. 2 (2004): 230–258. DOI: 10.1177/0022002703262869 [11] Fearon and Laitin, op. cit., 75–90; S. Brock Blomberg, Gregory Hess, and Akila Weerapana. “Economic Conditions and Terrorism”, European Journal of Political Economy 20, no. 2 (2004): 463–478. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2004.02.002.

ISSN 2334-3745 62 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[12] Freytag et al., “The Origins of Terrorism,” s5–s16. [13] Seung-Whan Choi and James A. Piazza. “Ethnic Groups, Political Exclusion, and Domestic Terrorism”, Defence and Peace Economics 27, no. 1 (2016): 37–63. DOI: 10.1080/10242694.2014.987579; Martin Gassebner and Simon Luechinger. “Lock, Stock, and Barrel: A Comprehensive Assessment of the Determinants of Terror”, Public Choice 149, no. 3–4 (2011): 235–261. DOI: 10.1007/ s11127-011-9873-0. [14] Choi and Piazza, “Ethnic Groups, Political Exclusion, and Domestic Terrorism,” 235–261; Freytag et al., “The Origins of Terrorism”, s5–s16; Gassebner and Luechinger, “Lock, Stock, and Barrel”, 235–261. [15] James A. Piazza. “Incubators of Terror: Do Failed and Failing States Promote Transnational Terrorism?”,International Studies Quarterly 52, no. 3 (2008): 469–488. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2478.2008.00511.x. [16] Mapping Militant Organizations. “Abu Sayyaf Group.” Stanford University, Last modified August 2018; URL: https://cisac.fsi. stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/abu-sayyaf-group. [17] Ibid. [18] “New People’s Army (NPA).” GlobalSecurity.org, n.d.; URL: https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/npa.htm. [19] “Suicide Bombings Take Root in the Southern Philippines.” BenarNews, November 13, 2019; URL: https://reliefweb.int/report/ philippines/suicide-bombings-take-root-southern-philippines. [20] “Two suspected suicide bombers from Egypt killed in Philippines.” Al Jazeera, November 6, 2019; URL: https://www.aljazeera. com/news/2019/11/egyptian-suicide-bombers-killed-philippines-sulu-island-191106065754574.html. [21] University of Maryland, Global Terrorism Database. [22] “Two suspected suicide bombers from Egypt killed in Philippines.” Al Jazeera, November 6, 2019; URL: https://www.aljazeera. com/news/2019/11/egyptian-suicide-bombers-killed-philippines-sulu-island-191106065754574.html. [23] Ted Regencia. “Delay in return ‘boosts ISIL recruitment’ in Philippines’ Marawi.” Al Jazeera, October 23, 2019; URL: https:// www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/delay-return-boosting-isil-recruitment-philippines-marawi-191022063320387.html. [24] University of Maryland, Global Terrorism Database. [25] See for example: Benjamin Acosta and Kristen Ramos. “Introducing the 1993 Terrorism and Political Violence Dataset.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism,40 no. 4, (2016): 232–247, DOI: 10.1080/1057610X.2016.1184061; Gary LaFree and Laura Dugan. “Introducing the Global Terrorism Database.” Terrorism and Political Violence, 19 no. 3 (2007): 181–204, DOI: 10.1080/09546550701246817. [26] Presentation of Dr. Jennifer S. Oreta. Ateneo School of Government, Ateneo de Manila University. Closed-Door Virtual RTD on Anti-Terrorism Bill of 2020. June 17, 2020. [27] Ibid. [28] Angel Rabasa and Peter Chalk. Non-Traditional Threats and Maritime Domain Awareness in the Tri-Border Area of Southeast Asia: The Coast Watch System of the Philippines. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation 2012. URL: https://www.rand.org/pubs/ occasional_papers/OP372.html. [29] Ibid. [30] Christopher S. Bond and Lewis M. Simons. (2019). The Next Front: Southeast Asia and the Road to Global Peace with Islam. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. [31] Francisco Lara, Jr. and Steven Schoofs. Out of the Shadows: Violent Conflict and the Real Economy of Mindanao.Quezon City, Philippines: International Alert, 2013. [32] “Speech of President Arroyo at the Launching of the Human Security Act of 2007.” Official Gazette, July 20, 2007; URL: https:// www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2007/07/20/speech-of-president-arroyo-at-the-launching-of-the-human-security-act-of-2007/. [33] Presentation of Dr. Jennifer S. Oreta, Department of Political Science, Ateneo de Manila University. RTD on Anti-Terrorism Bill. June 8, 2020; URL: http://ateneo.edu/ls/soss/political-science/video/rtd-anti-terrorism-bill-8-june-2020. [34] Pelagio V. Palma. “The Problem of Excessive Human Rights Safeguards in a Counter-Terror Measure: An Examination of the Human Security Act of the Philippines.” Ateneo Law Journal, 58 (2013): 476. [35] Section 18, Republic Act No. 9372 or the Human Security Act of 2007. URL: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2007/03/06/ republic-act-no-9372/.

ISSN 2334-3745 63 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[36] Presentation of Dr. Jennifer S. Oreta, Department of Political Science, Ateneo de Manila University. RTD on Anti-Terrorism Bill. [37] Section 17, Republic Act No. 9372 or the Human Security Act of 2007; URL: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2007/03/06/ republic-act-no-9372/. [38] Ibid, Section 9. [39] Ibid, Section 50. [40] Ibid, Section 40. [41] Presentation of Dr. Jennifer S. Oreta, Department of Political Science, Ateneo de Manila University. RTD on Anti-Terrorism Bill. [42] Section 26 (2), Article VI. 1987 Philippine Constitution; URL: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/. [43] Section 29, Republic Act No. 11479 or the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020; URL: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/ downloads/2020/06jun/20200703-RA-11479-RRD.pdf. [44] Ibid, Section 29. [45] Vicente A. Mendoza. “A vague, badly written anti-terror bill.” Inquirer.net, June 28, 2020; URL: https://opinion.inquirer. net/131231/a-vague-badly-written-anti-terror-bill. [46] Figures for 2009 only includes complaints received from January to July 2009. [47] Annual Reports 2008 to 2018. Commission on Human Rights; URL: http://chr.gov.ph/chr-accomplishment-report/. [48] “Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the Situation of Human Rights in the Philippines.” Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, June 4, 2020. URL: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/ PH/Philippines-HRC44-AEV.pdf. [49] Ibid. Annual Reports 2008 to 2018. [50] Ibid. Annual Reports 2008 to 2018. [51] Ibid. Annual Reports 2008 to 2018. [52] “Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Philippines.” Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. [53] CNN Philippines Staff. “Four Soldiers Dead in Jolo ‘Shooting Incident with PNP.”cnnphilippines.com, 29 June 2020. URL: https:// www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2020/6/29/soldiers-dead-jolo-sulu-police.html. [54] Tetch Torres-Tupas. “37 Petitions vs. Anti-Terrorism Act now pending before the Supreme Court.” Inquirer.net, 23 October 2020. URL: https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1351678/37-petitions-vs-anti-terrorism-act-now-pending-before-supreme-court. [55] Benjamin Pulta. “Oral Arguments on Anti-Terror Law Reset to February 2.” pna.gov.ph, 15 January 2021. URL: https://www.pna. gov.ph/articles/1127532. [56] Section 29, House Bill 6875 or The Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020; URL: http://www.congress.gov.ph/legisdocs/first_18/CR00340. pdf. [57] Department of Political Science, Ateneo de Manila University. RTD on Anti-Terrorism Bill.

ISSN 2334-3745 64 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Variations on a Theme? Comparing 4chan, 8kun, and Other chans’ Far-Right “/pol” Boards by Stephane J. Baele, Lewys Brace, and Travis G. Coan

Abstract Online forums such as 4chan and 8chan have grown in notoriety following a number of high-profile attacks conducted in 2019 by right-wing extremists who used their “/pol” boards (dedicated to “politically incorrect” discussions). Despite growing academic interest in these online spaces, little is still known about them; in particular, their similarities and differences remain to be teased out, and their respective roles in fostering a certain far- right subculture need to be specified. This article therefore directly compares the content and discussion pace of six different /pol boards of “chan” forums, including some that exist solely on the dark web. We find that while these boards constitute together a particular subculture, differences in terms of both rate of traffic and content demonstrate the fragmentation of this subculture. Specifically, we show that the different /pol boards can be grouped into a three-tiered architecture based upon both at once how popular they are and how extreme their content is. Keywords: far-right; Internet; chan boards; 4chan; 8kun; language; computational methods.

Introduction, Research Question, and Hypothesis Brenton Tarrant’s attack on two mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand, on 15 March 2019 was not only shocking in its own right, but also drew the public’s attention to 8chan, an anonymous “image-board” (online forum where users share images alongside text) where far-right discussions were carried out and extremist content shared. Indeed, shortly before his shooting, Tarrant announced on the forum “I will carry out an attack against the invaders”, and posted a manifesto as well as links to a Facebook livestream video of his attack. Among the first replies came encouragements; for instance, a picture of Hitler was uploaded with the comment “Good luck shitposter. Rolling for many dead chinks and niggers”. In the months following this attack, two shooters (John Earnest and Patrick Crusius) followed the exact same modus operandi, announcing their imminent attacks and posting their manifestos on the forum. While 8chan’s shutting down in August 2019, a few days after Crusius’ attack, came as a relief to many, the closure of the platform seemed to trigger a migration of its users to other comparable websites. It turned out that 8chan was merely one node in a much broader, ever-changing and expanding constellation of almost identical image-boards. For the purpose of the present article, we refer to this constellation as the “chans”: indeed almost all iterations of these sites have the same visual layout, internal architecture, and a variation of the term “chan” in their name. A specific site name also includes either a number indicating its chronological distance from the two original chans (2channel [founded in 1999, renamed 5channel in 2017] and FutabaChannel [founded in 2001 with the confusing extension 2chan.net]), or a word denoting a specific focus (the “nein” in NeinChan was for example supposed to signify that the site was both the ninth iteration and had a focus on particularly fascist content). While initially limited, the chans constellation seemed to expand in the aftermath of the closure of 8chan: the likes of 8kun, 9chan, 16chan, ShitChan, EndChan, or NeinChan appeared (and sometimes shut down). All of them, including the long-standing 4chan, host “/pol” thematic boards dedicated to “politically incorrect” (a euphemism for racist and anti-Semitic) conversations. Iterations in other, non-English languages have also appeared. One such board, the /pol board of the German-language kohlchan, featured Tobias Rathjen’s video and manifesto very soon after his attack on the two shisha bars in Hanau, Germany, in February 2020, and already disseminated Stephan Balliet’s Halle shooting video (initially published on Twitch) a couple of months before.[1] While the most popular chans are accessible on the open Internet, others exist on the dark web as “onion” sites. In spite of its offensive content and links to offline violence, this “semi-dark web” [2] far-right online constellation

ISSN 2334-3745 65 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 remains largely unexplored. Specialized news outlets like Bellingcat have shed light on their main aspects,[3] but in-depth scientific work is almost inexistent [4] and, consequently, key questions remain unanswered. The present article examines one of the most pressing research questions: to what extent are the /pol boards of the chans similar in terms of content? In other words, do these boards host the same type of far-right content, constituting a coherent whole, or does each occupy a specific niche in a more fragmented ecosystem? On the one hand, all these boards look interchangeable: they all have the same structure, publish highly offensive extremist far-right content (both text and visual memes), have users who write using the same characteristic lingo, and act as gateways to a range of different types of extreme-right wing platforms (archived extremist content, far-right organizations’ websites, etc.). They also seem to experience regular user migrations from one to the other; 8chan, for example, grew in popularity during the “#gamergate” controversy when some 4chan users looked for an even less scrutinized forum. In other words, they all seem to contribute to the fabric of a single online “subculture”, understood here as a “culturally bounded (but not closed) network of people who come to share the meaning of specific ideas, material objects, and practices through interaction”. [5] Key to the establishment of subcultures through such interactions is the construction of a typical identity for both the ingroup and the perceived outgroup(s),[6] which occurs in various ways such as the use of new or unusual group labels to name them [7] or the glorification/vilification of individuals crystallizing the ingroup/ outgroup values.[8] Under this light, the /pol chan boards would constitute yet another of the many particular subcultures populating the much broader far-right online social environment.[9] Yet, on the other hand, a close reading of the /pol boards leaves the impression that each possesses its own identity; in other words, each /pol iteration appears to have its own subculture. For instance, whereas some appear to host favorable opinions of Brenton Tarrant, who became a cult “saint” figure, others regularly criticize the Christchurch shooter because he targeted Muslims instead of Jews. Overall, while all these /pol boards might be grouped under the very broad common umbrella of right-wing extremism, differences in ideological content and perhaps interaction practices do seem to exist. To reconcile this apparent contradiction, we put forward—and empirically test—the hypothesis that while the /pol boards indeed partake in a common far-right online subculture, the developments recalled above have led to a fragmentation of this subculture into a series of distinct yet overlapping “sub-subcultures”. This hypothesis rests on recent work documenting “longitudinal fragmentation processes”, that is, the tendency of online political movements to fragment into self-segregating “homophilic” enclaves.[10] More precisely, we hypothesize that the mechanism driving the fragmentation of the /pol subculture is the radicalization of its members into increasingly extreme niches through forces akin to those described by McCauley and Moskalenko as “fission” (extremist organizations organically splitting up in increasingly radical groups) and “condensation” (extremist groups emerging from less radical ones following exogenous factors).[11] Our empirical analysis sought to test this hypothesis by comparing the /pol boards’ content in such a way that the extremity of their views can be approximated. Addressing this question incidentally brings about two important additional benefits. First, it allows us to assess whether the various /pol boards are equally popular, that is, feature comparable levels of discussion activity. From an outsider’s perspective, it is hard to establish which of these boards are most attended and which ones are, conversely, unpopular; a problem reinforced by their contributors’ full anonymity. The data collected here to compare the content of the different boards allows us to provide insight into this question, offering essential information about the overall structure of the chans’ constellation. As we demonstrate below, with what we believe is the first study to include chan forums located in the dark net only, the traffic/popularity structure of the chans does in fact somewhat correspond with their ideological positioning. Second, by shedding light on an under-researched part of the wider far-right online ecosystem, our effort contributes to the growing literature on right-wing extremism on the Internet. This paper builds on recent work tracing the historical development of this ecosystem,[12] unpacking its cultural dimension and significance,[13] clarifying its relationship to radicalization,[14] and explaining processes of far-right identity construction online.[15] More specifically, it further demonstrates the depth of this ecosystem and investigates its dynamics of ideological fractionation/ consolidation, prolonging important recent research on these aspects.[16] ISSN 2334-3745 66 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Data and Methods To answer our research question, we scraped the linguistic content of six chan /pol boards and analyzed it with a three-step methodology that utilizes computational text-analysis tools.[17] Data. We developed custom software to extract and process all Original Posts (OPs) made to4chan/pol , 8kun/ pol, 16chan/pol, InfinityChan/bestpol (also known as 9chan), Endchan/pol, and Neinchan/pol, over the three- month period covering April, May, and June 2020.[18] Simultaneous collection during this timeframe allowed for the development of comparable corpora across the various boards (i.e., making it less likely that an external event could shape the discussion in board A collected at a time X, and not in board B collected at a time Y). Covering that 3-month timeframe—rather than a shorter period of time or a similar one at another moment— had the benefit of avoiding the content of the forums to be overtly skewed by an important event (such as the U.S. presidential elections, the initial weeks of the coronavirus outbreak, the killing of George Floyd, etc.). Innovative techniques were, in particular, developed to extract the content from InfinityChan/bestpol and Neinchan/pol, which are located on the Dark Net. These six boards were selected for two main reasons: first because they were recently identified as the most important ones to include by a range of government units in charge of online extremism,[19] and second because these were the most active of the several /pol boards our team was monitoring and scraping at the time of data collection (as Figure 1 will make clear, other boards did not demonstrate a sufficient level of user engagement to motivate inclusion). As a result, our work does not claim to investigate a representative sample of the /pol ecosystem, but rather to focus the analysis on the most relevant of them. Both Table 1 and Figure 1 below provide key descriptive statistics on the overall level of posting activity for the six /pol boards. Based on the number of OPs made per day, 4chan/pol remains by far the most popular board, with OP traffic being almost twice as big as that of all other boards combined.8kun/pol , which is the direct successor to the now defunct 8chan/pol, comes second, with all the other boards characterized by low traffic. The structure of the /pol boards constellation is therefore a 3-tiered hierarchy with one popular board, one less popular board, and many poorly attended boards. The graph demonstrates a decrease in activity for4chan/pol from the beginning of June; however, a more in- depth investigation into the typical level of 4chan/pol traffic, with data from further back in time, reveals that the high posting activity observed in April and May corresponds to an unusual spike in pace of discussion due to the COVID-19 lockdown. As such, the observed decline represents the level of discussion returning to pre- COVID levels. We also notice that 8kun/pol’s popularity seems to have slowly increased over the period under scrutiny; given that forum’s extreme content (cf. below), this is a worrying trend.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of the six corpora over the period 1 April 2020 – 30 June 2020. Infinitychan/ Neinchan/pol 4chan/pol 8kun/pol 16chan/pol Endchan/pol bestpol (Dark (Dark Net) Net)

Total number of Origi- 8393 978 123 51 334 63 nal Posts (OPs)

Average number of OPs 92.23 10.74 1.35 0.56 3.67 0.69 per day

Total number of words 378,051 102,640 19,158 14,599 47,598 7,985

Average of average 45.04 104.94 155.75 286.25 142.50 126.74 word length per OP

ISSN 2334-3745 67 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Figure 1: Posting activity in the six /pol boards over the period 1 April 2020 – 30 June 2020. The number of posts presented here is shown as a 10-day moving average in order to make the posting behavior on the less popular chans amenable to study. This is due to the fact that some data is missing for some of the days in early-to-mid April for 4chan due to web driver issues. However, the decline in 4chan traffic from the end of May is due to lower traffic and not caused by these missing data.

Method To evaluate the similarity between these boards’ content, we proceed in three steps. First, we identified, for each board, its 20 most frequent nouns and bigrams (sequences of two words that frequently co-occur in the corpus, such as “white house”). Comparing the relative frequency of the boards’ prominent nouns and bigrams provides a first indication of the main preoccupations of the posters and may already highlight differences in emphases. Second, we conducted a correspondence analysis of the boards’ most frequent terms, which visually represents how specific these terms are to the various boards. Correspondence analyses, which are built from contingency tables (wherein entities are categorized into two or more different sets of categories), are a standard technique to visualize semantic differences between long texts and corpora [20]—indeed it has been used in endeavors as diverse as evaluating the evolution of Dickens’ style,[21] settle the disputed authorship of Gospels,[22] or, more pertinently for us, compare the content of Islamic State’s Dabiq and Rumiyah magazines.[23] We plotted the 200 most frequent nouns for the six boards in a contingency table (a 2- dimensional table with each row corresponding to a frequent word and the frequency counts for each /pol board appearing in the columns), and plotted on that basis a two-dimensional scatter diagram to visualize the results. As Kroonenberg and Greenacre explain, such “graphical representations of the row and column variables […] highlight the salient aspects of their relationship”, in our case the deviations between the lexical fields of the various boards.[24] Third, we generated fourco-occurrence networks; one for 4chan/pol, one for 8kun/pol, one for 16chan/pol, and one for Endchan/pol (the rationale for this selection is explained below). Co-occurrence networks, also known as semantic networks, are generated from co-occurrence matrix tables. They visually represent both at once the most frequent words of the text as nodes (whose sizes vary according to their relative frequencies) and the probability that these terms co-occur in the same sentence or paragraph in the text (represented as more or less thick and distant links connecting the nodes). This method allows for a more granular representation of each board’s lexical field, exposing the texts’ “interconcept organization” (or “associative network”, that is, the way

ISSN 2334-3745 68 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 the concepts composing the texts take their meaning from their regular association with other ones).[25] These advantages make co-occurrence networks useful tools to identify the major frames, narratives, and discourses of political texts,[26] including violent extremists’ prose.[27] These networks, as well as the correspondence analysis for step 2, were generated with the KH Coder software.[28]

Findings and Discussion Step 1: Most frequent terms and bigrams. Table 2 below displays the most frequent nouns for each of the six boards. A number of features are immediately obvious. First, the most popular nouns for all the boards concern the phrase “white people”, with “jew” or labels depicting black people (“black”, “nigger”) also being frequently used, supportive of other work that has discussed the in-group and out-group categories of the far-right online environment [29]. This is indicative of ingroup and outgroup labels being common to the various boards, and hence evidence a common subculture based on the racial distinction between white people and others. Second, we see that compared to 4chan/pol, 8kun/pol appears to have more of a racial component to its discussions: the word “black” is third most frequent (compared to 11th), and the terms “jews”, “nigger”, and “race” appear in the table (none of them count among 4chan/pol’s 20 most frequent words). Third, the table seems to suggest that NeinChan hosts the most extreme content, which is perhaps not surprising given it exists solely on the dark web. A cursory look at this particular board demonstrates that users tend to discuss matters directly related to violent attacks, such as comparing the manifestos of various shooters (with Brenton Tarrant even having his own board aside from the /pol one). These results indicate that not all these boards are equally extreme—rather, they suggest that the more established and longstanding 4chan/pol hosts less extreme discussions, which stands in line with our fragmentation hypothesis.

Table 2: Most frequent nouns on the six /pol boards over the period 1 April 2020 – 30 June 2020 (absolute count and ratio for the whole corpus). Infinitychan/ 4chan/pol 8kun/pol 16chan/pol Endchan/pol Neinchan/pol bestpol “people”: “people”: “white”: “people”: “people”: “white”: 1 Frequency: 1580 Frequency: 431 Frequency: 120 Frequency: 64 Frequency: 168 Frequency: 56 Ratio: 0.0079 Ratio: 0.0076 Ratio: 0.0117 Ratio: 0.0097 Ratio: 0.0065 Ratio: 0.0130 “white”: “white”: “people”: “white”: “white”: “thread”: 2 Frequency: 1059 Frequency: 389 Frequency: 68 Frequency: 50 Frequency: 147 Frequency: 54 Ratio: 0.0053 Ratio: 0.0069 Ratio: 0.0066 Ratio: 0.0075 Ratio: 0.0057 Ratio: 0.01262 “pol”: “black”: “group”: “jew”: “us”: “tarrant”: 3 Frequency: 677 Frequency: 189 Frequency: 68 Frequency: 38 Frequency: 111 Frequency: 56 Ratio: 0.0033 Ratio: 0.0033 Ratio: 0.0066 Ratio: 0.0057 Ratio: 0.0043 Ratio: 0.0107 “trump”: “time”: “state”: “race”: “time”: “meme”: 4 Frequency: 593 Frequency: 188 Frequency: 37 Frequency: 34 Frequency: 96 Frequency: 41 Ratio: 0.0029 Ratio: 0.0033 Ratio: 0.0036 Ratio: 0.0051 Ratio: 0.0037 Ratio: 0.0095 “world”: “post”: “time”: “jewish”: “thread”: “brenton”: 5 Frequency: 592 Frequency: 171 Frequency: 34 Frequency: 27 Frequency: 84 Frequency: 38 Ratio: 0.0029 Ratio: 0.0030 Ratio: 0.0033 Ratio: 0.0041 Ratio: 0.0032 Ratio: 0.00888 “view”: “jew”: “jew”: “control”: “world”: “jew”: 6 Frequency: 575 Frequency: 171 Frequency: 34 Frequency: 27 Frequency: 65 Frequency: 56 Ratio: 0.0028 Ratio: 0.0030 Ratio: 0.0033 Ratio: 0.0041 Ratio: 0.0025 Ratio: 0.0130

ISSN 2334-3745 69 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

“time”: “state”: “year”: “life”: “niggers”: “world”: 7 Frequency: 556 Frequency: 152 Frequency: 31 Frequency: 26 Frequency: 61 Frequency: 20 Ratio: 0.0027 Ratio: 0.0027 Ratio: 0.0030 Ratio: 0.0039 Ratio: 0.0023 Ratio: 0.0046 “text”: “view”: “world”: “woman”: “black”: “people”: 8 Frequency: 545 Frequency: 149 Frequency: 27 Frequency: 26 Frequency: 60 Frequency: 17 Ratio: 0.0027 Ratio: 0.0026 Ratio: 0.0026 Ratio: 0.0039 Ratio: 0.0023 Ratio: 0.0039 “click”: “nigger”: “life”: “state”: “power”: “man”: 9 Frequency: 524 Frequency: 149 Frequency: 27 Frequency: 23 Frequency: 57 Frequency: 17 Ratio: 0.0026 Ratio: 0.0026 Ratio: 0.0026 Ratio: 0.0034 Ratio: 0.0022 Ratio: 0.0039 “country”: “text”: “thread”: “system”: “post”: “year”: 10 Frequency: 575 Frequency: 146 Frequency: 26 Frequency: 23 Frequency: 56 Frequency: 13 Ratio: 0.0028 Ratio: 0.0025 Ratio: 0.0025 Ratio: 0.0034 Ratio: 0.0021 Ratio: 0.0030 “black”: “race”: “leftist”: “thing”: “pol”: “thing”: 11 Frequency: 505 Frequency: 145 Frequency: 26 Frequency: 17 Frequency: 52 Frequency: 13 Ratio: 0.0025 Ratio: 0.0025 Ratio: 0.0025 Ratio: 0.0024 Ratio: 0.0020 Ratio: 0.0030 “shit”: “police”: “war”: “virus”: “whites”: “site”: 12 Frequency: 495 Frequency: 143 Frequency: 24 Frequency: 16 Frequency: 51 Frequency: 12 Ratio: 0.0024 Ratio: 0.0025 Ratio: 0.0023 Ratio: 0.0024 Ratio: 0.0020 Ratio: 0.0028 “going”: “thread”: “thing”: “german”: “war”: “faggot”: 13 Frequency: 489 Frequency: 139 Frequency: 24 Frequency: 16 Frequency: 49 Frequency: 12 Ratio: 0.0024 Ratio: 0.0024 Ratio: 0.0023 Ratio: 0.0024 Ratio: 0.0019 Ratio: 0.0028 “year”: “click”: “violence”: “post”: “police”: “race”: 14 Frequency: 454 Frequency: 135 Frequency: 24 Frequency: 15 Frequency: 49 Frequency: 12 Ratio: 0.0022 Ratio: 0.0024 Ratio: 0.0023 Ratio: 0.0022 Ratio: 0.0019 Ratio: 0.0028 “day”: “world”: “men”: “place”: “way”: “anons”: 15 Frequency: 445 Frequency: 128 Frequency: 23 Frequency: 14 Frequency: 48 Frequency: 9 Ratio: 0.0022 Ratio: 0.0022 Ratio: 0.0022 Ratio: 0.0021 Ratio: 0.0018 Ratio: 0.0021 “life”: “video”: “trump”: “symptom”: “going”: “men”: 16 Frequency: 431 Frequency: 127 Frequency: 23 Frequency: 14 Frequency: 46 Frequency: 9 Ratio: 0.0021 Ratio: 0.0022 Ratio: 0.0022 Ratio: 0.0021 Ratio: 0.0018 Ratio: 0.0021 “china”: “group”: “control”: “cause”: “jewish”: “manifesto”: 17 Frequency: 417 Frequency: 119 Frequency: 23 Frequency: 14 Frequency: 46 Frequency: 9 Ratio: 0.0020 Ratio: 0.0021 Ratio: 0.0022 Ratio: 0.0021 Ratio: 0.0018 Ratio: 0.0021 “woman”: “shit”: “month”: “mind”: “race”: “pol”: 18 Frequency: 387 Frequency: 119 Frequency: 21 Frequency: 14 Frequency: 45 Frequency: 9 Ratio: 0.0019 Ratio: 0.0021 Ratio: 0.0020 Ratio: 0.0021 Ratio: 0.0017 Ratio: 0.0021 “thing”: “trump”: “going”: “coronavirus”: “system”: “creator”: 19 Frequency: 380 Frequency: 118 Frequency: 20 Frequency: 13 Frequency: 44 Frequency: 9 Ratio: 0.0019 Ratio: 0.0021 Ratio: 0.0019 Ratio: 0.0019 Ratio: 0.0017 Ratio: 0.0021 “way”: “thing”: “medium”: “number”: “jews”: “movement”: 20 Frequency: 379 Frequency: 116 Frequency: 20 Frequency: 13 Frequency: 42 Frequency: 8 Ratio: 0.0018 Ratio: 0.0020 Ratio: 0.0019 Ratio: 0.0019 Ratio: 0.0016 Ratio: 0.0018

ISSN 2334-3745 70 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Table 3 provides the most frequent bigrams and is generally consistent with the analysis provided in Table 2. Namely, while race is a prominent theme indicating a common subculture across all boards, the more esoteric chans have more extreme content demonstrating fragmentation. 4chan/pol indeed appears to be more concerned with a broader range of political issues such as Donald Trump and COVID-19, the issue of race seems much more prominent on 8kun/pol and other boards, and terms indicative of conspiratorial narratives (e.g. “jew” + “control”) and slurs (e.g. “cock” + “faggotity”, “naughty” + “cock”, “piss” + “earth”) appear to characterize the fringe ones. Using the concept of “whiteness” as an example, one can indeed see a gradual increase in radical views, starting with 4chan/pol on the left mentioning “white people”, to the more racial focus of 8kun/pol, to 16chan/pol mentioning “white nationalist”, to “national socialist” on InfinityChan/bestpol board, finally ending with open discussions of Brenton Tarrant on NeinChan/pol. Overall, the first step of our analysis offers preliminary evidence in favor of our analysis.

Table 3: Most frequently occurring bigrams on the six /pol boards over the period 1 April 2020—30 June 2020.

Infinitychan/ 4chan/pol 8kun/pol 16chan/pol Endchan/pol Neinchan/pol bestpol “white”, “people”: “white”, “peo- “white”, “peo- “right”, “wing”: “brenton”, “tar- 1 “covid”, “19”: 156 62 ple”: 9 ple”: 7 20 rant”: 38 “white”, “people”: “united”, “state”: “white”, “nation- “tarrant”, 2 110 44 alist”: 9 “al”, “moallem”: 7 “dont”, “care”: 18 “meme”: 32 “pic”, “related”: “social”, “medi- “neurological”, “social”, “media”: “meme”, 3 86 “white”, “race”: 27 um”: 9 “symptom”: 6 17 “thread”: 32 “united”, “state”: “national”, “so- “naughty”, 4 “swine”, “flu”: 65 “black”, “life”: 24 6 “jew”, “control”: 6 cialist”: 17 “cock”: 8 “sequenced”, “life”, “matter”: “white”, “civiliza- “united”, “states”: 5 “live”: 65 24 tion”: 6 “span”, “n”: 6 13 “white”, “man”: 8 “people”, “lock- 6 down”: 64 “year”, “old”: 24 “non”, “white”: 6 “face”, “mask”: 6 “iov”, “cn”: 13 “white”, “race”: 6 “syrian”, “peo- “a n y m o r e”, “basis”, “morali- 7 “donald”, “j”: 62 “anti”, “white”: 22 “living”, “soul”: 6 ple”: 6 “dont”: 13 ty”: 5 “hasnt”, “done”: “united”, “state”: 8 62 “make”, “sure”: 21 “6”, “million”: 6 5 “wh”, “iov”: 12 “non”, “white”: 5 “done”, “any- “social”, “medi- 9 thing”: 61 um”: 19 “right”, “wing”: 6 “april”, “30”: 5 “anti”, “white”: 12 “u”, “army”: 4 “george”, “floyd”: “minneapolis”, “murdoch”, 10 “j”, “trump”: 61 19 “anti”, “white”: 5 “police”: 5 “murdoch”: 11 “race”, “war”: 4 “trump”, “potus”: “national”, “shopping”, 11 61 “guard”: 19 “fuck”, “right”: 5 “non”, “white”: 5 “cart”: 11 “dont”, “know”: 4 “trump”, “hasnt”: “various”, “loca- “jewish”, “ameri- “social”, “medi- “cock”, “faggoti- 12 61 tion”: 19 can”: 5 um”: 5 “dont”, “want”: 11 ty”: 4 “potus”, “team- “survival”, “white”, “suprem- “white”, “people”: “human”, “con- 13 trump”: 60 “bread”: 18 acist”: 5 “9”, “11”: 5 10 science”: 4 “teamtrump”, 14 “trumpwar- “cvg”, “survival”: “right”, “wing- “neurological”, “even”, “though”: “white”, “world”: room”: 60 18 er”: 5 “disorder”: 5 10 4 “president”, “don- “yet”, “another”: “group”, “peo- “national”, “so- “national”, “so- 15 ald”: 60 17 ple”: 4 cialism”: 4 cialists”: 10 “piss”, “earth”: 4 “black”, “people”: “terrorist”, “orga- “police”, “depart- “discussion”, 16 59 nization”: 16 “deutsch”, “pol”: 4 ment”: 4 “white”, “man”: 9 “meme”: 3

ISSN 2334-3745 71 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

“right”, “wing”: “livestream”, “cause”, “neuro- “many”, “peo- “sexual”, “degen- 17 58 “various”: 16 “year”, “ago”: 4 logical”: 4 ple”: 9 eracy”: 3 “coronavirus”, “remove”, “pen- 18 “gov”: 54 “new”, “york”: 16 “jew”, “died”: 4 “severe”, “case”: 4 “non”, “whites”: 9 guin”: 3 “gov”, “trump”: “police”, “officer”: “show”, “people”: “black”, “crime”: “white”, “nation- 19 54 16 “pro”, “white”: 4 4 8 alism”: 3 “billion”, “peo- “right”, “wing”: “low”, “testoster- 20 ple”: 53 16 high”, “iq”: 4 “case”, “covid”: 4 “white”, “men”: 8 one”: 3 Step 2: Correspondence analysis of words. A correspondence analysis of words, with the six boards (red boxes) plotted together in Figure 2 below with their most frequent words (turquoise dots), allows us to visualize the boards’ lexical similarities and differences. Indeed to simplify, the closer the boards are to each other, the more similar they are in terms of the words contained in their discussions. In other words, what our correspondence graph reveals is how specific each word is to the six boards: in the plot, a word that appears very close to one board does not necessarily appear more in this board but has a stronger relative association with this one board. For example in Figure 2, “video” may well occur very frequently in 4chan/pol, but is far more specific to 16chan/pol.

Figure 2: Correspondence analysis displaying the most frequent words (turquoise dots) in the /pol boards of 4chan/pol, 8kun/pol, InfinityChan/bestpol, 16chan/pol, NeinChan/pol, and EndChan/pol (red squares). In this plot, a closer distance between a word and a board indicates a more specific association based on relative frequencies, not necessarily a higher absolute frequency.

ISSN 2334-3745 72 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

One observation appears that strengthens the findings from step 1, further backing our hypothesis: words that represent a more openly xenophobic and confrontational type of far-right language—such as “nigger”, “jew”, “white”, “war”, “race”, or “power”—are located at the right side of the plot, where all the third-tiered /pol boards are also located, including the two Dark Web boards of InfinityChan and NeinChan. 4chan/ pol, albeit without a doubt a far-right forum, is situated at the other side of the graph, surrounded by less contentious words that denote the broader interest in political news (e.g. “president”, “money”, “government”, “coronavirus”, “country”). This corroborates our earlier suggestion that the content of the minor chans is more extreme than that of 4chan/pol, with 8kun/pol situated in between the two groups: in other words, it appears that the 3-tier structural hierarchy of the boards (in terms of their posting frequency) corresponds to increased ideological extremism, in line with our working hypothesis. This said, while 16chan/pol, InfinityChan/bestpol, and NeinChan/pol occupy a comparable position, EndChan/pol is located very far from them in the graph, with very few of the most common words located near it; this means that its lexical field contains specificities that make it stand out from that of the other boards (as we foresaw in Table 2). Step 3: Co-occurrence networks. We extend our previous analysis by generating and analyzing four co- occurrence networks (Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6). We estimate a separate network for 4chan/pol and 8kun/pol, given their respective status as first and second most visited boards, but only plotted two networks for the remaining smaller boards for the sake of clarity and pertinence. From these marginal chans, we selected 16chan/pol because it stands at the center of the semantic cluster (in Figure 2) occupied by NeinChan/pol and InfinityChan/ bestpol, and Endchan/pol because of its apparent oddity revealed by the first two steps of the analysis. While these graphs’ rich content offers multiple analytical insights, we can only focus here on what we believe are the two most crucial findings in terms of our research question and hypothesis. First, our main observations from steps 1 and 2 are further confirmed: 4chan/pol appears to display less extreme content than the other boards. Its most central discussion theme (green cluster) is the coronavirus situation, and while there are political discussions (blue cluster on Trump and political ideologies; small clusters on news events such as the Black Lives Matter protests) as well as a concern for race indicative of a common far- right subculture (e.g. black-white top cluster), brazenly racist lingo is absent and the most extreme right-wing concerns are not prominent. On the contrary, 8kun/pol’s central cluster contains that language (“chimpout” [a derogatory term for the Black Lives Matter movement], “nigger”, “officer” co-occurring with “ass”) and features important far-right themes (see for example the right side of the purple cluster with “hitler”, “propaganda”, “struggle”, “control”, or “socialism”) and framing (see for example the co-occurrence of “black” with “cop”), together with indications that far-right conspiracy theories are talked about (“bill” – “gates”, “murdoch” – “channel”). Trump and U.S. politics feature less centrally. 16kun/pol’s discussions are less clearly clustered, indicating that themes are more mixed up in discussions; moreover, xenophobia permeates the content of all these amalgamated debates. For example, the blue cluster on the left shows a concern for “white” “civilization”. That board appears to have a more anti-Semitic content than the others, with words such as “zionist”, “kosher”, “israel”, “kike” [a derogatory slang term for Jews], or “holocaust” spread across the network, which indicates a specific “sub-subculture”. In sum, 8kun/pol and 16kun/pol are both more extreme than 4chan/pol, but while 8kun/pol is marked by white supremacist concerns, 16kun/pol presents a more anti-Semitic tone. Second, the peculiarity of EndChan further appears. While the forum does contain far-right anti-Semitic discussions (see for example the green cluster on the left-hand side, with “trump” co-occurring with “goyim” and “jew” with the discussions about the “looting” and “burning” of the protests [following the death of George Floyd]), the forum seems to be an eclectic aggregation of different discussions about themes as diverse as ancient European culture (“greek”, “culture”, “history”, “art”, “light”, “paint”, etc.), the 5G conspiracy (“5g”, “phone”), and the coronavirus (blue cluster, bottom right). This heterogeneous assemblage of different themes, with recurring far-right concerns, is partly due to the low popularity of the forum, which hasn’t succeeded in constituting a solid user base and coherent “identity”. Overall, this last step’s granular analysis delivers results that confirm those of the first two steps, and so largely confirms our working hypothesis: while all the /pol boards together contribute to a common online far-right subculture structured by the racist opposition between “white” people and their “enemies”, clear differences ISSN 2334-3745 73 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 exist that evidence the fragmentation of this particular ecosystem—through fission/condensation—of this subculture into a range of ever-more extremist niches, or “sub-subcultures”, each with its particular ideological nuances and linguistic practices.

Figure 3: Co-occurrence network for 4chan/pol.

ISSN 2334-3745 74 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Figure 4: Co-occurrence network for 8kun/pol.

ISSN 2334-3745 75 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Figure 5: Co-occurrence network for 16chan/pol.

ISSN 2334-3745 76 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Figure 6: Co-occurrence network for EndChan/pol.

Conclusions In the context of both a rise in far-right-inspired violent attacks and a fast-developing extreme right-wing online presence, this paper sought to establish the extent to which the /pol boards of the multiplying chan forums were similar in content and discussion pace, in order to test our hypothesis that while the /pol boards do partake in a common far-right online subculture, this subculture has fragmented into several distinct yet overlapping “sub-subcultures” along extremity lines. Overall, our findings confirmed this hypothesis. On the one hand, we found that all of the /pol boards do indeed contribute to the same particular far-right, white-supremacist online subculture. On the other hand, we found that this subculture is not fully coherent, demonstrating the kind of “longitudinal fragmentation” [30] through a “fission”/“condensation” radicalization process evoked above.[31]. Indeed the /pol environment is characterized by a three-tiered structure in terms of both a gradation in the extremity of the views expressed in the forums and their popularity. Our analysis indeed revealed that the long-standing 4chan/pol remains by

ISSN 2334-3745 77 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 far the most popular /pol board at the top of the three-tiered hierarchy wherein the newer, more esoteric chans occupy a fringe position, hosting much fewer—but clearly more extreme—participants. Whether that pattern is a common evolution of extremist subcultures on the Internet, or only a specific feature of the chans’ ecosystem, is a crucial question with important policy implications that ought to be answered by further research. As “alt-tech” platforms such as Gab, Discord, Slug, or BitChute pull more and more users from increasingly strict companies like Facebook, Twitter, or YouTube, investigations of extremist community formation should evaluate whether the same dynamics also hold there.

Acknowledgement This work was supported by Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) via the Center for Research and Evidence on Security Threats (CREST) consortium under grant number ES/N009614/1.

About the Authors: Stephane J. Baele, Ph.D., is Senior Lecturer in International Relations at the University of Exeter, U.K., where he is the deputy director of the Centre for Advanced International Studies (CAIS). His multidisciplinary research, which focuses on the linguistic and visual dimensions of extremist communications (as well as on IR theories), has appeared in Political Psychology, Journal of Conflict Resolution, International Studies Review, Terrorism & Political Violence, Journal of Language & Social Psychology, International Theory, and Journal of Global Security Studies, among others. Lewys Brace, Ph.D., is Lecturer in Data Analysis at the University of Exeter, where he is part of the Q-Step Centre. His research focuses on online extremism and radicalization in regards to political violence, as well as the application of computational methods to social science research and policing. His research has previously appeared in Terrorism & Political Violence and Artificial Life. Travis G. Coan, Ph.D., is a senior lecturer in Quantitative Politics at the University of Exeter and codirector of the Exeter Q-Step Centre. While Dr. Coan has published on a wide range of topics, his core research examines questions in the areas of environmental and political communication, with an interest in the study of polarization and extremism. His work has appeared in International Studies Quarterly, Social Networks, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, and Terrorism & Political Violence, among others.

Notes [1] Read for example Le Monde’s articles dedicated to these shooters’ online interventions; URL: https://www.lemonde. fr/pixels/article/2020/02/20/allemagne-le-terroriste-presume-de-hanau-avait-publie-un-manifeste-conspirationniste-et- raciste_6030204_4408996.html, or https://www.lemonde.fr/pixels/article/2019/10/10/attentat-de-halle-un-manifeste-qui-pose- plus-de-questions-qu-il-n-apporte-de-reponses_6014973_4408996.html, among others. [2] Maryam Zamani, Fereshteh Rabbani, Attila Horicsányi, Anna Zafeiris, and Tamas Vicsek, “Differences in Structure and Dynamics of Networks Retrieved from Dark and Public Web Forums,” Physica A, no. 525 (2019), pp. 326–336. [3] See for example: Robert Evans, “Shitposting, inspirational terrorism, and the Christchurch Mosque Massacre,” Bellingcat, 15 March 2019; URL: https://www.bellingcat.com/news/rest-of-world/2019/03/15/shitposting-inspirational-terrorism-and-the- christchurch-mosque-massacre/ [accessed 16/03/2019]; Robert Evans, “Ignore The Poway Synagogue Shooter’s Manifesto: Pay Attention To 8chan’s /pol/ Board,” Bellingcat, 28 April 2019; URL: https://www.bellingcat.com/news/americas/2019/04/28/ignore- the-poway-synagogue-shooters-manifesto-pay-attention-to-8chans-pol-board/ [accessed 16/03/2019]; Robert Evans, “The El Paso Shooting and the Gamification of Terror,” Bellingcat, 4 August 2019; URL: https://www.bellingcat.com/news/americas/2019/08/04/ the-el-paso-shooting-and-the-gamification-of-terror/. [4] For exceptions, see for example D. Ludemann, “/pol/emics: Ambiguity, Scales, and Digital Discourse on 4chan,” Discourse, Context & Media, vol. 24 (2018), pp. 92–98; Florence Keen, Blyth Crawford, and Guillermo Suarez de-Tangil, "Memetic Irony And The Promotion Of Violence Within Chan Cultures", CREST Report, 15 December 2020, URL: https://crestresearch.ac.uk/resources/

ISSN 2334-3745 78 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 memetic-irony-and-the-promotion-of-violence-within-chan-cultures/. [5] J. Patrick Williams, and Heith Copes, “‘How Edge Are You?’ Constructing Authentic Identities and Subcultural Boundaries in a Straightedge Internet Forum,” Symbolic Interaction vol. 28 no. 1 (2005), p. 70. [6] Idem, pp. 67–89. Also Susan Zickmund, “Approaching the Radical Other: The Discursive Culture of Cyberhate,” in David Bell and Barbara Kennedy, eds., The Cybercultures Reader (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 137–253. [7] Holt Thomas, Blevins Kristie, and Burkert Natasha, “Considering the Pedophile Subculture Online,” Sexual Abuse, vol. 22 no. 1 (2010), pp. 3–24. [8] See for example how the online “incel” subculture rests on the pseudo-canonization of attackers such as Elliot Rodger or Alek Minassian: Stephane J. Baele, Lewys Brace, and Travis G. Coan, “From ‘Incel’ to ‘Saint’: Analyzing the violent worldview behind the 2018 Toronto attack,” Terrorism & Political Violence, online before print (2019); URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019. 1638256; or Taisto Witt, “‘If I Cannot Have It, I Will Do Everything I Can to Destroy It’. The Canonization of Elliot Rodger: ‘Incel’ Masculinities, Secular Sainthood, and Justifications of Ideological Violence,”Social Identities, online before print (2020); URL: https:// doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2020.1787132. [9] Such as those already described by John M. Cotter, “Sounds of Hate: White Power Rock and Roll and the Neo-Nazi Skinhead Subculture,” Terrorism & Political Violence, vol. 11 no. 2 (1999), pp. 111–140; or Zickmund, op. cit. [10] Read Deen Freelon, Marc Lynch, and Sean Aday, “Online Fragmentation in Wartime: A Longitudinal Analysis of Tweets about Syria, 2011–2013,” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 659 no. 1 (2015), pp. 166–179. [11] Clark McCauley, and Sophia Moskalenko, “Mechanisms of Political Radicalization: Pathways Toward Terrorism”, Terrorism & Political Violence, vol. 20 no. 3 (2008), pp. 415–433. [12] See for example Maura Conway, Ryan Scrivens, and Logan Macnair, “Right-Wing Extremists’ Persistent Online Presence: History and Contemporary Trends,” ICCT Policy Briefs (2019); URL: https://icct.nl/publication/right-wing-extremists-persistent- online-presence-history-and-contemporary-trends/. [13] Maik Fielitz and Nick Thurston,Post-Digital Cultures of the Far Right. Online Actions and Offline Consequences in Europe and the US (Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag, 2019). [14] Tiana Gaudette, Ryan Scrivens, and Vivek Venkatesh, “The Role of the Internet in Facilitating Violent Extremism: Insights from Former Right-Wing Extremists,” Terrorism & Political Violence, online before print (2020); URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553. 2020.1784147. [15] Consider, for example, the following studies of identity construction dynamics in the neo-Nazi forum “Stormfront”: Lorraine Bowman-Grieve, “Exploring ‘Stormfront’: A Virtual Community of the Radical Right,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, vol. 32 no. 11 (2009), pp. 989–1007; Willem De Koster, and Dick Houtman, “‘Stormfront is like a Second Home to Me’. On Virtual Community Formation by Right-wing Extremists,” Information, Communication & Society, vol. 11 no. 8 (2008), pp. 1155–1176. [16] See for example Bennett Kleinberg, Isabelle van der Vegt, and Paul Gill, “The Temporal Evolution of a Far-right Forum,”Journal of Computational Social Science, online before print (2020); URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-020-00064-x; Jacob Davey and Julia Ebner, The Fringe Insurgency. Connectivity, Convergence and Mainstreaming of the Extreme Right (London: ISD, 2017); Manuela Caiani and Linda Parenti, European and American Extreme Right Groups and the Internet (New York: Routledge, 2016); Caterina Froio, “Race, Religion, or Culture? Framing Islam between Racism and Neo-Racism in the Online Network of the French Far Right,” Perspectives on Politics vol. 16 no. 3 (2018), pp. 696–709; or Caterina Froio, and Bharat Ganesh, “The Transnationalisation of Far Right Discourse on Twitter,” European Societies vol. 21 no. 4 (2019), pp. 513–539. [17] Computational text-analysis methods are now a well-established method for the study of extremist content. See for example Shuki Cohen, Arie Kruglanski, Michele Gelfand, David Webber, and Rohan Gunaratna, “Al-Qaeda’s Propaganda Decoded: A Psycholinguistic System for Detecting Variations in Terrorism Ideology, Terrorism and Political Violence,” vol. 30 no. 1 (2018), pp. 142–171; Sylvia Jaki, Tom De Smedt, Maja Gwóźdź, Rudresh Panchal, Alexander Rossa, Guy De Pauw, “Online Hatred of Women in the Incels.me Forum: Linguistic Analysis and Automatic Detection,” Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict, vol. 7 no. 2 (2019), pp. 240–268. Baele, Brace, and Coan, op. cit. On far-right content, see for example Shuki Cohen, Thomas Holt, Seven Chermak, and Joshua Freilich, “Invisible Empire of Hate: Gender Differences in the Ku Klux Klan’s Online Justifications for Violence,”Violence & Gender, online before print (2020); URL: https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2017.0072. [18] The scraper that was developed by the authors to collect this data was developed in Python using a mixture of theRequests and Selenium packages and is available, along with user documentation, on the authors’ GitHub page. [19] The source of this information can unfortunately not be disclosed. [20] Pieter Kroonenberg, and Michael Greenacre, “Correspondence Analysis”; in: Samuel Kotz, Campbell Read, N. Balakrishnan, and Brani Vidakovic, (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences (2006); URL: https://doi.org/10.1002/0471667196.ess6018.pub2. See also Phillip M. Yelland, “An Introduction to Correspondence Analysis,” The Mathematica Journal, vol. 12 (2010); URL: https:// content.wolfram.com/uploads/sites/19/2010/09/Yelland.pdf.

ISSN 2334-3745 79 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

[21] Tomoji Tabata, “Investigating Stylistic Variation in Dickens through Correspondence Analysis of Word-Class Distribution,” in Christian Mair, Charles F. Meyer, (Eds.), Language and Computers. Studies in Digital Linguistics (The Hague: Brill, 2002), pp. 165–182. [22] David Mealand (1997) “Measuring Genre Differences in Mark with Correspondence Analysis,”Literary & Linguistic Computing, vol. 12 no. 4 (1997), pp. 227–245. [23] Stephane Baele, Katharine Boyd, and Travis Coan, “The Matrix of Islamic States’ Propaganda: Magazines”; in: Stephane Baele, Katharine Boyd, and Travis Coan, (Eds.), ISIS Propaganda: A Full-Spectrum Extremist Message (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), pp. 84–126. [24] Kroonenberg and Greenacre, op. cit. [25] See Ziva Kunda, Social Cognition. Making Sense of People (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999), pp. 42–51. [26] For example Junseop Shim, Chisung Park, and Mark Wilding “Identifying Policy Frames through Semantic Network Analysis: An Examination of Nuclear Energy Policy across Six Countries,” Policy Sciences, vol. 48 (2015), pp. 51–83; Leo Kim, “Denotation and Connotation in Public Representation: Semantic Network Analysis of Hwang Supporters’ Internet Dialogues,” Public Understanding of Science, vol. 22, no. 3 (2013), pp. 335–350. [27] For example Stephane Baele, Katharine Boyd, and Travis Coan, “Extremist Prose as Networks,” CREST Security Review, no. 5 (2017), pp. 20–21; Baele, Brace, and Coan, op. cit. [28] Higuchi Koichi, KH Coder 3 Reference Manual (2017); URL: https://github.com/ko-ichi-h/khcoder. All input information and files are available upon request from the authors. [29] For example Conway, Scrivens, and Macnair, op. cit. [30] Freelon, Lynch, and Aday, op. cit.

[31] McCauley and Moskalenko, op. cit.

ISSN 2334-3745 80 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Climate Change - Terrorism Nexus? A Preliminary Review/ Analysis of the Literature by Jeremiah O. Asaka

Abstract Climate change and terrorism are two key global security concerns of our time. Despite that fact, the two continue to predominantly be analyzed separately by most security studies scholars. However, interest on the interplay between these two concerns has grown considerably particularly over the past two decades. The growth in interest is attributable to the close to two decades of scholarship on the climate-security nexus. That scholarship establishes climate change as a threat multiplier, which worsens existing problems and aggravates vulnerabilities. This text presents findings of a preliminary literature review/analysis of 112 documents published between 2000 and 2020. The literature review/analysis was guided by the following three broad questions. What does the literature say about the link and/or lack thereof between climate change and terrorism? What is the publication trend for literature that explore the relationship between climate change and terrorism? What insight(s) for future policy and/or research? The text identifies two patterns of interaction with regards to the interplay between climate change and terrorism. On one hand, a simple one-way indirect relationship wherein climate change aggravates existing social vulnerability, which is a known enabler/driver of terrorism. On the other hand, a complex relationship wherein climate change contributes to terrorism and vice versa through a self-reinforcing process characterized by feedback loops. Keywords: Climate change, terrorism, climate security, global security, human security, environmental security

Introduction Since the end of Cold War, security thinking has evolved considerably. Security no longer simply revolves around a given state’s concern(s) with imagined/real external aggression threats from either another state’s military (or joint military force involving an alliance of states) or non-state actor(s) particularly an individual terrorist (also known as lone wolf) and/or amorphous terrorist organization (for example, Al Qaeda, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria [ISIS], Al Shabaab, and Boko Haram). Today, the notion of security encompasses issues that were previously considered to be outside its purview such as climate change, pandemics (for example, coronavirus disease of 2019 [COVID-19], Ebola, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome [SARS], and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome [MERS]), disasters (for example, hurricanes, wildfires, droughts, and floods) and a host of other concerns which are usually framed under the human security banner, including food security, economic security, personal security, community security, political security, health security, and environmental security, among others.[1] Indeed, today even proponents of state-centered security (national security) are increasingly framing issues such as climate change and infectious diseases in security terms.[2] Concern over security implications of climate change dates back several decades and continues to grow both among security studies scholars and policy makers.[3] The broad and growing literature on a climate-security nexus is predominantly focused on understanding the relationship between climate change and security in all its facets.[4] Therefore, the literature can be grouped into several not-quite-comprehensive and not-so-neatly defined categories as follows. • Climate and conflict/peace literature, which initially primarily looked at climate change’s threat multiplier effect on existing conflicts but has since evolved to also focus on the conflict/peace potential of climate change adaptation and mitigation.[5] • Climate change and natural disasters literature explores what climate change’s effect on the intensity and frequency of weather-related disasters such as hurricanes, floods, tropical cyclones, droughts, and

ISSN 2334-3745 81 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

wildfires among others means for security of individuals, communities, cities, and countries across different geographical contexts.[6] • Climate change and the resource nexus literature shows how climate variability and climate change acting, for example, on the water-energy-food nexus can exacerbate human insecurities in a variety of ways in various geographical contexts across the globe.[7] • The literature on climate change and public health examines the influence of climate change on disease emergence, spread, and spatial distribution to understand what it means for global health security. This literature establishes that climate change contributes both to the emergence of new pandemics as well as the continued spatial spread of diseases across various geographical contexts.[8] • A final category involves literature that explores the interplay between climate change and migration. This literature explains how climate change acting on existing social vulnerabilities predisposes certain sections of human population in places like Central America and Mexico among others to migrate as a coping strategy—usually with far-reaching implications for their own human security as well as the homeland security of the migrant-receiving countries such as the United States.[9] These are just a few examples of ways that extant literature frames and/or explores the climate-security nexus. A relatively recent and growing area of interest—for both scholars and policy makers—within the climate- security nexus scholarship concerns the relationship and/or lack thereof between climate change and terrorism. [10] An increasing number of security studies scholars—especially scholars of national/homeland security— are concerned with understanding the interplay between climate change and terrorism.[11] It is this specific aspect of the climate-security nexus that this Research Note concerns itself with. It documents findings of a preliminary literature review/analysis of the interplay between climate change and terrorism in various geo- political contexts. This literature review/analysis was guided by the following three broad questions. (i) What does the literature say about the link and/or lack thereof between climate change and terrorism? (ii) What is the publication trend for literature that explore the relationship between climate change and terrorism? (iii) What insight(s) can we derive for future policy and/or research? This Research Note is divided into four sections. Following this introduction is a methods section, which discusses the methodological aspects of the text, including literature search, selection and review/analysis. This is then followed by a findings and discussion section organized around the three guiding questions (i, ii & iii). Finally, the Research Note ends with a conclusion section, which summarizes its key findings and makes recommendations for future policy and research.

Literature Review/Analysis Literature search was purposely limited to the period between January 2000 and February 2020. It proceeded as follows. First, the author purposely selected eight reputable peer-reviewed journals with a focus on terrorism/ security/intelligence (see Table 1 for a list of journals and summary of the number of articles that were selected for review/analysis from each journal). In selecting journals, the author was guided by whether or not a journal is peer-reviewed and/or has a security/terrorism/intelligence focus. This being a preliminary literature review/ analysis, it is by no means exhaustive. Journals that otherwise meet the selection criteria but have not been included here should not in any way be construed as not meriting inclusion. The following search phrases were used to search for peer-reviewed articles within the selected journals: climate change, global warming, and climate security. Articles that mention at least one of these terms were selected for further review/analysis. A total of 92 peer-reviewed articles were selected for review/analysis at the end of this stage of the literature search process.

ISSN 2334-3745 82 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Table 1: A Summary of Peer-Reviewed Articles Name of Journal Number of Articles Perspectives on Terrorism 7 Journal of Terrorism Research 3 Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 12 Terrorism and Political Violence 11 Journal of Strategic Security 18 International Journal of Cyber Warfare and Terrorism 2 International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 18 Intelligence and National Security 21 Total 92 Source: Author Note: This table details the names of journals and the respective number of articles selected for review/analysis from each journal.

Second, a Google search was conducted using two key search phrases, namely climate security report and climate change and terrorism report. Additionally, government and think-tank reports on climate change and terrorism were also sought on websites of the following purposively selected think-tanks and United States (U.S.) government departments/programs: U.S. Global Change Research Program, U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, the Center for Climate and Security, American Security Project, International Military Council on Climate and Security, and Adelphi. The choice of these entities was primarily informed by the centrality of climate change, security, and/or terrorism to their mission/work. As was the case with journals, this is not an exhaustive list. Any entity that is not included here should not be seen as not meriting inclusion. Instead, non-inclusion of such entities should be understood within the context of this text being a preliminary literature review/analysis. This stage of the literature search process resulted in the selection of 21 reports, which were subjected to a further in-text search procedure to identify and select only those that mention both climate change/global warming and terrorism (and its variance, namely terrorist and terror) for review/analysis. The in-text search was conducted using the following search words/phrases: Climate change, Global warming, Climate security, Terrorism, Terrorist, and Terror. It proceeded as follows. For every report that mentioned climate change, global warming, and/or climate security following an initial in-text search, a corresponding in-text search for terrorism, terrorist, and/or terror was performed on the same. All the 21 documents were subjected to both an initial and corresponding in-text search process. But only documents that mentioned climate change, global warming, and/or climate security during initial in-text search and terrorism, terrorist, and/or terror during corresponding in-text search were selected for review/analysis. A total of 17 reports were selected for review/analysis (see Table 2).

ISSN 2334-3745 83 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Table 2: A Summary of Reports Report Reviewed/Analyzed 2005 U.S. National Defense Strategy N 2008 U.S. National Defense Strategy Y 2010 U.S. Quadrennial Homeland Security Review Y 2014 U.S. Quadrennial Defense Review Y 2014 U.S. Quadrennial Homeland Security Review Y Country Reports on Terrorism 2016 Y Country Reports on Terrorism 2017 N Country Reports on Terrorism 2018 N 2018 U.S. National Defense Strategy N 2019 Report on Effects of a Changing Climate to the Department of Defense Y A Climate Security Plan for America (2019) Y A Security Threat Assessment of Global Climate Change (2020) Y Insurgency, Terrorism and Organized Crime in a Warming Climate (2016) Y American Security Project’s Climate Security Report (2012) Y First U.S. National Climate Assessment Report (2001) Y Second U.S. National Climate Assessment Report (2009) Y Third U.S. National Climate Assessment Report (2014) Y Fourth U.S. National Climate Assessment Report (2018) Y 2010 U.S. Quadrennial Defense Review Report Y The Responsibility to Prepare and Prevent (2019) Y 2020 World Climate Security Report Y Source: Author Note: This table details the twenty-one reports that were initially selected for review/analysis and the seventeen that were actually reviewed/analyzed. The first column details all the twenty-one reports that were initially selected for review/analysis. The second column identifies the seventeen reports that were actually reviewed/analyzed. In the second column, Y indicates that a report was reviewed/analyzed and N indicates that a report was not reviewed/analyzed.

Finally, two books and one thesis were purposely selected for review because of their centrality to the topic at hand. In summary, this Research Note is based on a review/analysis of 112 documents. Table 3 provides a summary of the reviewed/analyzed documents by type and quantity. Table 3: A Summary of Reviewed/Analyzed Documents by Type and Quantity Type of document Quantity Peer-reviewed articles 92 Reports 17 Theses 1 Books 2 Total 112 Source: Author Note: This table details literature that was reviewed/analyzed by the author. Notes only contain in-text citations. The literature review/analysis involved reading the selected documents, thematic/statistical analysis of the same, synthesis of the findings, and presentation of the synthesis in a concise and coherent narrative format.[12] Thematic analysis involved manual coding of the selected documents using qualitative codes, which emerged from an initial coding of one of the selected documents entitled Insurgency, Terrorism, and Organized Crime: Analyzing the Links Between Climate Change and Non-State Armed Groups.[13] This particular document was purposively selected for initial coding because of its specific focus on the nexus between terrorism and climate change, which is the primary focus of this text. The codes that emerged from the initial coding process

ISSN 2334-3745 84 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 are climate change, global warming, security, and terrorism. During the second cycle of coding, these codes were subsequently organized into two broad themes: Climate change and security, and climate change and terrorism. Finally, the third cycle of coding involved thematic analysis of the rest of the documents using these codes. Statistical analysis involved generating a publication trend and frequency distribution. The specifics of this particular method are discussed further in the next section.

Findings and Discussion What Is the Publication Trend for Literature That Explores the Relationship between Climate Change and Terrorism? An issue of particular interest in the context of this review/analysis concerns gaining insight into the publication trend of climate change and security/terrorism literature. In order to generate a publication trend, the author first tallied the number of publications for each type of document that was selected for review/analysis— namely peer-reviewed journal articles, reports, theses, and books. This initial tallying was based on year of publication. The resultant disaggregated data was then aggregated for each year from 2000 to 2020.With the aid of Microsoftâ Excel for Mac, the author generated and visualized a publication trend (see Table 4). As Table 4 shows, there has been a sustained rise in the number of publications since 2000. Furthermore, considering that peer-reviewed journal articles constitute more than eighty percent of documents reviewed/ analyzed for this text, and also that the articles were sourced from primarily national security-oriented journals, the observed trend can be interpreted to mean that today climate change is entrenched as a security issue/ concern. Table 4: Publication Trend

Source: Author Note: This table details the overall trend in publication of literature on climate change and security/terrorism from 2000 to February 2020. The table is based on literature that was reviewed/analyzed by the author for this text. Notes contain in-text citations only.

ISSN 2334-3745 85 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

On a related note, in the process of thematically analyzing the selected documents, it became apparent that some documents discuss climate change and security/terrorism without necessarily exploring the connection between them. This reality necessitated a simple statistical analysis to highlight the relative distribution of the documents based on whether or not they explore the climate security/terrorism nexus. In order to achieve this, the author relied on insight from the thematic analysis of the documents and came up with the following three broad categories to facilitate statistical analysis: (1) Document explores the link and/or lack thereof between climate change and security; (2) Document specifically explores the link and/or lack thereof between climate change and terrorism; (3) Document does not explore the link and/or lack thereof between climate change and security/terrorism. Using a YES/NO criterion, each document was then categorized accordingly. To facilitate statistical analysis, the author coded YES as 1 and NO as 0. With the aid of Microsoftâ Excel for Mac, the author then computed frequency distribution for the three aforementioned analytical categories and visualized the same using a column chart (see Table 5). Table 5: Relative Distribution of Documents Based on Whether or Not They Explore Nexus

Source: Author Note: This table details frequency distribution of the reviewed/analyzed documents with respect to three analytical categories: (1) Document explores climate-security nexus; (2) Document specifically explores climate-terrorism nexus; (3) Document neither explores climate-security nexus nor climate-terrorism nexus. It is worth pointing out here that category 2 is a subset of category 1. Meaning all documents in the former category belong in the latter category as well. But obviously not all documents in category 1 belong in category 2.

Table 5 reveals that a relatively large proportion (59 out of 112) of the literature that was reviewed/analyzed does not explore the relationship between climate change and security. Even more important in the context of this Research Note, Table 5 shows that a significantly small proportion (18 out of 112) of the literature that was reviewed/analyzed does specifically explore the interplay between climate change and terrorism. Why this is the case is open to interpretation and falls outside the scope of this Research Note (but would make for an interesting undergraduate/graduate research project). Perhaps a final insight from the foregoing is that climate change is increasingly gaining traction in the literature on terrorism. What Does the Literature Say about the Link and/or Lack Thereof between Climate Change and Terrorism? A key message emerging from the literature review concerns the existence of a relationship between climate change and terrorism. But how does this relationship play out exactly? This Research Note finds that climate change and terrorism are linked in at least two ways. First, there exists a simple one-way indirect link between the two whereby climate change acts as a threat multiplier and/or enabler of terroristic activity (see Figure 1).

ISSN 2334-3745 86 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

In this first relationship, climate change acting as a threat multiplier can worsen existing social vulnerability if adaptation and/or mitigation measures are not put in place to help reduce such vulnerability and/or build resilience.[14] Social vulnerability has been linked to both the spread of terrorism as well as the likelihood that an individual may be recruited to join a terrorist group as the following passage notes: Boko Haram, other radical religion-based movements, ‘for hire’ gangs of political thugs and common criminal networks draw their support and recruits largely from poverty-stricken, destitute young males desperate for an alternative to the life fate and history have condemned them.[15] Foley and Holland point out that, “climate change aggravates existing poverty, social tensions, environmental degradation, and weak political institutions; these factors may impact the numbers of terrorist organizations, especially if the presence of the state weakens”.[16] As if to reiterate this point, the 2014 quadrennial defense review report of the U.S. DOD provides that “climate change and associated trends may also indirectly act as ‘threat multipliers.’ They aggravate stressors abroad that can enable terrorist activity and violence, such as poverty, environmental degradation, and social tensions”. [17] Figure 1: A Simple One-Way Indirect Relationship between Climate Change and Terrorism

Source: Author Note: This Figure shows a simple one-way indirect relationship between climate change and terrorism. It details how climate change’s influence on the intensity and frequency of weather-related disasters leads to worsening of existing social vulnerability which in turn feeds into terrorism thereby enabling and/or driving it.

Furthermore, the literature review/analysis also establishes that context is key in determining whether or not climate change enables terroristic activities.[18] For instance, climate change can be an enabler of terroristic activities in a post–natural disaster context where the response capacity of the affected state and/or population is significantly comprised.[19] A recent United Nations Development Program (UNDP) report on the interplay between climate change and violent extremism corroborates this point when it states, in part, that “fragile and natural resource constrained contexts can provide fertile ground for violent extremist groups to flourish and extend their reach, particularly, where governance and institutions are weak and may not be able to respond, the COVID-19 pandemic serving also to highlight gaps in response”.[20] With climate change expected to aggravate the intensity and frequency of natural disasters such as hurricanes, it is possible to see how it links to an elevated risk of terroristic activity picking up. In other words, an increase in the intensity of weather- related natural disasters may in turn take a toll on state capacity to respond and/or cope. With state’s capacity to respond/cope comprised, terrorist groups may find it easy to take advantage of the situation to recruit members and/or stage attacks on an already-vulnerable communities, cities, or countries. Second, the literature review/analysis also establishes the existence of a complex relationship between climate change and terrorism, which is self-reinforcing through feedback loops. That is, climate change drives and/ or enables terrorism, which in turn drives climate change through a feedback loop (see Figure 2). A case in point is the effect of climate change on forest fires and vice versa. As noted in the introduction section of this Research Note, climate change is expected to increase the intensity and frequency of forest fires. In the wake of increased frequency and intensity of forest fires in parts of Europe, Australia, and the United States in the recent past, an individual acting alone or as part of a terrorist group can take advantage of this emerging new

ISSN 2334-3745 87 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 normal to engage in pyro-terrorism.[21] Indeed, some terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda are known to have at some point seriously considered launching arson attacks in some of these forest fire–prone regions of the world as the following passage reveals: From the beginning of September 2008, a renewed concern emanated from Western intelligence agencies to the effect that Al Qaeda terrorists were planning a ‘global fireball,’ in a departure from its war on the West. Deliberately lighting forest fires in Europe, the United States, and Australia would not only stretch emergency services, but would also leave insurance companies facing multibillion-dollar claims, as the credit crunch bites. The fires would also create a pollution disaster, with billions of tons of climate change gases escaping into the atmosphere. The so-called Forest Jihad is being championed by Islamic scholars and Osama bin Laden’s terror strategists who believe setting fire to dry woodlands will produce maximum damage at minimum risk.[22] Pyro-terrorism—if it were ever to happen on a grand scale—would undoubtedly contribute to climate change through emission of greenhouse gases. Climate change then in turn makes conditions favorable for pyro- terrorism and the cycle continues probably until an intervening variable changes its course. With forest fires expected to get worse in terms of frequency and intensity as climate changes, vulnerability of forests to terrorist attacks remains a real concern for governments across the globe.[23] Figure 2: A Complex Relationship between Climate Change and Terrorism

Source: Author Note: This figure shows a complex relationship between climate change and terrorism. It details a self-reinforcing feedback loop relationship where: (1) climate change indirectly contributes to terrorism by exacerbating existing social vulnerability, and (2) pyro- terrorism (a subset of terrorism) directly drives climate change through terrorist-instigated forest fires. From the foregoing, it is evident that climate change is without a doubt linked to terrorism and vice versa. Thus, a climate-terrorism nexus does indeed exist. This finding is in tandem with existing knowledge on the broader climate-security nexus.[24]

ISSN 2334-3745 88 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

What Insight(s) for Future Policy and/or Research? After close to three decades of environmental security research and scholarship, and close to two decades of research specifically on security implications of climate change, it is now time to move beyond the usual preoccupation—particularly among security studies scholars—with understanding the link between climate change and security. While there is really nothing wrong with deepening understanding of the climate-security nexus, it is important to be wary of paralysis of analysis and its associated dangers including inability to make headways especially where timely decision-making aimed at reducing vulnerability and building resilience is needed. Knowledge on climate change’s contribution to human insecurity and other insecurities (for example, insecurity relating to key critical infrastructure sectors such as water, energy, and food) is now well established. Because of this fact, the text argues that focus should now shift toward leveraging such knowledge to guide context- specific adaptation and/or mitigation interventions at multiple scales across the globe. Fortunately, this perceived paralysis of analysis is somewhat limited to the academy. The U.S. DOD, for example, has been at the forefront championing for action on climate change.[25] The U.S. military has long considered climate change to be both a threat multiplier and an existential threat, Trump presidency’s position on climate change notwithstanding.[26] Climate change impacts U.S. military readiness and response through several pathways including: frequent and intense flooding which threatens military bases at home and abroad; frequent and intense heat waves which limit outdoor training opportunities; and frequent and intense hurricanes which overstretch the military’s response capacity in addition to threatening military bases at home and abroad. Due to these (and other) reasons, U.S. military continues to treat climate change as a serious security concern. Moreover, insights from the Obama presidency show considerable strides have been made on the practitioner’s front as the following passage attests. Under the Obama administration, a multipronged approach seems to have developed in countering the al-Shabaab that combines hard and soft power, with the United States either using unilateralism, bilateralism, and multilateralism to counter weak, fragile states that may become homes to radical, Islamist groups. On the multilateral side, Washington has sought to work with regional actors, such as the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and the African Union peacekeeping operation in Somalia. With IGAD the United States is addressing human security issues by working on climate change detection and analysis as well as the promotion of resilience in the face of environmental insecurity. In 2016, United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and IGAD signed an agreement committing USAID to a five-year program to increase trade, investment in food security, and health service for marginalized communities.[27] In the wake of recent calamities such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 desert locust invasion in parts of Africa and the Middle East, proactive approaches exemplified in the U.S. military resilience building endeavors and the Obama administration’s multipronged strategy point to where the focus should be moving forward.[28] As such, future research should focus less on understanding the nexus and more on leveraging existing knowledge on the nexus to inform policy accordingly. For example, it is known that social vulnerability is an important bridge that links climate change and terrorism.[29] Therefore, addressing social vulnerability should be central to future research and policy. The future demands more targeted context-specific action and less analysis for analysis sake.[30]

Conclusion Climate change is real. In a security context, it is both a threat multiplier and an existential threat. This Research Note set out to understand what extant literature says about the link and/or lack thereof between climate change and terrorism. It establishes that climate change and terrorism are linked and that the relationship between the two plays out in at least two different ways.

ISSN 2334-3745 89 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

On one hand, climate change aggravates existing social vulnerability which enables/drives terrorism. On the other hand, climate change drives terrorism and vice versa through a complex relationship characterized by feedback loops. Importantly, this Research Note finds that existing climate-security nexus literature is to a large extent focused more on understanding the link and/or lack thereof between the two. It finds that minimal attention is given to actions for addressing the climate-security nexus challenge. In this regard, the Research Note makes the case for a shift in the focus of climate-security nexus scholarship from simply explaining the nexus to changing the nexus in such a way as to minimize its deleterious aspects. To that end, the text recommends that future research in this area should focus on understanding how to best leverage existing knowledge on the nexus to inform context-specific adaptation and/or mitigation intervention(s) at multiple scales across the globe. Concerning the climate-terrorism nexus specifically, focus of future scholarship should be on understanding how to effectively reduce social vulnerability and build resilience in specific contexts especially those that have a history of terroristic activities such as the United States, Nigeria, Kenya, Pakistan, and Somalia among others. Since greater social vulnerability often feeds into ongoing conflict(s)—and/or contributes to the emergence of domestic resource-related conflicts—it tends to lead also to cross-border emigration. On the other side of the border immigration exercises pressures on receiving countries, e.g., in Europe and North America. This, in turn, tends to increase xenophobia which contributes to right-wing violence particularly against migrants. This issue is of growing concern across the globe, but more so in the Sahel region, Central America, and countries around the Mediterranean. And climate change, acting as a threat multiplier, will only make things worse. As this preliminary review/analysis has established, climate change acts on existing vulnerabilities that serve as actual and/or potential drivers/enablers of terrorism. Therefore, future policy interventions aimed at addressing actual and/or potential security implications of climate change should focus on reducing—ideally eliminating— vulnerabilities especially social vulnerabilities in affected contexts around the globe. To achieve this in the specific context of terrorism, it is imperative that climate change adaptation/mitigation be mainstreamed and made a key aspect of global counterterrorism strategy by all concerned actors.

About the Author: Jeremiah O. Asaka is an assistant professor of security studies at Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX. He specializes in human and environmental security. Email: [email protected]

Notes [1] United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 1994. New York, USA: Oxford University Press, 1994; Scheffran, J. M. Brzoska, H.G. Brauch, P.M. Link, and J. Schilling. Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict: Challenges for Societal Stability. Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace. New York: Springer, 2012; Matthew, Richard A. “Climate Change and Human Security.” In: Climate Change: What It Means for Us, Our Children, and Our Grandchildren, by Joseph F.C. DiMento and Pamela Doughman, 257–94. MIT Press, 2014. [2] Immerman, Richard H. “Transforming Analysis: The Intelligence Community’s Best Kept Secret.”Intelligence and National Security 26, nos. 2–3 (2011), pp. 159–181; URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/02684527.2011.559138; Wolfendale, Jessica. “Terrorism, Security, and the Threat of Counterterrorism.”Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 30 (2007), pp. 75–92; URL: https://10.1080/10576100600791231. [3] Busby, Joshua. “Taking Stock: The Field of Climate Security.”Current Climate Change Reports 4 (2018), pp. 338–346. [4] Gemenne, François, Jon Barnet, W. Neil Adger, and Geoffrey D. Dabelko. “Climate and Security: Evidence, Emerging Risks, and a New Agenda.” Climate Change 123 (2014), pp. 1–9. [5] Dabelko, Geoffrey D., Lauren Herzer, Schuyler Null, Meaghan Parker, and Russell Sticklor. “Backdraft: The Conflict Potential of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation.” Environmental Change & Security Program Report. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2013. [6] Ramsay, James D., and Terrence M. O’Sullivan. “There’s a Pattern Here: The Case to Integrate Environmental Security into Homeland Security Strategy.” Homeland Security Affairs 9 (2013), pp. 1–21; Butts, Kent Hughes. “Environmental Security and Climate Change: A Link to Homeland Security.” Homeland Security & Emergency Management 11, no. 2 (2014), pp. 269–79; O’Sullivan,

ISSN 2334-3745 90 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Terrence M. “Environmental Security Is Homeland Security: Climate Disruption as the Ultimate Disaster Risk Multiplier.” Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy 6, no. 2 (2015), pp. 183–222. [7] Asaka, Jeremiah O. “Water-Energy-Food Nexus and Human Security in Northwestern Kenya.” In Policy and Governance in the Water-Energy-Food Nexus: A Relational Equity Approach, edited by Anastasia Koulouri and Nikolai Mouraviev, pp. 77–94. Earthscan Studies in Natural Resource Management. New York, NY: Routledge, 2020; Bassel, Daher, Sanghyun Lee, Rabi Mohtar, Jeremiah O. Asaka, and Stacy VanDeveer. “Security, Climate Change and the Nexus.” In: Routledge Handbook of the Resource Nexus, edited by Raimund Bleischwitz, Holger Hoff, Catalina Spataru, Ester van der Voet, and Stacy VanDeveer. New York: Routledge, 2018. [8] Zhou, Guofa, Noboru Minakawa, Andrew K. Githeko, and Guiyun Yan. “Association between Climate Variability and Malaria Epidemics in the East African Highlands.” PNAS 101, no. 8 (2004), pp. 2375–2380; Huynen, Maud, Pim Martens, and Su-Mia Akin. “Climate Change: An Amplifier of Existing Health Risks in Developing Countries.” Environment, Development and Sustainability 15, no. 6 (2013), pp. 1425–1442; Patz, Jonathan A., and Melissa J. Hatch. “Public Health and Global Climate Disruption.” Public Health Review 35, no. 1 (2014), pp. 1–23; Butterworth, Melinda K., Cory W. Morin, and Andrew C. Comrie. “An Analysis of the Potential Impact of Climate Change on Dengue Transmission in the Southeastern United States.” Environmental Health Perspectives 125, no. 4 (2017), pp. 579–585; Canyon, Deon V., Frederick M. Burkle, and Rick Speare. “Health Security in Hawaii by 2050: The Physical Effects of Climate Change.” Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management 14, no. 2 (2017). [9] Kaenzig, R., and E. Piguet. “Migration and Climate Change in Latin America and the Caribbean.” In: People on the Move in a Changing Climate. Global Migration Issues, edited by E. Piguet and F. Laczko, 2: pp. 155–716. Global Migration Issues. Springer, Dordrecht, 2014.

[10] UNDP. “The Climate Security Nexus and the Prevention of Violent Extremism: Working at the Intersection of Major Development Challenges.” UNDP Policy Brief. New York: United Nations Development Programme, 2020. [11] Somers, Scott. “How Terrorists Leverage Climate Change.” New Security Beat, September 9, 2019. URL: https://www. newsecuritybeat.org/2019/09/terrorists-leverage-climate-change/; Telford, Andrew. “A Climate Terrorism Assemblage? Exploring the Politics of Climate-Terrorism-Radicalisation Relations.” Political Geography 79 (2020). URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. polgeo.2020.102150. [12] Nowell, Lorelli S., Jill M. Norris, Deborah E. White, and Nancy J. Moules. “Thematic Analysis: Striving to Meet the Trustworthiness Criteria.” International Journal of Qualitative Methods 16 (2017), pp. 1–13. URL: https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847. [13] Nett, Katharina, and Lucas Rüttinger. “Insurgency, Terrorism, and Organized Crime: Analyzing the Links Between Climate Change and Non-State Armed Groups.” Berlin: Adelphi, October 2016. [14] Adger, W. Neil, Juan Pulhin, Jon Barnet, Geoffrey D. Dabelko, Grete K. Hovelsrud, Marc Levy, Ursula Oswald Spring, and Coleen Vogel. “Human Security.” In Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by Christopher B. Field, V. R. Baros, D. J. Dokken, K. J. Mach, M. D. Mastrandrea, T. E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, et al., pp. 755–791. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2014; Lytle, Natalie. “Climate Change as a Contributor to Terrorism: A Case Study in Nigeria and Pakistan.” Senior Theses 207 (2017). URL: https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/senior_theses/207. [15] Hansen, William. “Poverty and Economic Deprivation Theory: Street Children, Quranic Schools/Almajirai and the Dispossessed as a Source of Recruitment for Boko Haram and Other Religious, Political and Criminal Groups in Northern Nigeria.” Perspectives on Terrorism 10, no. 5 (2016), pp. 83–95.

[16] Foley, Catherine, and Andrew Holland. “Climate Security Report.” American Security Project, 2012. URL: www. americansecurityproject.org. [17] Department of Defense. “2014 Quadrennial Defense Review.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army, 2014. [18] Givens, Austen D., Nathan E. Busch, and Alan Bersin. “Going Global: The International Dimensions of U.S. Homeland Security Policy.” Journal of Strategic Security 11, no. 3 (2018). URL: https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.11.3.1689. [19] Berrebi, Claude, and Jordan Ostwald. “Earthquakes, Hurricanes, and Terrorism: Do Natural Disasters Incite Terror?” Public Choice 149, no. 3/4 (2011), pp. 383–403; Berrebi, Claude, and Jordan Ostwald. “Exploiting Chaos: Terrorist Target Choice Following Natural Disasters.” Southern Economic Journal 79, no. 4 (2013), pp. 793–811. [20] UNDP (2020), p. 4. [21] Baird, Robert A. “Pyro-Terrorism—The Threat of Arson-Induced Forest Fires as a Future Terrorist Weapon of Mass Destruction.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 29 (2006), pp. 415–428.

[22] Fighel, Jonathan. “The ‘Forest Jihad.’”Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 32 (2009):, pp. 802–810. [23] Flannigan, M.D., B.J. Stocks, and B.M. Wotton. “Climate Change and Forests.” The Science of the Total Environment 262 (2000): ISSN 2334-3745 91 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 pp. 221–29; Lieberman, Bruce. “Wildfires and Climate Change: What’s the Connection?” Yale Climate Connections, July 2, 2019. URL: https://www.yaleclimateconnections.org/2019/07/wildfires-and-climate-change-whats-the-connection/. [24] Joshua Busby (2018)., pp. 338–346; Richard Matthew (2014)., op. cit., pp. 257–294 [25] Klare, Michael T. All Hell Breaking Loose: The Pentagon’s Perspective on Climate Change. 1st ed. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2019. [26] Klare, Michael T. (2019); Reuters. “In Focus: Trump and Climate Change.” Climate, 2020. URL: https://news.trust.org/packages/ trump-and-climate-change/. [27] Kfir, Isaac. “Al-Shabaab, Social Identity Group, Human (In)Security, and Counterterrorism.”Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 40, no. 9 (2017), pp. 772–789. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2016.1236569. [28] Harvey, Chelsea. “Summer Presents Dangerous Choice: Swelter in Quarantine or Risk Contagion.” Scientific American, April 28, 2020. URL: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/summer-presents-dangerous-choice-swelter-in-quarantine-or-risk- contagion/; Gronwold, Nathanial. “Desert Locust Swarms Continue to Spread in Africa, Middle East.” Scientific American, March 4, 2020. URL: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/desert-locust-swarms-continue-to-spread-in-africa-middle-east/. [29] William Hansen (2016)., pp. 83–95; Richard Matthew (2014)., pp. 257–294 [30] Abrahams, Daniel. “Conflict in Abundance and Peacebuilding in Scarcity: Challenges and Opportunities in Addressing Climate Change and Conflict.” World Development 132 (2020). URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.104998; Busby, Josh. “It’s Time We Think beyond ‘threat Multiplier’ to Address Climate and Security.” New Security Beat, January 21, 2020. URL: https://www. newsecuritybeat.org/2020/01/its-time-threat-multiplier-address-climate-security/; Dabelko, Geoffrey D., Lauren Herzer, Schuyler Null, Meaghan Parker, and Russell Sticklor. “Backdraft: The Conflict Potential of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation.” Environmental Change & Security Program Report. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2013.

ISSN 2334-3745 92 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Inventory of 200+ Institutions and Centers in the Field of Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Research by Reinier Bergema and Olivia Kearney

Introduction In line with its mission “to enhance security through collaborative research”, the Terrorism Research Initiative (TRI) brings together individual and institutional research efforts by actively facilitating cooperative efforts among scholars and professionals. With this in mind, TRI is pleased to present a new inventory of over 200 institutions and centers in the field of terrorism and counter-terrorism research. This Research Note builds upon similar earlier efforts by Teun van Dongen (Perspectives on Terrorism, Vol. 12, No 8; April 2018) and Benjamin Freedman (Perspectives on Terrorism, Vol. 4, No. 5; November 2011). In line with their effort, this Research Note has adopted (and expanded upon) their methodology in terms of definitions, data collection, and structure. Similar to Van Dongen’s 2018 efforts, we explicitly focus on “organizations that have terrorism research as a ‘core business’, i.e. that have a department or a program specifically devoted to terrorism or counter-terrorism and/or that list terrorism and related forms of political violence as one of their research priorities”. This Research Note is based on several categories of sources. First, it makes extensive use of the two earlier Research Notes. In doing so, the compilers have assessed whether the think tanks listed in the earlier editions are still active. Second, we relied on the most recent (i.e., 2019) list of Top Defense and National Security Think Tanks, compiled by the Go To Think Tank Index. Given the specific focus of this Research Note, we have filtered our entries for relevance. Third, we conducted an extensive Google search, using a set of search queries, in various combinations, including “terrorism”, “counterterrorism”, “research institute”, “think tank”, and “university”. Fourth, to further minimize the risk of missing important centers, we have consulted various members of the editorial board of Perspectives on Terrorism as well as other researchers in the field. As result, we have been able to identify a total of 201 organizations (see Figure 1). These organizations have been classed into six categories; (i) universities and university affiliated research groups (44); (ii) think tanks (108); (iii) government organizations (24); (iv) research networks (10); (v) commercial entities (6); and (vi) other (9). Within each category, organizations have been listed alphabetically. In- or exclusion of organizations in this inventory is in no way an indication of the quality of their research output and should not be viewed as such.

ISSN 2334-3745 93 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Figure 1. Geographic distribution (head offices) While the compilers are under no illusion that the presented inventory is comprehensive, the current listing of 201 research institutions, centers, and organizations does seem to be in line with a widespread observation among scholars and professionals, namely that the current landscape of (academic) research on terrorism and counter-terrorism is heavily dominated by the West. Western Europe (76) and North America (71) account for nearly three quarters of listed research institutions, centers, and organizations, followed by the Middle East and North Africa (15), Australasia and Oceania (7), South Asia (6), Eastern Europe (5), Southeast Asia (5), Sub-Saharan Africa (4), East Asia (3), Central Asia (2), and South America (1). Seven organizations did not explicitly specify the location of their (head) office. Readers of this inventory who notice omissions (or a need for correction) are encouraged to send their observation and comments to Olivia Kearney for future updates.

1. Universities/University Affiliated Research Groups

1.1. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs Location: Cambridge (MA), United States Affiliated organizations:Harvard Kennedy School Current Director: Ash Carter Website: visit | Twitter: @BelferCenter Description: “The Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs is the hub of Harvard Kennedy School’s research, teaching, and training in international security and diplomacy, environmental and resource issues, and science and technology policy. The Center has a dual mission: (1) to provide leadership in advancing policy-relevant knowledge about the most important challenges of international security and other critical issues where science, technology, environmental policy, and international affairs intersect; and (2) to prepare future generations of leaders for these arenas.”

ISSN 2334-3745 94 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

1.2. Brudnick Center on Violence and Conflict Location: Boston (MA), United States Affiliated organizations:Northeastern University Current Director: Gordana Rabrenovic Website: visit | Twitter: @Northeastern Description: “[T]he Center seeks to reduce conflict and violence between individuals and groups in a variety of areas including: school violence, terrorism, hate crimes, international conflict and warfare, hate speech on campus, religious persecution, and organized hate groups. With six faculty and researchers from psychology, sociology, criminal justice, law, and political science, the Center sponsors conferences, panel discussions, courses, and research projects.”

1.3. Center for International Security and Cooperation (CISAC) Location: Stanford (CA), United States Affiliated organizations:University of Stanford’s Freeman Spogli Institute Current Directors: Rodney C. Ewing, Colin H. Kahl Website: visit | Twitter: @FSIStanford Description: “The Center for International Security and Cooperation tackles the most critical security issues in the world today by bringing together leading scholars in the social and natural sciences to collaborate across disciplines and professional backgrounds. Part of Stanford’s Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, we conduct innovative research and share our findings with policy makers and the public so everyone can better understand an increasingly complex international environment.”

1.4. Center for Research on Extremism (C-REX) Location: Oslo, Norway Affiliated organizations:University of Oslo Current Director: Tore Bjørgo Website: visit | Twitter: @CrexUiO Description: “The Center for Research on Extremism, C-REX, is a cross-disciplinary center for the study of right-wing extremism, hate crime and political violence. It is a joint collaboration with five of the leading Norwegian institutions on extremism research.”

1.5. Center for Risk and Economic Analysis of Terrorism Events (CREATE) Location: Los Angeles (CA), United States Affiliated organizations:University of Southern California Current Director: Adam Rose Website: visit | Twitter: @create_usc Description: “The National Center for Risk and Economic Analysis of Terrorism Events (CREATE) was established in 2004 as the first university-based Center of Excellence (COE) funded by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Science and Technology Directorate (S&T) Office of University Programs (OUP).

ISSN 2334-3745 95 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

CREATE is headquartered at the University of Southern California (USC) where it is jointly housed in the Viterbi School of Engineering and the Sol Price School of Public Policy. It has research affiliates at several other institutions, both in the U.S. and abroad. The Center contributes university-based research to make the United States more secure by taking a longer-term view of scientific innovations and breakthroughs and by developing the future intellectual leaders in homeland security.”

1.6. Center for Strategic Communication Location: Temple (AZ), United States Affiliated organizations:Arizona State University Current Director: Steve Corman Website: visit | Twitter: @comops Description: “The Center for Strategic Communication (CSC) is an initiative of the Hugh Downs School of Human Communication at Arizona State University. It is composed of an interdisciplinary group of scholars at ASU and partner institutions who are interested in applying knowledge of human communication to issues of countering ideological support for terrorism (CIST), diplomacy and public diplomacy, propaganda and disinformation, and public health.”

1.7. Center for Terrorism & Security Studies (CTSS) Location: Lowell (MA), United States Affiliated organizations:University of Massachusetts Lowell Current Director: Neil Shortland III Website: visit | Twitter: @umasslowell Description: “The Center for Terrorism and Security Studies was established at the University of Massachusetts Lowell in 2013 to bring together faculty from several colleges throughout UMass Lowell (and from other institutions and organizations in the Commonwealth) to work on a variety of collaborative research projects addressing the evolution, convergence and complexity of such domestic and foreign security challenges as terrorism, cyber-security, transnational crime and weapons of mass destruction (among many other topics).”

1.8. Center for the Research on Terrorism and Radicalization Location: Kiel, Germany Affiliated organizations:Institute for Security Policy, Kiel University Current Director: Joachim Krause Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “The Institute for Security Policy at Kiel University (ISPK) provides research, analysis and commentary on conflicts and strategic issues. ISPK is committed to furthering the security policy discourse in Germany and abroad by way of focused, interdisciplinary, policy-oriented research. Moreover, the Institute is involved in the promotion of talented, young academics. Complementing research, publications and teaching, members of the Institute advise decision-makers in government, academia, media and business. ISPK’s main research foci lie in German and European foreign and security policy, international security architecture, nonproliferation of nuclear weapons and disarmament, stabilization of fragile states, maritime security, and asymmetric challenges such as transnational terrorism.”

ISSN 2334-3745 96 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

1.9. Center on National Security Location: New York (NY), United States Affiliated organizations:Fordham Law Current Director: Karen J. Greenberg Website: visit | Twitter: @CNSFordhamLaw Description: “The Center contributes to an informed citizenry by providing legal analysis and sociological data on terrorism indictments in the United States. The Terrorism Prosecution Database is the country’s most comprehensive data and analysis project on federal terrorism prosecutions. Through database-enabled research, we monitor the progress of terrorism cases throughout the U.S. judicial system and delve into critical topics, such as radicalization trends, socio-economic factors, legal strategies, and sentencing issues for those accused of terror-related crimes. The Center’s terrorism database and connected reports have become an invaluable tool for lawyers, journalists and students of terrorism.”

1.10. Center on Terrorism Location: New York (NY), United States Affiliated organizations:John Jay College of Criminal Justice Current Director: Peter Romaniuk Website: visit | Twitter: @JohnJayCollege Description: “The Center on Terrorism at John Jay College was founded in the wake of [the 9/11] attacks and remains the only university-based entity devoted to terrorism research and education in the New York City area. Center researchers have published a range of books, article, chapters and reports covering different aspects of terrorism and counter-terrorism, from an interdisciplinary and policy-relevant perspective.”

1.11. Center on Terrorism, Extremism, and Counterterrorism (CTEC) Location: Middlebury (VT), United States Affiliated organizations:Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey Current Director: Jason Blazakis Website: visit | Twitter: @MIIS Description: “Formerly known as the Monterey Terrorism Research and Education Program, CTEC collaborates with [...] the Middlebury Institute’s Nonproliferation and Terrorism Studies degree program. Our research informs private, government, and multilateral institutional understanding of and responses to terrorism threats. CTEC is a mixed-methods research center, meaning that our experts and students use analytic tradecraft, data science, and linguistics.”

1.12. Center for Asymmetric Threats and Terrorist Studies (CATS) Location: Stockholm, Sweden Affiliated organizations: Swedish Defense University (Försvarshögskolan) Current Director: Lars Nicander (Director); Magnus Ranstorp (Research Director) Website: visit | Twitter: @Forsvarshogsk

ISSN 2334-3745 97 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Description: “CATS is a national center within the Swedish Defence University tasked with developing and disseminating knowledge about asymmetric threats within the context of societal security and resilience. Through research, analysis and training CATS concentrates on terrorism and intelligence studies as well as cyber and influence operations.”

1.13. Center for Conflict, Security and Terrorism (CST) Location: Nottingham, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations: University of Nottingham Current Director: Edward Burke (co-director), Andrew Mumford (co-director) Website: visit | Twitter: @UniofNottingham Description: “The Center for Conflict, Security and Terrorism (CST) was established in 2011 and forms a [...] national research center investigating contemporary security issues. CST promotes the study of security politics within the UK and internationally, and is comprised of a staff and research students both within the School of Politics and International Relations, and further afield.”

1.14. Center for Defence and Security Studies Location: Winnipeg, Canada Affiliated organizations:University of Manitoba Current Director: Andrea Charron Website: visit | Twitter: @cdssuofm Description: “As a center of national excellence, the mission of the Center for Defence and Security Studies (CDSS) is to advance knowledge, understanding and debate in Canada on defence and security issues through an active research, teaching and outreach program. The Center for Defence and Security Studies (CDSS) was established by the Senate of the University of Manitoba in 1993 based upon the Program in Strategic Studies which was established in 1986 on the reception of the first grant from the Canadian Department of National Defence’s Military and Strategic Studies (MSS) Program.”

1.15. Center for Research and Evidence on Security Threats (CREST) Location: Lancaster, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:Lancaster University Current Director: Paul Taylor Website: visit | Twitter: @crest_research Description: “CREST brings together [...] expertise in understanding the psychological and social drivers of the threat, the skills and technologies that enable its effective investigation, and the protective security measures that help counter the threat in the first place. It does so within a context of [...] stakeholder and international researcher engagement, and with a clear plan for sustained and long-term growth.”

1.16. Center of Religion, Reconciliation and Peace (CRRP) Location: Winchester, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:University of Winchester

ISSN 2334-3745 98 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Current Director: Mark Own Website: visit | Twitter: @WinchesterPeace Description: “As a [...] center dedicated to helping make a tangible difference to those affected by structural violence and armed conflict, our work is particularly focused on examining the crucial links between theory and practice in religious peacebuilding and reconciliation processes, and how each informs, challenges and enhances the other.”

1.17. Chicago Project on Security & Threats (CPOST) Location: Chicago (IL), United States Affiliated organizations:University of Chicago Current Director: Robert Pape Website: visit | Twitter: @CPOST_UChicago Description: “The Chicago Project on Security and Threats (CPOST) is a non-partisan research center at the University of Chicago dedicated to advancing scholarship on international politics, security, and trade that advances peace and prosperity. CPOST brings together [...] scholars at the University of Chicago conducting rigorous, data-driven research on issues of national and international importance to provide critical knowledge to policymakers, scholars, and the public.”

1.18. Combating Terrorism Center Location: West Point (NY), United States Affiliated organizations:United States Military Academy Current Director: Brian Dodwell Website: visit | Twitter: @CTCWP Description: “The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point educates, advises, and conducts research to equip present and future leaders with the intellectual tools necessary to understand the challenges of terrorism and counterterrorism. As an institution, we embrace the unique responsibility to prepare cadets and other counterterrorism practitioners to think critically about the challenges they will face during war and peace. We are committed to producing objective, rigorous, and policy-relevant research that applies theory to practice, informs strategic counterterrorism thinking, and moves the boundaries of academic knowledge. We leverage our expertise and unique position to contribute to discrete advisory efforts for federal, state, and local government, and to build bridges between counterterrorism stakeholders.”

1.19. Conflict, Terrorism and Peace Group (CTAP) Location: Auckland, New Zealand Affiliated organizations:University of Auckland Current Director: Chris Wilson (Convener) Website: visit | Twitter: @ArtsAucklandUni Description: “Located in Politics and International Relations at the University of Auckland, CTAP is a group of researchers who specialise in the study of the causes, dynamics, aftermath and prevention of all types of violent conflict. The core members and affiliates of CTAP work on a range of conflict-related topics from a variety of

ISSN 2334-3745 99 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 theoretical and methodological perspectives. Issues examined include: inter-state war; ethnic violence and civil conflict; terrorism and counter-terrorism; genocide and mass killing; peacebuilding and post-conflict reconstruction; and humanitarian intervention.”

1.20. Conflict, Violence and Terrorism Research Center (CVTRC) Location: London, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:Royal Holloway University of London Current Director: John F. Morrison, Akil N. Awan (co-directors) Website: visit | Twitter: @CVTRC_RH Description: “Our research intersects across multiple themes, from environment, embodiment and gender to violence, ideas and beliefs. We are especially interested in understanding societies and cultures from new perspectives, and generating thoughtful enquiry about the functioning of human societies and cultures, in line with Royal Holloway’s commitment to social justice and a shared belief in research that benefits and changes society.”

1.21. Counterterrorism, Intelligence, Risk and Resilience Group Location: Cranfield, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:Cranfield University Current Director: Andrew Silke Website: visit | Twitter: @CranfieldCIRR Description: “The Counterterrorism, Intelligence, Risk and Resilience Group offers a wide range of expertise in counterterrorism, intelligence, risk and resilience contexts, nationally and internationally. Our teaching ranges across these areas at MSc, PhD and postdoctoral level, and we also run a number of short courses open to students with an interest in these subjects. Our overall focus is on research and education, and training and consultancy.”

1.22. Department of Security Studies and Criminology Location: Sydney, Australia Affiliated organizations:Macquarie University Current Director: Ben Schreer Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: The Department of Security Studies and Criminology supervises research students in several areas of expertise, including cyber security, intelligence studies, counter-intelligence, security and strategic studies and criminology.

1.23. George Washington University’s Program on Extremism (GWUPOE) Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:George Washington University Current Director: Lorenzo Vidino

ISSN 2334-3745 100 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Website: visit | Twitter: @gwupoe Description: “The Program on Extremism at George Washington University provides analysis on issues related to violent and non-violent extremism. The Program spearheads ... academic inquiry, producing empirical work that strengthens extremism research as a distinct field of study. The Program aims to develop pragmatic policy solutions that resonate with policymakers, civic leaders, and the general public.”

1.24. Global Terrorism Research Center (GTReC) Location: Victoria, Australia Affiliated organizations:Monash University Current Director: Pete Lentini Website: visit | Twitter: @Monash_Arts Description: “The Center’s network of Adjunct Research Associates includes counter-terrorism practitioners within the Victoria Police; and scholars based in the US, New Zealand and elsewhere in Australia. GTReC’s staff members’ research interests straddle Australia, South East Asia, the US, East Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, and Russia. The researchers possess language competence in Arabic, French, Indonesian, Malay, Russian, Spanish, Swahili, Tagalog, Thai and Turkish.”

1.25. Handa Center for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence (CSTPV) Location: St. Andrews, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:University of St. Andrews Current Director: Tim Wilson Website: visit | Twitter: @CSTPV Description: “The Handa Center for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence (CSTPV) is dedicated to the study of the causes, dynamics, characteristics and consequences of terrorism and related forms of political violence. In doing so, it is committed to rigorous, evidence-based, scholarly analysis that is policy-relevant but independent. Founded in 1994, the Center is Europe’s oldest for the study of terrorism.”

1.26. Institute for Security and Global Affairs (ISGA) Location: The Hague, the Netherlands Affiliated organizations:Leiden University, The Hague Campus Current Director: Erwin Muller (Dean), Joachim Koops (Scientific Director) Website: visit | Twitter: @ISGA_Hague Description: “The Institute of Security and Global Affairs (ISGA) focuses on multidisciplinary research and education within the international scientific field of security studies. The Institute analyses and studies issues in a coherent way from their local transnational, and global impact. ISGA operates from The Hague, the third major city of the Netherlands, center of national governance and International City of Peace, Justice and Security”.

1.27. Institute for Security Policy and Law Location: Syracuse (NY), United States

ISSN 2334-3745 101 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Affiliated organizations:Syracuse University Current Director: James E. Baker Website: visit | Twitter: @SU_ISPL Description: “Through [...] educational programs, interdisciplinary scholarly research, and extensive public service, the Syracuse University Institute for Security Policy and Law examines laws and policies pertaining to national and international security, counterterrorism, international law, humanitarian law, human rights, defense policy, veterans affairs, cybersecurity, post conflict reconstruction, critical infrastructure, [and] emerging technologies”.

1.28. International Center for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR) Location: Singapore, Singapore Affiliated organizations:Nanyang Technological University Current Director: Kumar Ramakrishna Website: visit | Twitter: @rsis_ntu Description: “The International Center for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR) is a specialist center within the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS) at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. ICPVTR conducts research, training, and outreach programs aimed at reducing the threat of politically motivated violence and at mitigating its effects on the international system. The Center seeks to integrate academic theory with practical knowledge, which is essential for a complete and comprehensive understanding of threats from politically-motivated groups. The Center is staffed by academic specialists, religious scholars, and others. The Center is culturally and linguistically diverse, comprising of functional and regional analysts as well as Muslim religious scholars from Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe and North America.”

1.29. International Center for the Study of Radicalization (ICSR) Location: London, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:King’s College London Current Director: Shiraz Maher Website: visit | Twitter: @ICSR_Center Description: “Working across a number of different academic disciplines and in several languages, ICSR conducts thematic research on some of the world’s most pressing issues. Our researchers [...] have harnessed the capacity of ‘big data’ to bring an empirical understanding to the study of international security and terrorism issues.”

1.30. Italian Team for Security, Terroristic Issues & Managing Emergencies (ITSTIME) Location: Milan, Italy Affiliated organizations: Sacred Heart University Department of Sociology Current Director: Marco Lombardi Website: visit Twitter: @ITSTIME_UC Description: “ITSTIME collaborated with public and private subjects interested in monitoring different types

ISSN 2334-3745 102 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 of threats, elaborating potential risk scenarios, planning prevention strategies, developing plans responding to emergency situations, including natural disaster and anthropic events. Their approach allows them to develop and conduct research focused on security issues from different perspectives. ITSTIME addresses both theoretically and empirically the new challenges in the new hybrid war domain. Studies, prevention activities and detailed analyses of security threats, the group addresses different issues from a new perspective in order to manage crisis situations in a proactive way.”

1.31. National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START) Location: College Park (MD), United States Affiliated organizations:University of Maryland Current Director: William Braniff Website: visit | Twitter: @START_umd Description: “The National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism [...] is a university-based research and education center comprised of an international network of scholars committed to the scientific study of the causes and human consequences of terrorism in the United States and around the w or l d .”

1.32. National Counterterrorism, Innovation, Technology, and Education Center (NCITE) Location: Omaha (NE), United States Affiliated organizations:University of Nebraska, Omaha, US Department of Homeland Security Current Director: Gina Ligon Website: visit | Twitter: @unomaha Description: “NCITE is America’s latest terrorism and targeted violence-fighting tool. Our work is counterterrorism research: 50+ academics from 18 universities focused on 10 pressing areas of study. Our goal is to innovate, educate, and create new prevention strategies while building a workforce pipeline where it’s desperately needed: in STEM and Homeland Security fields.”

1.33. Nelson Institute Location: Harrisonburg (VA), United States Affiliated organizations:James Madison University Current Director: Peggy Plass Website: visit | Twitter: @JMU Description: “The center is currently under the direction of Dr. Peggy Plass, whose research interests are in the areas of criminal victimization of children, property crime victimization, domestic violence, and evaluation of offender rehabilitation programs. Under the direction of Dr. Plass, the work of the Nelson Institute centers around engaging with global and local communities around issues of justice.”

1.34. Osservatoria sulla Sicurezza Internazionale (OSI; Observatory on International Security) Location: Rome, Italy Affiliated Organization: Luiss University of Rome

ISSN 2334-3745 103 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Current Director: Alessandro Orsini Website: visit | Twitter: @sicurezzaint Description: “The Observatory on International Security (OSI) promotes researches, public events, and advisory on international security, with a focus on countries that are strategic for the Italian national interest. Radicalization and migration are two of the main OSI research topics. Our mission is to create bridges between the academia and the public, aiming at enabling informed decision making and reasoning about international security issues.”

1.35. Reiss Center on Law and Security Location: New York (NY), United States Affiliated organizations:New York University School of Law Current Director: Rachel Goldbrenner Website: visit | Twitter: @RCLS_NYU Description: “The Reiss Center works to address emerging national security challenges of our era, while also drawing on its rich history of study arising from the aftermath of the September 11 attacks. The Center engages in research that elevates and advances the public dialogue about national security law and policy issues and informs the policy-making process by engaging key stakeholders. Across all areas of its work the Center seeks to understand and illuminate the relationship between national security law and national security strategy, and examine the U.S. approach in a global context. Through its publications, conferences, and events, the Center endeavors to make our national security policies more effective, legitimate, and sustainable.”

1.36. Safety and Violence Initiative Location: Cape Town, South Africa Affiliated organizations:University of Cape Town Current Director: Guy Lamb Website: visit | Twitter: @UCTSaVI Description: “The Safety and Violence Initiative (SaVI) facilitates debate, research and interventions across the university with a focus on understanding and responding to violence, and promoting safety.”

1.37. Terrorism and Disaster Center Location: Oklahoma City (OK), United States Affiliated organizations:University of Oklahoma Current Director: Betty Pfefferbaum Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “The Terrorism and Disaster Center (TDC) was established in 2005 to provide national leadership in the area of terrorism and disasters. TDC is a partner in the National Child Traumatic Stress Network, a national network funded by the Substance Abuse Mental Health Services Administration to improve the standard of care for traumatized children and to increase their access to care.”

ISSN 2334-3745 104 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

1.38. Terrorism and Political Violence Association Location: Leeds, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:University of Leeds Current Director: Gordon Clubb Website: visit | Twitter: @_TAPVA Description: “The Terrorism and Political Violence Association (TAPVA) is an academic network based at the University of Leeds since 2011 and is a part of the Terrorism Research Initiative [TRI]. We seek to facilitate academic research in the field of Terrorism and Political Violence which can have an impact on society, both at the level of government policy and within communities. To meet this goal, TAPVA’s events have been held in conjunction with a number of …think tank organizations and have attracted… experts in the field of terrorism.”

1.39. Terrorism & Preparedness Data Resource Center (TPDRC) Location: Ann Arbor (MI), Michigan Affiliated organizations: University of Michigan’s Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) Current Director: Tim Bynum Website: visit | Twitter: @nackjaydee Description: “The Terrorism & Preparedness Data Resource Center (TPDRC) is housed at the University of Michigan’s Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR). TPDRC archives and distributes data collected by government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and researchers about the nature of intra- (domestic) and international terrorism incidents, organizations, perpetrators, and victims; governmental and nongovernmental responses to terror, including primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions; and citizen’s attitudes towards terrorism, terror incidents, and the response to terror. It also organizes and streamlines access to extant research and administrative data from across the world that are relevant to the study of terrorism and the response to terrorism for descriptive and scientific analysis by academics and researchers.”

1.40. Terrorism Research Center (TRC) Location: Fayetteville (AR), United States Affiliated organizations:University of Arkansas Current Director: Brent L. Smith Website: visit | Twitter: @uark_trc Description: “The Terrorism Research Center in Fulbright College was founded by Dr. Brent L. Smith in 2003 to facilitate research on terrorism, extremist violence, and effectiveness of anti-terrorism policies and programs. The TRC honors J.W. Fulbright’s legacy of “Peace Through Education” by conducting research that informs the work of those who seek to counter terrorism and other forms of extreme violence.”

1.41. Terrorism, Transnational Crime and Corruption Center (TraCC) Location: Arlington (VA), United States Affiliated organizations:George Mason University

ISSN 2334-3745 105 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Current Director: Louise I. Shelley Website: visit | Twitter: @TraCCatGMU Description: “The Terrorism, Transnational Crime and Corruption Center (TraCC) is the first center in the United States devoted to understanding the links among terrorism, transnational crime and corruption, and to teach, research, train and help formulate policy on these critical issues.”

1.42. Transcultural Conflict and Violence Initiative (TCV) Location: Atlanta (GA), United States Affiliated organizations:Georgia State University Current Director: Carol Winkler Website: visit | Twitter: @georgiastateu Description: “The TCV seeks to bring together the work of several different groups of academics carrying out … research. Scholars in Political Science, Computer Science, Communications, and Global Studies are learning more about the seeds and solutions to ethnic, religious, and other transcultural conflicts.”

1.43. Transnational Configurations, Conflict and Governance (TCGG) Location: Amsterdam, the Netherlands Affiliated organizations:University of Amsterdam Current Director: John Grin, Marieke de Goede Website: visit | Twitter: @UvA_AISSR Description: “The program group Transnational Configurations, Conflict and Governance (TCCG) analyses politics as transnational processes in which a multitude of actors are involved. The group critically examines the identities, categories and boundaries at work in these processes, beyond state-based concepts and explanations.”

1.44. Triangle Center on Terrorism and Homeland Security (TCTHS) Location: Durham (NC), United States Affiliated organizations:Duke University Current Director: David Schanzer Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “The mission of the Triangle Center on Terrorism and Homeland Security (TCTHS) is to enhance the understanding of terrorism and the means to combat it through education, research and the development of partnerships between universities, industry and government. Founded in 2005, the TCTHS faculty conduct research, comment on current events and policy debates, and run executive education programs. The center sponsors multiple events each year providing an opportunity for students to interact with… practitioners and scholars.”

ISSN 2334-3745 106 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

2. Think Tanks

2.1. African Center for the Study and Research of Terrorism (ACSRT) Location: Algiers, Algeria Affiliated organizations:Algerian government; African Union Current Director: Larry Gbevlo-Lartey Esq. Website: visit | Twitter: @AU_ACSRT Description: “The mission of the ACSRT is to conduct research and study on Terrorism and develop strategic policy, operational and training mechanisms within the context of International and Continental legal instruments to strengthen the capacity of the African Union and its Member States to prevent and combat terrorism in Africa.”

2.2. Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies (ACPSS) Location: Cairo, Egypt Affiliated organizations:European Union and European Institute of the Mediterranean (IEMed) Current Director: Senen Florensa Website: visit | Twitter: @euromesco Description: “Founded in 1996, EuroMeSCo (the Euro-Mediterranean Study Commission) is [a] network of research centers on politics and security in the Mediterranean, striving at building a community of research institutes and think tanks committed to strengthening Euro-Mediterranean relations.”

2.3. Anti-Defamation League (ADL) Location: New York (NY), United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Jonathan Greenblatt Website: visit | Twitter: @ADL Description: “ADL is a[n] anti-hate organization. Founded in 1913 in response to an escalating climate of anti-Semitism and bigotry, its timeless mission is to protect the Jewish people and to secure justice and fair treatment for all. Today, ADL continues to fight all forms of hate with the same vigor and passion. ADL [exposes] extremism and delivering anti-bias education, and is a[n] organization in training law enforcement. [...] ADL’s ultimate goal is a world in which no group or individual suffers from bias, discrimination or hate.”

2.4. Aspen Institute Location: Washington, D.C. (For more locations, see https://www.aspeninstitute.org/about/#locations) Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Daniel R. Porterfield Website: visit | Twitter: @AspenInstitute Description: “[The Aspen Institute provides] a bipartisan forum to explore policy strategies for homeland

ISSN 2334-3745 107 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 security, foreign policy, and global communities”

2.5. Atlantic Council Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Amjad Ahmad Website: visit | Twitter: @AtlanticCouncil Description: “Driven by a mission of “shaping the global future together,” the Atlantic Council is a nonpartisan organization that galvanizes US leadership and engagement in the world, in partnership with allies and partners, to shape solutions to global challenges.”

2.6. Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA) Location: Canberra, Australia Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Bryce Wakefield Website: visit | Twitter: @ausoutlook Description: “The Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA) seeks to promote interest in and understanding of international affairs in Australia. The institute provides a forum for discussion and debate, but does not seek to formulate its own institutional views. Formed in 1924, the AIIA was originally associated with the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House). Close contact is maintained with Chatham House and with similarly minded organizations around the world. Precluded by its constitution from expressing any opinion of its own on international affairs, the AIIA provides a national forum for the presentation and discussion of a wide range of views.”

2.7. Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI) Location: Canberra, Australia Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Peter Jennings PSM Website: visit | Twitter: @ASPI_org Description: “The program undertakes research across the spectrum of counter-terrorism topics, facilitates dialogue and discussion amongst stakeholders, and provides advice to government, community and industry stakeholders, with a particular focus on what can be done to counter terrorism.”

2.8. Bangladesh Center for Terrorism Research Location: Dhaka, Bangladesh Affiliated organizations: Bangladesh Institute of Peace and Security Studies Current Director: A.N.M. Muniruzzaman Website: visit | Twitter: @bipss

ISSN 2334-3745 108 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Description: “An [...] institution in Bangladesh for informed analysis on all aspects of a broad spectrum of peace and security studies in the region and beyond. It is a non-party, non-profit organization and independent think tank which provides a platform for the leading strategic thinkers, academics, former members of the civil, foreign and armed services and media persons to chalk out a comprehensive framework for peace and security issues.”

(Te Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies (BESA .2.9 Location: Ramat Gan, Israel Affiliated organizations:Bar-Ilan University Current Director: Thomas O. Hecht Website: visit | Twitter: @BESA_Center Description: “The Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies is an independent, non-partisan think tank conducting policy-relevant research on Middle Eastern and global strategic affairs, particularly as they relate to the national security and foreign policy of Israel and regional peace and stability.”

2.10. Brookings Institute Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Stephanie Aaronson Website: visit | Twitter: @BrookingsInst Description: “The Brookings Institution is a nonprofit public policy organization based in Washington, D.C.. [...] The research agenda and recommendations of Brookings’s experts are rooted in open-minded inquiry and our 300+ scholars represent diverse points of view. Research topics cover foreign policy, economics, development, governance and metropolitan policy.”

2.11. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Location: Washington, D.C., United States (head office); New Delhi, India; Moscow, Russia; Brussels, Belgium; Beirut, Lebanon; Beijing, China Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: William J. Burns Website: visit | Twitter: @CarnegieEndow Description: “In an increasingly crowded, chaotic, and contested world and marketplace of ideas, the Carnegie Endowment offers decisionmakers global, independent, and strategic insight and innovative ideas that advance international peace.”

2.12. Center for Analysis of Radical Right (CARR) Location: London, UK Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Matthew Feldman

ISSN 2334-3745 109 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Website: visit | Twitter: @C4ARR Description: “The Center for Analysis of the Radical Right (CARR) is [an] information aggregator and knowledge repository on the radical right, past and present. Above all, CARR intends to lead discussion on the development of radical right extremism around the world.”

2.13. Center for a New American Security (CNAS) Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Richard Fontaine (CEO) Website: visit | Twitter: @CNASdc Description: “The Center for a New American Security (CNAS) is an independent, bipartisan, nonprofit organization that develops strong, pragmatic, and principled national security and defense policies. CNAS engages policymakers, experts, and the public with innovative, fact-based research, ideas, and analysis to shape and elevate the national security debate.”

2.14. Center for Conflict and Peace Studies (CAPS) Location: Kabul, Afghanistan Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Unspecified Website: visit | Twitter: @Insightconflict Description: “The organization’s primary goals are: (1) to build local capacity and expertise; (2) to facilitate the Afghan government in promoting better governance and state building measures; and (3) to assist the international community in collaborating and coordinating perspectives on issues affecting Afghanistan.”

2.15. Center for Land Warfare Studies (CLAWS) Location: New Delhi, India Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Lt Gen (Dr) Vijay Kumar Ahluwalia, PVSM, AVSM**, YSM, VSM (Ret.) Website: visit | Twitter: @OfficialCLAWSIN Description: “The vision of CLAWS is “to be a leading International Think Tank in development and promotion of strategic culture and futuristic thinking on security issues across the continuum of conflict affecting Land Warfare.”

2.16. Center for Research & Security Studies Location: Islamabad, Pakistan Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Imtiaz Gul Website: visit | Twitter: @CRSSpak

ISSN 2334-3745 110 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Description: “Pakistan’s first think-tank of its kind founded by civil society activists, committed to the cause of independent research and nonpartisan analysis to help people in and outside Pakistan better understand this nation of 180 million.”

2.17. Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS) Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: John J. Hamre Website: visit | Twitter: @CSIS Description: “The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) is a bipartisan, nonprofit policy research organization dedicated to advancing practical ideas to address the world’s greatest challenges. [...] CSIS’ terrorism research is led by the Transnational Threats Project, the International Security Program, and the Arleigh A. Burke Chair in Strategy”, held by Anthony H. Cordesman.

2.18. Center for the Analysis of Terrorism (CAT) Location: Paris, France Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Jean Charles Brisard Website: visit | Twitter: @CAT_Center Description: “A research center aiming at becoming a European leading think tank on the analysis of terrorism.”

2.19. Center for the Prevention of Radicalization leading to Violence (CPRLV) Location: Montréal, Canada Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Roselyne Mavungu Website: visit | Twitter: @info_radical Description: “The Center for the Prevention of Radicalization Leading to Violence (CPRLV) [...] is the first independent non-profit organization aimed at preventing violent radicalization and providing support to individuals affected by the phenomenon, be they individuals who are radicalized or undergoing radicalization, family or friends of such individuals, teachers, professionals or field workers. The CPRLV is a provincially mandated organization whose work also includes the prevention of hate crimes and incidents as well as the provision of support and counselling for victims of such acts”.

2.20. Center for Democracy and Human Rights (CEDEM) Location: Podgorica, Montenegro Affiliated organizations:ESCR-Net Current Director: Fernanda Hopenhaym Website: visit | Twitter: @ESCRNet

ISSN 2334-3745 111 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Description: “The Center for Democracy and Human Rights (CEDEM) works to advance and spread conscience on the importance of proper and successful democratic transition and contribute to strengthening civil society and human rights protection. CEDEM works to promote human rights in Montenegro by means of capacity building for people working in public administration, the media and the NGO sector; policy work and research in the field of human rights as well as advocacy actions aimed at policymakers at the national and regional level. The organization works on five main program areas: (1) European integration, (2) Rule of law, (3) Human rights, (4) Security and defense, and (5) social inclusion.”

2.21. Center for European Policy Studies (CEPS) Location: Brussels, Belgium Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Daniel Gross (Director), Sergio Carrera (Head Justice & Home Affairs Unit) Website: visit | Twitter: @CEPS_thinktank Description: “At CEPS, researchers perform policy research on a wide range of policy areas: from the economy and finance to better regulation, the digital economy and trade, as well as energy and climate, education and innovation, foreign policy and the European integration process, or justice and home affairs.”

2.22. Center for Military Studies Location: Copenhagen, Denmark Affiliated organizations:University of Copenhagen Current Director: Henrik Ø. Breitenbauch Website: visit | Twitter: @uni_copenhagen Description: “The Center for Military Studies is a university research center focusing on policy-relevant research and research-based information and innovation that identify options for Denmark’s defence and security policy in a globalised world. Research at the Center is thus a means to identify policy options in a complex, interconnected security environment. [The Center works] closely with the Danish Ministry of Defence, the Danish Armed Forces and the political level to investigate issues and develop ideas and options.”

2.23. Center on Asia and Globalization (CAG) Location: Singapore Affiliated organizations:Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore Current Director: Kanti Prasad Bajpai Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “The Center on Asia and Globalization (CAG) was established at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore, in 2006. The Center is dedicated to conducting in-depth research on developments in the Asia-Pacific and beyond. CAG’s mission is to provide accurate, independent, and high- quality analysis on issues of regional and global significance for academia, decision-makers, commentators, and the general public.”

2.24. Center on Radicalization & Terrorism Location: London, United Kingdom ISSN 2334-3745 112 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Affiliated organizations:Henry Jackson Society Current Director: Alan Mendoza Website: visit | Twitter: @HJS_Org Description: “By coupling [...] in-depth research with targeted and impactful policy recommendations, [The Henry Jackson Society aims] to combat the threat of radicalization and terrorism in our society.”

2.25. Chatham House Location: London, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Robin Niblett Website: visit | Twitter: @ChathamHouse Description: “[Chatham House carries] out independent and rigorous analysis of critical global, regional and country-specific challenges and opportunities - offering new ideas and proposals from the near- to the long- term.”

2.26. Civitas: Institute for the Study of Civil Society Location: London, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: David Green Website: visit | Twitter: @Civitas_UK Description: “[Civitas strives] to benefit public debate through independent research, reasoned argument, lucid explanation and open discussion. We stand apart from party politics and transitory intellectual fashions. We make our work available in books, pamphlets, online, and in electronic formats and encourage authors to make their arguments accessible to non-specialists. Some publications are designed for use in schools and universities. Most recently, we have published a knowledge-rich primary school curriculum designed to enable children of all abilities to share in the intellectual heritage of Western civilization. Uniquely among think tanks, we play an active, practical part in rebuilding civil society by running schools on Saturdays and after-school hours so that children who are falling behind at school can achieve their full potential.”

2.27. Clingendael Institute/Conflict Research Unit (CRU) Location: The Hague, the Netherlands Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Monika Sie Dhian Ho (Director)/Mariska van Beijnum (Head of Conflict Research Unit) Website: visit | Twitter: @clingendaelorg Description: “The Conflict Research Unit conducts research on the political economy of 21st century conflict and fragility dynamics. By offering insights and innovative approaches as to how to reduce the occurrence, intensity and impact of violence, we aim to achieve that policy makers and practitioners feel urged and enabled to take informed action against the human suffering caused by violent conflict today.”

ISSN 2334-3745 113 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

2.28. Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) Location: New York (NY), United States (head office); Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Richard N. Haass Website: visit | Twitter: @CFR_org Description: “The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) is an independent, nonpartisan membership organization, think tank, and publisher dedicated to being a resource for its members, government officials, business executives, journalists, educators and students, civic and religious leaders, and other interested citizens in order to help them better understand the world and the foreign policy choices facing the United States and other countries. Founded in 1921, CFR takes no institutional positions on matters of policy. Our goal is to start a conversation in this country about the need for Americans to better understand the world.”

2.29. Counter Extremism Project (CEP) Location: New York (NY), United States (head office); London, United Kingdom; Berlin, Germany Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Mark Wallace Website: visit | Twitter: @FightExtremism Description: “The Counter Extremism Project (CEP) is a not-for-profit, non-partisan, international policy organization formed to combat the growing threat from extremist ideologies. Led by a [...] group of former world leaders and diplomats it combats extremism by pressuring financial and material support networks; countering the narrative of extremists and their online recruitment; and advocating for smart laws, policies, and regulations.”

2.30. Danish Institute for International Studies (DIIS) Location: Copenhagen, Denmark Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Kristian Fischer Website: visit | Twitter: @diisdk Description: “DIIS is an independent public research institution for international studies. [It conducts] and communicate multidisciplinary research and aim[s] to be agenda-setting in research, policy and public debate. DIIS researches foreign, security and development policy. The institute carries out basic research, policy analysis and commissioned research.”

2.31. Eastern Mediterranean Academic Research Center (DAKAM) Location: Beyoğlu, İstanbul Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Unspecified Website: visit | Twitter: @dakamtr Description: “In cooperation with universities and scholars, DAKAM aims to organise international

ISSN 2334-3745 114 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 conferences, workshops and events.”

2.32. Egmont Royal Institute for International Relations Location: Brussels, Belgium Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Hughes Chantry Website: visit | Twitter: @EgmontInstitute Description: “The Royal Institute for International Relations is an independent think-tank based in Brussels. Its interdisciplinary research is conducted in a spirit of total academic freedom. Drawing on the expertise of its own research fellows, as well as that of external specialists, both Belgian and foreign, it provides analysis and policy options that are meant to be as operational as possible.”

2.33. Elcano Royal Institute Location: Madrid, Spain Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Charles Powell Website: visit | Twitter: @rielcano Description: “The Elcano Royal Institute is a think tank specialised in international and strategic studies conducted from a Spanish, European and global perspective. Its goal is to promote knowledge of the current international situation and of Spain’s foreign relations, as well as to provide a focal point for debating and generating ideas that may prove useful in the decision-making processes of political office-holders, the leaders of private enterprises and public institutions, social actors and academics. The overall concern is to be a meeting point for the exchange of ideas and the search for consensus in a spirit dominated by the defence of democracy, multilateralism, the social market economy, freedom and human rights.”

2.34. European Council on Foreign Relations (ECFR) Locations: London, United Kingdom (head office); Berlin, Germany; Madrid, Spain; Paris, France; Rome, Italy; Sofia, Bulgaria; Warsaw, Poland Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Mark Leonard Website: visit | Twitter: @ecfr Description: “The European Council on Foreign Relations (ECFR) is an [...] international think-tank that aims to conduct cutting-edge independent research on European foreign and security policy and to provide a safe meeting space for decision-makers, activists and influencers to share ideas.”

2.35. European Foundation for Democracy (EFD) Location: Brussels, Belgium Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Roberta Bonazzi

ISSN 2334-3745 115 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Website: visit | Twitter: @EFDBrussels Description: “The European Foundation for Democracy is a policy institute that has been working with civil society, academic, government and other stakeholders on the prevention of radicalization for more than a decade. We address all forms of radicalization which can lead to violent extremism regardless of the political or religious ideology that may drive this. Specifically, we support initiatives to strengthen resilience of communities in different countries by empowering credible pro-democratic voices to prevent radicalization from gaining a fo ot h o l d .”

2.36. European Institute for Counter-Terrorism and Conflict Prevention (EICTP) Location: Vienna, Austria Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Herbert Scheibner (President) Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “[The European Institute for Counter-Terrorism and Conflict Preventions deals] with the central security policy challenges for Europe. A worldwide network of internationally active terrorism and hybrid conflicts are a growing threat. [EICTP] devote[s itself] to in-depth analyses and studies of such uncertainty scenarios and want[s] to actively contribute well-founded strategies and solution scenarios or make the effects of prevention and intervention assessable.”

2.37. Foreign Policy Research Institute (FPRI) Location: Philadelphia (PA), United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Jacques deLisle Website: visit | Twitter: @FPRI Description: “The Foreign Policy Research Institute is dedicated to producing the highest quality scholarship and nonpartisan policy analysis focused on crucial foreign policy and national security challenges facing the United States. We educate those who make and influence policy, as well as the public at large, through the lens of history, geography, and culture.”

2.38. Foundation for Defense of Democracies (FDD) Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Mark Dubowitz Website: visit | Twitter: @FDD Description: “A research institute focusing on national security and foreign policy. FDD conducts in-depth research, produces accurate and timely analyses, identifies illicit activities, and provides policy options – all with the aim of strengthening U.S. national security and reducing or eliminating threats posed by adversaries and enemies of the United States and other free nations.”

ISSN 2334-3745 116 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

2.39. l’Institut Français des Relations Internationales (IFRI; French Institute of International Affairs) Location: Paris, France Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Thomas Gomart Website: visit | Twitter: @IFRI Description: “[L’Institut Français des Relations Internationales] brings together a multi-national team of fifty collaborators including about thirty permanent professional researchers divided into 10 research units with a regional focus: Europe, Russia / NIS, Asia, North America (United States and Canada), Sub-Saharan Africa, Turkey / Middle East and focusing on cross-cutting issues: Security and Strategic Affairs, Energy and Climate, Space, Migration and Citizenship. IFRI’s policy-oriented research strives to shed light on international events and put them in perspective. It is primarily useful for political and economic decision-makers as well as academics, opinion leaders, and civil society representatives.

2.40. Geneva Center for Security Policy Location: Geneva, Switzerland Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Christian Dussey Website: visit | Twitter: @theGCSP Description: “[The Geneva Center for Security Policy is] an international foundation serving a global community of individuals and organizations. [Its] mission is to advance peace, security and international cooperation. [It] provides the knowledge, skills and network for effective and inclusive decision-making.”

2.41. Geneva Center for Security Sector Governance (DCAF) Location: Geneva, Switzerland Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Thomas Guerber Website: visit | Twitter: @DCAF_Geneva Description: “We see security sector governance and reform as an essential contributor to peace and sustainable development. Our Strategy 2020-2024 demonstrates how, over the next five years, we will help make states and people safer by supporting efforts of national stakeholders and international actors to enhance the democratic governance of security sectors around the world.”

2.42. George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies Location: Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Lt. Gen. (Ret.) Keith W. Dayton Website: visit | Twitter: @Marshal_Center Description: “The George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies is one of five U.S. Department ISSN 2334-3745 117 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 of Defense Regional Centers and the only bilateral Center. The mission of the Marshall Center is to enable solutions to regional and transnational security challenges through capacity building, access, and a globally connected network. An instrument of German-American cooperation, the center addresses regional and transnational security issues for the U.S. Department of Defense and the German Federal Ministry of Defense, and maintains contact with a vast alumni network of security professionals.”

2.43. Georgian Center for Strategy and Development (GCSD) Location: Tbilisi, Georgia Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Giorgi Goguadze Website: visit | Twitter: @GCSDorg Description: “Georgian Center for Strategy and Development (GCSD) is a non-profit, non-partisan, non- governmental organization, which intends to support Georgia’s national security, to strengthen principles of effective and democratic governance of the country and to create conditions for Georgia’s sustainable development. Based on the goals of the center, its work involves research, monitoring, advocacy and implementation of educational projects.”

2.44. German Institute on Radicalization and De-Radicalization Studies (GIRDS) Location: Stuttgart, Germany Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Daniel Koehler Website: visit | Twitter: @GIRD_S Description: “The first German research and network initiative focusing solely on the theory and practice of de-radicalization and counter-radicalization, GIRDS is completely non-profit and independent. We are not institutionally bound and do not follow any partisan politics. GIRDS can be seen as a transparent network of experts both from practical backgrounds and academia aiming to foster the theoretical and practical development of de-radicalization methods, evaluation tools, training manuals, and concepts.”

2.45. Global Center on Cooperative Security Location:New York, United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Eelco Kessels Website: visit | Twitter: @GlobalCtr Description: “The Global Center works to achieve lasting security by advancing inclusive, human rights– based policies, partnerships, and practices to address the root causes of violent extremism. We focus on four mutually reinforcing objectives: (1) Supporting communities in addressing the drivers of conflict and violent extremism; (2) Advancing human rights and the rule of law to prevent and respond to violent extremism; (3) Combating illicit finance that enables criminal and violent extremist organizations; and (4) Promoting multilateral cooperation and rights-based standards in counterterrorism.”

ISSN 2334-3745 118 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

2.46. Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime (GITOC) Location: Geneva, Switzerland Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Mark Shaw Website: visit | Twitter: @GI_TOC Description: “Founded in 2013 … The Global Initiative comprises a network of over 500 independent global and regional experts working on human rights, democracy, governance, and development issues where organized crime has become increasingly pertinent. The Global Initiative provides a platform to promote greater debate and innovative approaches as the building blocks to an inclusive global strategy against organized crime. It commissions and shares research globally; curates a [...] resource library of 2,000 reports and tools specific to organized crime; and uses its [...] convening power to unite both the private and public sectors against organized crime.”

2.47. Global Policy Institute (GPI) Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:Bay Atlantic University Current Director: Paolo von Schirach (President), Deniz Karatas (Executive Director) Website: visit | Twitter: @GPInstitute Description: “The Global Policy Institute (GPI) is an independent, non-partisan research institution headquartered in Washington, D.C. focusing on global affairs, economics, energy and education. GPI works closely with Bay Atlantic University (BAU). Through its international network of affiliated scholars, GPI conducts research and analysis, develops realistic policy solutions, organizes events and endeavors to unite political and business leaders in an ongoing effort aimed at addressing global issues in a constructive way.”

2.48. GLOBSEC Location: Bratislava, Slovakia Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Henrieta Kunova Website: visit | Twitter: @GLOBSEC Description: “GLOBSEC is a global think-tank based in Bratislava committed to enhancing security, prosperity and sustainability in Europe and throughout the world. Its mission is to influence the future by generating new ideas and solutions for a better and safer world. We believe we can change the world by putting together the right stakeholders at the right time for a free exchange of ideas.”

2.49. Hedayah Location: Abu Dhabi, UAE Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: H.E. Ahmed Al Qasimi Website: visit | Twitter: @Hedayah_CVE

ISSN 2334-3745 119 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Description: “Hedayah is [an] international organization dedicated to using its expertise and experiences to countering violent extremism (CVE) in all of its forms and manifestations through dialogue, communications, capacity building programs, research and analysis. [W]e work to enhance understanding and share good practices to effectively build the capacity of CVE actors across the globe to promote tolerance, stability, and s e c u r it y.”

2.50. Henry L. Stimson Center Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Brian Eyler Website: visit | Twitter: @StimsonCenter Description: “Promotes international security, shared prosperity & justice through applied research and independent analysis, deep engagement, and policy innovation.”

2.51. Hoover Institution Location: Stanford (CA) and Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:Stanford University Current Director: Thomas F. Stephenson Website: visit | Twitter: @HooverInst Description: “With its ... scholars and ... Library and Archives, the Hoover Institution seeks to improve the human condition by advancing ideas that promote economic opportunity and prosperity, while securing and safeguarding peace for America and all mankind.”

2.52. Hudson Institute Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Kenneth R. Weinstein Website: visit | Twitter: @HudsonInstitute Description: “The Hudson Institute challenges conventional thinking and helps manage strategic transitions to the future through interdisciplinary studies in defense, international relations, economics, health care, technology, culture, and law. Hudson guides public policy makers and global leaders in government and business through a ... program of publications, conferences, policy briefings, and recommendations.”

2.53. Institut de Relations Internationales et Stratégiques (IRIS; French Institute for International Relations and Strategic Affairs) Location: Paris, France Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Pascal Boniface Website: visit | Twitter: @InstitutIRIS

ISSN 2334-3745 120 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Description: “The origin of the creation of IRIS stems from the desire to meet three main objectives: (1) contribute to research and debate on international and strategic issues, offering a different and original reading of national and international issues; (2) create a truly independent center of expertise; and (3) create a place of dialogue and reflection between all those who make up the strategic community specialists.”

2.54. Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA) Location: New Delhi, India Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Amb. Sujan R. Chinoy Website: visit | Twitter: @IDSAIndia Description: “The Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (MP-IDSA), is a non-partisan, autonomous body dedicated to objective research and policy relevant studies on all aspects of defence and security. Its mission is to promote national and international security through the generation and dissemination of knowledge on defence and security-related issues.”

2.55. Institute for Islamic World Future Studies (IIWFS) Location: Tehran, Iran Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Unspecified Website: visit | Twitter: @IIWFS2 Description: “Introducing and promoting empowering teachings and models to create convergence and augmentation among Islamic societies counteracting the distortion of the image of Islam and undermining the… capabilities of the Islamic world.”

2.56. Institute for National Security Studies (INSS) Location: Tel Aviv, Israel Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Amos Yadlin Website: visit | Twitter: @INSSIsrael Description: “The Institute for National Security Studies launches and engages in innovative, relevant, high- quality research that shapes the public discourse of issues on Israel’s national security agenda, and provides policy analysis and recommendations to decision makers, public leaders, and the strategic community, both in Israel and abroad. As part of its mission, it is committed to encourage new ways of thinking and expand the traditional contours of establishment analysis.”

2.57. International Center for Counter-Terrorism - The Hague (ICCT) Location: The Hague, The Netherlands Affiliated organizations: Clingendael Netherlands’ Institute for International Relations, TMC Asser Institute, Institute for Security & Global Affairs, Leiden University, Campus The Hague. Current (Interim) Director: Alexander von Rosenbach ISSN 2334-3745 121 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Website: visit | Twitter: @ICCT_TheHague Description: “[Founded in 2010, the ICCT is] an independent think and do tank providing multidisciplinary policy advice and practical, solution-oriented implementation support on prevention and the rule of law, two vital pillars of effective counter-terrorism. ICCT’s work focuses on themes at the intersection of countering violent extremism and criminal justice sector responses, as well as human rights related aspects of counter- terrorism. The major project areas concern countering violent extremism, rule of law, foreign fighters, country and regional analysis, rehabilitation, civil society engagement and victims’ voices.”

2.58. Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI) Location: Milan, Italy Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Giampiero Massolo Website: visit | Twitter: @ISPIonline Description: “Founded in 1934, the Institute for International Political Studies is now recognized as one of the most prestigious think tanks dedicated to the study of international dynamics. It is the only Italian institute – and among the very few in Europe – to support research with a significant commitment to training, conferences and analysis and guidance on risks and opportunities worldwide for companies and institutions. The whole activity is characterized by an approach that combines socio-political and economic analysis and by an extensive collaboration with the main think tanks around the world.”

2.59. Institute for Security Studies (ISS) Location: Pretoria, South Africa (head office); also offices in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Dakar, Senegal. Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Anton Du Plessis Website: visit | Twitter: @issafrica Description: “The ISS is an African non-profit organization …. Our work covers transnational crimes, migration, maritime security and development, peacekeeping, peacebuilding, crime prevention and criminal justice, and the analysis of conflict and governance”.

2.60. Institute for Strategic Dialogue (ISD) Location: London, United Kingdom (head office); Beirut, Lebanon; Berlin, Germany; Paris, France; Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Sasha Havlicek Website: visit | Twitter: @ISDGlobal Description: “ISD is [a] ‘think and do’ tank dedicated to understanding and innovating real-world responses to the rising tide of polarization, hate and extremism of all forms. We combine anthropological research, expertise in international extremist movements and an advanced digital analysis capability that tracks hate, disinformation and extremism online, with policy advisory support and training to governments and cities around the world.”

ISSN 2334-3745 122 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

2.61. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) Location: Singapore Affiliated organizations:Yusof Ishak Institute Current Director: Choi Shing Kwok Website: visit | Twitter: @ISEAS Description: “ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute (formerly Institute of Southeast Asian Studies) is dedicated to the study of socio-political, security, and economic trends and developments in Southeast Asia and its wider geostrategic and economic environment. The Institute aims to stimulate research and debate within scholarly circles, enhance public awareness of the region, and facilitate the search for viable solutions to the varied problems confronting the region. It also strives to nurture a community of scholars interested in the region and to engage in research on the multi-faceted dimensions and issues of stability and security, economic development, and political, social, and cultural change.”

2.62. International Center for Terrorism Studies (ICTS) Location: Arlington (VA) United States Affiliated organizations:Potomac Institute for Policy Studies Current Director: Mike Swetnam Website: visit | Twitter: @PotomacInst Description: “The Potomac Institute for Policy Studies is an independent, nonpartisan, not-for-profit, science and technology (S&T) policy research institute. The Institute identifies and leads discussions on key S&T and national security issues facing our society, providing an academic forum for the study of related policy issues. Based on data and evidence, we develop meaningful policy recommendations and ensure their implementation at the intersection of business and government.”

2.63. International Center for the Study of Violent Extremism (ICSVE) Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Anne Speckhard Website: visit | Twitter: @icsve Description: “The International Center for the Study of Violent Extremism (ICSVE) is an action based, interdisciplinary, research center working on psychosocial, cultural, political, economic, ideological, and technological topics impacting global peace and security. ICSVE … provides research, training, and strategic advice to government leaders, intelligence, defense, international organizations, and civilian communities, worldwide, to prevent and deter the threat of violent extremism in the core areas such as capacity building and programmatic support, countering extremist narrative, developing community resilience, managing intervention activities, understanding pathways into and back out of terrorism and countering violent extremism training.”

2.64. International Institute for Justice and the Rule of Law Location: Valletta, Malta

ISSN 2334-3745 123 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Thomas Wuchte Website: visit | Twitter: @iijmalta Description: “The International Institute for Justice and the Rule of Law (IIJ) provides rule of law-based training to lawmakers, police, prosecutors, judges, corrections officials, and other justice sector stakeholders on how to address terrorism and related transnational criminal activities within a rule of law framework. More broadly, it works to strengthen criminal justice systems and build regional judicial, police and other criminal justice practitioner networks to promote justice, security, and human rights. The IIJ places a particular focus on countries seeking to develop rule of law-based approaches to addressing security challenges such as terrorism and other transnational criminal activities. Although the IIJ’s mandate will be global in nature, initial focus is on countries in North, West, and East Africa, and the Middle East, paying particular attention to supporting countries in transition.”

2.65. The Institute of International & European Affairs (IIEA) Location: Dublin, Ireland Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Brendan Halligan Website: visit | Twitter: @iiea Description: “The Institute of International and European Affairs is [an Irish] international affairs think tank. We are an independent, not-for-profit organization with charitable status. Our aim is to provide a forum for all those interested in EU and International affairs to engage in debate and discussion, and to evaluate and share policy options.”

2.66. Institute for International & Strategic Studies (IISS) Location: London, United Kingdom (head office); Washington, D.C., United States; Singapore, Singapore, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain. Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: John Chipman Website: visit | Twitter: @IISS_org Description: “The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) has helped to shape the strategic agenda for governments, businesses, the media and experts across the world. We earn our revenue from the sale of our databases and publications, host-nation support for conferences, corporate sponsorship, research work, consultancy, and donations from private individuals and foundations.”

2.67. International Crisis Group Location: Brussels, Belgium (head office); Washington, D.C., United States; New York (NY), United States; London, United Kingdom. Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Robert Malley Website: visit | Twitter: @CrisisGroup

ISSN 2334-3745 124 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Description: “The International Crisis Group is an independent organization working to prevent wars and shape policies that will build a more peaceful world. Crisis Group sounds the alarm to prevent deadly conflict. We build support for the good governance and inclusive politics that enable societies to flourish. We engage directly with a range of conflict actors to seek and share information, and to encourage intelligent action for peace.”

2.68. International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT) Location: Herzliya, Israel Affiliated organizations:Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Current Director: Boaz Ganor Website: visit | Twitter: @ICT_org Description: “The International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT) is [an] academic institute for counter- terrorism, facilitating international cooperation in the global struggle against terrorism. ICT is an independent think tank providing expertise in terrorism, counter-terrorism, homeland security, threat vulnerability, risk assessment, intelligence analysis, national security and defense policy.”

2.69. International Peace Institute (IPI) Location: New York (NY), United States (head office); Vienna, Austria; Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Terje Rød-Larsen Website: visit | Twitter: @ipinst Description: “The International Peace Institute (IPI) is an independent, international not-for-profit think tank dedicated to managing risk and building resilience to promote peace, security, and sustainable development. To achieve its purpose, IPI employs a mix of policy research, strategic analysis, publishing, and convening. With staff from more than twenty countries and a broad range of academic fields, IPI has offices facing United Nations headquarters in New York and offices in Vienna and Manama.”

2.70. Investigative Project on Terrorism (IPT) Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Steven Emerson Website: visit | Twitter: @TheIPT Description: “The Investigative Project on Terrorism (IPT) is a non-profit research group founded by Steven Emerson in 1995. It [maintains a] comprehensive data center on radical Islamic terrorist groups. For more than two decades, the IPT has investigated the operations, funding, activities and front groups of Islamic terrorist and extremist groups in the United States and around the world.”

2.71. Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI; Institute for International Affairs) Location: Rome, Italy Affiliated organizations:n/a

ISSN 2334-3745 125 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Current Director: Nathalie Tocci Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “We are a private, independent non-profit think tank, founded in 1965 on the initiative of Altiero Spinelli. We seek to promote awareness of international politics and contribute to the advancement of European integration and multilateral cooperation. We are part of a vast international network, and interact and cooperate with the government and its ministries, European and international institutions, universities, major national economic actors, the media and the most authoritative international think tanks.”

Te Jamestown Foundation .2.72 Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Glen Howard Website: visit | Twitter: @JamestownTweets Description: “The Jamestown Foundation’s mission is to inform and educate policy makers and the broader community about events and trends in those societies which are strategically or tactically important to the United States and which frequently restrict access to such information. Utilizing indigenous and primary sources, Jamestown’s material is delivered without political bias, filter or agenda. It is often the only source of information which should be, but is not always, available through official or intelligence channels, especially in regard to Eurasia and terrorism.”

2.73. Kazakhstan Institute for Strategic Studies (KAZISS) Location: Nur Sultan, Kazakhstan Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Shaukenova Zarema Kaukenovna Website: visit | Twitter: @KAZ_ISS Description: “KAZISS holds strategic research on foreign and domestic policy topics, Kazakhstan’s social and economic development, provides the leadership of the state with perspectives and recommendations”.

2.74. Latin American Security and Defence Network (RESDAL) Location: Buenos Aires, Argentina Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Marcela Donadio (Executive Secretary) Website: visit | Twitter: @RESDAL Description: “A network that creates, strengthens and links the capacities and efforts of decision-makers, academics and members of civil society within the field of security and defence, collaborating in the construction of a peaceful democratic environment in Latin America and the Caribbean where democratic institutions exist that generate policies, experiences and initiatives that at the same time impact the hemispheric and international security environment.”

ISSN 2334-3745 126 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

2.75. Lowy Institute Location: Sydney, Australia Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Michael Fullilove Website: visit | Twitter: @LowyInstitute Description: “The Lowy Institute is an Australian think tank with a global outlook. Our research interests are as broad as Australia’s interests, and we host distinguished speakers from around the globe on foreign policy, defence, politics, aid and development, journalism, science and the arts. The Lowy Institute is at the center of Australia’s foreign policy and national security debates.”

Te MacKenzie Institute .2.76 Location: Toronto, Canada Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Lou Milrad (chair) Website: visit | Twitter: @TheMackenzieIn1 Description: “The Mackenzie Institute, an independent think tank, brings a strategic and pragmatic approach to security matters that affect both domestic and global audiences. The Mackenzie Institute brings together external independent thinking for policymakers, governments, private sector entities, and educational institutions. We propose an open forum for global conversations on the threats and security vulnerabilities we face in order to best advise these various entities.”

2.77. Manhattan Institute Location: New York (NY), United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Reihan Salam Website: visit | Twitter: @ManhattanInst Description: “The mission of the Manhattan Institute is to develop and disseminate new ideas that foster greater economic choice and individual responsibility.”

2.78. Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center (ITIC) Location: Ramat Hasharon, Israel Affiliated organizations:Israeli Intelligence Heritage and Commemoration Center Current Director: Reuven Erlich Website: visit | Twitter: @terrorisminfo Description: “The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center (ITIC) issues information bulletins and studies about terrorist organizations. Its research fields include Palestinian terrorist organizations, Lebanese terrorist organizations, and organizations affiliated with global jihad. The ITIC researchers monitor the various aspects of the activities of the terrorist organizations in the Middle East and elsewhere, countries sponsoring terrorism, terrorist attacks, terrorist infrastructure, weapons, funding terrorist organizations,

ISSN 2334-3745 127 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 terrorist organizations’ media outlets and more.”

2.79. National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS) Location: Tokyo, Japan Affiliated organizations:Japanese Ministry of Defence Current Director: Tanaka Satoshi Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “The National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS) is the Ministry of Defense’s core policy research arm, conducting research and studies with a policy orientation primarily on security and military history, while also serving as a strategic college-level educational institution for the training of high-level officers of the Self-Defense Forces. In addition, NIDS engages in such activities as the administration of military and naval documents, records and publications, and is considered to be the nation’s foremost military history research center.”

2.80. National Institute of Foreign Affairs and National Security (IFANS) Location: Seoul, South Korea Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Jun Bong-Geun Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “The Institute of Foreign Affairs and National Security (IFANS) is Korea’s top foreign policy and security think tank. IFANS is primarily responsible for: 1. Conducting research on and analysis of the government’s mid to long-term foreign policy and diplomatic strategy, and 2. Developing policy recommendations on pending diplomatic issues. In addition, IFANS continues to build a wide-ranging policy research network with the academia and research institutions in Korea and abroad, share Korea’s diplomatic agenda with domestic and foreign audiences, and promote public understanding on foreign policy through “open diplomacy together with people.”

2.81. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) Location: Oslo, Norway Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Ulf Sverdrup Website: visit | Twitter: @nupinytt Description: “[NUPI studies] military strategy and geopolitics, EU foreign and security policy, terrorism and organized crime, and the privatization of security, with an emphasis on new security actors. The geographical focus in this research area ranges from the USA, Asia and the Pacific, to North Africa and Europe. Issues related to military concepts and doctrines, irregular and hybrid warfare, civilian–military relations, maritime security, cyber security and technology, security governance, and reform of intelligence and security services are also addressed.”

(Te Orient-Institute Beirut (OIB .2.82 Location: Beirut, Lebanon ISSN 2334-3745 128 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Affiliated organizations:Max Weber Stiftung Current Director: Birgit Schäbler Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “The Orient-Institut Beirut (OIB) is an independent academic research institute, belonging to the Max Weber Foundation. It is mainly funded through the Federal Ministry of Education and Research in Germany. It conducts interdisciplinary research on the Arab world and the region of West Asia and North Africa at large. Its research community comprises long-term research associates from Germany and short- term visiting fellows from all over the world, who represent the major disciplines of the humanities and social sciences, including Islamic and Arab studies, history and anthropology of the Middle East, as well as sociology and political sciences.”

2.83. Ortadoğu Araştırmaları Merkezi (ORSAM; Center for Middle Eastern Studies) Location: Ankara, Turkey Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Ahmet Uysal Website: visit | Twitter: @orsamorgtr Description: “The Center for Middle Eastern Studies (ORSAM) was established in January 2009 to inform the general public and the foreign policy community on the Middle East. ORSAM is a nonpartisan and non- profit research center based in Ankara. ORSAM provides information on Middle Eastern affairs and exposes the Turkish academia and political circles to the perspectives of researchers from the region. ORSAM, by facilitating the visits of Middle Eastern statesmen, bureaucrats, academics, strategists, businessmen, journalists, and NGO representatives to Turkey, seeks to ensure their knowledge and ideas are shared with the Turkish and international community”.

2.84. Overseas Development Institute (ODI) Location: London, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Marta Foresti Website: visit | Twitter: @ODIdev Description: “ODI is an independent, global think tank, working for a sustainable and peaceful world in which every person thrives. We harness the power of evidence and ideas through research and partnership to confront challenges, develop solutions and create change.”

2.85. Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) Location: Oslo, Norway Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Henrik Urdal Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “The Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) conducts research on the conditions for peaceful relations between states, groups and people. Researchers at PRIO seek to understand the processes that bring

ISSN 2334-3745 129 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 societies together or split them apart. We explore how conflicts erupt and how they can be resolved; we investigate how different kinds of violence affect people; and we examine how societies tackle crises – and the threat of crisis. We document general trends, seek to understand processes, and inform concrete responses. PRIO is committed to academic excellence. We aim to develop theoretical insights, refine research methodologies, and communicate our findings widely. We see this academic excellence as paramount to having a meaningful impact on society. The institute is an independent foundation, international in its orientation, with an extensive network of collaborators worldwide.”

2.86. Philippine Institute for Peace, Violence and Terrorism Research (PIPVTR) Location: Quezon City, Philippines Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Albert Ignatius D. Ferro (President) Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “PIPVTR is an independent academic research institute and a non-government, non-profit, and non-partisan think-tank. [Its objective is to] promote the principle of non-violence and to uphold the culture of peace by conducting rigorous investigative studies, intelligence analysis, and peace research to understand the pathologies of terrorism in the Philippines.”

2.87. Polski Instytut Spraw Miedzynarodowych (PISM; Polish Institute of International Affairs) Location: Warsaw, Poland Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Sławomir Dębski Website: visit | Twitter: @PISM_Poland Description: “The Polish Institute of International Affairs (PISM) is a leading Central European think tank that positions itself between the world of politics and independent analysis. PISM provides analytical support to decisionmakers and diplomats, initiates public debate and disseminates expert knowledge about contemporary international relations. The work of PISM is guided by the conviction that the decision-making process in international relations should be based on knowledge that comes from reliable and valid research.”

2.88. Prague Security Studies Institute (PIIS) Location: Prague, Czech Republic Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Jana Robinson Website: visit | Twitter: @pssi_prague Description: “The mission of the Prague Security Studies Institute is to help safeguard and strengthen the individual freedoms and democratic institutions of the countries in Central and Eastern Europe and beyond. The Institute also seeks to illuminate select unconventional threats emanating from authoritarian governments that challenge the transatlantic alliance and other partners globally, especially in the economic & financial and space domains. PSSI is dedicated to the education and training of new generations of security-minded students and young professionals, including through its programmatic activities and growing academic network in the

ISSN 2334-3745 130 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Czech Republic and abroad.”

2.89. Quilliam Foundation Location: London, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Haras Rafiq Website: visit | Twitter: @QuilliamF Description: “Quilliam is [a] counter-extremism organization. We have a full spectrum and values-based approach to counter-extremism which means promoting pluralism and inspiring change. Quilliam seeks to challenge what we think, and the way we think. We aim to generate creative, informed and inclusive discussions to counter the ideological underpinnings of terrorism, while simultaneously providing evidence-based policy recommendations to governments, and building civil society networks and programs to lead the change towards a more positive future”.

2.90. RAND Corporation Location: Santa Monica (CA), United States (head office); Washington, D.C., United States; Pittsburgh (PA), United States, New Orleans (LA), United States; Boston (MA), United States; Manuka, Australia (RAND Australia); Cambridge, United Kingdom; Brussels, Belgium (RAND Europe). Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Michael D. Rich (President & CEO), Terrence Kelly (Vice President & Director, Homeland Security Operational Analysis Center), K. Jack Riley (Vice President, RAND National Security Research Division, Director, RAND National Defense Research Institute) Website: visit | Twitter: @RANDCorporation Description: “The RAND Corporation is a research organization that develops solutions to public policy challenges to help make communities throughout the world safer and more secure, healthier and more prosperous. RAND is nonprofit, nonpartisan, and committed to the public interest.”

2.91. Rasanah: International Institute for Iranian Studies Location: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Adel Z. Al-Toraifi Website: visit | Twitter: @rasanhiis Description: “As an independent non-profit NGO, Rasanah is keen to deal objectively, impartially, professionally in accordance with the highest standards of international proficiency to produce intellectual knowledge and training content by attracting specialized cadres from around the world.”

2.92. Research Institute for European and American Studies (RIEAS) Location: Athens, Greece Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: John M. Nomikos ISSN 2334-3745 131 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Website: visit | Twitter: @rieasgreece Description: “The Research Institute for European and American Studies (RIEAS) is aimed to provide a better understanding of international affairs by creating a framework for creative thinking, honest discussions and nonpartisan dissemination of multidisciplinary reflections and innovative ideas.”

2.93. Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) Location: London, United Kingdom (head office); Brussels, Belgium Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Karin von Hippel (Director-General), Emily Winterbotham (Director RUSI Terrorism & Conflict) Website: visit | Twitter: @RUSI_org Description: “The Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) is [a] defence and security think tank. Its mission is to inform, influence and enhance public debate on a safer and more stable world. RUSI is a research-led institute, producing independent, practical and innovative analysis to address today’s complex challenges.”

2.94. Shanghai Institutes for International Studies (SIIS) Location: Shanghai, China Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Chen Dongxiao Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “Founded in 1960, the Shanghai Institutes for International Studies (SIIS) is a government- affiliated [...] think tank dedicated to informing government decision-making by conducting policy-oriented studies in world politics, economics, foreign policy, and international security. SIIS maintains intensive and extensive exchanges and cooperation with research institutions at home and abroad, bolstering China’s international influence and soft power.”

(Te Soufan Center (TSC)/The Soufan Group (TSG .2.95 Location: New York (NY), United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Ali Soufan Website: visit | Twitter: @thesoufancenter Description: “The Soufan Center is a non-partisan strategy center dedicated to increasing awareness of global security issues in the United States and around the world. The Center fills a niche-role by producing independent, quality research and hosting proactive conversations in order to effectively equip thought leaders, policy makers, governments, bi- and multilateral institutions, media, and those in the non-profit and academic communities to engage in strategic security-related practices and dialogue about complex challenges. Our work focuses on a broad range of critical security issues including: international and domestic terrorism, humanitarian crisis analysis, great power competition, refugee and immigrant issues, and more.”

ISSN 2334-3745 132 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

2.96. South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA) Location: Johannesburg, South Africa Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Elizabeth Sidiropoulos Website: visit | Twitter: @SAIIA_info Description: “SAIIA is a non-governmental research institute focused on South Africa’s and Africa’s international relations. We provide analysis, promote dialogue and contribute to African policy making in a dynamic global context. Our vision is to be the pre-eminent think-tank on Africa and on global issues as they affect Africa.”

2.97. Southern Poverty Law Center (SPL Center) Location: Montgomery (AL), United States; Atlanta (GA), United States; Miami (FL), United States; New Orleans (LA), United States; Jackson (MS) Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Margaret Huang Website: visit | Twitter: @splcenter Description: “The SPLC is a catalyst for racial justice in the [US] South and beyond, working in partnership with communities to dismantle white supremacy, strengthen intersectional movements, and advance the human rights of all people.”

2.98. Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP; Science and Politics Foundation) Location: Berlin, Germany Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Volker Perthes Website: visit | Twitter: @SWPBerlin Description: “The Science and Politics Foundation (SWP) advises political decision-makers on questions of foreign and security policy and international politics. Their offers are primarily aimed at the Bundestag and the Federal Government as well as international organizations that are important for Germany, such as the EU, NATO and the United Nations.”

2.99. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Location: Stockholm, Sweden Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Dan Smith Website: visit | Twitter: @sipriorg Description: “SIPRI is an independent international institute dedicated to research into conflict, armaments, arms control and disarmament. Established in 1966, SIPRI provides data, analysis and recommendations, based on open sources, to policymakers, researchers, media and the interested public.”

ISSN 2334-3745 133 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

2.100. T.M.C. Asser Institute Location: The Hague, the Netherlands Affiliated organizations: International Center for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague Current Directors: Gert Grift, Janne Nijman Website: visit | Twitter: @TMCAsser Description: “The institute is a center of expertise in the fields of public international law, private international law, and European law. It fulfils [a] role in undertaking fundamental and independent policy-oriented research and providing a platform for international cooperation and partnering in fields of law at the cutting edge of academia and practice.”

2.101. Turkish Asian Center for Strategic Studies (TASAM) Location: Istanbul, Tukey; Ankara, Turkey Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Engin Selcuk Website: visit | Twitter: @TASAMorg Description: “On the foreign policy field, TASAM acts under 11 different titles. These fields are … Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America and Caribbean and North America. The regional ones are Balkans, Middle East, Mediterranean and Black Sea - Caucasus which are - in every parameter- the security zone of these four continents in terms of Turkey. Also Turkic World and Islamic World are called as identical fields.”

2.102. UK in a Changing Europe (UKICE) Location: London, United Kingdom Affiliated organizations:King’s College London - Policy Institute; ESRC Current Director: Thomas Mansfield Website: visit | Twitter: @UKandEU Description: “The UK in a Changing Europe promotes rigorous, high-quality and independent research into the complex and ever-changing relationship between the UK and the European Union (EU). It provides an authoritative, non-partisan and impartial reference point for those looking for information, insights and analysis about UK - EU relations that stands aside from the politics surrounding the debate. The Initiative’s work is tailored to be easily accessible to policy makers, businesses, journalists, civil society organizations, educational institutions and the general public who are interested in the UK’s relationship with the EU.”

2.103. United States Institute of Peace (USIP) Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Joe Lataille (Acting President), Leanne Erdberg Steadman (Director Countering Violent Extremism) Website: visit | Twitter: @USIP Description: “The United States Institute of Peace is a national, nonpartisan, independent institute, founded

ISSN 2334-3745 134 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 by Congress and dedicated to the proposition that a world without violent conflict is possible, practical, and essential for U.S. and global security. In conflict zones abroad, the Institute works with local partners to prevent, mitigate, and resolve violent conflict. To reduce future crises and the need for costly interventions, USIP works with governments and civil societies to build local capacities to manage conflict peacefully. The Institute pursues its mission by linking research, policy, training, analysis, and direct action to support those who are working to build a more peaceful, inclusive world.”

2.104. Vivekananda International Foundation (VIF) Location: New Delhi, India Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: S Gurumurthy Website: visit | Twitter: @vifindia Description: “The Vivekananda International Foundation (VIF) is a New Delhi-based think tank set up with the collaborative efforts of India’s leading security experts, diplomats, industrialists and philanthropists under the aegis of the Vivekananda Kendra. The VIF’s objective is to become a center of excellence to kick start innovative ideas and thoughts that can lead to a stronger, secure and prosperous India playing its destined role in global affairs.”

2.105. Vlaams Vredesinstituut (Flemish Peace Institute) Location: Brussels, Belgium Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Nils Duquet Website: visit | Twitter: @Vredesinstituut Description: “In 2004, the Flemish Peace Institute was established as a para-parliamentary organization within the Flemish Parliament. On the initiative of the members of the Sub-commission on Arms Trade, the decree establishing the Flemish Institute for Peace and Prevention of Violence was adopted with a large majority of votes by the plenary session of Parliament on 5 May 2004. The decree determines the four tasks of the Institute. For its operation, the Peace Institute receives a working allowance from the Flemish Parliament.”

2.106. Washington Institute’s Jeanette and Eli Reinhard Program on Counterterrorism and Intelligence Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Robert Satloff Website: visit | Twitter: @washinstitute Description: “The mission of The Washington Institute is to advance a balanced and realistic understanding of American interests in the Middle East and to promote the policies that secure them.”

2.107. West Africa Network for Peacebuilding (WANEP) Location: Tamale, Ghana

ISSN 2334-3745 135 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Chukwuemeka B. Eze Website: visit | Twitter: @WANEP_Ghana Description: “The West Africa Network for Peacebuilding (WANEP) is a leading Regional Peacebuilding organization founded in 1998 in response to civil wars that plagued West Africa in the 1990s. Over the years, WANEP has succeeded in establishing strong national networks in every Member State of ECOWAS with over 500 member organizations across West Africa. WANEP places special focus on collaborative approaches to conflict prevention, and peacebuilding, working with diverse actors from civil society, governments, intergovernmental bodies, women groups and other partners in a bid to establish a platform for dialogue, experience sharing and learning, thereby complementing efforts at ensuring sustainable peace and development in West Africa and beyond.”

2.108. The Wilson Center Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Jane Harman Website: visit | Twitter: @thewilsoncenter Description: “The Wilson Center, chartered by Congress in 1968 as the official memorial to President Woodrow Wilson, is the nation’s key non-partisan policy forum for tackling global issues through independent research and open dialogue to inform actionable ideas for the policy community.”

3. Governmental and Inter-Governmental Organizations

3.1. Algemene Inlichtingen- en Veiligheidsdienst (AIVD; General Intelligence and Security Service) Location: Zoetermeer, the Netherlands Affiliated organizations:Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations Current Director: Erik Akerboom Website: visit | Twitter: @AIVD Description: “The AIVD has six core tasks: (1) investigating individuals and organizations, (2) conducting security screenings, (3) promoting the security of vital sectors, (4) gathering international intelligence, (5) drawing up risk and threat analyses, and (6) (upon request) reporting on data processed by the service on designated persons or bodies. The AIVD also has several areas of particular interest, including: terrorism, radicalism and Islamic fundamentalism; left-wing, right-wing extremism; covert interference by foreign powers; proliferation of weapons of mass destruction; foreign intelligence (country studies); promoting security through, for example: the national Safety and Security System; security screenings; the evaluation of information security products.”

ISSN 2334-3745 136 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

3.2. Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz (BfV;The Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution) Location: Köln, Germany Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Thomas Haldenwang Website: visit | Twitter: @BfV_Bund Description: “The Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution collects information together with the state authorities for the protection of the constitution.”

3.3. Bundeskriminalamt (BKA; Federal Criminal Police Office) Location: Wiesbaden, Germany Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Holger Münch (President) Website: visit | Twitter: @bka Description: “The Bundeskriminalamt dates back to March 1951. At that point in time, the ‘Law on the Establishment of a Federal Criminal Police Office’ came into force. A short time afterwards the ‘Criminal Police Office for the British Zone’ in Hamburg became the Bundeskriminalamt (Federal Criminal Police Office), abbreviated BKA. Legislators thus acted on the authority granted by the German Constitution to set up central agencies at Federal level for police information and communications as well as for criminal police work. Wiesbaden was designated as the headquarters for the new criminal police agency that same year.”

3.4. Bureau of Counterterrorism and Countering Violent Extremism Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:US State Department Current Director: Nathan A. Sales Website: visit | Twitter: @StateDeptCT Description: “The Bureau of Counterterrorism’s mission is to promote U.S. national security by taking a leading role in developing coordinated strategies and approaches to defeat terrorism abroad and securing the counterterrorism cooperation of international partners”.

(Te Canadian Network for Research on Terrorism, Security and Society (TSAS .3.5 Location: Ontario, Canada Affiliated organization: Balsillie School of International Affairs Current Director: Lorne Dawson Website: visit | Twitter: @TSASNetwork Description: “The Canadian Network for Research on Terrorism, Security and Society (TSAS) was founded in 2012. It supports research, and the dissemination of research, related to the threat of terrorism, security responses to terrorism, and the impact of both terrorism and securitization on Canadian society. The organization has three primary objectives: (1) to foster communication and collaboration between academic researchers in ISSN 2334-3745 137 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 multiple disciplines on these topics; (2) to facilitate the interaction and collaboration of researchers and policy officials; and (3) to help cultivate a new and larger generation of scholars interested in these fields of study. TSAS is focused on developments in Canada, but with our multiple partners in other countries, we also encourage international collaborations. We are seeking to help create a uniquely Canadian response to terrorism and its social consequences.”

3.6. Canadian Security and Intelligence Service (CSIS) Location: Ottawa, Ontario Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: David Vigneault Website: visit | Twitter: @scrscanada Description: “The Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) is at the forefront of Canada’s national security system. CSIS’ role is to investigate activities suspected of constituting threats to the security of Canada and to report on these to the Government of Canada. Vision: a safe, secure and prosperous Canada through trusted intelligence and advice.”

3.7. Center of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism (COE-DAT) Location: Ankara, Turkey Affiliated organizations:NATO Current Director: Col. Barbaros Dagli Website: visit | Twitter: n.a. Description: “COE -DAT’s mission is to provide key decision-makers with a comprehensive understanding to terrorism and CT challenges, in order to transform NATO and Nations of interest to meet future security challenges. This transformation is embedded into NATO’s three declared core task[s] of collective defence, crisis management, and cooperative security.”

3.8. Center for Strategic Studies and Simulation Location: New Delhi, India Affiliated organization: United Services Institute of India (military academy) Current Director: Rajiv Narayanan Website: visit | Twitter: @USI_1870 Description: “The Armed Forces leadership of today demands a quality of professionalism that can only come with education and informed opinion on various aspects of national security, international relations, defence strategy, management of the economy of the country, social issues, internal security problems, and appropriate interaction with other sections of society in the country at various levels. The Charter builds on the initial founding aim of ‘furtherance of interest and knowledge in the art, science and literature of the defence services’.”

3.9. Center for Terror Analysis (CTA) Location: Søborg, Denmark Affiliated organizations:PET (Danish security and intelligence agency)

ISSN 2334-3745 138 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Current Director: Finch Borch Andersen (Head of PET) Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “The Center for Terror Analysis (CTA) was established in PET on 1 January 2007. CTA was set up as part of the implementation of the Government’s Action Plan for the Fight against Terrorism. CTA analyses the threat of terrorism against Denmark and Danish interests abroad. The analyses aim to provide Danish authorities with a better basis for preventing and neutralising terrorist acts. The CTA comprises staff from the Danish authorities that play a key role in the fight against terrorism. These employees are analysts from the Danish Defence Intelligence Service (DDIS), the Danish Security and Intelligence Service (PET), the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Danish Emergency Management Agency (DEMA).”

3.10. CEPOL Location: Budapest, Hungary Affiliated organizations:European Commission Current Director: José Leitão Website: visit | Twitter: @EU_CEPOL Description: “CEPOL is an agency of the European Union dedicated to develop, implement and coordinate training for law enforcement officials. CEPOL brings together a network of training institutes for law enforcement officials in EU Member States and supports them in providing frontline training on security priorities, law enforcement cooperation and information exchange. CEPOL also works with EU bodies, international organizations, and third countries to ensure that the most serious security threats are tackled with a collective response.”

3.11. CIVIPOL Location: Paris, France Affiliated organizations:French Ministry of Interior Current Director: Yann Jounot Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “CIVIPOL is the technical cooperation operator of the French Ministry of the Interior. Combining the efficiency of a private company with the power of its public service mission, and financed almost exclusively by international sponsors, CIVIPOL builds cooperative security projects with states on a fair return basis in internal security.”

3.12. Council of Europe Committee on Counter-Terrorism (CDCT) Location: Strasbourg, France Affiliated organizations:Council of Europe (CoE) Current Director: Marija Pejčinović Burić (President of CofE) Website: visit | Twitter: @CoE_HRightsRLaw Description: “The Council of Europe Committee on Counter-Terrorism CDCT( ) (formerly called the Committee of Experts on Terrorism (CODEXTER) is the key coordinating body for the Council of Europe activities to combat terrorism. Building on the pioneering work of the CODEXTER, the CDCT’s primary

ISSN 2334-3745 139 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 objectives are to oversee and ensure the successful implementation of relevant Council of Europe legal instruments while also providing a means for international experts to analyse and respond to developments in the counter-terrorism area, including through international standard-setting.”

3.13. Eurojust Location: The Hague, Netherlands Affiliated organizations:European Union Current Director: Ladislav Hamran (President) Website: visit | Twitter: @Eurojust Description: “To reinforce the fight against serious organised crime, the European Council, in its Conclusion 46, agreed that a unit (Eurojust) should be set up, composed of national prosecutors, magistrates, or police officers of equivalent competence, detached from each Member State according to its own legal system. [...] Eurojust assists prosecutors and other investigators from EU Member States in cases of serious crime where that crime affects two or more Member States, or requires prosecution on common bases, on the basis of operations conducted and information supplied by the Member States’ authorities, by Europol, by the EPPO and by OLAF.”

3.14. Europol Location: The Hague, the Netherlands Affiliated organization: European Union, Police Organization of EU Member States Current Director: Catherine de Bolle Website: visit | Twitter: @Europol Description: “Headquartered in The Hague, the Netherlands, we support the 27 EU Member States in their fight against terrorism, cybercrime and other serious and organised forms of crime. We also work with many non-EU partner states and international organizations. [...] Europol’s counter-terrorism efforts are coordinated by the European Counter Terrorism Center (ECTC) which officially started operations on 1 January 2016. The ECTC seeks to enhanced cross-border cooperation between relevant counter-terrorist authorities.”

3.15. Federal Intelligence Service (FIS) Location: Bern, Switzerland Affiliated organization: Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection, and Sport Current Director: Viola Amherd Website: visit | Twitter: @vbs_ddps Description: “The Federal Intelligence Service (FIS) is a Swiss security policy instrument with a mission that is clearly defined in legal terms. Its core tasks are prevention and situation assessment for the political leaders. The FIS is concerned with early perception and prevention of terrorism, violent extremism, espionage, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their delivery system technology as well as cyberattacks against critical infrastructure. Furthermore, the FIS obtains information relevant to security policy from abroad and evaluates it .”

ISSN 2334-3745 140 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

3.16. Global Counterterrorism Forum (GCTF) Location: Unspecified Affiliated organization: Asser Institute, GCERF, Hedayah, International Institute for Justice (IIJ) Current Director: Miriam van Nie (Head of Administrative Unit, The Hague) Website: | Twitter: n/a Description: “The Global Counterterrorism Forum is an international forum of 29 countries and the European Union with an overarching mission of reducing the vulnerability of people worldwide to terrorism by preventing, combating, and prosecuting terrorist acts and countering incitement and recruitment to terrorism. The forum brings together experts and practitioners from countries and regions around the world to share experiences and expertise, and develop tools and strategies on how to counter the evolving terrorist threat.”

3.17. Interpol Location: Lyon, France Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Kim Jong Yang (Republic of Korea) Website: visit | Twitter: @Interpol_HQ Description: “Our full name is the International Criminal Police Organization and we are an inter-governmental organization. We have 194 member countries, and we help police in all of them to work together to make the world a safer place. To do this, we enable them to share and access data on crimes and criminals, and we offer a range of technical and operational support.”

3.18. Nationaal Coördinator Terrorismebestrijding & Veiligheid (NCTV; National Coordinator for Security and Coordination) Location: The Hague, the Netherlands Affiliated organization: Netherlands’ Ministry of Justice and Security Current Director: Pieter-Jaap Aalbersberg Website: visit | Twitter: @NCTV_NL Description: “The National Coordinator for Security and Counterterrorism protects the Netherlands from threats that could disrupt Dutch society. Together with the partners within the government, the research community and the private sector, the NCTV ensures that the Netherlands’ critical infrastructure is safe and remains that way. Since the establishment of the NCTV, central government has had a single organization that deals with counterterrorism, cyber security, national security and crisis management. Together with our partners in the security sector, the NCTV is committed to making the Netherlands a safe and stable place. The focus is on preventing and minimising social disruption.”

3.19. NATO Defense College Foundation (NDCF) Location: Rome, Italy Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Alessandro Politi

ISSN 2334-3745 141 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Website: visit | Twitter: @NATOFoundation Description: “The NATO Defense College grew from a common intuition of President Alessandro Minuto- Rizzo and the NATO Defense College top decision makers who understood the value of a non-profit NGO that could work beyond usual and institutional outreach, training, communication and scientific research activities. The NDCF strives to consider relevant issues not in a descriptive or prescriptive way, but by catching the sense of events and the essential vectors of future developments. In a word: charting ahead. The mission is to promote the culture of stability and well-being in the North Atlantic area and in NATO partner nations. The aim is to meet the highest standards in contributing to public debate and future deliberations on strategic, security and geopolitical issues.” NDCF fosters dialogue through education, research and outreach to the challenges that they are confronting.

3.20. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Location: Vienna, Austria Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Helga Schmid (Administrative head) Website: visit | Twitter: @OSCE

Description: “The OSCE works for stability, peace and democracy for more than a billion people, through political dialogue about shared values and through practical work that contributes to sustainable progress. The OSCE’s comprehensive concept of security covers the politico-military; the economic and environment; and the human dimensions.(…)The OSCE promotes a co-operative and co-ordinated approach to countering terrorism at all levels, including co-ordination among national authorities, co-operation among states, co- operation with relevant international and regional organizations and, where appropriate, establishment of public-private partnerships between state authorities, the private sector (business community, industry), civil society and the media”.

3.21. Southeast Asia Regional Center for Counter-Terrorism (SEARCCT) Location: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Affiliated organization: Ministry of Foreign Affairs Malaysia Current Director: Chuah Teong Ban Website: visit | Twitter: @searcct2003 Description: “SEARCCT has the vision of working towards a robust community in countering terrorism and violent extremism. The Center aims to achieve its vision based on the following Mission Statement: Enhance regional competence in countering terrorism through quality and comprehensive capacity-building programs; Conduct and publish in significant areas of terrorism and counter-terrorism; Implement effective soft approach initiatives in countering extremism via strategic communications; Promote public awareness and disseminate information on the threats of terrorism and measures taken to counter them; and Establish and strengthen strategic partnerships at the local and international level.”

3.22. United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee (UNCTC) Location: New York (NY), United States Affiliated organization: United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED)

ISSN 2334-3745 142 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Current Director: Michèle Coninsx Website: visit | Twitter: @UN_CTED Description: “The Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) was established by Security Council resolution 1373 (2001), which was adopted unanimously on 28 September 2001 in the wake of the 11 September terrorist attacks in the United States. The Committee, comprising all 15 Security Council members, was tasked with monitoring implementation of resolution 1373 (2001), which requested countries to implement a number of measures intended to enhance their legal and institutional ability to counter terrorist activities at home, in their regions and around the world, including taking steps to: (1) Criminalize the financing of terrorism, (2) Freeze without delay any funds related to persons involved in acts of terrorism; (3) Deny all forms of financial support for terrorist groups, (4) Suppress the provision of safe haven, sustenance or support for terrorists, (5) Share information with other governments on any groups practicing or planning terrorist acts, (6) Cooperate with other governments in the investigation, detection, arrest, extradition and prosecution of those involved in such acts; and (7) Criminalize active and passive assistance for terrorism in domestic law and bring violators to justice.”

3.23. United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism (UNOCT) Location: New York, New York (USA) Affiliated Organizations: United Nations Current Director: Under-Secretary General Vladimir I. Voronkov Website: visit | Twitter: @UN_OCT Description: “The Office of Counter-Terrorism has five main functions: (1) Provide leadership on the General Assembly counter-terrorism mandates entrusted to the Secretary general from across the United Nations system, (2) Enhance coordination and coherence across the Global Counter-Terrorism Coordination Compact entities to ensure the balanced implementation of the four pillars of the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, (3) Strengthen the delivery of the United Nations counter-terrorism capacity-building assistance to Member States, (4) Improve visibility, advocacy and resource mobilization for the United Nations counter-terrorism efforts; and (5) Ensure that due priority is given to counterterrorism across the United Nations system and that the important work on preventing violent extremism is firmly rooted in the Strategy.”

3.24. Terrorism Prevention Branch, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (TPB/UNODC) Location: Vienna, Austria Affiliated organization: United Nations Current Director: Masood Karimipour Website: visit | Twitter: @UNODC Description: “The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime has been helping make the world safer from drugs, organized crime, corruption and terrorism. We are committed to achieving health, security and justice for all by tackling these threats and promoting peace and sustainable well-being as deterrents to them.” UNODC’s Terrorism Prevention Branch was established in 1999, “TPB has been the key United Nations entity providing legal counter-terrorism technical assistance to Member States. As mandated by the United Nations General Assembly, TPB works to assist Member States, upon request, with the ratification, legislative incorporation and implementation of the universal legal framework against terrorism”.

ISSN 2334-3745 143 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

4. Research Networks

4.1. Global Research Network Location: Canterbury, United Kingdom Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Yoriko Otomo Website: visit | Twitter: @GlobalResearchN Description: “The Global Research Network (GRN) formed in early 2019, and launched in October, responding to a need for genuine support for emerging scholars around the world. Recognising that academia has transitioned into a new era vastly different to that of the last century, we have created a space that is generous, collegial, and truly diverse.”

4.2. Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism Location: Unspecified Affiliated organizations:Tech Against Terrorism, International Center for the Study of Radicalization (ICSR), Global Network on Extremism and Technology (GNET), Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), Brookings Institution, International Center for Counter-Terrorism (ICCT), Swansea University, Observer Research Foundation, International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT), Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict, Policy Center for the New South Current Director: Nicholas Rasmussen Website: visit | Twitter: @GIFCT_official Description: “The Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism (GIFCT) was formally established in July 2017 as a group of companies, dedicated to disrupting terrorist abuse of members’ digital platforms. The original Forum was led by a rotating chair drawn from the founding four companies—Facebook, Microsoft, Twitter and YouTube—and managed a program of knowledge-sharing, technical collaboration and shared research.”

4.3. Intelligence and National Security Alliance Location: Arlington (VA), United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Suzanne Wilson Heckenberg Website: visit | Twitter: @INSAlliance Description: “INSA provides a nonpartisan forum for collaboration between the public, private, and academic sectors of the intelligence and national security communities that bring together committed experts in and out of government to identify, develop, and promote practical and creative solutions to national security problems.”

4.4. International Counter-Terrorism Youth Network (ICTYN) Location: Unspecified Affiliated organizations:NextGen 5.0 Current Director: Nicolo Scremin

ISSN 2334-3745 144 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Website: visit | Twitter: @ICTYN Description: “The International Counter-Terrorism Youth Network [is] a global network specifically tailored to meet the needs of both employers and young researchers by providing the former with the opportunity to be connected to fresh talented candidates who match their job specifications, and the latter with the chance to connect with their peers, collaborate, and discover career opportunities.”

4.5. Radar Solutions Location: Melbourne, Australia Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Shandon Harris-Hogan Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description: “A consultancy specialising in understanding how people join violent extremist groups, and why individuals commit acts of political violence. They work with government officials and frontline service providers to counter the effects of violent extremism, and to assist individuals in disengaging from violent extremist networks. Their work covers three main areas: (1) research, (2) training, and (3) evaluation.”

4.6. Radicalization Awareness Network (RAN) Location: Brussels, Belgium Affiliated organization: European Union, European Commission Current Director: Monique Pariat Website: visit | Twitter: @RANEurope Description: “The Radicalization Awareness Network is a network of frontline practitioners who work daily with both those vulnerable to radicalization and those who have already been radicalised. As civil society representatives, social workers, youth workers, teachers, healthcare professionals, local authority representatives, police officers and prison officers, they are engaged in both preventing and countering violent extremism in all its forms and rehabilitation and reintegrating violent extremists.” Sponsored by the European Commission, the RAN network includes more than 3,000 practitioners, professionals and researchers from EU countries.

4.7. RESOLVE Network Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:United States Institute of Peace (USIP) Current Director: Alastair Reed Website: visit | Twitter: @resolvenet Description: “The RESOLVE Network is a global consortium of researchers, research organizations, policymakers and practitioners committed to empirically-driven, locally-defined research on the drivers of violent extremism and sources of community resilience. International stakeholders established RESOLVE to generate, facilitate, aggregate, and synthesize methodologically sound, locally informed research on the dynamics of violent extremism. RESOLVE is a resource hub for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in need of nuanced, multidisciplinary, empirical approaches to analyze the drivers of violent extremism and sources of community resilience. RESOLVE’s work provides key insights on violent extremism by establishing connections and asking critical questions to enhance and inform P/CVE research, policy, and practice.”

ISSN 2334-3745 145 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

4.8. Society for Terrorism Research Location: Newton (MA), United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Rachel Monaghan Website: visit | Twitter: @SocTerRes Description: “The Society for Terrorism Research is an international, multi-disciplinary organization of theoretical and empirical researchers whose mission is to enhance knowledge and understanding of terrorism and political violence”. It organises annual conferences.

4.9. Terrorism Research Initiative Location: Vienna, Austria Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Directors: Alex P. Schmid, Edwin Bakker, and Robert Wesley (President) Website: visit | Twitter: n/a Description:.“Founded in 2007, TRI’s mission is to enhance security through collaborative research. It does so by facilitating cooperative efforts among scholars and institutes from a broad range of disciplines and backgrounds. The Initiative brings together individual and institutional research efforts, enabling knowledge accumulation in order to suggest policy-relevant courses of action on security issues related to terrorism. TRI is best known for its online journal Perspectives on Terrorism.”

4.10. Vox Pol Location: Dublin, Ireland Affiliated organizations:European Union Current Director: Maura Conway Website: visit | Twitter: @Vox_pol Description: “The VOX-Pol Network of Excellence (NoE) is a European Union Framework Program 7 (FP7)- funded academic research network focused on researching the prevalence, contours, functions, and impacts of Violent Online Political Extremism and responses to it.”

5. Commercial Entities

5.1. Control Risks Location: London, UK (Head office) For a list of foreign offices, seehttps://www.controlrisks.com/contact-us/ office-search?q=&sort=1 Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Irene Dorner (chair of the Board of Directors) Website: visit | Twitter: @Control_Risks

ISSN 2334-3745 146 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Description: “A specialist risk consultancy that includes forensic and anti-kidnapping expertise.”

5.2. IntelCenter Database Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Ben Venzke (CEO) Website: visit | Twitter: @IntelCenter1 Description: “Private company providing counterterrorism intelligence support products and services.”

5.3. Jane’s Terrorism and Insurgency Center Location: London, UK Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: James Green Website: visit | Twitter: @JanesINTEL Description: “Janes delivers validated open-source defence intelligence that is aligned with workflows across the defence industry, national security and government. Focused across four core capability areas, threat intelligence, equipment intelligence, defence industry intelligence and country intelligence the processes, sources and expert judgement that make up Janes tradecraft enables them to offer the highest levels of assurance.”

5.4. SITE Intelligence Group Location: Bethesda (MD), United States Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Rita Katz Website: visit | Twitter: @siteintelgroup Description: “Counterterrorism threat intelligence group specializing in tracking and analyzing global extremism.”

5.5. Terrorism Research & Analysis Consortium Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organizations:Beacham Group Current Director: Veryan Khan Website: visit | Twitter: @TRACterrorism Description: “For a list of topics that TRAC is collecting information on, see https://www.trackingterrorism. org/about.”

5.6. Valens Global Location: Washington, D.C., United States

ISSN 2334-3745 147 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Affiliated organizations:n/a Current Director: Daveed Gartenstein-Ross Website: visit | Twitter: @Valens_Global Description: “Valens was founded on the belief that the private sector was vital to advancing the national security interests of America and its allies, and to saving lives by protecting the public from terrorist attacks and other threats of sub-state violence. Also central to Valens Global’s founding mission was the belief that the national-security field needed to improve.”

6. Other

6.1. Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Clionadh Raleigh Website: visit | Twitter: @ACLEDINFO Description: “The Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) is a disaggregated data collection, analysis, and crisis mapping project. ACLED collects the dates, actors, locations, fatalities, and types of all reported political violence and protest events across Africa, East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Central Asia and the Caucasus, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Southeastern and Eastern Europe and the Balkans. The ACLED team conducts analysis to describe, explore, and test conflict scenarios, and makes both data and analysis open for free use by the public.”

6.2. Bellingcat Location: Leicester, United Kingdom Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Eliot Higgins Website: visit | Twitter: @Bellingcat Description: “International collective of researchers & open source investigators to advance justice and transparency.”

6.3. European Forum for Urban Security (EFUS) Location: Paris, France Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Elizabeth Johnston Website: visit | Twitter: @Efusnews Description: “It is the only European network of local and regional authorities dedicated to urban security. It aims to: (1) Promote a balanced vision of urban security, combining prevention, sanctions and social cohesion, (2) Support local and regional authorities in the conception, implementation and evaluation of their

ISSN 2334-3745 148 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 local security policy, and (3) Help local elected officials get recognition for their role in the development and implementation of national and European policies.”

6.4. Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund (GCERF) Location: Geneva, Switzerland Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Khalid Koser Website: visit | Twitter: @theGCERF Description: “The Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund (GCERF) is the global fund dedicated to preventing violent extremism. We connect local communities to global resources, supporting grassroots initiatives that are typically out of reach for international donors and helping them thrive.”

6.5. Human Rights Watch (HRW) Location: New York (NY), United States Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Stacy Sullivan Website: visit | Twitter: @hrw Description: “Human Rights Watch investigates and reports on abuses happening in all corners of the world. We are roughly 450 people of 70-plus nationalities who are country experts, lawyers, journalists, and others who work to protect the most at risk, from vulnerable minorities and civilians in wartime, to refugees and children in need. We direct our advocacy towards governments, armed groups and businesses, pushing them to change or enforce their laws, policies and practices. To ensure our independence, we refuse government funding and carefully review all donations to ensure that they are consistent with our policies, mission, and values. We partner with organizations large and small across the globe to protect embattled activists and to help hold abusers to account and bring justice to victims.”

6.6. Jihadology Location: Washington, D.C., United States Affiliated organization: n/a Current Director: Aaron Zelin Website: visit | Twitter: @Jihadology_Net Description: “A clearinghouse for jihadi primary source material, original analysis, and translation service.”

6.7. Radicalization Research Location: Lancaster, United Kingdom Affiliated organization: Center for Research and Evidence on Security Threats (CREST) Current Director: Linda Woodhead Website: visit | Twitter: @radicalization

ISSN 2334-3745 149 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Description: “Our aim is to provide policymakers, journalists, and anyone whose work utilises concepts such as radicalization, fundamentalism or extremism, with easy access to high-quality academic research on these controversial issues. By taking a non-partisan approach and providing access to the best, including the latest, research we hope to challenge ungrounded assumptions that may obscure a clear understanding of violent extremism, especially where that is associated with ‘Islamicism’.”

6.8. Tech Against Terrorism Location: London, United Kingdom Affiliated organization: UN CTED and UN SC CTC Current Director: Adam Hadley Website: visit | Twitter: @techvsterrorism Description: “Tech Against Terrorism is an initiative launched and supported by the United Nations Counter Terrorism Executive Directorate (UN CTED) working with the global tech industry to tackle terrorist use of the internet whilst respecting human rights. Our plan of action revolves around three pillars: outreach, knowledge- sharing, and practical support. As part of our outreach, we promote constructive working relationships between the tech and government sectors, and organise global workshops and e-learning sessions to conduct in-person training with tech companies.”

6.9. Victim Support Europe Location: Brussels, Belgium Affiliated organization: Justice Program of the European Union Current Director: Levent Altan Website: visit | Twitter: @VictimSupportEU Description: “VSE works regularly with European and International Institutions to influence EU and international laws and policies on victims’ rights. We have formal consultative status with the UN’s ECOSOC Committee and work closely with the European Commission, the European Parliament and various EU Agencies such as the Fundamental Rights Agency. We inform organizations about future policy needs, gaps in rights and implementation etc. through consultation replies, bilateral meetings, attendance of expert groups and conferences. VSE is regularly invited to speak at conferences and seminars to share our expertise on victims’ rights and victim support.”

Acknowledgement Special thanks to Alex Schmid, James Forest, and John Morrison for their contributions and suggestions to this inventory.

About the Compilers Reinier Bergema is an analyst for the Dutch National Police, and formerly worked as a Research Fellow and Project Manager at the International Center for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague (ICCT). Olivia Kearney is the Community Building Officer for Project CRAAFT led by RUSI Europe and also sits on the Editorial Board for the ICTR Journal. She is also an Associate Editor for Conference Monitoring of Perspectives on Terrorism, and previously worked as an intern/project assistant for the International Centre for Counter- Terrorism – The Hague (ICCT) following her Masters degree in Crime and Criminal Justice at Leiden University.

ISSN 2334-3745 150 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Counterterrorism Bookshelf: Eight Books on Terrorism & Counter- Terrorism-Related Subjects Reviewed by Joshua Sinai So many books are published on terrorism- and counterterrorism-related subjects that it is difficult to catch up on a large backlog of monographs and edited volumes received for review. In order to deal with this backlog, this column consists of capsule reviews, including Tables of Contents of eight recently published books. The main focus of five of the eight books reviewed below is on military literature that is also relevant for counter-terrorist operations.

General

John Withington, Assassins’ Deeds: A History of Assassination from Ancient Egypt to the Present Day (London, England, UK: Reaktion Books, 2020), 368 pp., US $ 25.00 [Hardcover], ISBN: 978-1-7891-4351-5.

This is a fascinating and important account of significant politically-motivated assassinations throughout history, whether by regimes or against political leaders. In the modern era, the author observes, motivations for assassinations include religious and political fanaticism, political revolution and national liberation. Some of the significant assassinations by terrorist groups include those by the Sicarii, the Jewish zealots who resisted the Roman rule over Judea around 54 CE, the Provisional IRA, who assassinated several British leaders, such as Earl Mountbatten in August 1979, and the Stern Gang, the Jewish terrorist group in Palestine, who assassinated Swedish Count Folke Bernadotte, who had served as a United Nations mediator, in September 1948. Significant assassinations by governments of terrorist leaders include the assassination by a U.S. Seal team of Usama bin Laden in his hideout in Abbottabad, Pakistan, on May 2, 2011, as well as numerous targeted assassinations of Palestinian terrorist leaders by Israeli Special Forces. Regarding the question of whether assassinations work, the author concludes that terrorists have switched “from hard, well-protected targets, such as prominent politicians, to soft targets” which are easier to attack (p. 281). This is an interesting explanation for the decline in assassinations of well-protected political leaders by terrorists, although the author should have added that targeted killings by governments of top terrorist leaders have not abated over the years. The last chapter presents an interesting and under-researched account of unsuccessful assassination attempts of leaders such as Adolph Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Lenin, Napoleon, as well as several British and American leaders, all of whom survived such attempts on their lives. The author is a British-based television journalist and writer on historical subjects.

Table of Contents: Prologue; The Ancient World; The Roman Empire and the Dark Ages; The Age of Chivalry; The Wars of Religion; The Age of Revolution; The Modern Age: World Wars and Terrorism; The Ones That Got Away.

Global Jihad

Michael Freeman, with Katherine Ellena &Amina Kator-Mubarez, The Global Spread of Islamism and the Consequences of Terrorism (Lincoln, NE: Potomac Books/University of Nebraska Press, 2021), 264 pp., US $ 50.00 [Hardcover], ISBN: 978-1-6401-2370-0.

This is a well analyzed account of the spread of Islamist religious ideology around the world since the late 1970s, with the authors utilizing David Rapoport’s religious fourth historical wave of modern terrorism to provide a historical timeframe for their discussion. Drawing on their thesis that understanding the “supply side of ideologies is particularly useful in answering the ‘why now’ question of the recent rise of Islamic extremist violence” (p. 6), four countries are selected to examine how it applies: Indonesia, Pakistan, Great Britain, and the United States. For countermeasures, the authors developed a useful y and x axis graph, with the vertical y axis indicating the degree of ease and difficulty in countering violent extremism along five areas (violent outputs,

ISSN 2334-3745 151 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 non-violent outputs, organizations, funds/sponsors/ and incentives), and the horizontal x axis indicating the degree of effectiveness of such measures. The authors conclude that targeting the supply-side’s incentives to counter the spread of Islamist extremist is the most difficult – but also the most effective countermeasure. Michael Freeman is a professor in the Department of Defense Analysis at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, CA. Katherine Ellena is the senior global legal advisor for the International Foundation for Electoral Systems, and Amina Kator-Mubarez is a faculty associate at the Naval Postgraduate School for the Global ECCO Project.

Table of Contents: List of Figures; The Supply of an Ideology; Exporting Islamism; Islamism in Indonesia; Islamism in Pakistan; Islamism in Britain; Islamism in the United States; Countering an Ideology.

Douglas Weeks, Al Muhajiroun, A Case Study in Contemporary Islamic Activism (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2020), 393 pp., US $ 99.99 [Hardcover], ISBN: 978-3-0303-5839-6.

This is a highly interesting and important study about the origins, evolution and current state of the British- based al Muhajiroun/Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah (ALM/ASWJ) militant movement. Especially noteworthy is the author’s several years-long ethnographic field research in which he extensively interacted with the group and its leaders, which began during the field research work conducted for his doctoral dissertation at the University of St. Andrews. In his ethnographic study, the author focuses on the movement’s “day-to-day leadership and how the group functioned as an organization (or not), including the internal challenges that the movement faced, interaction with government, and the threat they actually pose” (p. 308).The author’s discussion begins with his definition of radicalization, which he characterizes, especially as it applies to al Muhajiroun, as a process involving three fundamental needs: “the response to perceived injustice, the need for social ties, and the need for meaning/identity” (p. 13). What makes al Muhaijiroun a threat to Britain, the author explains, is that as a “radical religiously based social movement” its radical message, while non-violent, makes its adherents “vulnerable to violent messaging from sources outside the group” (p. 288). This has led to many of its members (but few of its leaders, according to the author) to leave Britain for Syria, where they joined jihadi groups such as the Islamic State. The author concludes with eight policy recommendations for the British government to effectively mitigate the threats posed by this militant movement, including understanding that it is a “social and political agency”, that “social protest is a safety valve”, that “the government’s pursuit of security through repression” needs to be moderated, and that a repatriation scheme needs to be established to manage the return of British citizens who had joined the jihadi fighters in Syria (pp. 313-314). The author, a former official in emergency services and counter-terrorism in Southern California, is a Lecturer at California State University, Long Beach.

Table of Contents: Researching the Activists: Understanding Methods, Data, and Approaches; The Vanguards of Radicalism in the UK; Al Muhajiroun: The Early Days (1996-2004); The Ideology of Al Muhajiroun; The Post Al Muhajiroun Years (2005- 2014): Proscription and other Means of Deterrence; The Impacts of the Islamic State and Strategies of Control; Comparing Ideologies: Al Muhajiroun, Al Qaeda, and Islamic State; Understanding and Managing the Threat; Conclusion: Summing up the Activists; Appendix 1: ALM/ASWJ and Related Interviews; Appendix 2: Protests, Dawah Stalls, and Halaqah Sessions; Appendix 3: Radical Preachers; Appendix 4: Arabic Terms Glossary.

Counterterrorism within Military Warfare

Peter Darman, SAS: From World War II to the Gulf War [Republished Edition] (London: Amber Books, 2019), 192 pp., US $ 29.95 [Paperback], ISBN: 978-1-7827-4751-2.

This is a fascinating and detailed reference volume on the Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment, the elite British special forces military units. As explained in the entry on the SAS, which was formed in 1941, it has several wartime roles of a strategic nature. These include operating in small, self-contained groups behind enemy

ISSN 2334-3745 152 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 lines, conducting sabotage and intelligence-gathering operations, prosecuting counter-insurgency warfare, and conducting counter-terrorist operations, including in hostage-rescue. The volume’s more than 600 alphabetically arranged entries list the Regiment’s battles and campaigns, weapons, equipment, techniques, as well as the biographies of leading commanders. The author is a veteran British writer on military history.

Table of Contents: Alphabetic A – Z entries.

Kelly Devries, Iain Dickie, Martin J. Dougherty, Phyllis G. Jestice, Christer Jorgensen, and Michel F. Pavkovic, Battles of the Crusades, 1097-1444: From Dorylaeum to Varna [Republished Edition] (London: Amber Books, 2019), 224 pp., US $ 29.95 [Paperback], ISBN: 978-1-2827-4704-8.

It is important for analysts on terrorism to understand the history of the Crusades because although Muslim forces ultimately expelled the European Christian armies who invaded the eastern Mediterranean in the 12th and 13th centuries, thereby thwarting them from regaining control of sacred Holy Land sites such as Jerusalem, to this day the Crusades form a central component in Jihadi literature on the dangers posed by foreign military invaders to Muslim lands. For this and other reasons, this authoritative and beautifully illustrated reference volume on the Crusaders’ main battles is indispensable for understanding the nature of the confrontation. Each entry consists of an introduction, a description and an analysis of the battle and its aftermath. These are accompanied by color maps of the battles and contending forces. The volume’s authors are prominent academic experts on military history.

Table of Contents: Introduction; Dorylaeum, 1097; Antioch, 1098; Jerusalem, 1099; Ascalon, 1099; Harran, 1104; Sarmada, 1119; Lisbon, 1147; Montgisard, 1177; Hattin, 1187; Acre, 1191; Constantinople, 1203; Adrianople, 1205; Beziers, 1209; Las Navas, 1212; Lake Peipus, 1242; La Forble, 1244; Mansura, 1250; Nicopolis, 1396; Gunwald, 1410; Varna, 1444.

Chris McNab, World’s Worst Military Disasters: Battlefield Calamities from the Ancient World to the Present Day [Republished Edition] (London: Amber Books, 2020), 320 pp., US $ 14.95 [Paperback], ISBN: 978-1- 2827-4981-3.

Terrorism is sometimes also a component of military warfare, involving a failure to anticipate unexpected surprise attack by an asymmetric actor against a more powerful adversary. In a second component, it involves badly executed counter-terrorism campaigns, which result in failure to defeat a terrorist (or guerrilla) adversary. Understanding the nature of military surprise and failure in battle is important for effective counter-terrorism campaign planners so that they can take preemptive measures to reduce the element of military surprise and ensure that their response operations are effectively executed. These and other issues involved in military disasters are authoritatively discussed in this illustrated pocket reference handbook’s capsule entries. Following the author’s insightful introduction, some 70 battlefield disasters are covered from ancient times to the fall of Mosul in Iraq in 2014. Some of these military disasters involved terrorist actors, such as in Operation Irene, on October 3, 1993, with the downing of the two Blackhawk helicopters carrying U.S. Special Forces who were on a mission to capture key militia leaders associated with warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid in Mogadishu, Somalia. Each entry, which is accompanied by an illustration, provides an explanation of the events leading up to the military disaster, including the reasons for the failure. The entries also include side boxes with key facts about the events. The author is a veteran British writer on military history.

Table of Contents: Introduction; Ancient Battles 2000 BC – 300 BC; Roman Victories, Roman Defeats 300 BC – AD 450; The Dark Ages 450 – 1100; Medieval Melees 1100 – 1500; Early Modern Disasters 1500 – 1763; Imperial Disasters 1760 – 1900; Modern Catastrophes 1900 – Present Day.

Chris McNab and Martin J. Dougherty, Combat Techniques: The Skills, Weaponry, and Tactics of the Modern Combat Soldier [Republished Edition] (London: Amber Books, 2020), 192 pp., US $ 29.95 [Paperback], ISBN:

ISSN 2334-3745 153 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

978-1-8388-6015-8. This is a practitioner-oriented comprehensive analysis on many aspects of warfare, ranging from infantry tactics against conventional forces to counter-insurgency tactics against guerrilla and terrorist forces in asymmetric warfare. Of special interest are the volume’s detailed discussions of how Special Forces units operate clandestinely in all environments to carry out their missions against their guerrilla and terrorist adversaries. To defeat insurgents, the author outlines six factors that need to be achieved in combination: removal of popular support, removal of necessary outside support, creating the perception that the insurrection cannot succeed, death or capture of insurgent leaders and personnel, lack of feasible targets or means to carry out operations, and an offer of an acceptable settlement involving little or no ‘loss of face’ (p. 171). This indispensable account of combat techniques for military and academic analysts is illustrated by numerous photographs, diagrams of military tactics, and side boxes with information supplementing the overall text. The authors are United Kingdom-based veteran writers on military and defense topics.

Table of Contents: Introduction; Infantry Firepower; Infantry Tactics; Heavy Support; Tactical Terrain; Special Forces; Counter- Insurgency Warfare.

Malcolm Swanston and Alexander Swanston, History of Air Warfare: From World War I to the Present Day [Republished Edition] (London: Amber Books, 2019), 224 pp., US $ 29.95 [Paperback], ISBN: 978-1-7827- 4709-3.

As explained by the authors of this fascinating, detailed and authoritative volume, “Air power remains at the forefront of modern warfare. In Afghanistan, attack aircraft and bombers are still called upon by ground forces for support, as in World War II. Ground offensives are supplemented and informed by improved reconnaissance, much as they were during World War I. This time the machines are likely to be unmanned, and are armed with ever-improving, sophisticated weaponry” (p. 9). To explain how fighter aircraft have evolved from World War I to become a dominant instrument in military warfare, the volume’s chapters cover technological innovations and significant battles in which the continuously improved fighter aircrafts have been employed. Fighter aircraft, helicopters, such as the AH-64 Apaches (which the authors term “flying tanks”), and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are employed extensively in countering terrorist and guerrilla forces, with the volume’s last chapter devoted to how drones and manned aircrafts are deployed in Afghanistan. The volume is richly illustrated with some 150 photographs of various types of aircraft and 120 colorful computer-generated battle maps and graphics that visualize aerial combat maneuvers, squadron locations, bombing targets and other military tactics. The father-and-son authors are veteran writers and mappers on military warfare history.

Table of Contents: Introduction; Early Aviation; Early Air Forces: 1914-18; Airships: 1914-18; Fighters: 1914-18; Bombers: 1916-18; America Mobilizes: 1917; Final Battles: 1918; The Inter-War Years; Empire of the Air; Seaborne Aviation; Birth of the Luftwaffe; Spanish Civil War: 1936-39; Japanese War in China: 1937-41; Clippers: Long Range Transport: 1934-39; Anglo- French Rearmament; The World’s Air Forces: 1939; Introduction to Blitzkrieg: Poland 1939; Scandinavia: Finland 1939-40; Scandinavia: Denmark and Norway 1940; Invasion of the West: 1940; The Battle of Britain: June-October 1940; Bombing: Britain and Germany 1940-41; Maritime Air Patrol: 1940-41; The Mediterranean: 1940-42; The Balkans: The Fall of Crete; Barbarossa and the Bombing of Moscow; Pearl Harbor: December 1941; Fall of Southeast Asia: 1942; The Battle of the Coral Sea: 1942; The Battle of Midway: 1942; The Caucasus and Southern Russia: 1942; Stalingrad: 1942-43; Aviation Industries at War; Guadalcanal: 1943; Operation Cartwheel; Bombing Germany: 1942-44; Target Berlin: 1944; North Africa and the Mediterranean; Sicily and Southern Italy; Eastern Front: 1943 Soviet Initiative; Kursk: 1943; Ukraine and the Crimea; Carriers in the Pacific; ‘The Marianas Turkey Shoot’; The Island-Hopping Campaign; Closing the Gap: Patrolling the Atlantic; D-Day: The Assault; D-Day: The aftermath; Market Garden and Varsity: 1944-45; Southeast Asia: 1944-45; China: 1941-45; Bagration and the Liberation of West USSR; Special Operations: Partisan Support; The End of the Reich; B-29: Development and Deployment; Nuclear War; The Post-War World; Berlin Airlift; Korea: 1950-53; World Realignment; The Cuban Missile Crisis; Indochina and Vietnam; Arab-Israeli Wars; The Falklands War; Crisis in the Gulf; Afghanistan.

About the Reviewer: Dr. Joshua Sinai is the Book Reviews Editor of ‘Perspectives on Terrorism’. He can be reached at: [email protected].

ISSN 2334-3745 154 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Bibliography: Terrorism by Region – Southeast Asia

Compiled and selected by Judith Tinnes

[Bibliographic Series of Perspectives on Terrorism – BSPT-JT-2021-1] Abstract This bibliography contains journal articles, book chapters, books, edited volumes, theses, grey literature, bibli- ographies and other resources on terrorism affecting Southeast Asia. It covers both terrorist activity within the region’s territory (regardless of the perpetrators’ nationality) and terrorist acts by nationals from this region abroad. The bibliography focuses on recent publications (up to January 2021) and should not be considered as exhaustive. The literature has been retrieved by manually browsing more than 200 core and periphery sources in the field of Terrorism Studies. In addition, full-text and reference retrieval systems have been employed to broad- en the search. Keywords: bibliography, resources, literature, terrorism, Southeast Asia, Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Thailand, Abu Sayyaf, Jemaah Islamiyah, Al-Qaeda, Islamic State

NB: All websites were last visited on 20.01.2021. - See also Note for the Reader at the end of this literature list.

Bibliographies and other Resources Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2013-): URL:http://www.understandingconflict.org ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute (1968-): URL: https://www.iseas.edu.sg Middle East Institute (MEI) (2015-): Jihadi Recruitment and Return: Asian Threat and Response. (Essay Se- ries). URL: https://www.mei.edu/publications/jihadi-recruitment-and-return-asian-threat-and-response Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism (SEARCTT) (2003, July-). URL: https://www.searcct. gov.my S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS) (2007, January-): URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg

Books and Edited Volumes Abuza, Zachary (2003): Militant Islam in Southeast Asia: Crucible of Terror. Boulder: Lynne Rienner. Abuza, Zachary (2009): A Conspiracy of Silence: The Insurgency in Southern Thailand. (Perspectives Series). Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press. Acharya, Arabinda (2015): Whither Southeast Asia Terrorism? (Imperial College Press Insurgency & Terror- ism Series, Vol. 6). London: Imperial College Press. Al Qurtuby, Sumanto (2016): Religious Violence and Conciliation in Indonesia: Christians and Muslims in the Moluccas. (Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series). Abingdon: Routledge. Aslam, Mohd Mizan; Gunaratna, Rohan (Eds.) (2020): Terrorist Rehabilitation and Community Engagement in Malaysia and Southeast Asia. (Routledge Studies in the Politics of Disorder and Instability). Abingdon: Routledge. Aziz, Syamsuddin (2010): Dominant Discourse on News-Making Decisions on Terrorism: The Case of Indone- sian Newspapers. Saarbrücken: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing.

ISSN 2334-3745 155 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Banlaoi, Rommel C. (Ed.) (2020): The Marawi Siege and its Aftermath: The Continuing Terrorist Threat. New- castle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Bhattacharyya, Rajeev (2014): Rendezvous with Rebels: Journey to Meet India’s Most Wanted Men. New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers India. Bigot, Camille (2018): Guardians and Targets: A Routine Activity Approach to Terrorism in Southeast Asia. Saarbrücken: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Bodine-Baron, Elizabeth et al. (2020): Countering Violent Extremism in Indonesia: Using an Online Panel Sur- vey to Assess a Social Media Counter-Messaging Campaign. [e-Book]. (RAND Research Reports, RR-A233-1). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7249/RRA233-1 Bräuchler, Birgit (2013): Cyberidentities at War: The Moluccan Conflict on the Internet. (Jeremy Gaines, Trans.). New York: Berghahn Books. Brookes, Gwen; Pooley, Julie Ann; Earnest, Jaya (2015): Terrorism, Trauma and Psychology: A Multilevel Vic- tim Perspective of the Bali Bombings. (Explorations in Social Psychology). Abingdon: Routledge. Burhani, Ahmad Najib (2019): Islam Nusantara as a Promising Response to Religious Intolerance and Radical- ism. Singapore: ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. Camilleri, Joseph A.; Schottmann, Sven (Ed.) (2013): Culture, Religion and Conflict in Muslim Southeast Asia: Negotiating Tense Pluralisms. (Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series, Vol. 56). Abingdon: Routledge. Carnegie, Paul J.; King, Victor T.; Ibrahim, Zawawi (Eds.) (2016): Human Insecurities in Southeast Asia. Sin- gapore: Springer Singapore. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2245-6 Chalk, Peter et al. (2009): The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast Asia: A Net Assessment. [e-Book]. (RAND Monographs, MG-846-OSD). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation. URL: https://www.rand.org/pubs/mono- graphs/MG846.html Clad, James; McDonald, Sean M.; Vaughn, Bruce (Eds.) (2011): The Borderlands of Southeast Asia: Geo- politics, Terrorism, and Globalization. [e-Book]. Washington, DC: Strategic Research Institute for National Strategic Studies / National Defense University Press. URL: https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/ Books/borderlands-southeast-asia.pdf Cole, Benjamin (Ed.) (2006): Conflict, Terrorism and the Media in Asia. (Routledge Media, Culture and Social Change in Asia). Abingdon: Routledge. Conboy, Kenneth J. (2006): The Second Front: Inside Asia’s Most Dangerous Terrorist Network. Jakarta: Equi- nox. Cox, Dan G.; Falconer, John; Stackhouse, Brian (2009): Terrorism, Instability, and Democracy in Asia and Africa. Hanover: University Press of New England. D’Souza, Shanthie Mariet (Ed.) (2019): Countering Insurgencies and Violent Extremism in South and South East Asia. (Cass Military Studies). Abingdon: Routledge. East, Bob (2018): 21st Century Philippines Piracy: The Abu Sayyaf Adds a New Dimension to Terror. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Freedman, Amy L. (Ed.) (2014): The Internationalization of Internal Conflicts: Threatening the State. Abing- don: Routledge. Ganguly, Sumit; Scobell, Andrew; Liow, Joseph Chinyong (Eds.) (2018): The Routledge Handbook of Asian Security Studies. (2nd ed.). (Routledge Handbooks). Abingdon: Routledge. Goswami, Namrata; with Robert A. Norton; Greg S. Weaver (2018, September): ISIS 2.0: South and Southeast

ISSN 2334-3745 156 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Asia Opportunities and Vulnerabilities. [e-Book]. (JSOU Report 18-6). MacDill Air Force Base: JSOU Press. URL: https://jsou.libguides.com/ld.php?content_id=44668615 Graf, Arndt; Kreuzer, Peter; Werning, Rainer (Eds.) (2009): Conflict in Moro Land: Prospects for Peace? Pulau Pinang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia. Guan, Kwa Chong; Skogan, John K. (Eds.) (2007): Maritime Security in Southeast Asia. (Routledge Security in Asia Series). Abingdon: Routledge. Gunaratna, Rohan; Acharya, Arabinda (2013): The Terrorist Threat from Thailand: Jihad or Quest for Justice? Dulles: Potomac Books. Gunaratna, Rohan; Acharya, Arabinda; Chua, Sabrina (2005): Conflict and Terrorism in Southern Thailand. (Regionalism & Regional Security). Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic. Gunaratna, Rohan; Bin Ali, Mohamed (Eds.) (2015): Terrorist Rehabilitation: A New Frontier in Counter-Ter- rorism. (ICP Insurgency & Terrorism Series, Vol. 7). London: Imperial College Press. Gunaratna, Rohan; Hussin, Sabariah (Eds.) (2020): Terrorist Deradicalisation in Global Contexts: Success, Fail- ure and Continuity. (Routledge Studies in the Politics of Disorder and Instability). Abingdon: Routledge. Gunaratna, Rohan; Kam, Stefanie (Eds.) (2016): Handbook of Terrorism in the Asia–Pacific. (Insurgency and Terrorism Series, Vol. 10). London: World Scientific. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1142/p1093 Haripin, Muhamad (2020): Civil-Military Relations in Indonesia: The Politics of Military Operations Other Than War. (Routledge Security in Asia, Vol. 15). Abingdon: Routledge. Hasan, Noorhaidi (2006): Laskar Jihad: Islam, Militancy, and the Quest for Identity in Post-New Order Indone- sia. (Studies on Southeast Asia). Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Hastings, Justin V. (2010): No Man’s Land: Globalization, Territory, and Clandestine Groups in Southeast Asia. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Hearman, Vannessa (2018): Unmarked Graves: Death and Survival in the Anti-Communist Violence in East Java, Indonesia. (ASAA Southeast Asia Publications Series). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Heiduk, Felix (Ed.) (2018, June): Das kommende Kalifat? “Islamischer Staat” in Asien: Erscheinungsformen, Re- aktionen und Sicherheitsrisiken. [e-Book]. (SWP-Studie 9). Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP). URL: https://www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/das-kommende-kalifat Helfstein, Scott (Ed.) (2009, October): Radical Islamic Ideology in Southeast Asia. [e-Book]. (CTC Report; Southeast Asia Project). West Point: Combating Terrorism Center (CTC). URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/radi- cal-islamic-ideology-in-southeast-asia-2 Heryanto, Ariel (2006): State Terrorism and Political Identity in Indonesia: Fatally Belonging. (Politics in Asia). Abingdon: Routledge. Hikam, Muhammad A. S. (2017): Deradicalization: Engendering Indonesian Civil Society Organizations in Curbing Radicalism. (Leni Achnas, Trans.). Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kompas. Hilmy, Masdar (2010). Islamism and Democracy in Indonesia: Piety and Pragmatism. (ISEAS Series on Islam). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS). Hughes, John (2010): Islamic Extremism and the War of Ideas: Lessons from Indonesia. Stanford: Hoover Insti- tution Press. Hwang, Julie Chernov (2018): Why Terrorists Quit: The Disengagement of Indonesian Jihadists. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

ISSN 2334-3745 157 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Ibrahim, Azeem (2018): The Rohingyas: Inside Myanmar’s Genocide. (Rev. & updated ed.). London: Hurst. Jawhar, Jasmine; Sariburaja, Kennimrod (2016): The Lahad Datu Incursion and its Impact on Malaysia’s Se- curity. [e-Book]. Kuala Lumpur: Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism (SEARCCT). URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/The-Lahad-Datu-Incursion.pdf Jerard, Jolene; Nasir, Salim Mohamed (Eds.) (2015): Resilience and Resolve: Communities Against Terrorism. (ICP Insurgency & Terrorism Series, Vol. 8). London: Imperial College Press. Jerryson, Michael K. (2011): Buddhist Fury: Religion and Violence in Southern Thailand. Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press. John, Wilson; Parashar, Swati (Ed.) (2005): Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Implications for South Asia. Delhi: Pearson Longman. Johnson, Derek; Valencia, Mark (Eds.) (2005): Piracy in Southeast Asia: Status, Issues, and Responses. (IIAS / ISEAS Series on Maritime Issues and Piracy in Asia). Singapore: ISEAS Publications. Jones, Clarke; Narag, Raymund (2019): Inmate Radicalisation and Recruitment in Prisons. (Routledge Fron- tiers of Criminal Justice). Abingdon: Routledge. Karnavian, Muhammad Tito (2015): Explaining Islamist Insurgencies: The Case of al-Jamaah al-Islamiyyah and the Radicalisation of the Poso Conflict, 2000-2007. (ICP Insurgency & Terrorism Series, Vol. 3). London: Imperial College Press. Khader, Majeed et al. (Eds.) (2019): Learning from Violent Extremist Attacks: Behavioural Sciences Insights for Practitioners and Policymakers. Singapore: World Scientific. Lehr, Peter (2019): Militant Buddhism: The Rise of Religious Violence in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan / Springer Nature. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03517-4 Liow, Joseph Chinyong (2016): Religion and Nationalism in Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge Universi- ty Press. Maier-Knapp, Naila (2015): Southeast Asia and the European Union: Non-Traditional Security Crises and Co- operation. (Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series, Vol. 67). Abingdon: Routledge. McCargo, Duncan (2008): Tearing Apart the Land: Islam and Legitimacy in Southern Thailand. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Miracola, Sergio; Talia, Antonio (Eds.) (2019, April): Terrorism and Counterterrorism in Asia: A Compass. (Dossier). Milan: Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI). URL: https://www.ispionline.it/en/ pubblicazione/terrorism-and-counterterrorism-asia-compass-21664 Missbach, Antje (2012): Separatist Conflict in Indonesia: The Long-Distance Politics of the Acehnese Diaspora. (Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series, Vol. 39). Abingdon: Routledge. Moore, Jeffrey M. (2013):The Thai Way of Counterinsurgency. Greenville: Muir Analytics. Mustapha, Jennifer (2019): Writing Southeast Asian Security: Regional Security and the War on Terror After 9/11. (Routledge Critical Terrorism Studies). Abingdon: Routledge. Noor, Farish A. (2014): The Malaysian Islamic Party PAS 1951-2013: Islamism in a Mottled Nation. (Religion and Society in Asia). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048521814 Ong-Webb, Graham Gerard (2006): Piracy, Maritime Terrorism and Securing the Malacca Straits. (IIAS-IS- EAS Maritime). Singapore: ISEAS Publishing. Osman, Mohamed Nawab Mohamed (2018): Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia and Political Islam: Identity, Ideology

ISSN 2334-3745 158 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 and Religio-Political Mobilization. (Asian Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge. Pandalai, Shruti (2019): Combating Terrorism: Evolving Asian Perspectives. New Delhi: Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses / Pentagon Press. Rabasa, Angel (2003): Political Islam in Southeast Asia: Moderates, Radicals and Terrorists. (The Adelphi Pa- pers Vol. 43, Issue 358). Abingdon: Routledge. Rahman, Tariq (2020): Interpretations of Jihad in South Asia: An Intellectual History. Berlin: Walter de Gruy- ter. Ramakrishna, Kumar (2009): Radical Pathways: Understanding Muslim Radicalization in Indonesia. Westport: Praeger Security International. Ramakrishna, Kumar (2015): Islamist Terrorism and Militancy in Indonesia: The Power of the Manichean Mindset. Singapore: Springer Singapore. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-194-7 Ramakrishna, Kumar; Tan, See Seng (Eds.) (2003): After Bali: The Threat of Terrorism in Southeast Asia. Sin- gapore: World Scientific. Ressa, Maria A. (2003): Seeds of Terror: An Eyewitness Account of Al-Qaeda’s Newest Center of Operations in Southeast Asia. New York: Free Press. Rhoades, Ashley L.; Helmus, Todd C. (2020): Countering Violent Extremism in the Philippines: A Snapshot of Current Challenges and Responses. [e-Book]. (RAND Research Reports, RR-A233-2). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7249/RRA233-2 Rhoades, Ashley L. et al. (2020): Promoting Peace as the Antidote to Violent Extremism: Evaluation of a Phil- ippines-Based Tech Camp and Peace Promotion Fellowship. [e-Book]. (RAND Research Reports, RR-A233-3). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7249/RRA233-3 Richardson, Michael (2004): A Time Bomb for Global Trade: Maritime-Related Terrorism in an Age of Weap- ons of Mass Destruction. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS). Roy, Kaushik; Saha, Sourish (2016): Armed Forces and Insurgents in Modern Asia. Abingdon: Routledge. Rüland, Jürgen; von Lübke, Christian; Baumann, Marcel (2019): Religious Actors and Conflict Transformation in Southeast Asia: Indonesia and the Philippines. (Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series). Abingdon: Routledge. Samuel, Thomas Koruth (2016):Radicalisation in Southeast Asia: A Selected Case Study of Daesh in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. [e-Book]. Kuala Lumpur: Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terror- ism (SEARCCT). URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Radicalisation-In-South- east-Asia.pdf Santos, Soliman M., Jr. et al. (2010, April): Primed and Purposeful: Armed Groups and Human Security Ef- forts in the Philippines. [e-Book]. Quezon City / Geneva: South-South Network for Non-State Armed Group Engagement / Small Arms Survey. URL: http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/publications/by-type/book-series/ primed-and-purposeful.html Schreer, Benjamin; Tan, Andrew T. H. (Eds.) (2019): Terrorism and Insurgency in Asia: A Contemporary Ex- amination of Terrorist and Separatist Movements. (Europa Regional Perspectives). Abingdon: Routledge. Selden, Mark; So, Alvin Y. (Ed.) (2004): War and State Terrorism: The United States, Japan, and the Asia-Pacif- ic in the Long Twentieth Century. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. Sheikh, Mona Kanwal (Ed.) (2019, October): Global Jihad in Southeast Asia: Examining the Expansion of the Islamic State and al-Qaeda. [e-Book]. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies (DIIS). URL:

ISSN 2334-3745 159 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 https://www.diis.dk/en/research/global-jihad-in-south-east-asia Sidel, John T. (2006): Riots, Pogroms, Jihad: Religious Violence in Indonesia. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Sidel, John T. (2007): The Islamist Threat in Southeast Asia: A Reassessment. (Policy Studies, Vol. 37). Singa- pore: ISEAS Publishing. Singh, Bilveer (2007): The Talibanization of Southeast Asia: Losing the War on Terror to Islamist Extremists. Westport: Praeger Security International. Smith, Paul J. (Ed.) (2015): Terrorism and Violence in Southeast Asia: Transnational Challenges to States and Regional Stability. Abingdon: Routledge. (Originally published in 2005) Solahudin (2013): The Roots of Terrorism in Indonesia: From Darul Islam to Jema’ah Islamiyah. (Dave McRae, Trans.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Suryana, A’an (2020): The State and Religious Violence in Indonesia: Minority Faiths and Vigilantism. (Rout- ledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series). Abingdon: Routledge. Tagliacozzo, Eric (Ed.) (2009): Southeast Asia and the Middle East: Islam, Movement, and the Longue Durée. Singapore: NUS Press. Tan, Andrew T. H. (2006): Southeast Asia: Threats in the Security Environment. Singapore: Marshall Caven- dish Academic. Tan, Andrew T. H. (2007): A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia. (Elgar Original Refer- ence). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Tarling, Nicholas; Chen, Xin (2017) (Eds.): Maritime Security in East and Southeast Asia: Political Challenges in Asian Waters. Singapore: Palgrave / Springer Nature. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2588-4 Tyner, James A. (2007): America’s Strategy in Southeast Asia: From the Cold War to the Terror War. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. Waha, La Toya (Ed.) (2020): United by Violence, Divided by Cause? A Comparison of Drivers of Radicalisation and Violence in Asia and Europe. Baden-Baden: Nomos.

Theses Aiken, Ciaran Thomas (2005, December):Weak States, Islam and Terrorism: Examining Causal Connections in Southeast Asia. (Master’s Thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada). URL:http://hdl. handle.net/2429/17492 Amadar, Edwin Enriquez; Tuttle, Robert W. (2018, June): The Emergence of ISIS in the Philippines. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/59634 Amri, Ahmad Almaududy (2016): Maritime Security Challenges in Southeast Asia: Analysis of International and Regional Legal Frameworks. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia). URL: https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/4863 Aslam, Mohd Mizan (2009): A Critical Study of Kumpulan Militant Malaysia, its wider Connections in the Re- gion and the Implications of Radical Islam for the Stability of Southeast Asia. (Doctoral Thesis, Victoria Univer- sity of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10063/4205 Bartel, Jeremy A.; Nayve, Moises M., Jr. (2008, June): The Rajah Solaiman Islamic Movement (RSIM) and the Rise of Radical Islamic Converts in the Philippines: A Major Security Concern. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Post- graduate School, Monterey, United States). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/4093

ISSN 2334-3745 160 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Berrier, Connor H. (2017, December): Southeast Asia: ISIS’s Next Front. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/56865 bin Abdul Rahman, Lendra Putra Nurezki (2013): A Hazy Redemption: Can Deradicalisation Work in Indo- nesia? (Master’s Thesis, National University of Singapore, Singapore). URL:https://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/ handle/10635/53620 Bowman, Robin L. (2004, June): Is the Philippines Profiting from the War on Terrorism? (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/1601 Butterworth, David (2014, December): Looking Beyond the Battlefield: Charting Islamist Militant Paths to Non-Violent Politics. (Master’s Thesis, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, United States). URL:http://jhir. library.jhu.edu/handle/1774.2/37210 Caraig, Joanna Marie C. (2010, May): The Human Security Act of 2007 of the Philippines: Assessing the Law’s Compliance with International Human Rights while Countering Terrorism. (Master’s Thesis, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway). URL: https://www.duo.uio.no/handle/10852/22869 Chaerudin, Asep (2003, December): Countering Transnational Terrorism in Southeast Asia with Respect to Terrorism in Indonesia and the Philippines. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/6226 Chang, Yih (2011, December): Comprehensive Security and Cooperative Security in Southeast Asia: ASEAN’s and the ARF’s Responses to Non-Traditional Security Issues in the Post-Cold War Era. (Master’s Thesis, Univer- sity of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia). URL: http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/51770 Choi, Jihoon P. (2009, September): Southern Philippines and the Policy of the Second Front in the Global War on Terrorism. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle. net/10945/4573 Christopher, Timothy L. (2013): The Strategic Effects of Counterinsurgency Operations at Religious Sites: Lessons from India, Thailand, and Israel. (Master’s Thesis, Portland State University, Portland, United States). DOI: https://doi.org/10.15760/etd.111 Cuong, Pham Cao (2009): US Security Engagement with Southeast Asia During the Clinton and Bush Adminis- trations. (Doctoral Thesis, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia). URL:http://handle.unsw. edu.au/1959.4/44527 d’Arcano, Pietro (2016, December): Fostering Disengagement: Lessons from Italy and South-East Asia. (Mas- ter’s Thesis, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands). URL:http://hdl.handle.net/1887/51466 Del Villar, Erika Mae Lorenzana (2013): Terror as a Social Movement Tactic: Applying the Multi-Institutional Politics Approach to the Case of the Abu Sayyaf Group. (Master’s Thesis, University of Connecticut, Mansfield, United States). URL: http://opencommons.uconn.edu/gs_theses/513 Dey, Amrita (2007): Sea Piracy and Maritime Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Implications for Regional Security in the Post Cold War Period. (Doctoral Thesis, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India). URL:http://hdl. handle.net/10603/29633 East, Robert William (2010, December): Redefining Domestic Counterinsurgency Post-2001: Sulu Province, Republic of Philippines. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia). URL: http://eprints.usq.edu.au/id/eprint/19484 Geragotelis, John Michael Lewis (2006, June): Sea Piracy in Southeast Asia: Implications for Countering Mar- itime Terrorism in the United States. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/2737 Gray, Simon Reece (2012): The National, Regional and Global Phases of Jihadism: The Ideological Evolution ISSN 2334-3745 161 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 and Geopolitical Transformation of Islamist Militant Terrorism in the Middle East and Southeast Asia. (Master’s Thesis, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand). URL:https://hdl.handle.net/10289/7178 Green, Jordan D. (2010): New Zealand’s Involvement in Maritime Security in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, from 1982 Onwards. (Master’s Thesis, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand). URL:https://hdl.han - dle.net/10289/4283 Hakim, Luqman Nul (2019, February): In Search of Hegemony: Islamism and the State in Indonesia. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia). URL:http://hdl.handle.net/11343/227776 Hasan, Sayed Mohammed Mohiuddin (2014, March): The Adequacies and Inadequacies of the Piracy Regime: A Gulf of Guinea Perspective. (Master’s Thesis, University of Western Sydney, Penrith, Australia). URL:http:// handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/565609 He, Ruijie (2008, June): Ganging up on Jolly Roger in Asia: International Cooperation and Maritime Piracy. (Master’s Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle. net/1721.1/46632 Jerard, Jolene (2015): Terrorism in Indonesia: An Examination of Ten Radical Groups. (Doctoral Thesis, Uni- versity of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/9324 Johnson, Kirk A. (2016, June): The Longue Duree: Indonesia’s Response to the Threat of Jihadist Terrorism 1998–2016. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle. net/10945/49499 Joubert, Lydelle Amelia (2011, September): Maritime Terrorism, Piracy and Acts of Armed Robbery of Ships: Southeast Asia and Africa, 2000–2008. (Master’s Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/2263/26897 Keister, Jennifer Marie (2011): States within States: How Rebels Rule. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Califor- nia, San Diego, United States). URL: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2bm3g35t Klosé, Kenneth (2013, Summer): Governmental Responses to Terrorism: Creating Costs and Benefits.(Master’s Thesis, University of Central Florida, Orlando, United States). URL:https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/2647 Lamchek, Jayson S. (2016, April): Myth-Making and Reality: A Critical Examination of Human Rights-Com- pliant Counterterrorism in the Philippines and Indonesia. (Doctoral Thesis, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia). DOI: https://doi.org/10.25911/5d76381ac5c4c Las, Bryner Ramos (2019, August): Southeast Asia: A Potential Domain for Chemical Terrorism. (Master’s Thesis, Missouri State University, Springfield, United States). URL:https://bearworks.missouristate.edu/the - ses/3424 Lowery, William E. (2010, December): Combating Terrorism in the Philippines to Improve U.S. Homeland Security. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle. net/10945/5104 Lu, Wenwen (2011, August): Rethinking Preventative Detention from an International Human Rights Perspec- tive: A Comparative Study of Australia, Malaysia and Singapore. (Master’s Thesis, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia). URL: http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/51353 Lumbaca, Jeremiah C. (2005, June): Islamic Insurgency and Transnational Terrorism in Thailand: Analysis and Recommended Solution Strategy. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/1928 Maier-Knapp, Naila (2011): EU Actorness with and within Southeast Asia in Light of Non-Traditional Secu- rity Challenges. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand). DOI:https://doi. org/10.26021/3788 ISSN 2334-3745 162 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Manalo, Eusaquito P. (2004, December): The Philippine Response to Terrorism: The Abu Sayyaf Group. (Mas- ter’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/1218 Martin, Coty J. (2019): State Capacity and Terrorism in the Developing World. (Doctoral Thesis, West Virginia University, Morgantown, United States). URL: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/3903 Mineo, David (2018, November): The Threshold of Jihadism: Securing Patronage in Southern Thailand and the Philippines. (Master’s Thesis, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States). URL:http://hdl. handle.net/10822/1054896 Miner, Jonathan Samuel (2007): Spokes of a Wheel: The Cooperative Response of Government and Civil Society to International Terrorism in Indonesia, Russia, Spain, Turkey and the United States. (Doctoral Thesis, Univer- sity of South Carolina, Columbia, United States). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3272470) Noble, Charles F.; Sigler, Daniel K. A. (2017, June): The Human Drones of ISIS: How 21st Century Terrorism Uses Remote Warfare. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl. handle.net/10945/55658 Pendleton, Paul (2008, December): Countering Terrorist Ideologies: A Rational Actor and Game Theo- retic Analysis of De-Radicalization Programs for Al-Jemaah Al-Islamiyah Prisoners in Singapore and In- donesia. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle. net/10945/3772 Plevris, George (2017, May): State Terrorism in the Philippines: Unmasking the Securitized Terror Behind “War on Drugs”. (Master’s Thesis, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands). URL:https://hdl.handle. net/1887/83827 Pulungan, Rheny Wahyuni (2014, June): The Limitations of the International Law on Piracy and Maritime Terrorism: Options for Strengthening Maritime Security in the Malacca Straits. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/11343/40765 Quirante, Vicentico E., Jr. (2020, June): The AFP Intelligence Community’s Role in the Fight Against Ter- rorism. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle. net/10945/65423 Reed, Alastair Grant (2013, October): Understanding Conflict Dynamics: A Comparative Analysis of Eth- no-Separatist Conflicts in India and the Philippines. (Doctoral Thesis, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Nether- lands). URL: http://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/284731 Reyskens, Marina Elise Simone (2012, March): Criminal Tides: A Comparative Study of Contemporary Piracy in Somalia and Southeast Asia. (Master’s Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/20014 Salem, Allan Jones A. (2016, December): Nexus of Crime and Terrorism: The Case of the Abu Sayyaf Group. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle. net/10945/51611 Schennach, Philippe (2018): The Impact of the War on Terror on the Securitization of the Uyghur Minority Question in the People’s Republic of China and the Moro Minority Question in the Republic of the Philippines. (Master’s Thesis, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria). URL:http://othes.univie.ac.at/53715 Snider, Joshua (2014, December): Islamism and the Politics of Crisis Nationalism: The Case of Indonesia. (Doc- toral Thesis, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia). URL:http://hdl.handle.net/1959.13/1309834 Soesilowati, Sartika (2009, June): ASEAN: Sovereign Recalcitrant or Security Community Architect? (Doctoral Thesis, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia). DOI:https://doi.org/10.25911/5d7639d16611a

ISSN 2334-3745 163 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Swartzendruber, Paul (2018, May): Anti-Terrorism Policy Reform in Indonesia: Consequences and Implications for Internal and External Counterterrorism Cooperation. (Master’s Thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States). URL: http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:37945107 Tallis, Joshua (2016): Muddy Waters: Framing Littoral Maritime Security Through the Lens of the Broken Windows Theory. (Doctoral Thesis, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom). URL:https:// research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/9028 Temby, Quinton (2017, July): Jihadists Assemble: The Rise of Militant Islamism in Southeast Asia. (Doctoral Thesis, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia). DOI:https://doi.org/10.25911/5d6cfa0ce8a74 ter Borg, Lauren (2018, December): The Effect of Counterterrorism on Terrorism: A Case Study of Indonesian Jihadi Groups. (Master’s Thesis, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands). URL:https://studenttheses. universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/68428 Terlizzi, Anthony P., Jr. (2002, September): Terrorism and U.S. Counterterrorism in Southeast Asia. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/2905 Van Damme, Ashley (2008, December): The Securitization of Terrorism in Indonesia: 2001-2006. (Master’s Thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada). DOI:https://doi.org/10.14288/1.0066843 Ward, Megan (2014, Fall): Exploratory Analysis of Cultural Factors and the Impact they May Have on Terror- ist Views About CBRN Weapons. (Master’s Thesis, George Mason University, Fairfax, United States). URL: https://hdl.handle.net/1920/9175 Weintraub, Jonathan (2017, May): Factors Influencing the Movement of Southeast Asian Fighters to ISIS: A Comparison of Indonesia and Malaysia. (Master’s Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7298/X4DV1H1N Wibisono, Ali Abdullah (2015, March): Securitisation of Terrorism in Indonesia. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom). URL: http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/id/eprint/29289 Wicaksana, I Gede Wahyu (2012): Islam and Indonesia’s Foreign Policy, with Special Focus on Jakarta-Islam- abad Relations. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia). URL:https://research-re - pository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/islam-and-indonesias-foreign-policy-with-special-focus-on-jakata- Wilson, Lau Wun Yin (2004): Terrorism – A New Threat for Indonesia? An Analysis on the National Security of Indonesia in the Post-Suharto Period. (Master’s Thesis, Lingnan University, Tuen Mun, Hong Kong). DOI: https://doi.org/10.14793/pol_etd.6 Zumbado, Thomas Calderon (2011, August):An Investigation of the Philosophical Changes of the Abu Sayyaf Group Using Geospatial Analysis. (Master’s Thesis, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States). URL: http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/etd3/id/141

Journal Articles and Book Chapters Abdel-Monem, Tarik et al. (2020): Perceptions of Human Security Among Islamic School Students, Parents and Teachers in Southern Thailand’s Subnational Conflict Zone.Civil Wars, 22(2-3), 379-421. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2020.1765541 URL: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/publicpolicypublications/167 Abdul Hamid, Ahmad Fauzi (2020): Islamist Violence in Malaysia: Reflections from the Pre-GWOT Era with Special Reference to the Memali and Al-Mau’nah Cases. SEARCCT’s Selection of Articles, 2020, 5-24. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/SEARCCT-Selection-Of-Articles-2020.pdf Abdullah, Kamarulnizam; Aziz, Ridzuan Abdul (2019): Malaysia: Adapting to the Dynamic Changes of Ter- rorist Threats. In Michael J. Boyle (Ed.):Non-Western Responses to Terrorism. (New Directions in Terrorism

ISSN 2334-3745 164 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Studies). Manchester: Manchester University Press, 103-127. Abdul Nasir, Amalina (2019, February): Women in Terrorism: Evolution from Jemaah Islamiyah to Islamic State in Indonesia and Malaysia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(2). URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/ wp-content/uploads/2019/02/CTTA-February-2019.pdf Abdul Nasir, Amalina (2019, September): IS’ Determination to Stay Relevant and Visible in Malaysia. Count- er Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(7), 11-15. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/ CTTA-September-2019.pdf Abozaid, Ahmed M. (2019): Correspondence to “An Ethnographic Study on the Indonesian Immigrant Com- munity and its Islamic Radicalization in South Korea”. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 42(3), 314-319. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1461320 Abuza, Zachary (2006): Education and Radicalization: Jemaah Islamiyah Recruitment in Southeast Asia. In: James J. F. Forest (Ed.): The Making of a Terrorist: Recruitment, Training, and Root Causes. (Vol. 1: Recruit- ment). Westport: Praeger Security International, 66-83. Abuza, Zachary (2008): The Social Organization of Terror in Southeast Asia: The Case of Jemaah Islamiyah. In: Thomas J. Biersteker; Sue E. Eckert (Eds.):Countering the Financing of Terrorism. Abingdon: Routledge, 63-90. Abuza, Zachary (2009): The Rehabilitation of Jemaah Islamiyah Detainees in South East Asia: A Preliminary Assessment. In: Tore Bjørgo; John Horgan (Eds.): Leaving Terrorism Behind: Individual and Collective Disen- gagement. (Cass Series on Political Violence). Abingdon: Routledge, 193-211. Abuza, Zachary (2015, June): The Smoldering Thai Insurgency.CTC Sentinel, 8(6), 8-11. URL: https://www. ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/CTCSentinel-Vol8Issue66.pdf Abuza, Zachary (2015, October): The Riddle of the Bangkok Bombings.CTC Sentinel, 8(10), 34-36. URL: https://www.ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/CTCSentinel-Vol8Iss1031.pdf Abuza, Zachary (2017, November): Myanmar’s Tatmadaw and the Making of the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army. Terrorism Monitor, 15(21), 7-12. URL: https://jamestown.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/TM-No- vember-10-2017.pdf Acharya, Arabinda; Asi, Rohaiza Ahmad (2006): Indonesia. In: Derek S. Reveron; Jeffrey Stevenson Murer (Eds.): Flashpoints in the War on Terrorism. New York: Routledge, 159-178. Agastia, I Gusti Bagus Dharma; Perwita, Anak Agung Banyu; Subedi, D. B. (2020): Countering Violent Ex- tremism Through State-Society Partnerships: A Case Study of De-Radicalisation Programmes in Indonesia. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 15(1), 23-43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2 020.1722317 Ahram, Ariel I. (2011): Indonesia. In: Proxy Warriors: The Rise and Fall of State-Sponsored Militias. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 25-55. Amadar, Edwin; Tuttle, Bobby (2019, Spring): The Rise of ISIS in the Philippines and the Battle of Marawi. CTX, 9(2), 31-38. URL: https://nps.edu/documents/110773463/120088589/CTX+Vol+9+No+2+WEB+FI- NAL-2.pdf Anindya, Chaula Rininta (2019, Spring): The Deradicalisation Programme for Indonesian Deportees: A Vac- uum in Coordination. Journal for Deradicalization, 18, 217-243. URL: http://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/ article/view/195 Anonymous (2018, June): Jamaah Ansharud Daulah and the Terrorist Threat in Indonesia. Counter Ter- rorist Trends and Analyses, 10(6), 3-6. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/CT- TA-June-2018.pdf ISSN 2334-3745 165 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Anonymous (2018, June): The Terrorist Threat in Indonesia: From Jemaah Islamiyah to “Islamic S t a t e”. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(6), 1-2. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2018/06/CTTA-June-2018.pdf Ansar, Anas (2020): The Unfolding of Belonging, Exclusion and Exile: A Reflection on the History of Rohing- ya Refugee Crisis in Southeast Asia. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 40(3), 441-456. DOI: https://doi.org/1 0.1080/13602004.2020.1819126 Ansori, Mohammad Hasan (2012): From Insurgency to Bureaucracy: Free Aceh Movement, Aceh Party and the New Face of Conflict. Stability, 1(1), 31-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.ah Arianti, V. (2017, February): Aman Abdurrahman: Ideologue and “Commander” of IS Supporters in In- donesia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(2), 4-9. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2017/02/CTTA-February-2017.pdf Arianti, V. (2018, April): Analysing Use of Sharp Weapons in Terrorist Attacks in Indonesia. Counter Ter- rorist Trends and Analyses, 10(4), 12-16. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/CT- TA-April-2018.pdf Arianti, V. (2018, November): Participation of Children in Terrorist Attacks in Indonesia: A Possible Future Trend. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(11), 4-8. URL: http://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2018/11/CTTA-November-2018.pdf Arianti, V.; Azman, Nur Aziemah (2019, September): The IS Threat in Indonesia.Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(7), 1-5. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/CTTA-September-2019. pdf Arianti, V.; Taufiqurrohman, Muh (2020, April): Security Implications of COVID-19 for Indonesia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 12(3), 13-17. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/CT- TA-April-2020.pdf Arianti, V.; Yasin, Nur Azlin (2016, May): Women’s Proactive Roles in Jihadism in Southeast Asia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(5), 9-15. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/CT- TA-May-2016.pdf Arianti, V. et al. (2020, January): Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 12(1), 5-39. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2020/01/CTTA-Annual-Threat-2020.pdf Aslam, Mohd Mizan (2017, April): Threat of Daesh in Universities: Malaysia’s Experience.Counter Ter- rorist Trends and Analyses, 9(4), 13-17. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/CT- TA-April-2017.pdf Aslam, Mohd Mizan (2018): A Model of Deradicalization in Malaysia. In: Rohan Gunaratna; Sabariah M. Hussin (Eds.): International Case Studies of Terrorist Rehabilitation. (Routledge Studies in the Politics of Dis- order and Instability). Abingdon: Routledge, Chapter 8. Aslam, Mohd Mizan (2020): Applying Rahmatan Lil Alamin (RLA) in Combatting Terrorism. SEARCCT’s Selection of Articles, 2020, 25-36. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/ SEARCCT-Selection-Of-Articles-2020.pdf Azra, Azyumardi (2015): Indonesian Youth: Religious-Linked Violence and Terrorism. In: Wilhelm Hofmeis- ter; Megha Sarmah (Eds.): From the Desert to World Cities: The New Terrorism. (KAS Panorama, 01/2015). Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS), 123-134. URL:https://www.kas.de/en/web/politikdialog-asien/ panorama/detail/-/content/from-the-desert-to-world-cities-the-new-terrorism Bächtold, Stefan (2015): The Rise of an Anti-Politics Machinery: Peace, Civil Society and the Focus on Re-

ISSN 2334-3745 166 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 sults in Myanmar. Third World Quarterly, 36(10), 1968-1983. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.10 63406 Bakashmar, Muhammad (2008): Winning the Battles, Losing the War? An Assessment of Coun- terterrorism in Malaysia. Terrorism and Political Violence, 20(4), 480-497. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/09546550802257200 Banlaoi, Rommel C. (2009): Media and Terrorism in the Philippines: The Rajah Solaiman Islamic Movement. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 4(1), 64-75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18335300.20 09.9686924 Banlaoi, Rommel C. (2011): The Pull of Terrorism: A Philippine Case Study. In: Datin Paduka Rashidah Ramli (Ed.): Youth and Terrorism: A Selection of Articles. Kuala Lumpur: Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism (SEARCCT), 39-49. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ Youth-And-Terrorism.pdf Banlaoi, Rommel C. (2016, Fourth Quarter): Abu Sayyaf Group’s Persistence: A Chronological Analysis of Crime-Terror Nexus in the Philippines and the ISIS Connection in Southeast Asia. Peace and Security Re- view, 7(15), 50-72. URL: http://bipss.org.bd/pdf/7number15.pdf Banlaoi, Rommel C. (2017): Counter-Terrorism Measures and De-Radicalization Efforts in Southeast Asia: A View from the Philippines. In: Henning Glaser (Ed.): Talking to the Enemy: Deradicalization and Disengage- ment of Terrorists. (CPG Series of Comparative Constitutional Law, Politics and Governance, Vol. 4). Baden- Baden: Nomos, 91-104. Banlaoi, Rommel C. (2018): The Islamic State in the Philippines After the Liberation of Marawi.Peace and Security Review, 8(19), 1-11. URL: http://bipss.org.bd/pdf/Review%2027-2-19.pdf Banlaoi, Rommel C. (2018, September): The Lamitan Bombing and Terrorist Threat in the Philip- pines. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(9), 1-5. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2018/09/CTTA-September-2018.pdf Barber, Rebecca; Teitt, Sarah (2020): The Rohingya Crisis: Can ASEAN Salvage its Credibility? Survival, 62(5), 41-54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2020.1819642 Barrera, Dan Jerome S. (2017): Bomb Threats and Reports of Suspicious Items in the Philippines: Spatial and Temporal Patterns. Security Journal, 30, 665-685. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/sj.2015.1 Barton, Greg (2020, March): Salafist-Jihadism in Southeast Asia. In: Isaac Kfir; John Coyne (Eds.):Counter - terrorism Yearbook 2020. Barton: Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), 43-51. URL: https://www.aspi. org.au/report/counterterrorism-yearbook-2020 Bashar, Iftekharul (2019, June): Rohingya Crisis and Western Myanmar’s Evolving Threat Landscape.Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(6), 14-18. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/CT- TA-June-2019.pdf Basit, Abdul (2018): Countering Violent Extremism: What Can Pakistan Learn from Singapore’s Experience? In: Rohan Gunaratna; Sabariah M. Hussin (Eds.): International Case Studies of Terrorist Rehabilitation. (Rout- ledge Studies in the Politics of Disorder and Instability). Abingdon: Routledge, 6-28. Basit, Saira H. (2018, Summer): India-Myanmar Relations and the Management of Transnational Militant Threats.Journal of Strategic Security, 11(2), 73-92. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.11.2.1673 Berman, Eli et al. (2011, August): Do Working Men Rebel? Insurgency and Unemployment in Af- ghanistan, Iraq, and the Philippines. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 55(4), 496-528. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0022002710393920 Bin Haji Halimi, Mahfuh; Saiful Alam Shah Bin Sudiman, Muhammad; Saiful Rijal Bin Hassan, Ahmad ISSN 2334-3745 167 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

(2019, January): Assessment of Islamic State’s Ideological Threat.Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(1), 86-90. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/CTTA_Annual_2019-1.pdf Bin Jani, Muhammad Haziq (2016, November): Malaysia’s “Jihadist-Celebrity”: Muhammad Wanndy Mo- hamed Jedi. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(11), 15-19. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/ uploads/2014/07/CTTA-November-2016.pdf Bin Jani, Muhammad Haziq (2017, June): Countering Violent Extremism in Malaysia: Past Experience and Future Prospects. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(6), 6-10. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-con- tent/uploads/2017/06/CTTA_June_2017.pdf Blannin, Patrick (2018, October): Interoperability: Enhancing Indo-Pacific Counter-Terrorism Cooper- ation. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(10), 6-11. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2018/10/CTTA-October-2018.pdf Blocksome, Patricia; Whiteside, Craig (2020): Rebel Waterways: Modern Militant Use of the Maritime Do- main. In: Edward R. Lucas et al. (Eds.): Maritime Security: Counter-Terrorism Lessons from Maritime Piracy and Narcotics Interdiction. (NATO Science for Peace and Security Series – E: Human and Societal Dynamics, Vol. 150). Amsterdam: IOS Press, 207-221. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/NHSDP200063 Borelli, Marguerite (2017, September): ASEAN Counter-Terrorism Weaknesses. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(9), 14-20. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/CTTA-September-2017.pdf Bowman, Robin L. (2007): Moro Insurgents and the Peace Process in the Philippines. In: James J. F. Forest (Ed.): Countering Terrorism and Insurgency in the 21st Century: International Perspectives. (Vol. 3: Lessons from the Fight Against Terrorism). Westport: Praeger Security International, 485-507. Brandon, James (2013, July): Anti-Muslim Attacks in Myanmar Threaten Uptick in Regional Violence and Islamist Activism. CTC Sentinel, 6(7), 12-16. URL: https://www.ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/ CTCSentinel-Vol6Iss7.pdf Brandon, James (2018, June): Dangerous Amateurs: Indonesia’s New Generation of Jihadists. Terrorism Moni- tor, 16(11), 8-11. URL: https://jamestown.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Terrorism-Monitor-June-2-2018. pdf Brandon, James (2019, February): Cathedral Attack in Southern Philippines Shows Resilience of Pro-Islamic State Groups. Terrorism Monitor, 17(3), 3-4. URL: https://jamestown.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/TM- Feb.-8-2019-Issue-.pdf Bräuchler, Birgit (2004, December): Islamic Radicalism Online: The Moluccan Mission of the Las- kar Jihad in Cyberspace. The Australian Journal of Anthropology, 15(3), 267-285. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1835-9310.2004.tb00098.x Bräuchler, Birgit (2007): Religious Conflicts in Cyberage.Citizenship Studies, 11(4), 329-347. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1080/13621020701476012 Breekveldt, Rick; Kitzen, Martijn (2019, Winter): Coercion and Non-State Actors: Lessons from the Philip- pines. CTX, 9(1), 13-28. URL: https://nps.edu/documents/110773463/120098796/CTX+Vol.+9.+Issue+1.pdf Breslawski, Jori (2021, February-March): The Social Terrain of Rebel Held Territory.Journal of Conflict Reso- lution, 65(2-3), 453-479. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002720951857 Brooten, Lisa (2008): The “Pint-Sized Terrorists” of God’s Army: Child Soldiers, Media, and Global Politics. Journal of Children and Media, 2(3), 219-234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17482790802327459 Brooten, Lisa; Ashraf, Syed Irfan; Akinro, Ngozi Agwaziam (2015): Traumatized Victims and Mutilated Bod- ies: Human Rights and the “Politics of Immediation” in the Rohingya Crisis of Burma/Myanmar. Internation- al Communication Gazette, 77(8), 717-734. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048515611022 ISSN 2334-3745 168 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Brown, Graham (2006): The Perils of Terrorism: Chinese Whispers, Kevin Bacon and Al Qaeda in Southeast Asia – A Review Essay. Intelligence and National Security, 21(1), 150-162. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/02684520600568626 Bugarin, Patrick Dave Q. (2020): Securitization of the Global War on Terror and Counterterrorism Coopera- tion Against the Abu Sayyaf Group. In: Frances Antoinette Cruz; Nassef Manabilang Adiong (Eds.): Interna- tional Studies in the Philippines: Mapping New Frontiers in Theory and Practice. Abingdon: Routledge, Chapter 13. Bultmann, Daniel (2014): Analyzing the Cambodian Insurgency as a Social Field. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 25(2), 457-478. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2014.904031 Burns, Jeff (2017, Summer): Safe Travel in the Philippines in an Era of Terrorism and Kidnapping.The Jour- nal of Counterterrorism & Homeland Security International, 23(2), 10-15. URL: https://issuu.com/fusteros/ docs/iacsp_magazine_v23n2_issuu Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) (2016, May): ISIL and the Indonesian Dynamic. In: Al-Qaeda, ISIL and their Offspring. (World Watch: Expert Notes series publication No. 2016-05-02). Ottawa: Author, 57- 64. URL: https://www.canada.ca/en/security-intelligence-service/corporate/publications/al-qaeda-isil-and- their-offspring.html Capuno, Joseph J. (2020): Probing Conflict Contagion and Casualties in Mindanao, Philippines.Defence and Peace Economics, 31(7), 810-829. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2019.1608742 Carment, David et al. (2015): Towards a Theory of Fragile State Transitions: Evidence from Yemen, Bangla- desh and Laos. Third World Quarterly, 36(7), 1316-1332. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.10378 30 Carnegie, Paul J. (2013, Autumn): Is Militant Islamism a Busted Flush in Indonesia? Journal of Terrorism Research, 4(2), 14-25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15664/jtr.563 Carnegie, Paul J. (2015, October): Countering the (Re-) Production of Militancy in Indonesia: Between Coercion and Persuasion. Perspectives on Terrorism, 9(5), 15-26. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/ binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2015/volume-5/3-countering-the-re--produc- tion-of-militancy-in-indonesia-between-coercion-and-persuasion-by-paul-j.-carnegie.pdf Carnegie, Paul J. (2016): Latent Insurgency: Is the Threat of Militant Islamist Groups in Indonesia Diminish- ing? In: Scott Nicholas Romaniuk; Stewart Tristan Webb (Eds.): Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Modern War. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 127-134. Carnegie, Paul J. (2017): On the Horns of a Dilemma: State, Security, and Militancy in Indonesia. In: Scott Nicholas Romaniuk et al. (Eds.): The Palgrave Handbook of Global Counterterrorism Policy. (Palgrave Hand- books). London: Palgrave Macmillan / Springer Nature, 733-747. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137- 55769-8_34 Carolan, Gene (2016): Solving the Moro Problem: Legalizing the Bangsamoro Peace Process. Journal of Ag- gression, Conflict and Peace Research, 8(3), 212-223. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-02-2016-0214 Caruso, Raul; Petrarca, Ilaria; Ricciuti, Roberto (2016, January): Climate Change, Rice Crops, and Violence: Evidence from Indonesia. Journal of Peace Research, 53(1), 66-83. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0022343315616061 Chalk, Peter (2013, November): The Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters: The Newest Obstacles to Peace in the Southern Philippines? CTC Sentinel, 6(11-12), 15-17. URL: https://www.ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/up- loads/2013/11/CTCSentinel-Vol6Iss11-12.pdf Chalk, Peter (2016, March): The Islamic State in the Philippines: A Looming Shadow in Southeast Asia? CTC

ISSN 2334-3745 169 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Sentinel, 9(3), 10-13. URL: https://www.ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/CTC-SENTINEL-Vo- l9Iss3_b4.pdf Chan, Anton (2014, April): “Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro” – A Roadmap to Peace in the Southern Philippines? Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 6(3), 25-30. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/ wp-content/uploads/2014/08/CTTA-April14.pdf Chan, Anton (2015, May): The Call of ISIS: The Medium and the Message Attracting Southeast Asians. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 7(4), 4-9. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/ CTTA-May-2015.pdf Chan, Nicholas (2018): The Malaysian “Islamic” State Versus the Islamic State (IS): Evolving Definitions of “Terror” in an “Islamising” Nation-State. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 11(3), 415-437. DOI: https://doi.org/1 0.1080/17539153.2018.1447217 Chan, Nicholas (2020): In Moderation of “Strangers”: Terrorism, Ontological (In)security and Counter-Nar- ratives in Malaysia. Critical Studies on Security, 8(1), 28-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21624887.2020.173 4906 Cheong, Pauline Hope; Lundry, Chris (2012, April): Prosumption, Transmediation, and Resistance: Terror- ism and Man-Hunting in Southeast Asia. American Behavioral Scientist, 56(4), 488-510. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0002764211429365 Clifford, Bennett; Weiss, Caleb (2020, February): “Breaking the Walls” Goes Global: The Evolving Threat of Jihadi Prison Assaults and Riots. CTC Sentinel, 13(2), 30-38. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/app/up- loads/2020/02/CTC-SENTINEL-022020.pdf Cline, Lawrence E. (2012): Insurgency in Southeast Asia. In: Paul B. Rich; Isabelle Duyvesteyn (Eds.): The Routledge Handbook of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency. (Routledge Handbooks). Abingdon: Routledge, 198-207. Cocq, Céline C. (2016, October): The EU and ASEAN Approaches in Fighting Terrorism: Collaboration or Cooperation? In: Beatrice Gorawantschy et al. (Eds.): Countering Daesh Extremism: European and Asian Responses. (KAS Panorama: Insights into Asian and European Affairs, 02/2016). Singapore: Konrad-Adenau- er-Stiftung (KAS); International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR), 153-164. URL: https://www.kas.de/en/web/politikdialog-asien/laenderberichte/detail/-/content/countering-daesh-ex- tremism-european-and-asian-responses1 Cooper, Noah B. (2018, January): Foreign Fighter Returnees in Southeast Asia: Multiple Challenges, Limited Options. Small Wars Journal, 1/2018. URL: https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/foreign-fighter-return- ees-southeast-asia-multiple-challenges-limited-options Côté, Isabelle; Huang, Limingcui Emma (2020): Where Are the Daughters? Examining the Effects of Gen- dered Migration on the Dynamics of “Sons of the Soil” Conflict.Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 43(10), 837- 853. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1510610 Côté, Isabelle; Mitchell, Matthew I. (2016): Elections and “Sons of the Soil” Conflict Dynamics in Africa and Asia. Democratization, 23(4), 657-677. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.1003811 Cotton, James (2003): Southeast Asia After 11 September.Terrorism and Political Violence, 15(1), 148-170. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550312331292997 Croissant, Aurel; Barlow, Daniel (2007): Terrorist Financing and Government Responses in Southeast Asia. In: Jeanne K. Giraldo; Harold A. Trinkunas (Eds.): Terrorism Financing and State Responses: A Comparative Perspective. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 203-230. Crost, Benjamin; Felter, Joseph H.; Johnston, Patrick B. (2014, June): Aid Under Fire: Development Proj-

ISSN 2334-3745 170 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 ects and Civil Conflict.American Economic Review, 104(6), 1833-1856. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/ aer.104.6.1833 Crost, Benjamin; Felter, Joseph H.; Johnston, Patrick B. (2016, January): Conditional Cash Transfers, Civil Conflict and Insurgent Influence: Experimental Evidence from the Philippines. Journal of Development Eco- nomics, 118, 171-182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2015.08.005 URL: https://fsi-live.s3.us-west-1. amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/crost_2016_journal_of_development_economics_0.pdf De Leon, Ricardo F.; Rufo, Marlon V.; Pablo, Mark Davis M. (2018, August): Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism in the Philippines: Grassroots Empowerment and Development of Homeland Security Framework. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(8), 10-17. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/ uploads/2018/08/CTTA-August-2018.pdf de Nelson, Sonia Ambrosio (2004, April): Southeast Asian Press Coverage of Terrorism and the Bali Bomb- ing. The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies, 20, 47-69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22439/cjas.v20i0.32 de Nelson, Sonia Ambrosio (2008, October): Understanding the Press Imaging of “Terrorist”: A Pragmat- ic Visit to the Frankfurt School. International Communication Gazette, 70(5), 325-337. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/1748048508094288 Dhami, Mandeep K. et al. (2020, Spring): Disengaging and Rehabilitating High-Value Detainees: A Small- Scale Qualitative Study. Journal for Deradicalization, 22, 66-96. URL: https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/ article/view/315 Douglas, Jeremy; de Lang, Niki Esse (2020, March): After Marawi: Lessons, Root Causes, the Future. In: Isaac Kfir; John Coyne (Eds.): Counterterrorism Yearbook 2020. Barton: Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), 53-59. URL: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/counterterrorism-yearbook-2020 Droogan, Julian; Waldek, Lise; Blackhall, Ryan (2018): Innovation and Terror: An Analysis of the Use of Social Media by Terror-Related Groups in the Asia Pacific.Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terror- ism, 13(2), 170-184. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2018.1476773 Dukalskis, Alexander (2015): Why Do Some Insurgent Groups Agree to Cease-Fires While Others Do Not? A Within-Case Analysis of Burma/Myanmar, 1948–2011. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 38(10), 841-863. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1056631 Duriesmith, David (2018): Hybrid Warriors and the Formation of New War Masculinities: A Case Study of Indonesian Foreign Fighters. Stability, 7(1), Article 16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.633 Duriesmith, David; Ismail, Noor Huda (2019, July): Militarized Masculinities Beyond Methodological Nationalism: Charting the Multiple Masculinities of an Indonesian Jihadi. International Theory, 11(2), 139-159. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1752971919000034 URL: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cfb4/0d- 507319005776b75cc3fea2b27ec4b6f207.pdf Duriesmith, David; Ismail, Noor Huda (2019, December): Embodied Militarism and the Process of Dis- engagement from Foreign Fighter Networks. Critical Military Studies. Advance Online Publication. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23337486.2019.1707499 Eadie, Pauline E. (2011, November): Legislating for Terrorism: The Philippines’ Human Security Act 2007. Journal of Terrorism Research, 2(3), 24-33. URL: https://cvir.st-andrews.ac.uk/articles/10.15664/jtr.226 Eklöf Amirell, Stefan (2008): Maritime Piracy and Raiding in Southeast Asia: Local and Global Perspectives. In: Terence Chong (Ed.): Globalization and its Counter-Forces in Southeast Asia. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 207-230. El-Muhammady, Ahmad (2016, October): Countering the Threats of Daesh in Malaysia. In: Beatrice Go- rawantschy et al. (Eds.): Countering Daesh Extremism: European and Asian Responses. (KAS Panorama: In-

ISSN 2334-3745 171 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 sights into Asian and European Affairs, 02/2016). Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS); International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR), 105-122. URL: https://www.kas.de/en/web/ politikdialog-asien/laenderberichte/detail/-/content/countering-daesh-extremism-european-and-asian-re- sponses1 El-Said, Hamed (2015): Singapore: Crisis of Identity, Shared Values and Religious Rehabilitation. In: New Approaches to Countering Terrorism: Designing and Evaluating Counter Radicalization and De-Radicalization Programs. (New Security Challenges). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan / Springer Nature, 138-173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137449979_6 Erikha, Fajar; Putra, Idhamsyah Eka; Sarwono, Sarlito Wirawan (2016): ISIS Discourse in Radical Islam- ic Online News Media in Indonesia: Supporter or Opponent. In: Majeed Khader et al. (Eds.): Combating Violent Extremism and Radicalization in the Digital Era. Hershey: IGI Global, 70-90. DOI: https://doi. org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0156-5.ch004 Fabe, Amparo Pamela H. (2011): The Communist Party of the Philippines and Youth Recruitment: Local Development and Transnational Connections. In: Datin Paduka Rashidah Ramli (Ed.): Youth and Terrorism: A Selection of Articles. Kuala Lumpur: Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism (SEARCCT), 29-37. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Youth-And-Terrorism.pdf Fabe, Amparo Pamela H. (2017): Malaysia’s Counterterrorism Policy. In: Scott Nicholas Romaniuk et al. (Eds.): The Palgrave Handbook of Global Counterterrorism Policy. (Palgrave Handbooks). London: Palgrave Macmillan / Springer Nature, 771-782. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-55769-8_36 Fair, C. Christine; Hwang, Julie Chernov; Majid, Moiz Abdul (2020): The Pious or the Doctrinaire? Who Supports Suicide Terrorism in Indonesia? Asian Security, 16(3), 281-303. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14799 855.2019.1670641 Farrell, Tom (2014, April): Southern Discomfort: Prospects for Thailand’s Malay Muslim Insurgency.Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 6(3), 4-10. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/CT- TA-April14.pdf Farrell, Tom (2015): Democratization Versus Violence: Terrorist and Insurgent Challenges to Indonesia. In: Albrecht Schnabel; Rohan Gunaratna (Eds.): Wars from Within: Understanding and Managing Insurgent Movements. (ICP Insurgency & Terrorism Series, Vol. 4). London: Imperial College Press, 321-372. Farzana, Kazi Fahmida (2021): State and Violence in Burma/Myanmar: The Rohingya Crisis and its Implica- tion for South and Southeast Asia. In: Kazuya Nakamizo; Tatsuro Fujikura; Minoru Mio (Eds.): The Dynam- ics of Conflict and Peace in Contemporary South Asia: The State, Democracy and Social Movements. (Routledge New Horizons in South Asian Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, Chapter 4. Fealy, Greg (2019, April): Apocalyptic Thought, Conspiracism and Jihad in Indonesia.Contemporary South- east Asia, 41(1), 63-85. URL: https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/722697 Fealy, Greg; Ward, Ken (2011): Indonesian Jihadi Thinking. In: Jeevan Deol; Zaheer Kazmi (Eds.):Contextu - alizing Jihadi Thought. New York: Columbia University Press, 295-318. Febrica, Senia (2010): Securitizing Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Accounting for the Varying Responses of Singapore and Indonesia. Asian Survey, 50(3), 569-590. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2010.50.3.569 URL: https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/Media_157983_smxx.pdf Febrica, Senia (2017): Refining the Role of Audience in Securitization: Southeast Asia’s Fight Against Ter- rorism. In: Scott Nicholas Romaniuk et al. (Eds.): The Palgrave Handbook of Global Counterterrorism Pol- icy. (Palgrave Handbooks). London: Palgrave Macmillan / Springer Nature, 703-731. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1057/978-1-137-55769-8_33 Felter, Joseph (2006): Recruitment for Rebellion and Terrorism in the Philippines. In: James J. F. Forest (Ed.): ISSN 2334-3745 172 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

The Making of a Terrorist: Recruitment, Training, and Root Causes. (Vol. 1: Recruitment). Westport: Praeger Security International, 84-104. Filler, Alfredo L. (2002): The Abu Sayyaf Group: A Growing Menace to Civil Society.Terrorism and Political Violence, 14(4), 131-162. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/714005638 Finley, Simon Alexis; Templer, Robert (2017, January): A Geographical and Temporal Overview of Violent Extremism in Southeast Asia. In: Lilah El Sayed; Jamal Barnes (Eds.): Contemporary P/CVE Research and Practice. [e-Book]. Abu Dhabi / Perth: Hedayah / Edith Cowan University, 76-88. URL: https://www.he- dayahcenter.org/resources/reports_and_publications/contemporary-p-cve-research-and-practice Fisher, Daren; Dugan, Laura (2019, November): The Importance of Governments’ Response to Natural Disas- ters to Reduce Terrorist Risk. Justice Quarterly. Advance Online Publication. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07 418825.2019.1685120 Foulkes, John (2020, August): From Village Elder to Islamic State’s “Acting” Emir in the Philippines: Hatib Hajan Sawadjaan. Militant Leadership Monitor, 11(7). URL: https://jamestown.org/brief/from-village-elder- to-isea-acting-emir-hatib-hajan-sawadjaan Foulkes, John (2020, September): Notorious Islamic State Kidnapper Arrested in the Philippines—Idang Susukan. Militant Leadership Monitor, 11(8). URL: https://jamestown.org/brief/notorious-islamic-state-kid- napper-arrested-in-the-philippines-idang-susukan Foulkes, John (2020, December): Radullan Sahiron—Is the Abu Sayyaf Leader Partnering with Islamic State in the Philippines? Militant Leadership Monitor, 11(11). URL: https://jamestown.org/brief/radullan-sahiron- is-the-abu-sayyaf-leader-partnering-with-islamic-state-in-the-philippines Fox, Richard (2006, October): Strong and Weak Media? On the Representation of “Terorisme” in Contempo- rary Indonesia. Modern Asian Studies, 40(4), 993-1052. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X06002307 Fox, Richard (2007): Visions of Terror: On the Use of Images in the Mass Mediated Representations of the Bali Bombing. In: Hillel Nossek; Annabelle Sreberny; Prasun Sonwalkar (Eds.): Media and Political Violence. Cresskill: Hampton Press, 211-246. Franco, Joseph (2017, August): Assessing the Feasibility of a “Wilayah Mindanao”. Perspectives on Terrorism, 11(4), 29-38. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-ter- rorism/2017/issue-4/0420174-assessing-the-feasibility-of-a-wilayah-mindanao-by-joseph-franco.pdf Franco, Joseph (2020, February): Detecting Future “Marawis”: Considering Alternative Indicators for Assess- ing the Potential for New Manifestations of Violent Extremism in Mindanao. Perspectives on Terrorism, 14(1), 3-12. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terror- ism/2020/issue-1/franco.pdf Gerdes, Luke M., Ringler, Kristine; Autin, Barbara (2014): Assessing the Abu Sayyaf Group’s Strategic and Learning Capacities. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 37(3), 267-293. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/105761 0X.2014.872021 Germann, Wade A. et al. (2016): Terrorist Financing in the Philippines. In: Michael Freeman (Ed.): Financing Terrorism: Case Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 143-164. (Original work published 2012) Ghais, Suzanne (2019, March): Consequences of Excluding Armed Groups from Peace Negotiations: Chad and the Philippines. International Negotiation, 24(1), 61-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/15718069- 24011163 Gonzalez-Perez, Margaret (2008): Asia: Freedom Birds and Water Buffaloes. In:Women and Terrorism: Female Activity in Domestic and International Terror Groups. (Contemporary Terrorism Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 60-78.

ISSN 2334-3745 173 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Gordon, Eleanor; True, Jacqui (2019): Gender Stereotyped or Gender Responsive? Hidden Threats and Missed Opportunities to Prevent and Counter Violent Extremism in Indonesia and Bangladesh. The RUSI Journal, 164(4), 74-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03071847.2019.1666512 Gunaratna, Rohan (2007): Combating al Jama’ah al Islamiyyah in Southeast Asia. In: Anne Aldis; Graeme P. Herd (Eds.), The Ideological War on Terror: Worldwide Strategies for Counter-Terrorism. (Political Violence). Abingdon: Routledge, 113-127. Gunaratna, Rohan (2009): Ideology in Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism: Lessons from Combating al-Qaeda and al-Jemaah al-Islamiyah in Southeast Asia. In: Cornelia Beyer; Michael Bauer (Eds.): Effectively Counter- ing Terrorism: The Challenges of Prevention, Preparedness and Response. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 19-54. Gunaratna, Rohan (2015): The Rise of the Islamic State: Terrorism’s New Face in Asia. In: Wilhelm Hofmeis- ter; Megha Sarmah (Eds.): From the Desert to World Cities: The New Terrorism. (KAS Panorama, 01/2015). Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS), 9-19. URL:https://www.kas.de/en/web/politikdialog-asien/ panorama/detail/-/content/from-the-desert-to-world-cities-the-new-terrorism Gunaratna, Rohan (2016): Attacks of al-Jemaah al-Islamiyah in Southeast Asia. In: Bruce Hoffman; Fernando Reinares (Eds.): The Evolution of the Global Terrorist Threat: From 9/11 to Osama bin Laden’s Death. (Colum- bia Studies in Terrorism and Irregular Warfare). New York: Columbia University Press, 400-414. Gunaratna, Rohan (2016): Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Threat and Response. In: Gérard Chaliand; Arnaud Blin (Eds.): The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to ISIS. (Updated ed.). Oakland: University of California Press, 420-434. Gunaratna, Rohan (2016, Spring): The Islamic State’s Eastward Expansion. The Washington Quarterly, 39(1), 49-67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0163660X.2016.1170479 Gunaratna, Rohan (2016, May): The Emerging Wilayat in the Philippines.Counter Terrorist Trends and Anal- yses, 8(5), 22-27. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/CTTA-May-2016.pdf Gunaratna, Rohan (2016, October): The Islamic State’s Eastward Expansion. In: Beatrice Gorawantschy et al. (Eds.): Countering Daesh Extremism: European and Asian Responses. (KAS Panorama: Insights into Asian and European Affairs, 02/2016). Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS); International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR), 9-26. URL: https://www.kas.de/en/web/politikdialog-asien/ laenderberichte/detail/-/content/countering-daesh-extremism-european-and-asian-responses1 Gunaratna, Rohan (2017): The Changing Threat Landscape: Countering Terrorism in Singapore. In: Scott Nicholas Romaniuk et al. (Eds.): The Palgrave Handbook of Global Counterterrorism Policy. (Palgrave Hand- books). London: Palgrave Macmillan / Springer Nature, 749-769. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137- 55769-8_35 Gunaratna, Rohan (2017, May): The Islamic State’s Northward Expansion in the Philippines. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(5), 1-4. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/CT- TA-May-2017.pdf Gunaratna, Rohan (2017, July): The Siege of Marawi: A Game Changer in Terrorism in Asia.Counter Terror- ist Trends and Analyses, 9(7). URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/CTTA-July-2017. pdf Gunaratna, Rohan (2017, October): Ending the Fight in Marawi. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(10), 1-5. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/CTTA-October-2017.pdf Gunaratna, Rohan (Guest Ed.) (2018): Current Terrorist Trends in the Asia Pacific. [Special Issue].Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 13(2). URL: https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rpic20/13/2

ISSN 2334-3745 174 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Gunaratna, Rohan (2018, October): Mastermind of Terror: The Life and Death of Bahrun Naim.Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(10), 1-5. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/CT- TA-October-2018.pdf Gunaratna, Rohan; Acharya, Arabinda (2006): Thailand. In: Derek S. Reveron; Jeffrey Stevenson Murer (Eds.): Flashpoints in the War on Terrorism. New York: Routledge, 137-158. Gunaratna, Rohan; Cheung, Gloria (2014): Regional Legal Responses to Terrorism in Asia and the Pacific. In: Ben Saul (Ed.): Research Handbook on International Law and Terrorism. (Research Handbooks in Interna- tional Law series). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 754-776. Gunaratna, Rohan; Hassan, Mohamed Feisal Bin Mohamed (2011): Terrorist Rehabilitation: The Singapore Experience. In: Rohan Gunaratna; Jolene Jerard; Lawrence Rubin (Eds.): Terrorist Rehabilitation and Count- er-Radicalisation: New Approaches to Counter-Terrorism. (Cass Series on Political Violence). Abingdon: Rout- ledge, 36-58. Habulan, Angelica Barangan (2016, November): The Emir of IS Philippines: Isnilon Hapilon.Counter Terror- ist Trends and Analyses, 8(11), 20-23. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/CTTA-No- vember-2016.pdf Hairgrove, Frank; McLeod, Douglas M.; Shah, Dhavan V. (2009): Strategic Uses of the Internet by Hizbut Tahrir-Indonesia. In: James J. F. Forest (Ed.): Influence Warfare: How Terrorists and Governments Fight to Shape Perceptions in a War of Ideas. Westport: Praeger Security International, 329-342. Hamdi, Saipul; Carnegie, Paul J.; Smith, Bianca J. (2015): The Recovery of a Non-Violent Identity for an Isla- mist Pesantren in an Age of Terror. Australian Journal of International Affairs, 69(6), 692-710. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1080/10357718.2015.1058339 Harb, Charles; Fischer, Ronald (2013, June): Terrorism and Jihad in Indonesia: Questions and Possible Ways Forward. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 16(2), 117-122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12020 Haripin, Muhamad; Anindya, Chaula Rininta; Priamarizki, Adhi (2020): The Politics of Counter-Terrorism in Post-Authoritarian States: Indonesia’s Experience, 1998–2018. Defense & Security Analysis, 36(3), 275-299. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14751798.2020.1790807 Harish, S. P.; Toha, Risa (2019): A New Typology of Electoral Violence: Insights from Indonesia. Terrorism and Political Violence, 31(4), 687-711. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2016.1277208 Harrigan, Jane (2013): Malaysia: A History of Dealing with Insurgency and Extremism. In: Hamed El-Said; Jane Harrigan (Eds.): Deradicalizing Violent Extremists: Counter-Radicalization and Deradicalization Pro- grammes and their Impact in Muslim Majority States. Abingdon: Routledge, 140-160. Harun, Ruhanas (2011): Rising up to the Challenges of Islamic Extremism and Militancy in Malaysia. SEARCCT’S Selection of Articles, 2, 93-105. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ SEARCCTS-Selection-Of-Articles-Vol-2.pdf Hassan, Muhammad Haniff (2007): Counter-Ideological Work: Singapore Experience. In: Anne Aldis; Graeme P. Herd (Eds.), The Ideological War on Terror: Worldwide Strategies for Counter-Terrorism. (Political Violence). Abingdon: Routledge, 143-160. Hassan, Muhammad Haniff (2007, December): Singapore’s Muslim Community-Based Initiatives Against JI. Perspectives on Terrorism, 1(5), 3-8. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/custom- sites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2007/issue-5/17-111-1-pb.pdf Hassan, Muhammad Haniff; Mohamed, Zulkifli (2012, December): Inside an Indonesian Online Library for Radical Materials. Perspectives on Terrorism, 6(6), 74-89. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/ content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2012/issue-6/research-note-inside-an-indonesian-on-

ISSN 2334-3745 175 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 line-library-for-radical.pdf Heath-Kelly, Charlotte (2015): Securing Through the Failure to Secure? The Ambiguity of Resilience at the Bombsite. Security Dialogue, 46(1), 69-85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010614552546 Henkin, Samuel; Boyd, Marcus A.; Martin, Adam (2020, August): Southeast Asia after the Caliphate: Identi- fying Spatial Trends in Terrorism and Radicalization in Malaysia. Statistics, Politics and Policy, 11(2), 139-165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/spp-2020-0001 Henshaw, Andrew D. (2021): Abu Sayyaf. In: Understanding Insurgent Resilience: Organizational Structures and the Implications for Counterinsurgency. (Cass Military Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 203-140. Henshaw, Andrew D. (2021): Jemaah Islamiyah. In: Understanding Insurgent Resilience: Organizational Struc- tures and the Implications for Counterinsurgency. (Cass Military Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 150-202. Hobart, Mark (2007): Round Up the Usual Suspects: Some Radical Implications of Indonesian and Eu- ro-American Media Coverage of “Terrorist” Attacks. In: Hillel Nossek; Annabelle Sreberny; Prasun Son- walkar (Eds.): Media and Political Violence. Cresskill: Hampton Press, 183-210. Hosen, Nadirsyah (2019): Separatist, not Terrorist: Case Studies from Southeast Asia. In: Satvinder S. Juss (Ed.): Beyond Human Rights and the War on Terror. (Routledge Research in Human Rights Law). Abingdon: Routledge, 23-38. Hu, Weiying (2016): Psychological Effects of the Threat of ISIS: A Preliminary Inquiry of Singapore Case Studies. In: Majeed Khader et al. (Eds.): Combating Violent Extremism and Radicalization in the Digital Era. Hershey: IGI Global, 168-173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0156-5.ch009 Hui, Jennifer Yang (2010): The Internet in Indonesia: Development and Impact of Radical Websites. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 33(2), 171-191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100903400605 URL: http://95.211.138.23/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/2010-Radical-websites-Indonesia.pdf Hui, Jennifer Yang (2017, December): Crowdsourcing Terrorism: Utopia, Martyrdom and Citizen- ship Reimagined. Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs, 4(3), 337-352. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/2347797017731955 Hutchinson, Jade (2019, June): Far-Right Terrorism: The Christchurch Attack and Potential Implications on the Asia Pacific Landscape.Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(6), 19-28. URL: https://www.rsis.edu. sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/CTTA-June-2019.pdf Hwang, Julie Chernov (2017): The Disengagement of Indonesian Jihadists: Understanding the Pathways. Ter- rorism and Political Violence, 29(2), 277-295. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1034855 Hwang, Julie Chernov (2019, April): Dakwah Before Jihad: Understanding the Behaviour of Jemaah Islami- yah. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 41(1), 14-34. URL: https://muse.jhu.edu/article/722695 Hwang, Julie Chernov (2019, September): Relatives, Redemption, and Rice: Motivations for Joining the Maute Group. CTC Sentinel, 12(8), 23-27. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/ CTC-SENTINEL-082019.pdf Hwang, Julie Chernov; Schulze, Kirsten E. (2018): Why They Join: Pathways into Indonesian Jihadist Organi- zations. Terrorism and Political Violence, 30(6), 911-932. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2018.148130 9 Ismail, Noor Huda (2020, March): The Unique Legacy of the “Islamic State” in Indonesia. Counter Ter- rorist Trends and Analyses, 12(2), 17-20. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/CT- TA-March-2020.pdf Istadiyantha (2018): Revealing the Propaganda of Communication Between the Islamic Fundamentalism

ISSN 2334-3745 176 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Activists of the Middle East and Indonesia. Jurnal Komunikasi, 34(2), 137-151. URL: http://ejournal.ukm.my/ mjc/article/view/26129 Jadoon, Amira et al. (2020, December): Breaking the Glass Ceiling? Female Participation in Militant Organi- zations in Islamic State Affiliates in Southeast Asia.Terrorism and Political Violence. Advance Online Publica- tion. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1838904 Jawhar, Jasmine (2020): Deaths of Daesh Key Regional Operatives and Current Terrorism Threat in Indone- sia, Malaysia and the Philippines. SEARCCT’s Selection of Articles, 2020, 68-82. URL: https://www.searcct.gov. my/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/SEARCCT-Selection-Of-Articles-2020.pdf Jayakumar, Shashi (2017, February): The Islamic State Looks East: The Growing Threat in Southeast Asia. CTC Sentinel, 10(2), 27-33. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/CTC-Sentinel_Vo- l10Iss224.pdf Jayakumar, Shashi; Pantucci, Raffaello (2020, March): The Singapore Model: A New Deradicalisation Ap- proach for the UK? RUSI Newsbrief, 40(2). URL: https://rusi.org/publication/rusi-newsbrief/singapore-mod- el-new-deradicalisation-approach-uk Jayakumar, Shashi; Sumpter, Cameron (2019, December): Southeast Asian Fighters from Islamic State Leaks: A Historical Snapshot. Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(6), 58-72. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/bina- ries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2019/issue-6/05-jayakumar-and-sumpte.pdf Jerard, Jolene (2016, October): Daesh and the Alchemy of Strategy: Southeast Asia Threat and Responses by the Region and ASEAN. In: Beatrice Gorawantschy et al. (Eds.): Countering Daesh Extremism: European and Asian Responses. (KAS Panorama: Insights into Asian and European Affairs, 02/2016). Singapore: Kon- rad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS); International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR), 83-94. URL: https://www.kas.de/en/web/politikdialog-asien/laenderberichte/detail/-/content/counter- ing-daesh-extremism-european-and-asian-responses1 Johnson, David (2020): Intelligence and the Management of Radicalisation and Extremism in Universities in Asia and Africa. In: Liam Francis Gearon (Ed.): The Routledge International Handbook of Universities, Security and Intelligence Studies. (Routledge International Handbooks). Abingdon: Routledge, Chapter 23. Johnston, Melissa Frances; Iqbal, Muhammad; True, Jacqui (2020, May): The Lure of (Violent) Extremism: Gender Constructs in Online Recruitment and Messaging in Indonesia. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. Ad- vance Online Publication. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2020.1759267 Jones, Clarke R. (2014, January): Testing the Notion that Prisons are Schools for Terrorism: Examining Rad- icalization and Disengagement in the Philippine Corrective System. In: Sara Zeiger; Anne Aly (Eds.): Coun- tering Violent Extremism: Developing an Evidence-Base for Policy and Practice. Abu Dhabi / Perth: Hedayah / Curtin University, 101-109. URL: https://www.hedayahcenter.org/resources/reports_and_publications/ cve-developing-an-evidence-base-policy-and-practice Jones, Clarke R.; Morales, Resurrecion S. (2012): Integration Versus Segregation: A Preliminary Examination of Philippine Correctional Facilities for De-Radicalization. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 35(3), 211-228. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2012.648157 Jones, David Martin (2010): Informal Networks in Southeast Asia: The Case of Jemaah Islamiyah and its Af- filiates. In: David Martin Jones; Ann Lane; Paul Schulte (Eds.):Terrorism, Security and the Power of Informal Networks. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 156-184. Jones, David Martin; Smith, Michael L. R. (2014): Non-Western Terror and Counterinsurgency: The Case of Jemaah Islamiyah. In: Sacred Violence: Political Religion in a Secular Age. (Rethinking Political Violence). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 105-130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137328069 Jones, David Martin; Smith, Michael L. R.; Weeding, Mark (2003): Looking for the Pattern: Al Qaeda in ISSN 2334-3745 177 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Southeast Asia – The Genealogy of a Terror Network.Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 26(6), 443-457. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100390248284 URL: http://davidmartinjones.com/wp-content/up- loads/2020/09/Looking-for-the-Pattern-Al-Qaeda-in-Southeast-Asia-The-Genealogy-of-a-Terror-Network. pdf Jones, David Martin; Smith, Michael L. R.; Weeding, Mark (2013): Looking for the Pattern: Al Qaeda in Southeast Asia: The Genealogy of a Terror Network. In: Paul Cruickshank (Ed.):Al Qaeda. (Vol. 3). (Critical Concepts in Political Science). Abingdon: Routledge, 58-75. Jones, Sidney (2008, July): Briefing for the New President: The Terrorist Threat in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618(1), 69-78. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0002716208316962 Jones, Sidney (2018): Radicalisation in the Philippines: The Cotabato Cell of the “East Asia Wilayah”.Terror - ism and Political Violence, 30(6), 933-943. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2018.1481190 Jonsson, Michael; Brennan, Elliot; O’Hara, Christopher (2016): Financing War or Facilitating Peace? The Impact of Rebel Drug Trafficking on Peace Negotiations in Colombia and Myanmar. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 39(6), 542-559. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1124628 Kalicharan, Veera Singam (2019, October): An Evaluation of the Islamic State’s Influence over the Abu Sayyaf. Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(5), 90-101. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/cus- tomsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2019/issue-5/6--singam.pdf Kam, Stefanie (2016, October): Singapore’s Approach to Counter Terrorism and Extremism. In: Beatrice Gorawantschy et al. (Eds.): Countering Daesh Extremism: European and Asian Responses. (KAS Panorama: In- sights into Asian and European Affairs, 02/2016). Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS); International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR), 139-151. URL: https://www.kas.de/en/web/ politikdialog-asien/laenderberichte/detail/-/content/countering-daesh-extremism-european-and-asian-re- sponses1 Kam, Stefanie (2018): Uyghur Cross-Border Movement into South East Asia: Between Resistance and Surviv- al. In: Michael Clarke (Ed.): Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in China: Domestic and Foreign Policy Dimen- sions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 173-186. Kamaruddin, Mohd Norzikri; Noordin, Noor Nirwandy Mat; Abd Rahman, Abd Rasid (2017, December): Terrorist Deradicalisation Programme in Malaysia: A Case Study. Journal of Media and Information Warfare, 10, 25-49. URL: http://www.myjurnal.my/public/article-view.php?id=112288 Kapahi, Anushka D.; Tañada, Gabrielle (2018, July): The Bangsamoro Identity Struggle and the Bangsamoro Basic Law as the Path to Peace. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(7), 1-7. URL: https://www.rsis.edu. sg/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/CTTA-July-2018.pdf Karnavian, Muhammad Tito (2017, September): The Role of the National Police in Countering Insurgencies in Indonesia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(9), 8-13. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2017/09/CTTA-September-2017.pdf Katagiri, Nori (2019): Organized Insurgency, Lethality, and Target Selection: Abu Sayyaf Group and Jemaah Islamiyah. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 30(3), 518-542. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2019.1601838 Ketola, Hanna (2020, December): Withdrawing from Politics? Gender, Agency and Women Ex-Fighters in Nepal. Security Dialogue, 51(6), 519-536. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010620906322 Kivimäki, Timo (2008): Competing Globalization: The Case of European Cooperation with Indonesia Against International Terrorism. In: Terence Chong (Ed.): Globalization and its Counter-Forces in Southeast Asia. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 231-255.

ISSN 2334-3745 178 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Koschade, Stuart (2006): A Social Network Analysis of Jemaah Islamiyah: The Applications to Coun- terterrorism and Intelligence. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 29(6), 559-575. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/10576100600798418 Kruglanski, Arie W. (2013, June): Psychological Insights into Indonesian Islamic Terrorism: The What, the How and the Why of Violent Extremism. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 16(2), 112-116. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/ajsp.12019 Kruglanski, Arie W. et al. (2016): What a Difference Two Years Make: Patterns of Radicalization in a Phil- ippine Jail. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict: Pathways toward Terrorism and Genocide, 9(1-3), 13-36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2016.1198042 Kyed, Helene Maria; Gravers, Mikael (2015): Integration and Power-Sharing: What Are the Future Options for Armed Non-State Actors in the Myanmar Peace Process? Stability, 4(1), Article 57. DOI: https://doi. org/10.5334/sta.gt Labanieh, Mohamad Fateh; Zulhuda, Sonny (2016): Utilization of Cyberspace by Terrorist Groups and the Applicability of the Malaysian Law on Terrorism. Journal of Asian and African Social Science and Humanities, 2(2), 31-54. URL: https://www.aarcentre.com/ojs3/index.php/aarcentre/article/view/60 Laksmana, Evan A.; Newell, Michael (2019): Indonesia: Political Violence and Counterrorism: Disputed Boundaries of a Postcolonial State. In Michael J. Boyle (Ed.): Non-Western Responses to Terrorism. (New Di- rections in Terrorism Studies). Manchester: Manchester University Press, 128-152. Laksmi, Sylvia Windya (2019, September): Nexus Between Charities and Terrorist Financing in Indo- nesia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(7), 6-10. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2019/09/CTTA-September-2019.pdf La Palm, Marita (2017, Fall): Re-Purposing the Push-Pull Model to Describe Signature Patterns of Terrorist Disengagement by Group: A Validation Study. Journal for Deradicalization, 12, 85-118. URL: http://journals. sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/112 Lee, Terence (2020): Political Orders and Peace-Building: Ending the Aceh Conflict.Conflict, Security & De- velopment, 20(1), 115-139. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14678802.2019.1705071 Lewis, Jeff; de Masi, Sonya (2007, February): Unholy Wars: Media Representations of the First Bali Bombings and their Aftermath.Media International Australia, 122, 59-72. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/1329878X0712200111 Lewis, Jeff; Lewis, Belinda (2010, September): Transactions in Desire: Media Imaginings of Narcotics and Terrorism in Indonesia. Cultural Studies Review, 16(2), 140-158. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5130/csr.v16i2.1698 Lidasan, Mussolini Sinsuat (2015): Radicalization: Impact on Muslim Minority Communities in Southern Philippines. In: Wilhelm Hofmeister; Megha Sarmah (Eds.): From the Desert to World Cities: The New Terror- ism. (KAS Panorama, 01/2015). Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS), 149-161. URL:https://www. kas.de/en/web/politikdialog-asien/panorama/detail/-/content/from-the-desert-to-world-cities-the-new- terrorism Liow, Joseph Chinyong (2004): The Mahathir Administration’s War Against Islamic Militancy: Operation- al and Ideological Challenges. Australian Journal of International Affairs, 58(2), 241-256. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/1035771042000220105 Liow, Joseph Chinyong (2017): Southeast Asia. In: Shadi Hamid; William McCants (Eds.): Rethinking Political Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 178-202. Liow, Joseph Chinyong; Arosoaie, Aida (2019, April): The Sound of Silence: Nuancing Religiopolitical Legiti- macy and Conceptualizing the Appeal of ISIS in Malaysia. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 41(1), 86-113. URL:

ISSN 2334-3745 179 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/722698 Liu, James H. (Guest Ed.) (2013, June): Terrorism in Indonesia. [Special Issue]. Asian Journal of Social Psy- chology, 16(2). URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/1467839x/2013/16/2 Liu, James H.; Woodward, Mark (2013, June): Towards an Indigenous Psychology of Religious Terrorism with Global Implications: Introduction to AJSP’s Special Issue on Islamist Terrorism in Indonesia. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 16(2), 79-82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12025 Lockyer, Adam (2018): Civil War and Insurgency in Asia. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terror- ism, 13(2), 142-154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2018.1478115 Lumbaca, J. “Lumpy” (2019, April): Indo-Pacific Terrorism: What to Expect for the Foreseeable Future.Small Wars Journal, 4/2019. URL: https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/indo-pacific-terrorism-what-expect-fore- seeable-future Lynch, Thomas F., III (2015, September): The Impact of ISIS on Global Salafism and South Asian Jihad.Cur - rent Trends in Islamist Ideology, 19, 85-108. URL: http://s3.amazonaws.com/media.hudson.org/files/publica- tions/20150929CurrentTrends19.pdf Magruder, Daniel L., Jr. (2018): Marine Corps Combined Action Program, Vietnam. In: Counterinsurgency, Security Forces, and the Identification Problem: Distinguishing Friend from Foe. (Studies in Insurgency, Coun- terinsurgency and National Security). Abingdon: Routledge, 104-137. Magruder, Daniel L., Jr. (2018): The Philippines Armed Forces: The Huk Rebellion. In:Counterinsurgency, Security Forces, and the Identification Problem: Distinguishing Friend from Foe. (Studies in Insurgency, Coun- terinsurgency and National Security). Abingdon: Routledge, 59-103. Mahony, Inez (2010, December): Diverging Frames: A Comparison of Indonesian and Australian Press Por- trayals of Terrorism and Islamic Groups in Indonesia. International Communication Gazette, 72(8), 739-758. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048510380813 Makruf, Jamhari; Pratiwi, Mutiara (2011): Youth and Jihadi Terrorism in the Indonesian Public Attention (1999-2011). In: Datin Paduka Rashidah Ramli (Ed.): Youth and Terrorism: A Selection of Articles. Kuala Lumpur: Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism (SEARCCT), 63-75. URL: https://www. searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Youth-And-Terrorism.pdf Maras, Marie-Helen (2014): Terrorism in Asia: The Case of the Philippines. In:The CRC Press Terrorism Reader. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 229-244. Marimuthu, Jaganathan (2007, August): Consensus, Terrorism and Peace – The Role of Malaysia’s Media to Promote World Unity in the Post-September 11th Scenario. GEOGRAFIA Online, 3(1), 58-74. URL: http:// www.ukm.my/geografia/images/upload/5.2007-Jaganathan-(english)-2-baru1.pdf Marshall, Paul (2018, June): Conflicts in Indonesian Islam. Current Trends in Islamist Ideology, 23, 122-137. URL: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.hudson.org/files/publications/CurrentTrends23.pdf Mashuri, Ali; Akhrani, Lusy Asa; Zaduqisti, Esti (2016, February): You Are the Real Terrorist and We Are Just Your Puppet: Using Individual and Group Factors to Explain Indonesian Muslims’ Attributions of Causes of Terrorism. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 12(1), 68-98. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v12i1.1001 Mashuri, Ali; Zaduqisti, Esti (2014, May): National Identification and Collective Emotions as Predictors of Pro-Social Attitudes Toward Islamic Minority Groups in Indonesia. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 10(2), 255-276. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v10i2.707 Mashuri, Ali; Zaduqisti, Esti (2015): The Effect of Intergroup Threat and Social Identity Salience on the Belief in Conspiracy Theories over Terrorism in Indonesia: Collective Angst as a Mediator. International Journal of Psychological Research, 8(1), 24-35. URL: http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttex- ISSN 2334-3745 180 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 t&pid=S2011-20842015000100003&lng=en&nrm=iso Matesan, Ioana Emy (2020): Organizational Dynamics, Public Condemnation and the Impetus to Disengage from Violence. Terrorism and Political Violence, 32(5), 949-969. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2017. 1419193 McCarthy, Gerard; Farrelly, Nicholas (2020): Peri-Conflict Peace: Brokerage, Development and Illiberal Ceasefires in Myanmar’s Borderlands. Conflict, Security & Development, 20(1), 141-163. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14678802.2019.1705072 McCauley, Clark; Scheckter, Sarah (2008): What’s Special about U.S. Muslims? The War on Terrorism as Seen by Muslims in the United States, Morocco, Egypt, Pakistan, and Indonesia. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31(11), 1024-1031. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100802400193 URL: https://www.brynmawr.edu/sites/ default/files/2008WhatsSpecialUSMuslims.pdf McCormack, Lynne; McKellar, Lorren (2015): Adaptive Growth Following Terrorism: Vigilance and Anger as Facilitators of Posttraumatic Growth in the Aftermath of the Bali Bombings.Traumatology , 21(2), 71-81. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000025 McDonald, Matt; Wilson, Lee (2017): Trouble in Paradise: Contesting Security in Bali. Security Dialogue, 48(3), 241-258. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010617692925 McFate, Montgomery (2019): Useful Knowledge: Snouck Hurgronje and Islamic Insurgency in Aceh. Orbis, 63(3), 416-439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orbis.2019.05.005 McKay, Scott N.; Webb, David A. (2015, February): Comparing Counterterrorism in Indonesia and the Phil- ippines. CTC Sentinel, 8(2), 18-21. URL: https://www.ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/CTCSenti- nel-Vol8Issue21.pdf Mendoza, Ronald U. et al. (in press): Counter-Terrorism in the Philippines: Review of Key Issues. Perspectives on Terrorism. Mietzner, Marcus; Muhtadi, Burhanuddin (2018): Explaining the 2016 Islamist Mobilisation in Indonesia: Religious Intolerance, Militant Groups and the Politics of Accommodation. Asian Studies Review, 42(3), 479- 497. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2018.1473335 Milla, Mirra Noor; Faturochman; Ancok, Djamaludin (2013, June): The Impact of Leader–Follower Interac- tions on the Radicalization of Terrorists: A Case Study of the Bali Bombers. Asian Journal of Social Psycholo- gy, 16(2), 92-100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12007 Mohamad, Siti Fatimah Nurain (2020): Perspectives of Female Terror Offenders.SEARCCT’s Selection of Articles, 2020, 83-92. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/SEARCCT-Selec- tion-Of-Articles-2020.pdf Moir, Nathaniel L. (2017): ISIL Radicalization, Recruitment, and Social Media Operations in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. PRISM, 7(1), 91-107. URL: https://cco.ndu.edu/Portals/96/Documents/prism/ prism_7-1/PRISM%20V7%20N1%20-web.pdf Muluk, Hamdi; Sumaktoyo, Nathanael G.; Ruth, Dhyah Madya (2013, June): Jihad as Justification: Nation- al Survey Evidence of Belief in Violent Jihad as a Mediating Factor for Sacred Violence Among Muslims in Indonesia. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 16(2), 101-111. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12002 Muluk, Hamdi; Umam, Ahmad Naufalul; Milla, Mirra Noor (2020, March): Insights from a Deradicalization Program in Indonesian Prisons: The Potential Benefits of Psychological Intervention prior to Ideological Dis- cussion. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 23(1), 42-53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12392 Muradi, Muradi (2009, September): The 88th Densus AT: The Role and the Problem of Coordination on Counter-Terrorism in Indonesia. Journal of Politics and Law, 2(3), 85-96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/jpl. ISSN 2334-3745 181 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 v2n3p85 Muradi, Muradi (2012): The Coordination of Counter Terrorism in Indonesia. In: Scott Nicholas Romaniuk (Ed.): New Wars: Terrorism and Security of the State. Pittsburgh: Red Lead Press, 140-158. Nilsen, Marte; Hara, Shintaro (2017): Religious Motivation in Political Struggles: The Case of Thailand’s -Pa tani Conflict. Journal of Religion and Violence, 5(3), 291-311. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5840/jrv20184546 Nuraniyah, Nava (2018): Not Just Brainwashed: Understanding the Radicalization of Indonesian Female Supporters of the Islamic State. Terrorism and Political Violence, 30(6), 890-910. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09546553.2018.1481269 Oakley, Richard T. (2018): The Abu Sayyaf Group: A Destructive Duality. In: Kimberley L. Thachuk; Rollie Lal (Eds.): Terrorist Criminal Enterprises: Financing Terrorism through Organized Crime. (Praeger Security International). Santa Barbara: Praeger, 173-184. O’Brien, McKenzie (2013): Fluctuations Between Crime and Terror: The Case of Abu Sayyaf’s Kidnapping Activities. In: James J. F. Forest (Ed.): Intersections of Crime and Terror. Abingdon: Routledge, 150-166. O’Brien, Melanie (2021): The Rohingya Crisis: Accountability for Decades of Persecution. In: Yarin Eski (Ed.): Genocide and Victimology. (Victims, Culture and Society). Abingdon: Routledge, 51-68. Osman, Mohamed Nawab Bin Mohamed (2009): Regionalization of Terrorism: Jemaah Islamiyah in South East Asia. In: Jaideep Saikia; Ekaterina Stepanova (Eds.): Terrorism: Patterns of Internationalization. New Delhi: SAGE, 175-190. Osman, Mohamed Nawab Bin Mohamed; Arosoaie, Aida (2020): Jihad in the Bastion of “Moderation”: Un- derstanding the Threat of ISIS in Malaysia. Asian Security, 16(1), 1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1479985 5.2018.1470508 Osman, Sulastri (2014): Radicalisation, Recidivism and Rehabilitation: Convicted Terrorists and Indonesian Prisons. In: Andrew Silke (Ed.): Prisons, Terrorism and Extremism: Critical Issues in Management, Radicalisa- tion and Reform. (Political Violence). Abingdon: Routledge, 214-229. Ozohu-Suleiman, Yakubu; Ishak, Sidin Ahmad (2014): Local Media in Global Conflict: Southeast Asian Newspapers and the Politics of Peace in Israel/Palestine. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 8(2), 284-295. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4119/ijcv-3060 Panes, Vanessa (2016, October): The Influence of Daesh in the Philippines. In: Beatrice Gorawantschy et al. (Eds.): Countering Daesh Extremism: European and Asian Responses. (KAS Panorama: Insights into Asian and European Affairs, 02/2016). Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS); International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR), 123-138. URL: https://www.kas.de/en/web/politikdialog-asien/ laenderberichte/detail/-/content/countering-daesh-extremism-european-and-asian-responses1 Pant, Swati (2020, February): Rohingyas: Stateless, Marginalised, Radicalised? In: Maya Mirchandani (Ed.): Tackling Insurgent Ideologies 2.0 – Rapporteurs’ Report. New Delhi: Observer Research Foundation (ORF), 16- 18. URL: https://www.orfonline.org/research/tackling-insurgent-ideologies-rapporteur-report-61760 Paterson, Bill (2011): Australia and Counter-Terrorism in the Asia-Pacific Region: Progress and Challenges. SEARCCT’S Selection of Articles, 2, 39-49. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ SEARCCTS-Selection-Of-Articles-Vol-2.pdf Pektas, Serafettin (2021, January): A Comparative Analysis of Three Sunni Muslim Organizations on “Mod- erate” and “Radical” Islam in Egypt, Morocco and Indonesia. Religion. Advance Online Publication. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721X.2020.1868383 Pelletier, Alexandre (2020, September): Competition for Religious Authority and Islamist Mobilization in Indonesia. Comparative Politics. Advance Online Publication. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5129/00104152 ISSN 2334-3745 182 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

1X15974471626004 Perez, Jose Mikhail (2020, October): Making Peace in Deeply Divided Societies: The Case of Mindanao in the Southern Philippines. Small Wars Journal, 10/2020. URL: https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/mak- ing-peace-deeply-divided-societies-case-mindanao-southern-philippines Phillips, David L. (2009): Free Aceh Movement. In: From Bullets to Ballots: Violent Muslim Movements in Transition. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 139-164. Putra, Idhamsyah Eka; Sukabdi, Zora A. (2013, June): Basic Concepts and Reasons Behind the Emergence of Religious Terror Activities in Indonesia: An Inside View. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 16(2), 83-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12001 Putra, Idhamsyah Eka et al. (2018): Tackling Islamic Terrorism and Radicalism in Indonesia by Increasing the Sense of Humanity and Friendship. In: Bruce L. Cook (Ed.): Handbook of Research on Examining Global Peacemaking in the Digital Age. Hershey: IGI Global, 94-114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-3032- 9.ch007 Rabasa, Angel et al. (2006): South Asian Clusters. In: Beyond al-Qaeda: Part 1, The Global Jihadist Movement. [e-Book]. (RAND Monographs, MG-429-AF). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 81-104. URL: https:// www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG429.html Rahmah, Unaesah (2020, June): Women in Jihad: An Indonesian Context. Counter Terrorist Trends and Anal- yses, 12(4), 21-26. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/CTTA-June-2020.pdf Rahmah, Unaesah et al. (2021, January): Annual Threat Assessment – Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 13(1), 14-51. URL: https:// www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/CTTA-January-2021.pdf Rainer, Elise; Goel, Anish (2020): Self-Inflicted Instability: Myanmar and the Interlinkage Between Human Rights, Democracy and Global Security. Democracy and Security, 16(4), 334-350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.108 0/17419166.2020.1811968 Ramakrishna, Kumar (2006): The Making of the Jemaah Islamiyah Terrorist. In: James J. F. Forest (Ed.): Teaching Terror: Strategic and Tactical Learning in the Terrorist World. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 223- 260. Ramakrishna, Kumar (2007): It’s the Story, Stupid: Neutralizing Radical Islamism in the Southeast Asia The- atre. In: Anne Aldis; Graeme P. Herd (Eds.), The Ideological War on Terror: Worldwide Strategies for Count- er-Terrorism. (Political Violence). Abingdon: Routledge, 128-142. Ramakrishna, Kumar (2014): The “Three Rings” of Terrorist Rehabilitation and Counter-Ideological Work in Singapore: A Decade on. In: Andrew Silke (Ed.): Prisons, Terrorism and Extremism: Critical Issues in Manage- ment, Radicalisation and Reform. (Political Violence). Abingdon: Routledge, 197-213. Ramakrishna, Kumar (2016): Towards a Comprehensive Approach to Combating Violent Extremist Ideology in the Digital Space: The Counter-Ideological Response (CIR) Model. In: Majeed Khader et al. (Eds.):Com - bating Violent Extremism and Radicalization in the Digital Era. Hershey: IGI Global, 260-282. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0156-5.ch013 Ramakrishna, Kumar (2017, March): The Growth of ISIS Extremism in Southeast Asia: Its Ideological and Cognitive Features - and Possible Policy Responses. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1), Article 6. URL: http://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/6/ Ramakrishna, Kumar (2018, August): The Radicalization of Abu Hamdie: Wider Lessons for the Ongoing Struggle Against Violent Extremism in Post-Marawi Mindanao. Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs, 5(2), 111-128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2347797018783117

ISSN 2334-3745 183 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Ramakrishna, Kumar (2019): Diagnosing “Extremism”: The Case of “Muscular” Secularism in Singapore. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 11(1), 26-47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472 .2018.1551919 Ramakrishna, Kumar (2020, June): The White Supremacist Terrorist Threat to Asia: A Preliminary As- sessment. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 12(4), 1-7. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2020/06/CTTA-June-2020.pdf Ramiah, Vikash; Graham, Michael (2013): The Impact of Domestic and International Terrorism on Equity Markets: Evidence from Indonesia. International Journal of Accounting & Information Management, 21(1), 91-107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/18347641311299768 Razak, Abdul; Rehman, Javaid; Skoczylis, Joshua (2015): “Prevent” Policies and Laws: A Comparative Survey of the UK, Malaysia, and Pakistan. In: Genevieve Lennon; Clive Walker (Eds.): Routledge Handbook of Law and Terrorism. (Routledge Handbooks). Abingdon: Routledge, 383-399. Reyes, Joseph Anthony L.; Smith, Tom (2017): Analysing Labels, Associations, and Sentiments in Twitter on the Abu Sayyaf Kidnapping of Viktor Okonek. Terrorism and Political Violence, 29(6), 1026-1044. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1105798 Riany, Yulina Eva et al. (2019): Understanding the Role of Parenting in Developing Radical Beliefs: Lessons Learned from Indonesia. Security Journal, 32, 236-263. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-018-00162-6 URL: https://eprints.qut.edu.au/131275 Romaniuk, Scott Nicholas (2016): The “Father-to-Son War”: Burma’s Karen Nationalist Insurgency. In: Scott Nicholas Romaniuk; Stewart Tristan Webb (Eds.): Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Modern War. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 219-244. Roul, Animesh (2017, March): Myanmar’s Muslim Insurgency Gaining Prominence with Jihadist Groups. Terrorism Monitor, 15(5), 3-5. URL: https://jamestown.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/TM_ March-10-2017.pdf Rubin, Michael A. (2020, February-March): Rebel Territorial Control and Civilian Collective Action in Civil War: Evidence from the Communist Insurgency in the Philippines. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 64(2-3), 459-489. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002719863844 Ryacudu, Ryamizard (2018, November): Terrorism in Southeast Asia: The Need for Joint Counter-Terrorism Frameworks. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(11), 1-3. URL: http://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/ uploads/2018/11/CTTA-November-2018.pdf Ryan, Maria (2019): The Philippines and the War on Terror in Southeast Asia. In:Full Spectrum Dominance: Irregular Warfare and the War on Terror. Stanford: Stanford University Press, Chapter 2. Salsabeel, Nahian (2019): The Dream of the Buddhist-Burmese Nation-State: No Place for the Rohingya Community. Peace and Security Review, 9(20), 98-120. URL: http://bipss.org.bd/pdf/Review%20V-9%20 N-20%20-%202019.pdf Samuel, Thomas (2019): In Pursuit of a Degree; Being Pursued by Terrorists: Undergraduate Radicalisation in Selected Countries in Southeast Asia. In: Farangiz Atamuradova; Stuart Macdonald; Richard Burchill (Eds.): Lessons from P/CVE Research: Innovative Methods, Challenges, and Good Practices. [e-Book]. Abu Dhabi: Hedayah, 182-203. URL: https://www.hedayahcenter.org/resources/reports_and_publications/les- sons-from-p-cve-research-innovative-methods-challenges-good-practices Santoso, Agus; Laksmi, Sylvia Windya (2016, October): Regional Terrorism Financing Risk Assessment Framework: Southeast Asia and Australia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(10), 20-24. URL: https:// www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/CTTA-October-2016.pdf

ISSN 2334-3745 184 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Schaefer, B. K. (2018, September): Moro Separatism in the Philippines: The Strategic Failure of a Promising Counterinsurgency. Small Wars Journal, 9/2018. URL: https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/moro-separat- ism-philippines-strategic-failure-promising-counterinsurgency Scheler, Ronja (2021): The Laggard: EU-ASEAN Counter-Terrorism Cooperation. In:The EU in Southeast Asian Security: The Role of External Perceptions. (Routledge Studies in European Foreign Policy). Abingdon: Routledge, Chapter 4. Schoon, Eric W.; Joosse, Alexandra Pocek; Milward, H. Brinton (2020, August): Networks, Power, and the Effects of Legitimacy in Contentious Politics.Sociological Perspectives, 63(4), 670-690. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0731121419896808 Schuck, Christoph (2020, March): How Islamist is the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG)? An Ideological Assessment. Asian Security. Advance Online Publication. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2020.1742700 Schulze, Kirsten E. (2007): GAM: Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (Free Aceh Movement). In: Marianne Heiberg; Brendan O’Leary; John Tirman (Eds.): Terror, Insurgency, and the State: Ending Protracted Conflicts. Philadel- phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 83-122. Schulze, Kirsten E. (2016, January): The Jakarta Attack and the Islamic State Threat to Indonesia.CTC Senti- nel, 9(1), 29-31. URL: https://www.ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/CTC-SENTINEL-Vol9Iss11. pdf Schulze, Kirsten E. (2018, June-July): The Surabaya Bombings and the Evolution of the Jihadi Threat in Indonesia. CTC Sentinel, 11(6), 1-6. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/CTC-SENTI- NEL-062018_1.pdf Schulze, Kirsten E. (2019, April): From Ambon to Poso: Comparative and Evolutionary Aspects of Local Ji- had in Indonesia. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 41(1), 35-62. URL: https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/722696 URL: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/100101 Schulze, Kirsten E.; Hwang, Julie Chernov (2019, April): Militant Islam in Southeast Asia: New Insights into Jihad in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 41(1), 1-13. URL: https:// muse.jhu.edu/article/722694 URL: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/100507 Schulze, Kirsten E.; Liow, Joseph Chinyong (2019): Making Jihadis, Waging Jihad: Transnational and Local Dimensions of the ISIS Phenomenon in Indonesia and Malaysia. Asian Security, 15(2), 122-139. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2018.1424710 URL: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/87249/1/Schulze__making-jihadis.pdf See, Sylvene (2018, June): Returning Foreign Terrorist Fighters: A Catalyst for Recidivism Among Disen- gaged Terrorists. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(6), 7-15. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-con- tent/uploads/2018/06/CTTA-June-2018.pdf Seemann, Benedikt (2016): Bandits or Terrorists? The Abu Sayyaf Group Between Economic Interests and Religious Ideals. KAS Auslandsinformationen, 1/2016. 38-49. URL: https://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_44738- 544-2-30.pdf Selth, Andrew (2004): Burma’s Muslims and the War on Terror. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 27(2), 107- 126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100490275094 Shay, Shaul (2014): Terror Abductions in the Philippines. In: Global Jihad and the Tactic of Terror Abduction: A Comprehensive Review of Islamic Terrorist Organizations. Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, Chapter 10. Sherman, Kristina (2017): Strengthening the Hull: The Philippines’ Strategic and Operational Counterterror- ism Campaigns. In: Scott Nicholas Romaniuk et al. (Eds.): The Palgrave Handbook of Global Counterterrorism Policy. (Palgrave Handbooks). London: Palgrave Macmillan / Springer Nature, 783-806. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1057/978-1-137-55769-8_37

ISSN 2334-3745 185 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Sholeh, Badrus (2016, October): Daesh in Europe and Southeast Asia: An Indonesian Perspective. In: Be- atrice Gorawantschy et al. (Eds.): Countering Daesh Extremism: European and Asian Responses. (KAS Pan- orama: Insights into Asian and European Affairs, 02/2016). Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS); International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR), 95-104. URL: https://www. kas.de/en/web/politikdialog-asien/laenderberichte/detail/-/content/countering-daesh-extremism-europe- an-and-asian-responses1 Sinai, Joshua (2015, Spring): Assessing the Terrorist Threats Against Indonesia and its Counterterrorism Response Measures. The Journal of Counterterrorism & Homeland Security International, 21(1), 20-23. URL: https://issuu.com/fusteros/docs/iacsp_magazine_v21n1_issuu Sinatra, Muhammad (2020): “Post-Daesh”: Tackling Misperceptions in Malaysia. SEARCCT’s Selection of Articles, 2020, 47-58. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/SEARCCT-Selec- tion-Of-Articles-2020.pdf Singh, Bilveer (2011): Why Successful Counter-Terrorism Can Beget More Terrorism? Indonesia Since the 2002 Bali Bombings. SEARCCT’s Selection of Articles, 2, 1-16. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/ uploads/2020/03/SEARCCTS-Selection-Of-Articles-Vol-2.pdf Singh, Bilveer (2011): Youth Self-Radicalisation: Lessons from the Singapore Narrative. In: Datin Paduka Rashidah Ramli (Ed.): Youth and Terrorism: A Selection of Articles. Kuala Lumpur: Southeast Asia Region- al Centre for Counter-Terrorism (SEARCCT), 87-103. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/up- loads/2020/03/Youth-And-Terrorism.pdf Singh, Bilveer (2017, May): The Revival of Al Qaeda’s Affiliate in Southeast Asia: The Jemaah Islamiyah. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(5), 5-8. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ CTTA-May-2017.pdf Singh, Bilveer (2017, August): Commentary: Implications of Hambali’s Trial. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(8), 17-19. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/CTTA-August-2017.pdf Singh, Bilveer (2018, May): Terrorist Networks in Southeast Asia and Implications for Regional Secu- rity. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(5), 8-10. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2018/04/CTTA-May-2018.pdf Singh, Bilveer (2018, September): Crime-Terror Nexus in Southeast Asia: Case Study of the Abu Sayyaf Group. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(9), 6-10. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2018/09/CTTA-September-2018.pdf Singh, Bilveer (2020, March): Implications of Soleimani’s Killing for South and Southeast Asia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 12(2), 12-16. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/CT- TA-March-2020.pdf Singh, Bilveer; Singh, Jasminder (2019, July): From “Bandit” to “Amir”—The Rise of the Abu Sayyaf Group as a Jihadi Organization in the Philippines. Asian Politics & Policy, 11(3), 399-416. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ aspp.12480 Singh, Jasminder (2016, November): The Emir of Katibah Nusantara: Bahrumsyah.Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(11), 4-7. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/CTTA-November-2016. pdf Sirry, Mun’im (2020): Muslim Student Radicalism and Self-Deradicalization in Indonesia. Islam and Chris- tian–Muslim Relations, 31(2), 241-260. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2020.1770665 Smith, Anthony L. (2005): The Politics of Negotiating the Terrorist Problem in Indonesia.Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 28(1), 33-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100590524311

ISSN 2334-3745 186 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Smith, Claire et al. (2018, May): The Manipulation of Social, Cultural and Religious Values in Socially Medi- ated Terrorism. Religions, 9(5), Article 168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9050168 Soliev, Nodirbek (2017, February): Uyghur Militancy in and Beyond Southeast Asia: An Assessment. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(2), 14-20. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/CT- TA-February-2017.pdf Staniland, Paul (2014): “Peasants and Commissars”: Communist Tides in Southeast Asia. In: Networks of Rebellion: Explaining Insurgent Cohesion and Collapse. (Cornell Studies in Security Affairs). Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Chapter 7. Stanley, Elizabeth (2012): Indonesian State Terror in Timor-Leste and West Papua. In: Scott Poynting; David Whyte (Eds.): Counter-Terrorism and State Political Violence: The “War on Terror” as Terror. (Critical Terror- ism Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 197-214. Stark, Jan (2005): Beyond “Terrorism” and “State Hegemony”: Assessing the Islamist Mainstream in Egypt and Malaysia. Third World Quarterly, 26(2), 307-327. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0143659042000339137 Steckman, Laura (2015, May): Myanmar at the Crossroads: The Shadow of Jihadist Extremism. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 7(4), 10-16. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/CT- TA-May-2015.pdf Steckman, Laura (2016, May): The Abu Sayyaf-ISIS Nexus: Rising Extremism and its Implications for Ma- laysia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(5), 16-21. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2016/05/CTTA-May-2016.pdf Streicher, Ruth (2020, February): Research as a Military Mascot: Political Ethnography and Counterinsurgen- cy in Southern Thailand.Security Dialogue, 51(1), 23-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010619887840 Subedi, D. B.; Garnett, Johanna (2020): De-Mystifying Buddhist Religious Extremism in Myanmar: Confron- tation and Contestation Around Religion, Development and State-Building. Conflict, Security & Develop- ment, 20(2), 223-246. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14678802.2020.1739859 Sugihartati, Rahma; Suyanto, Bagong; Sirry, Mun’im (2020, April): The Shift from Consumers to Prosumers: Susceptibility of Young Adults to Radicalization. Social Sciences, 9, Article 40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ socsci9040040 Sukabdi, Zora A. (2015, May): Terrorism in Indonesia: A Review on Rehabilitation and Deradicalization. Journal of Terrorism Research, 6(2), 36-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15664/jtr.1154 Sumpter, Cameron (2017, Summer): Countering Violent Extremism in Indonesia: Priorities, Practice and the Role of Civil Society. Journal for Deradicalization, 11, 112-147. URL: http://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/ article/view/103 Sumpter, Cameron (2020, Spring): Realising Violent Extremist Risk Assessments in Indonesia: Simplify and Collaborate. Journal for Deradicalization, 22, 97-121. URL: https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/ view/317 Sumpter, Cameron; Franco, Joseph (2018, October): Migration, Transnational Crime and Terrorism: Ex- ploring the Nexus in Europe and Southeast Asia. Perspectives on Terrorism, 12(5), 36-50. URL: https://www. universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2018/issue-5/sumpt- er-and-franco-2.pdf Suyanto, Bagong; Sirry, Mun’im; Sugihartati, Rahma (2019, September): Pseudo-Radicalism and the De-Rad- icalization of Educated Youth in Indonesia. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. Advance Online Publication. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2019.1654726 Tan, Andrew T. H. (2010): Counter-Terrorism in Southeast Asia Post-9/11. In: Asaf Siniver (Ed.): Internation- ISSN 2334-3745 187 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 al Terrorism Post-9/11: Comparative Dynamics and Responses. Abingdon: Routledge, 207-229. Tan, Andrew T. H. (2018): Evaluating Counter-Terrorism Strategies in Asia. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 13(2), 155-169. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2018.1473628 Tan, Andrew T. H. (2019): Terrorism in Southeast Asia: A Clear and Present Danger. In: David Martin Jones et al. (Eds.): Handbook of Terrorism and Counter Terrorism Post 9/11. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 327-339. Tan, Eugene K. B. (2007): Norming “Moderation” in an “Iconic Target”: Public Policy and the Regulation of Religious Anxieties in Singapore. Terrorism and Political Violence, 19(4), 443-462. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/09546550701590610 URL: https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/sol_research/902 Tan, See Seng (2018, November): Sending in the Cavalry: The Growing Militarization of Counterterrorism in Southeast Asia. PRISM, 7(4), 139-147. URL: https://cco.ndu.edu/News/Article/1682045/sending-in-the-cav- alry-the-growing-militarization-of-counterterrorism-in-southe Tan, See Seng; Nasu, Hitoshi (2016): ASEAN and the Development of Counter-Terrorism Law and Policy in Southeast Asia. UNSW Law Journal, 39(9), 1219-1238. URL: http://www.unswlawjournal.unsw.edu.au/arti- cle/asean-and-the-development-of-counter-terrorism-law-and-policy-in-southeast-asia Taufiqurrohman, Muh (2015, May): The Road to ISIS: How Indonesian Jihadists Travel to Iraq and Syr- ia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 7(4), 17-25. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2015/06/CTTA-May-2015.pdf Taufiqurrohman, Muh; Arianti, V. (2014, April): The “Anti-Deradicalization” Movement of Indonesian Ter- rorist Networks. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 6(3), 11-17. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-con- tent/uploads/2014/08/CTTA-April14.pdf Taufiqurrohman, Muh; Prasetya, Ardi Putra (2016, November): A Rising Indonesian Jihadist Plotter: Bahrun Naim. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(11), 8-10. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2014/07/CTTA-November-2016.pdf Taufiqurrohman, Muh; Usman, Muhammad Ali; Prasetya, Ardi Putra (2017, October): Extremism Beyond Nusa Kambangan Prisons. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(10), 8-11. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/ wp-content/uploads/2014/07/CTTA-October-2017.pdf Temby, Quinton (2019, April): Cells, Factions and Suicide Operatives: The Fragmentation of Militant Isla- mism in the Philippines Post-Marawi. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 41(1), 114-137. URL: https://www.muse. jhu.edu/article/722699 Templer, Robert (Author); Lawson, Jane (Ed.) (2017, January): The Role of Volunteerism in Preventing Violent Extremism in Southeast Asia: A Discussion Paper for the United Nations Volunteers Programme. In: Lilah El Sayed; Jamal Barnes (Eds.): Contemporary P/CVE Research and Practice. [e-Book]. Abu Dhabi / Perth: Hedayah / Edith Cowan University, 42-61. URL: https://www.hedayahcenter.org/resources/reports_ and_publications/contemporary-p-cve-research-and-practice Thayer, Carlyle A. (2008): Radical Islam and Political Terrorism in Southeast Asia. In: Terence Chong (Ed.): Globalization and its Counter-Forces in Southeast Asia. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 256-276. Toros, Harmonie (2012): Talking: A Potential Path to Reconciliation in Mindanao. In: Judith Renner; Alex- ander Spencer (Eds.): Reconciliation After Terrorism: Strategy, Possibility or Absurdity? (Routledge Studies in Peace and Conflict Resolution). Abingdon: Routledge, 167-185. Tunçer-Kılavuz, Idil (2019): Success or Failure in the Peace Processes of Aceh and Sri Lanka: A Comparative Study. Terrorism and Political Violence, 31(4), 712-732. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2017.1282860 Tuntivivat, Sudarat (2016): The Inter-Relationship Between Violence and Education Amidst Armed Conflict in Southern Thailand.Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 8(4), 269-278. DOI: https://doi. ISSN 2334-3745 188 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 org/10.1108/JACPR-04-2016-0222 Tyson, Adam D. (2011): De-Radicalisation in Indonesia: Discourses and Strategies. SEARCCT’S Selection of Articles, 2, 27-38. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/SEARCCTS-Selec- tion-Of-Articles-Vol-2.pdf Ugarte, Eduardo F. (2008): The Alliance System of the Abu Sayyaf, 1993–2000.Studies in Conflict & Terror- ism, 31(2), 125-144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100701812902 Ugarte, Eduardo F. (2008): The Phenomenon of Kidnapping in the Southern Philippines.South East Asia Research, 16(3), 293-341. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5367/000000008787133490 Ugarte, Eduardo F. (2009): The “Lost Command” of Julhani Jillang: An Alliance from the Southwestern Phil- ippines. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 32(4), 303-321. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100902746651 Ugarte, Eduardo F. (2010): “In a Wilderness of Mirrors”: The Use and Abuse of the “Abu Sayyaf” Label in the Philippines. South East Asia Research, 18(3), 373-413. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5367/sear.2010.0002 Ugarte, Eduardo F.; Turner, Mark Macdonald (2011): What Is the “Abu Sayyaf”? How Labels Shape Reality. The Pacific Review, 24(4), 397-420. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2011.596558 Umar, Muhammad Sani; Woodward, Mark (2020): The Izala Effect: Unintended Consequences of Salafi -Rad icalism in Indonesia and Nigeria. Contemporary Islam, 14, 49-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-019- 00441-y Upreti, Bishnu Raj (2009): External Links of the Maoist Insurgency in Nepal. In: Jaideep Saikia; Ekaterina Stepanova (Eds.): Terrorism: Patterns of Internationalization. New Delhi: SAGE, 93-117. van Bruinessen, Martin (2002): Genealogies of Islamic Radicalism in Post-Suharto Indonesia. South East Asia Research, 10(2), 117-154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5367/000000002101297035 URL: http://dspace.library. uu.nl/handle/1874/20378 Villareal, Gilbert G. “Billy”, Jr. (2016, August): The Lumads of the Philippines: Struggling from Conflict -To ward Peace. CTX, 6(3), 31-38. URL: https://nps.edu/documents/110773463/120100305/CTX+Vol+6+No+3. pdf Walch, Colin (2018): Weakened by the Storm: Rebel Group Recruitment in the Wake of Natural Disasters in the Philippines. Journal of Peace Research, 55(3), 336-350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343317741535 Weerakajorn, Chayathip (2019, November): Counterinsurgency in the Deep South of Thailand: A Continu- ing Failure? Small Wars Journal, 11/2019. URL: https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/counterinsurgen- cy-deep-south-thailand-continuing-failure Weiying, Hu (2018): The Process of Change in the Rehabilitation of Violent Extremists: The Singapore Expe- rience. In: Rohan Gunaratna; Sabariah M. Hussin (Eds.): International Case Studies of Terrorist Rehabilitation. (Routledge Studies in the Politics of Disorder and Instability). Abingdon: Routledge, Chapter 12. White, Gentry; Porter, Michael D.; Mazerolle, Lorraine (2013): Terrorism Risk, Resilience and Volatility: A Comparison of Terrorism Patterns in Three Southeast Asian Countries.Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 29, 295-320. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-012-9181-y Whitmire, James C. “Chris” (2009): Jemaah Islamiyah Remains Active and Deadly. In: Michael T. Kindt; Jerr- old M. Post; Barry R. Schneider (Eds.): The World’s Most Threatening Terrorist Networks and Criminal Gangs. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 179-208. Williams, Clive (2020): Terrorism. In: Robert Ayson; Desmond Ball (Eds.): Strategy and Security in the Asia-Pacific: Global and Regional Dynamics. Abingdon: Routledge, Chapter 6. (Original work published 2006)

ISSN 2334-3745 189 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Wilson, Chris (2015): Illiberal Democracy and Violent Conflict in Contemporary Indonesia.Democratiza - tion, 22(7), 1317-1337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.949680 Wilson, Chris; Akhtar, Shahzad (2019): Repression, Co-optation and Insurgency: Pakistan’s FATA, Southern Thailand and Papua, Indonesia.Third World Quarterly, 40(4), 710-726. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0143659 7.2018.1557012 Wimmer, Andreas (2014, July): The New Indonesian Marxists: A New Jihad in the Making?Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 6(6), 10-15. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/CTTA-July14. pdf Woodier, Jonathan (2002): The Disenchantment of Southeast Asia: New Media and Social Change Post 9/11. Asia Pacific Media Educator, 12, 82-104. URL: https://ro.uow.edu.au/apme/vol1/iss12/6/ Woodward, Mark et al. (2014): The Islamic Defenders Front: Demonization, Violence and the State in Indo- nesia. Contemporary Islam, 8, 153-171. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-013-0288-1 Xu, Cheng (2020): Critical Barriers to Joint Production: Datu Politics and Insurgent Fragmentation in South- ern Philippines. Third World Quarterly, 41(5), 881-897. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2020.1723411 Yaoren, Kenneth Yeo (2019, March): Leadership Decapitation and the Impact on Terrorist Groups. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(3), 7-12. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/CT- TA-March-2019.pdf Yaoren, Kenneth Yeo (2019, September): Philippines’ Foreign Fighter Phenomenon. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(7), 16-21. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/CTTA-Septem- ber-2019.pdf Yasin, Nur Azlin Mohamed (2014, April): Understanding the Contents in Bahasa Indonesia Extremist Websites. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 6(3), 18-24. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/up- loads/2014/08/CTTA-April14.pdf Yasin, Nur Azlin Mohamed (2015, May): Impact of ISIS’ Online Campaign in Southeast Asia. Counter Ter- rorist Trends and Analyses, 7(4), 26-32. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/CT- TA-May-2015.pdf Yasin, Nur Azlin Mohamed (2017, July): The Evolution of Online Extremism in Malaysia.Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 9(7). URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/CTTA-July-2017.pdf Yasin, Nur Azlin Mohd; binte Azman, Nur Aziemah (2019, January): Islamic State’s Online Social Movement Lifecycle: From Emergence to Repression in Southeast Asia. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 11(1), 80- 85. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/CTTA_Annual_2019-1.pdf Yoshihara, Toshi (2006): Philippines. In: Derek S. Reveron; Jeffrey Stevenson Murer (Eds.): Flashpoints in the War on Terrorism. New York: Routledge, 201-224. Yun, Minwoo; Kim, Eunyoung (2019): An Ethnographic Study on the Indonesian Immigrant Community and its Islamic Radicalization in South Korea. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 42(3), 292-313. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1374672 Yun, Minwoo; Kim, Eunyoung (2019): Response: Guilty of Not Critical and Unpleasant Findings: Endless Ar- guments of Definitions of Terrorism: Correspondence from Abozaid. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 42(3), 320-327. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1461321 Yunos, Zahri; Ahmad, Rabiah; Sabri, Nor Amalina Mohd (2015): A Qualitative Analysis for Evaluating a Cyber Terrorism Framework in Malaysia. Information Security Journal: A Global Perspective, 24(1-3), 15-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19393555.2014.998844

ISSN 2334-3745 190 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Yunos, Zahri; Hafidz, Syahrul (2011): Cyber Terrorism and Terrorist Use of ICT and Cyberspace.SEARCCT’s Selection of Articles, 2, 17-26. URL: https://www.searcct.gov.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/SEARCCTS-Se- lection-Of-Articles-Vol-2.pdf Yunos, Zahri et al. (2012): Illicit Activities and Terrorism in Cyberspace: An Exploratory Study in the South- east Asian Region. In: Michael Chau; Wei Thoo Yue; Hsinchun Chen (Eds.):Intelligence and Security Infor- matics: Pacific Asia Workshop, PAISI 2012, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, May 29, 2012: Proceedings. (Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 7299). Heidelberg: Springer, 27-35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642- 30428-6_2 Zambri, John (2017, July): Government Approaches to Islamic-Based Militant Radicalization in Southeast Asia. Small Wars Journal, 7/2017. URL: https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/government-approaches-to-is- lamic-based-militant-radicalization-in-southeast-asia Zammit, Andrew; Iqbal, Muhammad (2015, September): Indonesia’s New Counter-Terrorism Challenges. Terrorism Monitor, 13(18), 8-11. URL: https://jamestown.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TerrorismMoni- torVol13Issue18_02.pdf Zeiger, Sara (2017, January): Counter-Narratives to Violent Extremism in South East Asia: A Preliminary As- sessment. In: Lilah El Sayed; Jamal Barnes (Eds.): Contemporary P/CVE Research and Practice. [e-Book]. Abu Dhabi / Perth: Hedayah / Edith Cowan University, 210-223. URL: https://www.hedayahcenter.org/resources/ reports_and_publications/contemporary-p-cve-research-and-practice Zenn, Jacob (2014, April): From Syria to Sulawesi: Could Mujahideen Indonesia Timor Become an ISIS Ally? Terrorism Monitor, 12(7), 7-9. URL: https://jamestown.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/TerrorismMonitor- Vol12Issue7_02.pdf Zenn, Jacob (2019, February): The Islamic State’s Provinces on the Peripheries: Juxtaposing the Pledges from Boko Haram in Nigeria and Abu Sayyaf and Maute Group in the Philippines. Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(1), 88-105. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terror- ism/2019/issue-1/zenn---revised.pdf

Grey Literature Abdul Nasir, Amalina; Ananthan, Rueben; Dass, Santhana (2020, November): Foreign Terrorist Fighters: Implications for Malaysia’s Border Security. (MEI Essay). URL: https://www.mei.edu/publications/foreign-ter- rorist-fighters-implications-malaysias-border-security Adil, Muna (2018): The Rise of Religious Nationalism, Intolerance and Persecution in Burma. (Quilliam Re- port). URL: https://www.quilliaminternational.com/shop/e-publications/the-rise-of-religious-national- ism-intolerance-and-persecution-in-burma Albert, Eleanor; Maizland, Lindsay (2020, January): The Rohingya Crisis. (CFR Backgrounder). URL: https:// www.cfr.org/backgrounder/rohingya-crisis Amnesty International (2017, November): “The Battle of Marawi”: Death and Destruction in the Philippines. (Report ASA 35/7427/2017). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa35/7427/2017/en Amnesty International (2018, June): “We Will Destroy Everything”: Military Responsibility for Crimes Against Humanity in Rakhine State, Myanmar. (Report ASA 16/8630/2018). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/docu- ments/asa16/8630/2018/en/ Aron, Gabrielle (2018, January): Reframing the Crisis in Myanmar’s Rakhine State. (USIP Peace Brief 242). URL: https://www.usip.org/index.php/publications/2018/01/reframing-crisis-myanmars-rakhine-state

ISSN 2334-3745 191 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Asia Foundation, The; Rappler (2019, February):Understanding Violent Extremism: Messaging and Recruit- ment Strategies on Social Media in the Philippines. (Report). URL: https://asiafoundation.org/publication/ understanding-violent-extremism-messaging-and-recruitment-strategies-on-social-media-in-the-philippines Aslam, Mohd Mizan (2020, June): Deradicalization Programs for SOSMA, POTA, and POCA Detainees in Malaysia. (MEI Essay). URL: https://www.mei.edu/publications/deradicalization-programs-sosma-pota-and- poca-detainees-malaysia Bergin, Anthony et al. (2009, March): Countering Internet Radicalisation in Southeast Asia. (RSIS–ASPI Joint Report; ASPI Special Report series, Issue 22). URL: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/special-report-is- sue-22-countering-internet-radicalisation-southeast-asia Berman, Eli et al. (2013, July): Predation, Taxation, Investment and Violence: Evidence from the Philippines. (NBER Working Paper 19266). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3386/w19266 Bhulai, Rafia; Nemr, Christina (2018, September):A Closer Look: Gender Dynamics in Violent Extremism and Countering Violent Extremism in Southeast Asia. (Global Center on Cooperative Security Policy Brief). URL: https://www.globalcenter.org/publications/a-closer-look Chalk, Peter (2015, December): Black Flag Rising: ISIL in Southeast Asia and Australia. (ASPI Paper). URL: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/black-flag-rising-isil-southeast-asia-and-australia Chalk, Peter (2019, March): Jemaah Islamiyah: An Uncertain Future. (ASPI Special Report). URL: https:// www.aspi.org.au/report/jemaah-islamiyah-uncertain-future Counter Extremism Project (CEP) (2020): The Philippines: Extremism & Counter-Extremism. (Report). URL: https://www.counterextremism.com/countries/philippines Demuynck, Méryl; Mehra, Tanya; Bergema, Reinier (2020, June): The Use of Small Arms and Light Weapons by Terrorist Organisations as a Source of Finance in South and Southeast Asia. (ICCT Report). URL: https:// icct.nl/publication/icct-situation-report-the-use-of-small-arms-light-weapons-by-terrorist-organisations-as- a-source-of-finance-in-south-and-southeast-asia Dolan, Theo; Gray, Stephen (2014, January):Media and Conflict in Myanmar: Opportunities for Media to Advance Peace. (USIP Peaceworks No. 92). URL: https://www.usip.org/publications/2014/01/media-and-con- flict-myanmar D’Souza, Kirk (2016, January): Jakarta Terror Attack 14/1/2016 – What do we Know? (ICT Articles). URL: http://www.ict.org.il/Article/1591/Jakarta-Terror-Attack D’Souza, Kirk (2017, March): A Discriminated Majority? An Analysis of Indonesian Islamist Online News Web- sites. (ICT Paper). URL: https://www.ict.org.il/Article/1978/a-discriminated-majority Dudouet, Véronique; Galvanek, Janel B. (2018, January): Financing Armed Groups During Ceasefires.(NOREF Report). URL: https://noref.no/Publications/Themes/Peacebuilding-and-mediation/Financing-armed- groups-during-ceasefires Fink, Naureen Chowdhury; Barakat, Rafia (2013, November):Strengthening Community Resilience Against Violence and Extremism: The Roles of Women in South Asia. (Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooper- ation Policy Brief). URL: https://www.globalcenter.org/publications/strengthening-community-resilience- against-violence-and-extremism-the-roles-of-women-in-south-asia Franco, Joseph (2020, March): Unpacking Violent Extremism: Dynamics in the Philippines. (RESOLVE Net- work Policy Note). DOI: https://doi.org/10.37805/pn2020.2.sea Gaibulloev, Khusrav; Sandler, Todd (2008, August): The Impact of Terrorism and Conflicts on Growth in Asia, 1970–2004. (ADB Institute Discussion Paper No. 113). URL: https://www.adb.org/publications/impact-ter- rorism-and-conflicts-growth-asia-1970-2004 ISSN 2334-3745 192 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Ganguly, Rajat (2019, November): Jihadi Terrorism in South and Southeast Asia. (EER Report No. 16). URL: https://eeradicalization.com/jihadi-terrorism-in-south-and-southeast-asia Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed; Clarke, Colin P.; Hodgson, Samuel (2020, February): Foreign Terrorist Fighters from Southeast Asia: What Happens Next? (ICCT Perspectives). URL: https://icct.nl/publication/foreign-ter- rorist-fighters-from-southeast-asia-what-happens-next Greer, Ryan (2018, February): Terrorist Safe Havens and the Next ISIS. (CGP Policy Brief 7). URL: https://cg- policy.org/briefs/terrorist-safe-havens-and-the-next-isis Harris, Emma J. (2016, December): The Security Evolution of Singapore: An Examination of Security and Counter-Terrorism Legislation. (ICT Working Paper 38). URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep09454 Hashim, Ahmed S. (2015, February): The Impact of the Islamic State in Asia. (RSIS Policy Report). URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/gpo/the-impact-of-the-islamic-state-in-asia Heiduk, Felix; Preisendörfer, Jann (2017, March): Unter der schwarzen Fahne: Neue Qualität jihadistischer Militanz im Süden der Philippinen. (SWP-Aktuell 2017/A 21). URL: https://www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/ neue-qualitaet-jihadistischer-militanz-im-sueden-der-philippinen Heiduk, Felix; Sulejmanović, Nedim (2020, October): Die Pandemie als “Armee Allahs”: COVID-19 und der “Islamische Staat” in Südostasien. (SWP-Aktuell 2020/A 81). URL: https://www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/ covid-19-die-pandemie-als-armee-allahs Helmus, Todd; Bodine-Baron, Elizabeth; Marrone, James (Speakers); SMA (Host) (2020, November): Eval- uation of Counter Violent Extremism Campaigns in Nigeria, Indonesia, and the Philippines. [Video]. (SMA INDOPACOM/AFRICOM Speaker Series). URL: https://nsiteam.com/evaluation-of-counter-violent-extrem- ism-campaigns-in-nigeria-indonesia-and-the-philippines Herbert, Siân (2019, July): Conflict Analysis of the Philippines. (GSDRC K4D Helpdesk Report). URL: https:// gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-the-philippines Herbolzheimer, Kristian (2015, December): The Peace Process in Mindanao, the Philippines: Evolution and Lessons Learned. (NOREF Report). URL: https://noref.no/Publications/Regions/The-Philippines/The-peace- process-in-Mindanao-the-Philippines-evolution-and-lessons-learned Heydarian, Richard Javad (2017, August): Crisis in Mindanao: Duterte and the Islamic State’s Pivot to Asia. (Aljazeera Centre for Studies Report). URL: https://studies.aljazeera.net/en/reports/2017/08/crisis-mindan- ao-duterte-islamic-states-pivot-asia-170806101544864.html Heydarian, Richard Javad (2015, March): The Quest for Peace: The Aquino Administration’s Peace Negotiations with the MILF and CPP-NPA-NDF. (NOREF Report). URL: https://noref.no/Publications/Regions/The-Phil- ippines/The-quest-for-peace-the-Aquino-administration-s-peace-negotiations-with-the-MILF-and-CPP- NPA-NDF Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2020, October): “An Open Prison without End”: Myanmar’s Mass Detention of Rohingya in Rakhine State. (Report). URL: https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/10/08/open-prison-without- end/myanmars-mass-detention-rohingya-rakhine-state Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2020, November): No Law, No Justice, No State for Victims: The Culture of Impunity in Post-Conflict Nepal. (Report). URL: https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/11/20/no-law-no-justice- no-state-victims/culture-impunity-post-conflict-nepal Idris, Iffat (2018, September):Youth Vulnerability to Violent Extremist Groups in the Indo-Pacific. (GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report). URL: https://gsdrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/1438-Youth-Vulnerabili- ty-to-Violent-Extremist-Groups-in-the-Indo-Pacific.pdf Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2013, September):Prison Problems: Planned and Unplanned ISSN 2334-3745 193 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Releases of Convicted Extremists in Indonesia. (IPAC Report No. 2). URL: http://www.understandingconflict. org/en/conflict/read/17/PRISON-PROBLEMS-PLANNED-AND-UNPLANNED-RELEASES-OF-CON- VICTED-EXTREMISTS-IN-INDONESIA Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2013, December):Weak, Therefore Violent: The Mujahidin of Western Indonesia. (IPAC Report No. 5). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/21/ Weak-Therefore-Violent-The-Mujahidin-of-Western-Indonesia Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2014, June):Countering Violent Extremism in Indonesia: Need for a Rethink. (IPAC Report No. 11). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/28/Coun- tering-Violent-Extremism-in-Indonesia-Need-for-a-Rethink Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2015, January): Support for “Islamic State” in Indonesian Pris- ons. (IPAC Report No. 15). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/34/Support-for-Is- lamic-State-in-Indonesian-Prisons Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2015, March): Killing Marwan in Mindanao. (IPAC Report No. 17). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/38/Killing-Marwan-in-Mindanao Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2015, April):Indonesia’s Lamongan Network: How East Java, Poso and Syria Are Linked. (IPAC Report No. 18). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/ read/39/Indonesias-Lamongan-Network Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2015, October):Din Minimi: The Strange Story of an Armed Group in Aceh, Indonesia. (IPAC Report No. 23). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/ read/45/Din-Minimi-The-Strange-Story-of-an-Armed-Group-in-Aceh-Indonesia Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2015, October):Online Activism and Social Media Usage Among Indonesian Extremists. (IPAC Report No. 24). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/con- flict/read/46/Online-Activism-and-Social-Media-Usage-Among-Indonesian-Extremistshttps://www.google. com Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2016, February):Disunity Among Indonesian ISIS Supporters and the Risk of More Violence. (IPAC Report No. 25). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/con- flict/read/47/Disunity-Among-Indonesian-ISIS-Supporters-and-the-Risk-of-More-Violence Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2016, April):The Anti-Shi’a Movement in Indonesia. (IPAC Report No. 27). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/50/THE-ANTI-SHIA-MOVE- MENT-IN-INDONESIA Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2016, May):ISIS in Ambon: The Fallout from Communal Con- flict. (IPAC Report No. 28). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/51/ISIS-in-Ambon- The-Fallout-from-Communal-Conflict Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2016, June):Rebuilding After Communal Violence: Les- sons from Tolikara, Papua. (IPAC Report No. 29). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/ read/52/Rebuilding-after-Communal-Violence-Lessons-from-Tolikara-Papua Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2016, July): The Failed Solo Suicide Bombing and Bahrun Naim’s Network. (IPAC Report No. 30). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/53/The- Failed-Solo-Suicide-Bombing-and-Bahrun-Naims-Network Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2016, October):Pro-ISIS Groups in Mindanao and their Links to Indonesia and Malaysia. (IPAC Report No. 33). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/ read/56/Pro-ISIS-Groups-in-Mindanao-and-Their-Links-to-Indonesia-and-Malaysia Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2016, October):The Anti-Salafi Campaign in Aceh. (IPAC

ISSN 2334-3745 194 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Report No. 32). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/55/The-Anti-Salafi-Campaign- in-Aceh Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2016, December):Update on Indonesian Pro-ISIS Prisoners and Deradicalisation Efforts. (IPAC Report No. 34). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/ read/57/Update-on-Indonesian-Pro-ISIS-Prisoners-and-Deradicalisation-Efforts Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2017, January): Mothers to Bombers: The Evolution of Indo- nesian Women Extremists. (IPAC Report No. 35). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/ read/58/Mothers-to-Bombers-The-Evolution-of-Indonesian-Women-Extremists Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2017, April):The Re-Emergence of Jemaah Islamiyah. (IPAC Report No. 36). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/59/The-Re-emergence-of-Je- maah-Islamiyah Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2017, May):How Southeast Asian and Bangladeshi Ex- tremism Intersect. (IPAC Report No. 37). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/60/ How-Southeast-Asian-and-Bangladeshi-Extremism-Intersect Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2017, July): The Radicalisation of Indonesian Women Work- ers in Hong Kong. (IPAC Report No. 39). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/62/ The-Radicalisation-of-Indonesian-Women-Workers-in-Hong-Kong Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2017, November):Post-Marawi Lessons from Detained Ex- tremists in the Philippines. (IPAC Report No. 41). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/ read/66/POST-MARAWI-LESSONS-FROM-PHILIPPINE-DETAINEES Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2018, February):Extremists in Bandung: Darul Islam to ISIS – And Back Again? (IPAC Report No. 42). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/67/ Extremists-in-Bandung-Darul-Islam-to-ISIS-and-Back-Again Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2018, April):After Ahok: The Islamist Agenda in Indonesia. (IPAC Report No. 44). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/69/After-Ahok-The-Isla- mist-Agenda-in-Indonesia Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2018, June):Indonesia and the Rohingya Crisis. (IPAC Report No. 46). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/71/Indonesia-and-the-Rohingya-Crisis Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2018, July): Indonesia and the Tech Giants vs ISIS Supporters: Combating Violent Extremism Online. (IPAC Report No. 48). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/ conflict/read/72/Indonesia-and-the-Tech-Giants-vs-ISIS-Supporters-Combating-Violent-Extremism-Online Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2018, July): Managing Indonesia’s Pro-ISIS Deportees. (IPAC Report No. 47). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/78/Managing-Indone- sias-Pro-ISIS-Deportees Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2018, August): Recent and Planned Releases of Indonesian Ex- tremists: An Update. (IPAC Report No. 49). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/73/ Recent-and-Planned-Releases-of-Indonesian-Extremists-An-Update Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2018, October):The Surabaya Bombings and the Future of ISIS in Indonesia. (IPAC Report No. 51). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/75/ The-Surabaya-Bombings-and-the-Future-of-ISIS-in-Indonesia Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2018, December):Puritan Political Engagement: The Evolu- tion of Salafism in Malaysia. (IPAC Report No. 52). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/ read/76/Puritan-Political-Engagement-The-Evolution-of-Salafism-in-Malaysia

ISSN 2334-3745 195 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2019, January): Protecting the Sulu-Sulawesi Seas from Abu Sayyaf Attacks. (IPAC Report No. 53). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/77/Pro- tecting-The-Sulu-Sulawesi-Seas-from-Abu-Sayyaf-Attacks Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2019, March): Anti-Ahok to Anti-Jokowi: Islamist Influence on Indonesia’s 2019 Election Campaign. (IPAC Report No. 55). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/ conflict/read/80/Anti-Ahok-To-Anti-Jokowi-Islamist-Influence-on-Indonesias-2019-Election-Campaign Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2019, March): The Jolo Bombing and the Legacy of ISIS in the Philippines. (IPAC Report No. 54). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/79/The-Jolo- Bombing-and-the-Legacy-of-ISIS-in-the-Philippines Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2019, April):The Ongoing Problem of Pro-ISIS Cells in Indo- nesia. (IPAC Report No. 56). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/81/The-Ongoing- Problem-of-Pro-ISIS-Cells-in-Indonesia Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2019, June):Explaining Indonesia’s Silence on the Uyghur Issue. (IPAC Report No. 57). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/82/Explaining-In- donesias-Silence-on-the-Uyghur-Issue Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2019, July): Indonesian Islamists and Post-Election Protests in Jakarta. (IPAC Report No. 58). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/83/Indone- sian-Islamists-and-Post-Election-Protests-in-Jakarta Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2019, August): Indonesia: Urgent Need for a Policy on Repatri- ation of Pro-ISIS Nationals from Syria. (IPAC Report No. 59). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/ conflict/read/84/Indonesia-Urgent-Need-for-a-Policy-on-Repatriation-of-Pro-ISIS-Nationals-from-Syria Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2020, January): The Growing Influence of Salafism in Mus- lim Mindanao. (IPAC Report No. 61). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/86/ The-Growing-Influence-of-Salafism-in-Muslim-Mindanao Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2020, February):Learning from Extremists in West Sumatra. (IPAC Report No. 62). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/87/Learning-From-Ex- tremists-in-West-Sumatra Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2020, March): Stopping Abu Sayyaf Kidnappings: An Indone- sian-Malaysian Case Study. (IPAC Report No. 63). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/ read/88/Stopping-Abu-Sayyaf-Kidnappings-An-Indonesian-Malaysian-Case-Study Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2020, April):COVID-19 and the Mujahidin of Eastern Indo- nesia (MIT). (IPAC Short Briefing No. 3). URL:http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/91/ IPAC-Short-Briefing-No3-COVID-19-and-the-Mujahidin-of-Eastern-Indonesia-MIT Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2020, August): Indonesian Islamists: Activists in Search of an Issue. (IPAC Report No. 65). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/94/Indonesian-Is- lamists-Activists-in-Search-of-an-Issue Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2020, September):Extremist Women Behind Bars in Indone- sia. (IPAC Report No. 68). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/97/Extremist-Wom- en-Behind-Bars-in-Indonesia Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2020, September):Rohingya Refugees in Aceh: An Update. (IPAC Report No. 67). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/96/Rohingya-Refu- gees-in-Aceh-An-Update Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict (IPAC) (2020, September):Terrorism, Recidivism and Planned Releas-

ISSN 2334-3745 196 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 es in Indonesia. (IPAC Report No. 66). URL: http://www.understandingconflict.org/en/conflict/read/95/Ter- rorism-Recidivism-and-Planned-Releases-in-Indonesia International Crisis Group (ICG) (2007, November): “Deradicalisation” and Indonesian Prisons. (Asia Report N°142). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/deradicalisation-and-indone- sian-prisons International Crisis Group (ICG) (2014, October): Myanmar: The Politics of Rakhine State. (Asia Report N°261). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/myanmar-politics-rakhine-state International Crisis Group (ICG) (2015, July): Southern Thailand: Dialogue in Doubt. (Asia Report N°270). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/thailand/southern-thailand-dialogue-doubt International Crisis Group (ICG) (2016, July): The Philippines: Renewing Prospects for Peace in Mindanao. (Asia Report N°281). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/philippines/philippines-renew- ing-prospects-peace-mindanao International Crisis Group (ICG) (2016, October): Myanmar’s Peace Process: Getting to a Political Dialogue. (Crisis Group Asia Briefing N°149). URL:https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/myan - mar-s-peace-process-getting-political-dialogue International Crisis Group (ICG) (2016, December): Myanmar: A New Muslim Insurgency in Rakhine State. (Asia Report N°283). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/283-myan- mar-new-muslim-insurgency-rakhine-state International Crisis Group (ICG) (2017, September): Buddhism and State Power in Myanmar. (Asia Report N°290). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/290-buddhism-and-state-power- myanmar International Crisis Group (ICG) (2017, November): Jihadism in Southern Thailand: A Phantom Menace. (Asia Report N°291). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/thailand/291-jihadism-south- ern-thailand-phantom-menace International Crisis Group (ICG) (2017, December): Myanmar’s Rohingya Crisis Enters a Dangerous New Phase. (Asia Report N°292). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/292-myan- mars-rohingya-crisis-enters-dangerous-new-phase International Crisis Group (ICG) (2019, June): The Philippines: Militancy and the New Bangsamoro. (Asia Report N°301). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/philippines/301-philippines-militan- cy-and-new-bangsamoro International Crisis Group (ICG) (2019, September): Myanmar: A Violent Push to Shake Up Ceasefire Negoti- ations. (Crisis Group Asia Briefing N°158). URL:https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/ b158-myanmar-violent-push-shake-ceasefire-negotiations International Crisis Group (ICG) (2020, January): Southern Thailand’s Peace Dialogue: Giving Substance to Form. (Asia Report N°304). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/thailand/304-south- ern-thailands-peace-dialogue-giving-substance-form International Crisis Group (ICG) (2020, April): Southern Philippines: Tackling Clan Politics in the Bangsam- oro. (Asia Report N°306). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/philippines/306-south- ern-philippines-tackling-clan-politics-bangsamoro International Crisis Group (ICG) (2020, June): An Avoidable War: Politics and Armed Conflict in Myanmar’s Rakhine State. (Asia Report N°307). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/307- avoidable-war-politics-and-armed-conflict-myanmars-rakhine-state International Crisis Group (ICG) (2020, June): Rebooting Myanmar’s Stalled Peace Process. (Asia Re- ISSN 2334-3745 197 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 port N°308). URL: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/308-rebooting-myan- mars-stalled-peace-process International Crisis Group (ICG) (2020, December): From Elections to Ceasefire in Myanmar’s Rakhine State. (Crisis Group Asia Briefing N°164). URL:https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/ b164-elections-ceasefire-myanmars-rakhine-state Jadoon, Amira; Jahanbani, Nakissa; Willis, Charmaine (2020, July): Rising in the East: A Regional Overview of the Islamic State’s Operations in Southeast Asia. (CTC Report). URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/rising-in-the-east- a-regional-overview-of-the-islamic-states-operations-in-southeast-asia Jadoon, Amira; Jahanbani, Nakissa; Willis, Charmaine (2020, December): Rising in the East: The Evolution of the Islamic State in the Philippines. (CTC Report). URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/rising-in-the-east-the-evolu- tion-of-the-islamic-state-in-the-philippines Jayakumar, Shashi (2020, August): Deradicalisation in Singapore: Past, Present and Future. (Report). URL: https://icsr.info/2020/08/20/deradicalisation-in-singapore-past-present-and-future Joshi, Madhav et al. (2020): The Effect of COVID-19 on Peace Agreement Implementation: The Cases of Co- lombia, South Sudan, and the Philippines. (PRIO Paper). URL: https://www.prio.org/Publications/Publica- tion/?x=12443 Kfir, Isaac (2018, May):Terrorism in the Indo-Pacific: Glocalism Comes of Age. (ASPI Special Report). URL: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/terrorism-indo-pacific-glocalism-comes-age Knight, Charles; Theodorakis, Katja (2019, July):The Marawi Crisis: Urban Conflict and Information Opera- tions. (ASPI Special Report). URL: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/marawi-crisis-urban-conflict-and-infor- mation-operations Kolås, Åshild; Meitei, Leitanthem Umakanta (2019): Women in Ethnic Armed Organizations in Myanmar: Numbers and Narratives. (PRIO GPS Policy Brief 1). URL: https://www.prio.org/Publications/Publica- tion/?x=11252 Kovacs, Amanda (2014, October): Saudi Arabia Exporting Salafi Education and Radicalizing Indonesia’s Mus- lims. (GIGA Focus International No. 7). URL: https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publication/saudi-arabia-ex- porting-salafi-education-and-radicalizing-indonesia%E2%80%99s-muslims Kurlantzick, Joshua (2016, October): A New Approach to Thailand’s Insurgency. (CFR Discussion Paper). URL: https://www.cfr.org/report/new-approach-thailands-insurgency Kyed, Helene Maria; Gravers, Mikael (2014, September): Non-State Armed Groups in the Myanmar Peace Process: What Are the Future Options? (DIIS Working Paper 2014:07). URL: https://www.diis.dk/en/research/ non-state-armed-groups-in-the-myanmar-peace-process Lefas, Melissa; Nozawa, Junko (2016, September): Implementing the Global Counterterrorism Forum’s Hague Memorandum: Recommendations for the Adjudication of Terrorism Offenses in East Africa and Southeast Asia. URL: https://www.globalcenter.org/publications/implementing-the-global-counterterrorism-fo- rums-hague-memorandum Lin, Christina (2014, October): Lee Kuan Yew: To Stop Terrorism, Go After the Queen Bees (Preachers). (ISP- SW Strategy Series: Focus on Defense and International Security, Issue No. 298). URL: https://www.files.ethz. ch/isn/184834/298_Lin.pdf Lintner, Bertil (2020, October): Why Burma’s Peace Efforts Have Failed to End its Internal Wars. (USIP Peace- works, No. 169). URL: https://www.usip.org/publications/2020/10/why-burmas-peace-efforts-have-failed- end-its-internal-wars Liow, Joseph Chinyong (2015, August): The Arab Spring and Islamist Activism in Southeast Asia: Much Ado ISSN 2334-3745 198 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

About Nothing? (Brookings Working Paper; Rethinking Political Islam series). URL: https://www.brookings. edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Southeast-Asia_Liow-FINALE.pdf Liow, Joseph Chinyong (2016, April): ISIS in the Pacific: Assessing Terrorism in Southeast Asia and the Threat to the Homeland. (Testimony presented before the Subcommittee on Counterterrorism and Intelligence, House Committee on Homeland Security, April 27, 2016). URL: https://docs.house.gov/meetings/HM/ HM05/20160427/104848/HHRG-114-HM05-Wstate-LiowJ-20160427.pdf Loertscher, Seth; Milton, Daniel (2015, December): Held Hostage: Analyses of Kidnapping Across Time and Among Jihadist Organizations. (CTC Report). URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/held-hostage-analyses-of-kidnap- ping-across-time-and-among-jihadist-organizations Logan, Michael K. et al. (2020, January): Terrorism in the Philippines and its Influence on Great Powers. (NSI Study). URL: https://nsiteam.com/terrorism-in-the-philippines-and-its-influence-on-great-powers Mahzam, Remy (2016, July): Children in ISIS Nusantara Media Outreach. (RSIS Commentary No. 166). URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/icpvtr/co16166-children-in-isis-nusantara-media-outreach Malik, Nikita; Beevor, Eleanor (2015, June): South Asian Militant Groups and Global Jihad in 2015. (Quilliam Report). URL: https://www.quilliaminternational.com/shop/e-publications/south-asian-militant-groups-and- global-jihad-in-2015-2 Maslog, Crispin C. et al. (2016, November): The Political Economy of the News Media in the Philippines and the Framing of News Stories on the GPH-CNN Peace Process. (NOREF Report). URL: https://noref.no/Publi- cations/Regions/The-Philippines/The-Political-Economy-of-the-News-Media-in-the-Philippines-and-the- Framing-of-News-Stories-on-the-GPH-CNN-Peace-Process-2016-revised-version Moonshot CVE (2020, December): Social Grievances and Violent Extremism in Indonesia: Exploring the Appe- tite for Psychosocial Support Among At-Risk Audiences. (Report). URL: https://moonshotcve.com/wp-content/ uploads/2020/12/Social-Grievances-and-Violent-Extremism-in-Indonesia_Moonshot.pdf Ness, Marielle (2017): Beyond the Caliphate: Islamic State Activity Outside the Group’s Defined Wilayat: South- east Asia. (CTC Report). URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/beyond-the-caliphate Nuraniyah, Nava (2019, July): The Evolution of Online Violent Extremism in Indonesia and the Philippines. (Global Research Network on Terrorism and Technology, Paper No. 5). URL: https://rusi.org/publication/ other-publications/evolution-online-violent-extremism-indonesia-and-philippines Osman, Muna; Witherspoon, Josiah (2018, Winter): Kidnapping for Ransom: An Analysis of Canadian Cas- es. (TSAS Working Paper Series, No. 18-03). URL: https://www.tsas.ca/publications/kidnapping-for-ran- som-an-analysis-of-canadian-cases Pasuni, Afif; Osman, Mohamed Nawab Mohamed; Noor, Farish A. (2014, July): The Islamic State in Iraq and Sham (ISIS) and Malaysia: Current Challenges and Future Impact. (RSIS Malaysia Update). URL: https://www. rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/NL140717_Malaysia_Update_Jul2014.pdf Pospisil, Jan; Khitte, Stefan (2014, February): Friedensprozesse in gewaltsamen Mehrparteienkonflikten: Eine vergleichende Studie der Friedensverhandlungen in Kolumbien und den Philippinen. (oiip Arbeitspapier 73). URL: https://www.oiip.ac.at/en/publikation/friedensprozesse-in-gewaltsamen-mehrparteienkonflikten-eine- vergleichende-studie-der-friedensverhandlungen-in-kolumbien-und-den-philippinen Qatar International Academy for Security Studies (QIASS) (2010, November): Risk Reduction for Countering Violent Extremism: Explorative Review by the International Resource Center for Countering Violent Extremism. URL: https://qiass.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/QIASS-Risk-Reduction-for-CVE-final-101414.pdf Ranstorp, Magnus (2009): Preventing Violent Radicalization and Terrorism: The Case of Indonesia. (CATS Report). URL: https://www.libforall.org/lfa/media/2009/CATS-Report_Magnus-Ranstorp.pdf

ISSN 2334-3745 199 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Robinson, Linda; Johnston, Patrick B.; Oak, Gillian S. (2016): U.S. Special Operations Forces in the Philippines, 2001–2014. (RAND Research Reports, RR-1236-OSD). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7249/RR1236 Rustad, Siri Aas; Nygård, Håvard Mokleiv; Methi, Fredrik (2020): Are the Coronavirus Ceasefires Working? (PRIO Conflict Trends, 4|2020). URL:https://www.prio.org/Publications/Publication/?x=12336 Sanderson, Thomas M. (2017, July): Black Flags Over Mindanao: ISIS in the Philippines. (Testimony presented before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific, July 12, 2017). URL: https://www.csis.org/analysis/black-flags-over-mindanao-isis-philippines Shay, Shaul (2014, September): Malaysia and the Hamas Connection. (ICT Articles). URL: http://www.ict.org. il/Article/1225/Malaysia-and-the-Hamas-Connection Shay, Shaul (2014, October): The Islamic State and its Allies in Southeast Asia. (ICT Articles). URL: http:// www.ict.org.il/Article/1238/The-Islamic-State-and-its-Allies-in-Southeast-Asia Siddiqui, Usaid (2016, September): Muslim Minorities in Peril: The Rise of Buddhist Violence in Asia.(Al - jazeera Centre for Studies Report). URL: https://studies.aljazeera.net/en/reports/2016/09/muslim-minori- ties-peril-rise-buddhist-violence-asia-160908090547506.html Sidel, John T. (2012, February): Radicalization and Islamist Violence in Southeast Asia: The Logic of Defen- sive Jihad. Radicalisation Research. URL: https://www.radicalisationresearch.org/debate/sidel-2012-radicalisa- tion-2 Sim, Susan (2013, January): Leveraging Terrorist Dropouts to Counter Violent Extremism in Southeast Asia. (QIASS Report). URL: https://qiass.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/QIASS-Leveraging-Terrorist-Drop- outs_Susan-Sim-final-101514.pdf Skinner, Patrick M. (2016, April): ISIS in the Pacific: Assessing Terrorism in Southeast Asia and the Threat to the Homeland. (Testimony presented before the Subcommittee on Counterterrorism and Intelligence, House Committee on Homeland Security, April 27, 2016). URL: https://docs.house.gov/meetings/HM/ HM05/20160427/104848/HHRG-114-HM05-Wstate-SkinnerP-20160427.pdf Smith, Samuel A. (2015, February): Terrorism in Southeast Asia: The Case of the Abu Sayyaf Group and Je- maah Islamiyah. (ICT Working Paper 33). URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep09456 Spooner, Joshua (2016, December): Assessing ISIS Expansion in Southeast Asia: Major Threat or Misplaced Fear? (Wilson Center Asia Program Publications). URL: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/assessing- isis-expansion-southeast-asia-major-threat-or-misplaced-fear Strachan, Anna Louise (2015, December): Conflict Analysis of Muslim Mindanao. (GSDRC Report). URL: https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-muslim-mindanao Sukhani, Piya Raj (2020, August): The Route to Radicalisation for Malay-Muslim Women: Tracing the Nexus Between Universals and Particulars in Malaysia. (RSIS Working Paper No. 331). URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/ rsis-publication/idss/the-route-to-radicalisation-for-malay-muslim-women-tracing-the-nexus-between-uni- versals-and-particulars-in-malaysia Sumpter, Cameron (2018, July): Returning Indonesian Extremists: Unclear Intentions and Unprepared Respons- es. (ICCT Policy Brief). DOI: https://doi.org/10.19165/2018.2.05 Sumpter, Cameron (2020, September): Online Agitators, Extremists and Counter-Messaging in Indonesia. (GNET-CENS Workshop Report). URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/cens/gnet-cens-work- shop-online-agitators-extremists-and-counter-messaging-in-indonesia Tech Against Terrorism (2020): The Online Regulation Series | Singapore. URL: https://www.techagainstterror- ism.org/2020/10/05/the-online-regulation-series-singapore

ISSN 2334-3745 200 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Tech Against Terrorism (2020): The Online Regulation Series | The Philippines. URL: https://www.techagainst- terrorism.org/2020/10/07/the-online-regulation-series-the-philippines Temby, Quinton (2020): Terrorism in Indonesia After “Islamic State”. (ISEAS Trends in Southeast Asia, Issue 3/2020). URL: https://www.iseas.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/TRS3_20.pdf Thiele, Ralph D. (2015, October):Search and Rescue at Sea – An ASEAN Security Force? (ISPSW Strate- gy Series: Focus on Defense and International Security, Issue No. 386). URL: https://www.files.ethz.ch/ isn/194496/386_Thiele.pdf Thomas, Elise; Ruser, Nathan; Walker, Mali (2019, July):Mapping Conditions in Rakhine State. (ASPI Report). URL: https://www.aspi.org.au/report/mapping-conditions-rakhine-state Watts, John T. (2016, April): Hearing on “ISIS in the Pacific: Assessing Terrorism in Southeast Asia and the Threat to Homeland Security”. (Testimony presented before the Subcommittee on Counterterrorism and In- telligence, House Committee on Homeland Security, April 27, 2016). URL: https://docs.house.gov/meetings/ HM/HM05/20160427/104848/HHRG-114-HM05-Wstate-WattsJ-20160427.pdf Xu, Beina; Albert, Eleanor (2016, March): Understanding Myanmar. (CFR Backgrounder). URL: https://www. cfr.org/backgrounder/understanding-myanmar Zaidi Peery, Supna (2016, April): ISIS in the Pacific: Assessing Terrorism in Southeast Asia and the Threat to the Homeland. (Testimony presented before the Subcommittee on Counterterrorism and Intelligence, House Committee on Homeland Security, April 27, 2016). URL: https://docs.house.gov/meetings/HM/ HM05/20160427/104848/HHRG-114-HM05-Wstate-ZaidiS-20160427.pdf Zeiger, Sara (2016, May): Counter-Narratives for Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) in South East Asia. (Hedayah Workshop Report). URL: https://www.hedayahcenter.org/resources/reports_and_publications/ counter-narratives-for-cve-in-south-east-asia Zenn, Jacob (2016, January): The Islamic State’s Attack in Jakarta: Progeny, Profiles and Prospects for a South- east Asia Province. (The Jamestown Foundation Hot Issues series). URL:https://jamestown.org/program/hot- issue-the-islamic-states-attack-in-jakarta-progeny-profiles-and-prospects-for-a-southeast-asia-province

Note Whenever retrievable, URLs for freely available versions of subscription-based publications have been provided. Thanks to the Open Access movement, self-archiving of publications in institutional repositories, on professional networking sites, or author homepages for free public use (so-called Green Open Access) has become more common. Please note, that the content of Green Open Access documents is not necessarily identical to the officially published versions (e.g., in case of preprints); it might therefore not have passed through all editorial steps publishers employ to ensure quality control (peer review, copy and layout editing etc.). In some cases, articles may only be cited after obtaining permission by the author(s).

About the Compiler: Judith Tinnes, Ph.D., is a Professional Information Specialist. Since 2011, she works for the Leibniz Institute for Psychology (ZPID). Additionally, she serves as Information Resources Editor to ‘Perspec- tives on Terrorism’. In her editorial role, she regularly compiles bibliographies and other resources for Terrorism Research (for an inventory visit https://archive.org/details/terrorism-research-bibliographies). She wrote her doctoral thesis on Internet usage of Islamist terrorists and insurgents (focus: media-oriented hostage takings). E-mail: [email protected]

ISSN 2334-3745 201 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Bibliography: Civilian Casualties of Terrorism and Counter- Terrorism

Compiled and selected by David Teiner

Abstract

This bibliography contains bibliographies, books, including edited volumes, book chapters, articles theses, and grey literature on civilian casualties of terrorism and counter-terrorism. It presents quantitative, qualitative as well as mixed-method approaches to provide a wide range of perspectives. This bibliography should not be regarded as exhaustive, considering the multidisciplinary nature of the field. For instance, publications on the use of drones (UAVs) are not fully reflected here as the literature in this particular area has grown considerably in recent years. Inclusion here would otherwise distort the thematic balance of this bibliography. Full coverage of the debate on the use of UAVs in conflicts will have to wait for a future stand-alone bibliography.

Keywords: civilians, casualties, indiscriminate violence, civilian immunity, targeted killings, genocide

NB: All websites were last visited on December 3, 2020 – See also Note for the Reader at the end of this literature list.

Bibliographies and other Resources

Airwars (2014-): @airwars. URL: https://twitter.com/airwars Amnesty International (1961-): Armed Conflict. URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/armed- conflict/ Counting Lives Lost (2016, February-): @CountingLivesPT. URL: https://twitter.com/CountingLivesPT Crane, David (Project Leader) et al. (2011-): The Syrian Accountability Project (SAP).URL: https:// syrianaccountabilityproject.syr.edu Global Observatory (2013, June 24): A Resource Guide to the Syrian Conflict.URL: https:// theglobalobservatory.org/2013/06/a-resource-guide-to-the-syrian-conflict/ Human Rights Watch (1991-): Terrorism/Counterterrorism. URL: https://www.hrw.org/topic/terrorism- counterterrorism I Am Syria (n.d.-): URL: http://www.iamsyria.org/ International Committee of the Red Cross (n.d.-): Civilians. URL: https://www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law/ protected-persons/civilians International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) (2009-): @ICRC. URL: https://twitter.com/ICRC Khatib, Hadi et al. (2015-): Syrian Archive: Curating Visual Documentation for Justice and Human Rights. URL: https://syrianarchive.org Lund, Aron (2012-): Syria in Crisis. URL: http://carnegieendowment.org/syriaincrisis Mohammed, Omar (2015, April-): @MosulEye. URL: https://twitter.com/MosulEye Peace Research Institute Oslo (2008): Battle Deaths Data. URL: https://www.prio.org/Data/Armed-Conflict/ Battle-Deaths/

ISSN 2334-3745 202 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Phillips, Christopher (2010, February-): The Battle for Syria.URL: https://cjophillips.wordpress.com Price, Eric (2012, December): Literature on Victims of Terrorism: Monographs, Edited Volumes, Non- Conventional Literature and Prime Articles & Book Chapters. Perspectives on Terrorism, 6(6), 144-166. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2012/ issue-6/literature-on-victims-of-terrorism.pdf Raqqa is Being Slaughtered Silently (RBSS) (2014, April-): URL: https://www.raqqa-sl.com Smith, Rhiannon (Managing Director) et al. (2016-): Eye on ISIS in Libya. URL: https://eyeonisisinlibya.com Syrian Civil War Map (n.d.-): URL: https://syriancivilwarmap.com Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR) (2012-): Casualties. URL: https://sn4hr.org/# Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) (2006, May-): URL: https://www.syriahr.com/en/ Tinnes, Judith (2013, December): Literature on the Conflict in Syria (2011 – November 2013).Perspectives on Terrorism, 7(6), 137-165. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/governance-and- global-affairs/isga/perspectives-on-terrorism/2013-6.pdf Tinnes, Judith (2015, June): Bibliography: Conflict in Syria (Part 2).Perspectives on Terrorism, 9(3), 82- 112. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/governance-and-global-affairs/isga/ perspectives-on-terrorism/2015-3.pdf Tinnes, Judith (2017, April): Bibliography: Conflict in Syria (Part 3).Perspectives on Terrorism, 11(2), 65- 107. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/governance-and-global-affairs/isga/ perspectives-on-terrorism/2017-2.pdf United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) (2007-): Reports on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict. URL: https://unama.unmissions.org/protection-of-civilians-reports Uppsala Department of Peace and Conflict Research (1975-):Uppsala Conflict Data Program. URL: https:// ucdp.uu.se/ UppsalaPeaceConflict (2011-):@UU_Peace . URL: https://twitter.com/UU_peace Werthes, Sascha (2019, October): Bibliography: Human Security. URL: http://researchcluster-humansecurity. info/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/10-2019-ResearchTeaching-Bibliography-Human_Security-Vers-1_Web. pdf Woods, Chris et al. (2014-): Airwars. URL: https://airwars.org

Yemen Data Project (2017-): @Yemen Data. URL: https://twitter.com/YemenData

Books and Edited Volumes

Abouzeid, Rania (2018): No Turning Back: Life, Loss, and Hope in Wartime Syria. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Agger, Inger; Jensen, Søren B. (1996): Trauma and Healing Under State Terrorism. London: Zed Books. Alpeyrie, Jonathan; Stash Luczkiw (2017): The Shattered Lens: A War Photographer’s True Story of Captivity and Survival in Syria. New York: Atria Books. Badalič, Vasja (2019): The War Against Civilians: Victims of the “War on Terror” in Afghanistan and Pakistan. (Palgrave Studies in Victims and Victimology). London: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-12406-9

ISSN 2334-3745 203 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Bale, Jeffrey M. (2017):The Darkest Sides of Politics, II: State Terrorism, “Weapons of Mass Destruction”, Religious Extremism, and Organized Crime. Abingdon: Routledge. Barela, Steven J. (2015): Legitimacy and Drones: Investigating the Legality, Morality and Efficacy of UCAVs. (Series: Emerging Technologies, Ethics and International Affairs). Abingdon: Routledge. Barther, Shane J. (2014): Civilian Strategy in Civil War: Insights from Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Bellamy, Alex J. (2012): Massacres & Morality: Mass Atrocities in an Age of Civilian Immunity. Oxford. Oxford University Press. Bergen, Peter; Rothenberg, Daniel (2014): Drone Wars: Transforming Conflict, Law, and Policy. New York: Cambridge University Press. Blank, Laurie R; Noone, Gregory P. (2013): International Law and Armed Conflict: Fundamental Principles and Contemporary Challenges in the Law of War. Alphen aan den Rijn: Wolters Kluwer. Bloom, Mia; Horgan, John (2019): Small Arms: Children and Terrorism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Bouris, Erica (2007): Complex Political Victims. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Brandsch, Jürgen (2020): Killing Civilians in Civil War: The Rationale of Indiscriminate Violence.Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Brookes, Gwen; Pooley, Julie A.; Earnest, Jaya (2015): Terrorism, Trauma and Psychology. (Series: Explorations in Social Psychology). Abingdon: Routledge. Butler, Adrienne S.; Panzer, Allison M.; Goldfrank, Lewis R. (2003): Preparing for the Psychological Consequences of Terrorism: A Public Health Strategy. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. Cabestrero, Teófilo (1985):Blood of the Innocent: Victims of the Contras’ War in Nicaragua. Ossining: Orbis Books. Cavallaro, James; Sonnenberg, Stephan; Knuckey, Sarah (2012): Living Under Drones: Death, Injury and Trauma to Civilians from US Drone Practices in Pakistan. Stanford; New York: International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic; Global Justice Clinic. URL:https://law.stanford.edu/publications/living- under-drones-death-injury-and-trauma-to-civilians-from-us-drone-practices-in-pakistan/ Chamayou, Grégoire (2015): A Theory of the Drone. New York: The New Press. Corn, Geoffrey S.; Hansen, Victor; Jackson, Richard; Jenks, M. Christopher; Jensen, Eric T.; Schoettler, James A. (2018): The Law of Armed Conflict: An Operational Approach. Alphen aan den Rijn: Wolters Kluwer. Corn, Geoffrey; Watkin, Ken; Williamson, Jamie (2018):The Law in War: A Concise Overview. Abingdon: Routledge. Crawford, Neta (2013): Accountability for Killing: Moral Responsibility for Collateral Damage in America’s Post-9/11 Wars. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dill, Janina (2014): Legitimate Targets? Social Construction, International Law and US Bombing. (Series: Cambridge Studies in International Relations). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Downes, Alexander B. (2008): Targeting Civilians in War. (Cornell Studies in Security Affairs). Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Evangelista, Matthew; Shue, Henry (Eds.) (2014): The American Way of Bombing: Changing Ethical and Legal Norms from Flying Fortresses to Drones. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Falk, Ophir (2020): Targeted Killings, Law and Counter-Terrorism Effectiveness: Does Fair Play Pay Off?

ISSN 2334-3745 204 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Abingdon: Routledge. Frowe, Helen (2016): The Ethics of War and Peace: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge. Gill, Terry D.; Geiß, Robin; Krieger, Heike; McCormack, Tim; Paulussen, Christophe (2017): Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 2016 – Volume 19. (Series: Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law). The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press. Gill, Terry D.; Geiß, Robin; Krieger, Heike; Paulussen, Christophe; McCormack, Tim (2015): Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 2014 – Volume 17. (Series: Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law). The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press. Gilligan, Emma (2010): Terror in Chechnya: Russia and the Tragedy of Civilians in War. (Series: Human Rights and Crimes Against Humanity). Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Gottlieb, Stuart (2014): Debating Terrorism and Counterterrorism: Conflicting Perspectives on Causes, Contexts, and Responses. Thousand Oaks: CQ Press. Housley, Jennifer; Beutler, Larry E. (2007): Treating Victims of Mass Disaster and Terrorism. (Series: Advances in Psychotherapy – Evidence-Based Practice). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers. John-Hopkins, Michael (2017): The Rule of Law in Crisis and Conflict Grey Zones: Regulating the Use of Force in a Global Information Environment. Abingdon: Routledge. Keene, Shima D. (2015): Lethal and Legal? The Ethics of Drone Strikes. (SSI Monograph). Carlisle Barracks: United States Army War College Press. URL: https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=789199 Kinsella, Helen M. (2011): The Image before the Weapon: A Critical History of the Distinction Between Combatant and Civilian. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Krasner, Barbara (Ed.) (2018): Civilian Casualties in War. New York: Greenhaven Publishing. Lattimer, Mark; Sands, Philippe (Eds.) (2018): The Grey Zone: Civilian Protection Between Human Rights and the Laws of War. Oxford: Hart Publishing. Letschert, Rianne; Staiger, Ines; Pemberton, Antony (Eds.) (2010): Assisting Victims of Terrorism. Berlin: Springer. Lopez, Patricia J.; Gillespie, Kathryn A. (2015): Economies of Death: Economic Logics of Killable Life and Grievable Death. Abingdon: Routledge. Lynch, Orla; Argomaniz, Javier (Eds.) (2015): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge. Maley, William; Schmeidl, Susanne (Eds.) (2015): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge. Matfess, Hilary (2017): Women and the War on Boko Haram: Wives, Weapons, Witnesses. (Series: African Arguments). London: Zed Books. McLeod, Travers (2015): Rule of Law in War: International Law and United States Counterinsurgency Doctrine in the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Murray, Daragh; Wilmshurst, Elizabeth; Hampson, Francoise; Garraway, Charles; Lubell, Noam; Akande, Dapo (Eds.) (2016): Practitioners Guide to Human Rights Law in Armed Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Norheim-Martinsen, Per M.; Nyhamar, Tore (Eds.) (2015): International Military Operations in the 21st Century: Global Trends and the Future of Intervention. (Series: Cass Military Studies). Abingdon: Routledge.

ISSN 2334-3745 205 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Phelan, Alexandra (Ed.) (2020): Terrorism, Gender and Women: Toward an Integrated Research Agenda. Abingdon: Routledge. Rosén, Frederik (2016): Collateral Damage: A Candid History of a Peculiar Form of Death. (Series: Critical War Studies). London: Hurst Publishers. Seybolt, Taylor B.; Aronson, Jay D.; Fischhoff, Baruch (Eds.) (2013):Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Silke, Andrew (2003): Terrorists, Victims and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and its Consequences. Hoboken: Wiley. Takahashi, Saul (2014): Human Rights, Human Security, and State Security: The Intersection. Westport: Praeger. Tirman, John (2011): The Death of Others: The Fate of Civilians in America’s Wars. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Walsh, James I.; Schulzke, Marcus (2018): Drones and Support for the Use of Force. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Webber, Jane; Mascari, J.B. (2010): Terrorism, Trauma and Tragedies: A Counselor’s Guide to Preparing and Responding. (Third Edition). Alexandria: American Counseling Association. Weller, Marc (Ed.) (2015): The Oxford Handbook of the Use of Force in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wilcox, Lauren B. (2015): Bodies of Violence: Theorizing Embodied Subjects in International Relations. (Series: Oxford Studies in Gender and International Relations). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Woods, Chris (2015): Sudden Justice: America’s Secret Drone Wars. London: Hurst Publishers.

Theses

Akins, John (2019): The Terrorism Trap: The Hidden Impact of America’s War on Terror. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, United States). URL: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/5624/ Allen, Joshua (2019): Testing the Effects of US Airstrikes on Insurgent Initiated Violence in Yemen. (Master’s Thesis, Georgia State University, Atlanta, United States). URL:https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/political_ science_theses/74/ Beger, Andreas (2012): Predicting the Intensity and Location of Violence in War. (Doctoral Thesis, Florida State University, Tallahassee, United States). URL: http://purl.flvc.org/fsu/fd/FSU_migr_etd-4713 Bishop, Matthew (2014): Iraqi Civilian Death in American Mass Media: The Causes and Consequences of Silence. (Doctoral Thesis, George Washington University, Washington D.C., United States). URL:https:// pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/1679276779.html?FMT=ABS Brandsch, Jürgen (2018): Indiscriminate Violence Against Civilians: An Inquiry into the Nature and the Effects of Group-Selective Violence. (Doctoral Thesis, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/16559 Brown, Joseph M. (2015): The Bomber Who Calls Ahead: Terrorism, Insurgency, and the Politics of Pre-Attack Warning. (Doctoral Thesis, Columbia University, New York, United States). URL:https://academiccommons. columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8JD4W3R

ISSN 2334-3745 206 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Capps, Jason S. (2010): Collateral Damage in Iraq and Capital Punishment in the U.S.: How the Public Makes Sense of Extreme Violence and Death. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Kansas, Lawrence, United States). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1808/6977 Dillingham, Jonathan C. (2011): Fair and Balanced in Falluja? How the New York Times Betrayed Civilian Victims during an American Attack on an Iraqi City. (Master’s Thesis, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States). URL: http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15799coll3/ id/175107/rec/2750 Erenler, Muhammed (2017): A Social Control Theory: Bridging the Information-Violence Gap: How Can Information Provision Affect States’ Tendency Toward Violence Against Civilians? (Doctoral Thesis, University at Buffalo, New York, United States). URL:https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/1980859711. html?FMT=ABS&pubnum=10618738 Gastal, Piotr (2008, March): Targeting Civilians with Indiscriminate Violence. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/4266 Hansen, Valerie (2014): The Effect of State Killing of Civilians on Anti-State Violence: Case Studies of Syria & Nigeria. (Master’s Thesis, Princeton University, Princeton, United States). URL:http://arks.princeton.edu/ ark:/88435/dsp01j38607100 Heger, Lindsay L. (2010): In the Crosshairs: Explaining Violence Against Civilians. (Doctoral Thesis, University of California, San Diego, United States). URL: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6705k88s LeBlanc, Amy (2013): Embedded Journalism and American Media Coverage of Civilian Casualties in Iraq. (Master’s Thesis, University of Gothenburg, University of Roehampton, University of Tromsø, Gothenburg, London, Tromsø, Sweden, United Kingdom, Norway). URL: https://munin.uit.no/handle/10037/5315 Lee, Amra (2019): Why Do Some Civilian Lives Matter More Than Others? Exploring How the Quality, Timeliness and Consistency of Data on Civilian Harm Affects the Conduct of Hostilities for Civilians Caught in Conflict. (Master’s Thesis, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden). URL:http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/ record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1329899&dswid=6472 Lee, Uih R. (2013): An Economic Analysis on Human Costs in Armed Conflict. (Doctoral Thesis, University of London, London, United Kingdom). URL: https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/an- economic-analysis-on-human-costs-in-armed-conflict(ee3e0e6e-1cd1-4552-a362-f47fb809d275).html Leuthauser, Elizabeth L. (2012): Responding to Civilian Bloodshed: Investigating the Relationship Between One- Sided Violence and Aid. (Doctoral Thesis, Iowa State University, Ames, United States). URL:https://pqdtopen. proquest.com/doc/1022180240.html?FMT=ABS Mosher, Katrina N. (2009): The Metrics of Death: Emotions and the Effects of Casualties on Public Opinion in Militarized Disputes and Terrorism. (Doctoral Thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station, United States). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-3232 Neugroschel, Sara (2019): The Danger of a Perfect Strike: The Unintended Consequences of Restrictive Targeting Regimes. (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, United States). URL:http://hdl.handle. net/10945/63177 Pons, William (2018): How to Bring Clarity to the Protection of Civilians in Non-International Armed Conflicts: A Critical Assessment of Continuous Combat Function and a Viable Alternative. (Doctoral Thesis, George Washington University, Washington D.C., United States). URL: https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/ doc/2046829247.html?FMT=ABS Replogle, Sherri (2013): The Civilian and the War on Terror: Do Norms Shape Strategy? (Doctoral Thesis, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, United States). URL: https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/682/

ISSN 2334-3745 207 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Rosseland, Jo M. (2017, May): Intra State Conflict and Violence Against Civilians: A Study of the Syrian Civil War and the Violence Committed by the Assad Regime against the Syrian People. (Master’s Thesis, Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway). URL: https://hdl.handle.net/10037/12771 Siver, Christie L. (2009): The Dark Side of Band of Brothers: Explaining Unit Participation in War Crimes. (Doctoral Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, United States). URL:https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/ doc/305017036.html?FMT=ABS Snyder, Jack (2009): Strategies of Violence and Restraint in Civil War. (Doctoral Thesis, Columbia University, New York, United States). URL: https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/304866090.html?FMT=ABS Tsukayama, John K. (2014): By Any Means Necessary: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Study of Post 9/11 American Abusive Violence in Iraq. (Doctoral Thesis, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/4510

Journal Articles and Book Chapters

Aarseth, Mathilde B. (2018, Spring): Resistance in the Caliphate’s Classrooms: Mosul Civilians vs IS. Middle East Policy, 25(1), 46-63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/mepo.12324 Abrahms, Max (2020): Denying to Win: How Image-Savvy Militant Leaders Respond when Operatives Harm Civilians. Journal of Strategic Studies, 43(1), 47-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2018.1471597 Abrahms, Max; Beauchamp, Nicholas; Mroszczyk, Joseph (2017): What Terrorist Leaders Want: A Content Analysis of Terrorist Propaganda Videos. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(11), 899-916. DOI: https://doi.or g/10.1080/1057610X.2016.1248666 Abrahms, Max; Gottfried, Matthew S. (2016): Does Terrorism Pay? An Empirical Analysis. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(1), 72-89. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2013.879057 Abrahms, Max; Mierau, Jochen (2017): Leadership Matters: The Effects of Targeted Killings on Militant Group Tactics. Terrorism and Political Violence, 29(5), 830-851. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015. 1069671

Abrahms, Max; Ward, Matthew; Kennedy, Ryan (2018, February): Explaining Civilian Attacks: Terrorist Networks, Principal-Agent Problems and Target Selection. Perspectives on Terrorism, 12(1), 23-4. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2018/02- explaining-civilian-attacks---terrorist-networks-principal-agent-problems-and.pdf Aduda, Levke; Bussmann, Margit (2020): Mediation and the Dynamics of Civilian Victimisation in Intrastate Conflicts in Africa. Civil Wars, 22(1), 64-86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2020.1703078 Al-Dayel, Nadia; Mumford, Andrew; Bales, Kevin (2020): Not Yet Dead: The Establishment and Regulation of Slavery by the Islamic State. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, online first. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/1057 610X.2020.1711590 Aleem, Zeeshan (2018): In Iraq and Syria, a Change in Place of Battle Puts More Civilians at Risk. In: Barbara Krasner (Ed.): Civilian Casualties in War. New York: Greenhaven Publishing, 44-48. Allen, Susan H.; Machain, Carla M. (2017): Understanding the Impact of Air Power. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 36(5), 545-558. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0738894216682485 Alonso, Rogelio; Serranó, Agata (2015): The Needs of Victims of Terrorism in Spain. In: Orla Lynch; Javier Argomaniz (Eds.): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge, 90-106.

ISSN 2334-3745 208 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Anderton, Charles H.; Ryan, Edward V. (2016): Habituation to Atrocity: Low-Level Violence Against Civilians as a Predictor of High-Level Attacks. Journal of Genocide Research, 18(4: Ethnic Homogenizing in Southeastern Europe), 539-562. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2016.1216109 Annan, Nancy (2014, January): Violent Conflicts and Civil Strife in West Africa: Causes, Challenges and Prospects. Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 3(1), Art. 3, 1-16. URL: https://www. stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.da/ Argomaniz, Javier (2015): European Instruments Concerning the Rights of Victims of Terrorism: Meeting Needs? In: Orla Lynch; Javier Argomaniz (Eds.): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge, 122-138. Aronson, Jay D. (2013): The Politics of Civilian Casualty Counts. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.):Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 29-54. Aronson, Jay D.; Fischhoff, Baruch; Seybolt, Taylor B. (2013): Moving Toward More Accurate Casualty Counts. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.):Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 285-298. Asal, Victor; Brown, Mitchell; Schulzke, Marcus (2015, September): “Kill Them All – Old and Young, Girls and Women and Little Children”: An Examination of the Organizational Choice of Targeting Civilians. Political Science Research and Methods, 3(3), 589-607. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2014.45

Asal, Victor; Gill, Paul; Rethemeyer, R. Karl; Horgan, John (2015): Killing Range: Explaining Lethality Variance Within a Terrorist Organization. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 59(3), 401-427. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002713508927 Asal, Victor; Phillips, Brian J.; Rethemeyer, R. Karl; Simonelly, Corina; Young, Joseph K. (2019): Carrots, Sticks, and Insurgent Targeting of Civilians. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(7), 1710-1735. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002718789748 Asher, Jana (2013): Using Surveys to Estimate Casualties Post-Conflict: Developments for the Developing World. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.): Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 97-122. Aslam, Wali (2016): Great-Power Responsibility, Side-Effect Harms and American Drone Strikes in Pakistan. Journal of Military Ethics, 15(2), 143-162. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15027570.2016.1211867

Avdan, Nazli; Uzonyi, Gary (2017): V for Vendetta: Government Mass Killing and Domestic Terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(11), 934-965. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2016.1250553

Balcells, Laia; Stanton, Jessica A. (2020): Violence Against Civilians During Armed Conflict: Moving Beyond the Macro- and Micro-Level Divide. Annual Review of Political Science, 24, online first. DOI:https://doi. org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102229 Ball, Patrick; Price, Megan (2019): Using Statistics to Assess Lethal Violence in Civil and Inter-State War. Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application, 6(1), 63-84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev- statistics-030718-105222 Bassett, Jonathan F.; Cleveland, Amanda J. (2019): Identification With All Humanity, Support for Refugees and for Extreme Counter-Terrorism Measures. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 7(1), 310-334. Beadle, Alexander W. (2015): Protection of Civilians as a New Objective in Military Operations. In: Per M.

ISSN 2334-3745 209 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Norheim-Martinsen; Tore Nyhamar (Eds.): International Military Operations in the 21st Century: Global Trends and the Future of Intervention. (Series: Cass Military Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 195-214. Bennett, Simon (2014, September): The Central Intelligence Agency’s Armed Remotely Piloted Vehicle- Supported Counter-Insurgency Campaign in Pakistan – A Mission Undermined by Unintended Consequences? Journal of Terrorism Research, 5(3), 14-30. URL: https://cvir.st-andrews.ac.uk/ articles/10.15664/jtr.943

Bhattacharya, Srobana (2017): Comparing Civilian Support for Terrorism. Journal of Strategic Security, 10(2), 1-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.10.2.1562

Bloom, Mia; Horgan, John; Winter, Charlie (2016): Depictions of Children and Youth in the Islamic State’s Martyrdom Propaganda, 2015-2016. CTC Sentinel, 9(2), 29-32. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/depictions-of- children-and-youth-in-the-islamic-states-martyrdom-propaganda-2015-2016/ Bonds, Eric (2019, May): Humanitized Violence: Targeted Killings and Civilian Deaths in the US War Against the Islamic State. Current Sociology, 67(3), 438-455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0011392118807527 Boyle, Francis A. (2017, March): The Criminal Conspiracy of the Bush Administrations and the Protection of Iraq’s Children. International Journal of Contemporary Iraqi Studies, 11(1-2), 85-92. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1386/ijcis.11.1-2.85_1

Braithwaite, Alex; Johnson, Shane D. (2015): The Battle for Baghdad: Testing Hypotheses About Insurgency from Risk Heterogeneity, Repeat Victimization, and Denial Policing Approaches. Terrorism and Political Violence, 27(1), 112-132. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.972160 Breau, Susan C.; Joyce, Rachel (2012): Identifying and Recording Every Casualty of Armed Conflict. International Journal of Contemporary Iraqi Studies, 5(3), 357-386. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1386/ ijcis.5.3.357_1 Burkhardt, Todd (2016): The Harmful and Residual Effects on Civilians by Bombing Dual-Purpose Facilities. Journal of Military Ethics, 15(2), 81-99. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15027570.2016.1178471 Burnham, Gilbert; Lafta, Riyadh; Doocy, Shannon; Roberts, Les (2006, October): Mortality After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq: A Cross-Sectional Cluster Sample Survey. The Lancet, 368(9545), 1421-1428. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69491-9

Butcher, Charles; Goldsmith, Benjamin E.; Nanlohy, Sascha; Sowmya, Arcot; Muchlinski, David (2020, January): Introducing the Targeted Mass Killing Data Set for the Study and Forecasting of Mass Atrocities. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 64(7-8), 1524-1547. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022002719896405 Caroll, Katherine B. (2015, Winter): The Strangest Tribe: U.S. Military Claims in Iraq. Middle East Policy, 22(4), 40-54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/mepo.12156 Carpenter, Charli; Montgomery, Alexander H. (2020): The Stopping Power of Norms: Saturation Bombing, Civilian Immunity, and U.S. Attitudes Toward the Laws of War. International Security, 45(2), 140-169. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00392 Cascone, Gabriele; Sternberg, David (2018): Fighting Non-State Actors in a Population Dense Urban Environment: A New-Old Challenge for Militaries. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series – E: Human and Societal Dynamics, 140(Countering Terrorism and Urban Warfare), 23-36. URL: http://ebooks.iospress. nl/volumearticle/50270 Cederman, Lars-Erik; Hug, Simon; Schubiger, Livia I.; Villami, Francisco (2020, January): Civilian Victimization and Ethnic Civil War. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 64(7-8), 1199-1225. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002719898873

ISSN 2334-3745 210 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Chenoweth, Erica (2017, January): Trends in Nonviolent Resistance and State Response: Is Violence Towards Civilian-Based Movements on the Rise? Global Responsibility to Protect, 9(1), 86-100. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1163/1875984X-00901006 Chin, Vivienne (2015): Collateral Damage of Counter-Terrorism Measures and the Inevitable Consequence of the Social Exclusion and Marginalization of Vulnerable Groups. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series – E: Human and Societal Dynamics, 118(Countering Radicalisation and Violent Extremism Among Youth to Prevent Terrorism), 11-22. URL: http://ebooks.iospress.nl/volumearticle/38466 Choi, Seung-Whan; Acosta, Benjamin (2020): Sunni Suicide Attacks and Sectarian Violence. Terrorism and Political Violence, 32(7), 1371-1390. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2018.1472585 Condra, Luke N.; Shapiro, Jacob N. (2012, January): Who Takes the Blame? The Strategic Effects of Collateral Damage. American Journal of Political Science, 56(1), 167-187. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540- 5907.2011.00542.x Conley, Bridget (2017, January): What Counts at the End? Questioning Consensus in the Construction of Mass Atrocity Narratives. Global Responsibility to Protect, 9(1), 15-37. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1163/1875984X-00901003

Del Re, Emanuela C. (2015): The Yazidi and the Islamic State, or the Effects of a Middle East Without Minorities on Europe. The Politics and Religion Journal, 9(2), 269-293. DeMeritt, Jacqueline H. (2015): Delegating Death: Military Intervention and Government Killing. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 59(3), 428-454. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022002713515406 Dharmawardhane, Iromi (2013, December): Sri Lanka’s Post-Conflict Strategy: Restorative Justice for Rebels and Rebuilding of Conflict-Affected Communities.Perspectives on Terrorism, 7(6), 27-57. URL: https:// www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/governance-and-global-affairs/isga/perspectives-on- terrorism/2013-6.pdf Doctor, Austin C.; Willingham, John D. (2020): Foreign Fighters, Rebel Command Structure, and Civilian Targeting in Civil War. Terrorism and Political Violence, online first. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2 020.1763320 Dowd, Caitriona (2019): Fragmentation, Conflict, and Competition: Islamist Anti-Civilian Violence in Sub- Saharan Africa. Terrorism and Political Violence, 31(3), 433-453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2016 .1233870 Edwards, D.S.; McMenemy, L.; Stapley, S.A.; Patel, H.D.; Clasper, J.C. (2016): 40 Years of Terrorist Bombings – A Meta-Analysis of the Casualty and Injury Profile.Injury , 47(3), 646-652. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. injury.2015.12.021 Egnell, Robert; Ucko, David H. (2015): Counterinsurgency Operations Revisited. In: Per M. Norheim- Martinsen; Tore Nyhamar (Eds.): International Military Operations in the 21st Century: Global Trends and the Future of Intervention. (Series: Cass Military Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 59-80. Erzse, Akos (2018): Protecting the Civilian Population in Urban Combat Areas. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series – E: Human and Societal Dynamics, 140(Countering Terrorism and Urban Warfare), 1-14. URL: http://ebooks.iospress.nl/volumearticle/50268 Eschenburg, Benjamin; Faber, Audrey A.; Knaack, Florian (2011/12): Impact of Drone Strikes on Terrorist Activity in Pakistan. In: Joachim Krause; Stefan Hansen (Eds.): Jahrbuch Terrorismus 2011/2012. Opladen: Verlag Babara Budrich, 439-450. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24916976 Everett, Andrea L. (2017): Mind the Gap: Civilian Protection and the Politics of Peace Operation Design. Security Studies, 26(2), 213-248. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2017.1280298

ISSN 2334-3745 211 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Falk, Ophir; Hefetz, Amir (2019): Minimizing Unintended Deaths Enhanced the Effectiveness of Targeted Killing in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 42(6), 600-616. DOI: https://doi.org /10.1080/1057610X.2017.1402429 Finlay, W. M. (2018): Language and Civilian Deaths: Denying Responsibility for Casualties in the Gaza Conflict 2014.Political Psychology, 39(3), 595-609. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12426 Fjelde, Hanne; Hultman, Lisa; Nilsson, Desirée (2019, Winter): Protection Through Presence: UN Peacekeeping and the Costs of Targeting Civilians. International Organization, 73(1), 103-131. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1017/S0020818318000346 Flynn, D.J.; Stewart, Megan A. (2018): Secessionist Social Services Reduce the Public Costs of Civilian Killings: Experimental Evidence from the United State and the United Kingdom. Research and Politics, online first. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2053168018810077 Foster Lynch, Meghan (2013): Collecting Data on Civilian Casualties: Scientific Challenges and Ethnographic Solutions. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.):Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 123-146. Friesendorf, Cornelius (2019): British Operations Among the People and Civilian Risk. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 30(3), 615-640. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2019.1601866 Gilbert, Emily (2015): The Gift of War: Cash, Counterinsurgency, and ‘Collateral Damage’.Security Dialogue, 46(5), 403-421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0967010615592111 Gill, Paul; Piazza, James A.; Horgan, John (2016): Counterterrorism Killings and Provisional IRA Bombings, 1970-1998. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(3: 100 Years of Irish Republican Violence), 473-496. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2016.1155932 Goers, Matthew; Leidmann, Eva; Sultan, Abdul-Salam S.; Hassan, Ahmed; Bilukha, Oleg (2020): Injury- Related Deaths Before and During the Islamic State Insurgency, Iraq, 2010-2015. Conflict and Health, 14(14), online first. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-020-0252-7 Goodhand, Jonathan (2015): Boundary Wars: NGOs and Civil-Military Relations in Afghanistan. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 121-140. Grant, Keith A.; Kaussler, Bernd (2020): The Battle of Aleppo: External Patrons and the Victimization of Civilians in Civil War. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 31(1), 1-33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2020.1 672959 Grare, Frédéric (2015): Civil-Military Cooperation in Afghanistan: The French Experience. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 110-120. Gregory, Thomas (2015, December): Dismembering the Dead: Violence, Vulnerability and the Body in War. European Journal of International Relations, 22(4), 944-965. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F1354066115618244 Gregory, Thomas (2017): Civilian Casualties, Non-Combatant Immunity and the Politics of Killing: Review Essay. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 10(1), 187-196. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2016.1175271 Gregory, Thomas (2019): Dangerous Feelings: Checkpoints and the Perception of Hostile Intent.Security Dialogue, 50(2), 131-147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0967010618820450 Guha-Sapir, Debarati; Schlüter, Benjamin; Rodriguez-Llanes, Jose M.; Lillywhite, Louis; Hsiao-Rei Hicks, Madelyn (2018, January): Patterns of Civilian and Child Deaths Due to War-Related Violence in Syria: ISSN 2334-3745 212 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

A Comparative Analysis from the Violation Documentation Center Dataset, 2011–16. The Lancet Global Health, 6(1), e103-e110. DOI: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(17)30469-2/ fulltext Gusterson, Hugh (2019): Drone Warfare in Waziristan and the New Military Humanism. Current Anthropology, 60(19), 77-86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/701022 Hägerdal, Nils (2019): Ethnic Cleansing and the Politics of Restraint: Violence and Coexistence in the Lebanese Civil War. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(1), 59-84. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002717721612 Hagopian, Amy; Flaxman, Abraham D.; Takaro, Tim K.; Esa Al-Shatari, Sahar A.; Rajaratnam, Julie; Becker, Stan; Levin-Rector, Alison; Galway, Lindsay; Al-Yasseri, Hadi; Berg J.; Weiss, William M.; Murray, Christopher J.; Burnham, Gilbert (2013, October): Mortality in Iraq Associated with the 2003-2011 War and Occupation: Findings from a National Cluster Sample Survey by the University Collaborative Iraq Mortality Study. PLoS Medicine, 10(10), 1-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001533 Hansen, Holley E.; Nemeth, Stephen C.; Mauslein, Jacob A. (2020): United Nations Peacekeeping and Terrorism: Short-Term Risks and Long-Term Benefits.International Interactions, 46(2), 199-226. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2020.1725500 Hazelton, Jacqueline L. (2017): The “Hearts and Minds” Fallacy: Violence, Coercion, and Success in Counterinsurgency Warfare. International Security, 42(1), 80-113. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/ ISEC_a_00283 Helbing, Dirk; Brockmann, Dirk; Chadefaux, Thomas; Donnay, Karsten; Blanke, Ulf; Woolley-Meza, Olivia; Moussaid, Mehdi; Johansson, Anders; Krause, Jens; Schutte, Sebastian; Perc, Matjaž (2015, February): Saving Human Lives: What Complexity Science and Information Systems can Contribute. Journal of Statistical Physics, 158(3), 735-781. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10955-014-1024-9 Hemmingby, Cato (2017, October): Exploring the Continuum of Lethality: Militant Islamist’s Targeting Preferences in Europe. Perspectives on Terrorism, 11(5), 25-41. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/ binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2017/2017-pot-issue-5.pdf Hoadley, Stephen (2015): New Zealand Civil-Military Relations in Afghanistan: Aims, Assessments, and Lessons. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 43-54. Hoffman, Bruce (2020): Discussion 5 – Terrorism: A Continuing Threat. Contemporary Voices: St. Andrews Journal of International Relations, 1(1: A Special Issue to Commemorate CSTPV at 25), 41-46. DOI: http:// doi.org/10.15664/jtr.1601 Honig, Or; Reichard, Ariel (2018): Evidence-Fabricating in Asymmetric Conflicts: How Weak Actors Prove False Propaganda Narratives. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 41(4), 297-318. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10 57610X.2017.1283199 Honig, Or; Reichard, Ariel (2019): The Usefulness of Examining Terrorists’ Rhetoric for Understanding the Nature of Different Terror Groups. Terrorism and Political Violence, 31(4), 759-778. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1 080/09546553.2017.1283308 Horgan, John G.; Taylor, Max; Bloom, Mia; Winter, Charlie (2017): From Cubs to Lions: A Six Stage Model of Child Socialization in the Islamic State. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(7: How Terrorists Learn: Adaption and Innovation in Political Violence), 645-664. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2016.1221252 Hsiao-Rei Hicks, Madelyn; Dardagan, Hamit; Guerrero Serdán, Gabriela; Bagnall, Peter M.; Sloboda, John A. (2011, February): Violent Deaths of Iraqi Civilians, 2003-2008: Analysis by Perpetrator, Weapon, Time, and Location. PLoS Medicine, 8(2), 1-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000415 ISSN 2334-3745 213 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Huber, Laura (2019, November): When Civilians Are Attacked: Gender Equality and Terrorist Targeting. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(10), 2289-2318. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002719835601

Ibrahimi, Niamatullah (2015): When Few Means Many: The Consequences of Civilian Casualties for Civil- Military Relations in Afghanistan. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 165-176. Iraq Family Health Survey Study Group (2008, January): Violence-Related Mortality in Iraq from 2002-2006. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2008(358), 484-493. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa0707782 Jadoon, Amira (2018): Persuasion and Predation: The Effects of U.S. Military Aid and International Development Aid on Civilian Killings. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 41(10), 776-800. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1080/1057610X.2017.1353355 Jadoon, Amira (2019): Playing Dirty to Survive: The Vulnerability of Civilian Targets Within U.S. Military Aid Recipient States. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 30(3), 587-614. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2019 .1601865 Jewell, Nicholas P.; Spagat, Michael; Jewell, Britta L. (2013): MSE and Casualty Counts: Assumptions, Interpretation, and Challenges. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.): Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 185-212. Johns, Robert; Davies, Graeme A. (2019): Civilian Casualties and Public Support for Military Action: Experimental Evidence. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(1), 251-281. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002717729733 Joyce, Carmel; Lynch, Orla (2015): The Needs of Victims in the United Kingdom: Results.In: Orla Lynch; Javier Argomaniz (Eds.): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge, 71-89. Joyce, Carmel; Lynch, Orla; Antón, Egoitz (2015): Victims’ Issues in Northern Ireland and Spain: A Conceptual and Theoretical Overview. In: Orla Lynch; Javier Argomaniz (Eds.): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge, 58-70. Kamolnick, Paul (2017): How Muslim Defenders Became “Blood Spilling” Crusaders: Adam Gadahn’s Critique of the “Jihadist” Subversion of Al Qaeda’s Media Warfare Strategy. Terrorism and Political Violence, 29(3), 444-463. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1043996

Katagiri, Nori (2019): Organized Insurgency, Lethality, and Target Selection: Abu Sayyaf Group and Jemaah Islamiyah. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 30(3), 518-542. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2019.1601838 Kathman, Jacob D.; Wood, Reed M. (2011): Managing Threat, Cost, and Incentive to Kill: The Short- and Long-Term Effects of Intervention in Mass Killings.Journal of Conflict Resolution, 55(5), 735-760. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022002711408006 Keenan, Marla B. (2013, June): Operationalizing Civilian Protection in Mali: The Case for a Civilian Casualty Tracking, Analysis, and Response Cell. Stability: International Journal of Security and Development, 2(2), Art. 21, 1-10. URL: https://www.stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.ba/ Keenan, Marla B.; Beadle, Alexander W. (2015): Operationalizing Protection of Civilians in NATO Operations. Stability: International Journal of Security and Development, 4(1), Art. 55, 1-13. DOI: http://doi. org/10.5334/sta.gr Kelly, Peter F. (2015): Ireland’s Terrorism Victims: A New Strand of Civil Society Counterterrorism? Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 10(1: Countering Violent Extremism: Reorienting the Field), ISSN 2334-3745 214 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

25-33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2015.1028774 Kenealy, Andrew (2016, February): Weighing the Strategic Impact of Killing Civilians in Counter-Militancy. Small Wars Journal, 02/2016. URL: https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/weighing-the-strategic-impact-of- killing-civilians-in-counter-militancy Khosa, Raspal (2015): Playing Three Dimensional Chess: Australia’s Civil-Military Commitment in Afghanistan. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 80- 97. Kilcullen, David J. (2015): Fumbling the Baton: US Civil-Military Relations in the Afghan War. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 10-24. Kim, Yooneui; Menninga, Elizabeth J. (2020): Competition, Aid, and Violence Against Civilians. International Interactions, 46(5), 696-723. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2020.1777114 Klein, Graig R. (2015): Ideology Isn’t Everything: Transnational Terrorism, Recruitment Incentives, and Attack Casualties. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(5), 868-887. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.20 14.961635 Klingner, Jeff; Silva, Romesh (2013): Combining Found Data and Surveys to Measure Conflict Mortality. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.):Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 147-164. Krause, Keith (2013): Challenges to Counting and Classifying Victims of Violence in Conflict, Post-Conflict, and Non-Conflict Settings. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.):Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 265-284. Krebsbach, Ryan T. (2017): Totality of the Circumstances: The DoD Law of War Manual and the Evolving Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities. Journal of National Security Law & Policy, 9(125), 125-157. URL: https://jnslp.com/2017/03/08/totality-circumstances-dod-law-war-manual-evolving-notion-direct- participation-hostilities/ Kreft, Anne-Kathrin (2020): Civil Society Perspectives on Sexual Violence in Conflict: Patriarchy and War Strategy in Colombia. International Affairs, 96(2), 457-478. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz257 Kreft, Anne-Kathrin; Agerberg, Matthias (2019): Gendered Conflict, Gendered Outcomes: The Politicization of Sexual Violence and Quota Adoption. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 64(2-3), 290-317. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002719859651 Krüger, Jule; Ball, Patrick; Price, Megan E., Hoover Green, Amelia (2013): It Doesn’t Add Up: Methodological and Policy Implications of Conflicting Casualty Data. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.): Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 247-264. Lacina, Bethany; Gleditsch, Nils P. (2005): Monitoring Trends in Global Combat: A New Dataset of Battle Deaths. European Journal of Population, 21(2-3), 145-166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-005-6851-6 Lacina, Bethany; Gleditsch, Nils P.; Russett, Bruce (2006): The Declining Risk of Death in Battle.International Studies Quarterly, 50(3), 673-680. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4092798 Landman, Todd; Gohdes, Anita (2013): A Matter of Convenience: Challenges of Non-Random Data in Analyzing Human Rights Violations During Conflicts in Peru and Sierra Leone. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.): Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating

ISSN 2334-3745 215 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 77-96. Lawless, Robert (2018): A State of Complicity: How Russia’s Persistent and Public Denial of Syrian Battlefield Atrocities Violates International Law. Harvard National Security Journal, 9(1), 180-226. URL: https:// harvardnsj.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2018/01/5_Lawless_StateofComplicity-1.pdf

Lawther, Cheryl (2015): The Construction and Politicization of Victimhood. In: OrlaLynch; Javier Argomaniz (Eds.): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge, 10-30. Lawther, Cheryl (2015): Victims’ Needs and Dealing with the Past. In: Orla Lynch; Javier Argomaniz (Eds.): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge, 31-57. Lewis, Erik; Mohler, George; Brantingham, P. Jeffrey; Bertozzi, Andrea L. (2012): Self-exciting Point Process Models of Civilian Deaths in Iraq. Security Journal, 25(2012), 244-264. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/ sj.2011.21 Lynch, Orla; Argomaniz, Javier (2015): Meeting the Needs of Victims of Terrorism: Lessons for the International Context. In: Orla Lynch; Javier Argomaniz (Eds.): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge, 139-148. Lynch, Orla; Argomaniz, Javier; Serranó, Agata; Joyce, Carmel; Alonso, Rogelio (2015): Best Practice Recommendations for Supporting Victims of Terrorism. In: Orla Lynch; Javier Argomaniz (Eds.): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge, 149-153. Machain, Carla M. (2015): Air Campaign Duration and the Interaction of Air and Ground Forces. International Interactions, 41(3), 539-564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2015.1018414 Maley, William (2015): Civil-Military Interaction in Afghanistan: The Case of Germany. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 98-109. Malinsky, Ayelet (2015): Death is in the Eye of the Beholder: A Study of Casualty Count Framing in the 2014 Israel-Gaza Conflict.Critical Studies on Terrorism, 8(3), 491-502. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.201 5.1096653 Manrique-Vallier, Daniel; Price, Megan E.; Gohdes, Anita (2013): Multiple Systems Estimation Techniques for Estimating Casualties in Armed Conflict. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.): Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 165-184. Martínez, José C.; Eng, Brent (2018): Stifling Stateness: The Assad Regime’s Campaign Against Rebel Governance. Security Dialogue, 49(4), 235-253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0967010618768622 Masullo, Juan; O’Connor, Francis (2020): PKK Violence Against Civilians: Beyond the Individual, Understanding Collective Targeting. Terrorism and Political Violence, 32(1), 77-99. DOI: https://doi.org/10.10 80/09546553.2017.1347874 Matfess, Hilary (2020): Part and Parcel? Examining Al Shabaab and Boko Haram’s Violence Targeting Civilians and Violence Targeting Women. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, online first. DOI:https://doi.org/10 .1080/1057610X.2020.1759262 Miller, Richard W. (2014): Civilian Deaths and American Power: Three Lessons from Iraq and Afghanistan. In: Matthew Evangelista; Henry Shue (Eds.): The American Way of Bombing: Changing Ethical and Legal Norms from Flying Fortresses to Drones. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 158-174. Mohr, Joseph (2015): Civil-Military Relations of the United Nations Assistance Mission and Other Funds,

ISSN 2334-3745 216 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Agencies and Programmes in Afghanistan 2001-2011. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 141-164. Moore, Pauline (2019): When Do Ties Bind? Foreign Fighters, Social Embeddedness, and Violence Against Civilians. Journal of Peace Research, 56(2), 279-294. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343318804594 Moret, Ross; Burgin, Simone (2018): Intercultural Struggle and the Targeting of Noncombatants: The Case of the Islamic State. Religions, 9(8), Article 230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9080230

Muggah, Robert (2018, May): The Tricky Business of Counting the Costs of Armed Conflict in Cities.Small Wars Journal, 5/2018. URL: http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/tricky-business-counting-costs-armed- conflict-cities

Muhammedally, Sahr (2015): Iraq: Learning Civilian Protection the Hard Way. Stability: International Journal of Security and Development, 4(1), Art. 42, 1-7. DOI: http://doi.org/10.5334/sta.ge Mullaney, Kevin; Regan, Mitt (2019): One Minute in Haditha: Ethics and Non-Conscious Decision-Making. Journal of Military Ethics, 18(2), 75-95. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15027570.2019.1643593 Murauskaite, Egle (2016): Saddam’s Use of Violence Against Civilians During the Iran-Iraq War. The Middle East Journal, 70(1), 47-68. Nagel, Robert U. (2019): Talking to the Shameless? Sexual Violence and Mediation in Intrastate Conflicts. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(8), 1832-1859. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022002718824642 Nagel, Robert U.; Doctor, Austin C. (2020): Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and Rebel Group Fragmentation. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 64(7), 1226-1253. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002719899443 Nimmo, Ben (2016, Spring): Lessons from the Air Campaigns over Libya, Syria, and Yemen. Parameters, 46(1), 81-95. URL: https://publications.armywarcollege.edu/pubs/3301.pdf O’Connell, Mary E. (2014): Banning Autonomous Killing: The Legal and Ethical Requirement That Humans Make Near-Time Lethal Decisions. In: Matthew Evangelista; Henry Shue (Eds.): The American Way of Bombing: Changing Ethical and Legal Norms from Flying Fortresses to Drones. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 224-236. Onat, Ismail; Çubukçu, Suat (2019): Unresolved Conflict, Urban Insurgency and Devastating Consequences in Turkey Between 2015 and 2016. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorsim, 14(2), 164-182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2019.1617431 Oppenheim, Ben; Weintraub, Michael (2017): Doctrine and Violence: The Impact of Combatant Training on Civilian Killings. Terrorism and Political Violence, 29(6), 1126-1148. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2 015.1131156 Osborne Daponte, Beth (2018): In Iraq, Household Surveys of Civilian Deaths Introduce Controversy. In: Barbara Krasner (Ed.): Civilian Casualties in War. New York: Greenhaven Publishing, 39-43. Ottmann, Martin (2015, March): Rebel Constituencies and Rebel Violence Against Civilians in Civil Conflicts.Conflict Management and Peace Science, 34(1), 27-51. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0738894215570428 Pani, Massimo (2018): Countering Hybrid Threats in Megacities and Densely Populated Urban Areas.NATO Science for Peace and Security Series – E: Human and Societal Dynamics, 140(Countering Terrorism and Urban Warfare), 71-75. URL: http://ebooks.iospress.nl/volumearticle/50276

ISSN 2334-3745 217 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Peake, Sandra; Lynch, Orla (2016): Victims of Irish Republican Paramilitary Violence – The Case of “The Disappeared”. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(3: 100 Years of Irish Republican Violence), 452-472. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2016.1155931 Pearson, Frederic S.; Akbulut, Isil; Olson Lounsbery, Marie (2017): Group Structure and Intergroup Relations in Global Terror Networks: Further Explorations. Terrorism and Political Violence, 29(3), 550-572. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1058788

Pechenkina, Anna O.; Argo, Nichole (2020): How Do Civilians Assign Blame and Praise Amidst Civil Conflict?Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 12(4), 243-267. DOI: https://doi.org/10.10 80/19434472.2019.1691248 Pechenkina, Anna O.; Bausch, Andrew W.; Skinner, Kiron K. (2019): How Do Civilians Attribute Blame for State Indiscriminate Violence? Journal of Peace Research, 56(4), 545-558. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022343319829798 Peleg, Kobi; Jaffe, Dena H. (2010): Are Injuries from Terror and War Similar? A Comparison Study of Civilians and Soldiers. Annals of Surgery, 252(2), 363-369. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/ SLA.0b013e3181e98588 Pettinger, Tom (2015): What is the Impact of Foreign Military Intervention on Radicalization? Journal for Deradicalization, 5(Winter 2015/16), 92-119. URL: https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/36 Pfeifer, Douglas (2016): Why Germany Won’t Be Dropping Bombs on Syria, Iraq or Mali. Orbis, 60(2), 266- 278. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orbis.2016.02.008 Physicians for Social Responsibility (2018): In Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, the War on Terror Killed at Least 1,3 Million. In: Barbara Krasner (Ed.): Civilian Casualties in War. New York: Greenhaven Publishing, 29-38. Piazza, James A.; LaFree, Gary (2019, October): Islamist Terrorism, Diaspora Links and Casualty Rates. Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(5), 2-21. URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/ customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2019/issue-5/1--piazza-and-lafree.pdf Polo, Sara M. (2019): The Quality of Terrorist Violence: Explaining the Logic of Terrorist Target Choice. Journal of Peace Research, 57(2), 235.250. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343319829799 Poulson, Stephen C.; Burke, Kelly A. (2018): Levels of Combatant Control and the Patterns of Non- Incumbent/Insurgent Violence Experienced by Civilians Living in Sunni-Arab Communities in Iraq (2004- 2009). Medicine, Conflict and Survival, 34(2), 95-120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13623699.2018.1493820 Python, Andre; Brandsch, Jürgen; Illian, Janine B.; Jones-Todd, Charlotte M.; Blangiardo (2020): Statistics and Terrorism: Insights into Lethality of Terrorism Through Bayesian Modeling.Wiley StatsRef, online first. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118445112.stat08250 Python, Andre; Brandsch, Jürgen; Tskhay, Aliya (2017, May): Provoking Local Ethnic Violence – A Global Study on Ethnic Polarization and Terrorist Targeting. Political Geography, 58(May 2017), 77-89. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2017.02.001 Ramsay, Gilbert; Antón, Egoitz (2015): The Use of Online Tools by Victims of Terrorism and Victims’ Networks. In: Orla Lynch; Javier Argomaniz (Eds.): Victims of Terrorism: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Study. Abingdon: Routledge, 107-121. Rankin, Melinda (2017, November): Investigating Crimes Against Humanity in Syria and Iraq: The Commission for International Justice and Accountability. Global Responsibility to Protect, 9(4), 395-421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/1875984X-00904004

ISSN 2334-3745 218 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Reeder, Bryce W.; Smith, John R. (2019): US Strikes in Somalia and Targeted Civilian Killings by Al-Shabaab: An Empirical Investigation. Foreign Policy Analysis, 15(4), 589-603. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orz008 Remote Control; Air Wars (2018) In Iraq and Syria, Civilians Deserve to Know Who Is Killing Their Loved Ones. In: Barbara Krasner (Ed.): Civilian Casualties in War. New York: Greenhaven Publishing, 21-28. Revkin, Mara R. (2018): When Terrorists Govern: Protecting Civilians in Conflicts with State-Building Armed Groups. Harvard National Security Journal, 9(1), 100-145. URL: https://harvardnsj.org/volumes/ volume-9/

Revkin, Mara R. (2020): Competitive Governance and Displacement Decisions Under Rebel Rule: Evidence from the Islamic State in Iraq. Journal of Conflict Resolution, online first. DOI:https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002720951864 Revkin, Mara R.; Wood, Elisabeth J. (2020): The Islamic State’s Pattern of Sexual Violence: Ideology and Institutions, Policies and Practices. Journal of Global Security Studies, online first. DOI:https://doi. org/10.1093/jogss/ogaa038 Rezaeedaryakenari, Babak; Landis, Steven T.; Thies, Cameron G. (2017, October): Food Price Volatilities and Civilian Victimization in Africa. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 37(2), 193-214. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0738894217729527 Rietjens, Sebastian (2015): Civil-Military Interaction: the Uruzgan Experiment. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 67-79. Roberts, Les; Lafta, Riyadh; Garfield, Richard; Khudhairi, Jamal; Burnham, Gilbert (2004, November): Mortality Before and After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq: Cluster Sample Survey. The Lancet, 364(9448), 1857- 1864. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17441-2

Rosen, Richard D. (2009): Targeting Enemy Forces in the War on Terror: Preserving Civilian Immunity. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 42(3), 683-777. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10601/1320 Rynning, Sten (2017): Rethinking NATO Policy on the Protection of Civilians. Parameters, 47(3), 39-49. Sagan, Scott D.; Valentino, Benjamin A.; Carpenter, Charli; Montgomery, Alexander H. (2020): Does the Noncombatant Immunity Norm Have Stopping Power? A Debate. International Security, 45(2), 170-186. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00393 Salvi, Andrea (2020): On the Beaten Path: Violence Against Civilians and Simulated Conflict Along Road Networks. In: Emanuel Deutschmann; Jan Lorenz; Luis G. Nardin; Davide Natalini; Wilhelm Adalbert F. (Eds.): Computational Conflict Research. Berlin: Springer VS, 183-199. Saugmann, Rune (2019): The Civilian’s Visual Security Paradox: How Open Source Intelligence Practices Create Insecurity for Civilians in Warzones. In: Karen L. Petersen; Kira V. Rønn (Eds.): Intelligence on the Frontier Between State and Civil Society. Abingdon: Routledge, 34-51. Saul, Ben (2017): Enhancing Civilian Protection by Engaging Non-State Armed Groups under International Humanitarian Law. Journal of Conflict & Security Law, 22(1), 39-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jcsl/krw007 Saulich, Christina; Werthes, Sascha (2020): Exploring Local Potentials for Peace: Strategies to Sustain Peace in Times of War. Peacebuilding, 8(1), 32-53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21647259.2018.1517965 Saygili, Aslihan (2019): Concessions or Crackdown: How Regime Stability Shapes Democratic Responses to Hostage Taking Terrorism. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(2), 468-501. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002717736109

ISSN 2334-3745 219 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Schmid, Alex P. (2004): Statistics on Terrorism: The Challenge of Measuring Trends in Global Terrorism. UNODC Forum on Crime and Society, 4(1-2), 49-70. URL: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and- analysis/Forum/V05-81059_EBOOK.pdf#page=59 Schmid, Alex P. (2020): In Response – Counterterrorism: Also a Continuing Threat?Contemporary Voices: St. Andrews Journal of International Relations, 1(1: A Special Issue to Commemorate CSTPV at 25), 47-53. DOI: http://doi.org/10.15664/jtr.1601 Schmitt, Michael N.; Highfill, Chad E. (2018): Invisible Injuries: Concussive Effects and International Humanitarian Law. Harvard National Security Law, 9(1), 72-99. URL: https://harvardnsj.org/volumes/ volume-9/

Schori-Eyal, Noa; Halperin, Eran; Saguy, Tamar (2019): Intergroup Commonality, Political Ideology, and Tolerance of Enemy Collateral Casualties in Intergroup Conflicts.Journal of Peace Research, 56(3), 425-439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343318818658 Schulzke, Marcus (2016): The Antinomies of Population-Centric Warfare: Cultural Respect and the Treatment of Women and Children in U.S. Counterinsurgency Operations. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 39(5), 405-422. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1106762

Schutte, Sebastian (2015): Geographic Determinants of Indiscriminate Violence in Civil Wars. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 34(4), 380-405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0738894215593690 Seybolt, Taylor B. (2013): Significant Numbers: Civilian Casualties and Strategic Peacebuilding. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.): Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 15-28. Shortland, Neil; Sari, Huseyin; Nader, Elias (2019): Recounting the Dead: An Analysis of ISAF Caused Civilian Casualties in Afghanistan. Armed Forces and Society, 45(1), 122-139. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0095327X17737737 Shue, Henry (2014): Force Protection, Military Advantage, and “Constant Care” for Civilians: The 1991 Bombing of Iraq. In: Matthew Evangelista; Henry Shue (Eds.): The American Way of Bombing: Changing Ethical and Legal Norms from Flying Fortresses to Drones. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 145-157. Silverman, Daniel (2018): What Shapes Civilian Beliefs About Violent Events? Experimental Evidence from Pakistan. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(6), 1460-1487. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022002718791676 Sloboda, John; Dardagan, Hamit; Spagat, Michael; Hsiao-Rei Hicks, Madelyn (2013): Iraq Body Count: A Case Study in the Uses of Incident-Based Conflict Casualty Data. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.):Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 53-76. Sowers, Jeannie L.; Weinthal, Erika; Zawahiri, Neda (2017): Targeting Environmental Infrastructures, International Law, and Civilians in the New Middle Eastern Wars. Security Dialogue, 48(5), 410-430. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0967010617716615 Spagat, Michael; Johnson, Neil F.; Van Weezel, Stijn (2018): Fundamental Patterns and Predictions of Event Size Distributions in Modern Wars and Terrorist Campaigns. PLOS ONE, 13(10), Article e0204639, 1-13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204639 Stanton, Jessica A. (2013): Terrorism in the Context of Civil War. The Journal of Politics, 75(4), 1009-1022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022381613000984 Stanton, Jessica A. (2015): Regulating Militias: Governments, Militias, and Civilian Targeting in Civil War. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 59(5), 899-923. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022002715576751 ISSN 2334-3745 220 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Stapleton, Barbara J. (2015): The Civil-Military Approaches Developed by the United Kingdom Under its PRTs in Mazar-e Sharif and Lashkar Gah. In: William Maley; Susanne Schmeidl (Eds.): Reconstructing Afghanistan: Civil-Military Experiences in Comparative Perspective. (Series: Contemporary Security Studies). Abingdon: Routledge, 25-42. Sullivan, Patricia L.; Karreth, Johannes (2019): Strategies and Tactics in Armed Conflict: How Governments and Foreign Interveners Respond to Insurgent Threats.Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(9), 2207-2232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022002719828103 Tabeau, Ewa; Zwierzchowski, Jan (2013): A Review of Estimation Methods for Victims of the Bosnian War and the Khmer Rouge Regime. In: Taylor B. Seybolt; Jay D. Aronson; Baruch Fischhoff (Eds.):Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 213-246. Tarzi, Nazli (2018, March): Iraqi Women Die Too: Exploring Iraq’s Invisible Female Casualties. International Journal of Contemporary Iraqi Studies, 12(1), 23-34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1386/ijcis.12.1.23_1 Tinnes, Judith (2016, February): Counting Lives Lost – Statistics of Camera-Recorded Extrajudicial Executions by the “Islamic State”. (Monitoring Project). Perspectives on Terrorism, 10(1), 78-82. URL: https:// www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/governance-and-global-affairs/isga/perspectives-on- terrorism/2016-1.pdf Tyner, Evan (2016): Do Territorial Control and the Loss of Territory Determine the Use of Indiscriminate Violence by Incumbent Actors? An Examination of the Syrian Civil War in Aleppo Over 45 Weeks. Journal of Terrorism Research, 7(1), 52-66. DOI: http://doi.org/10.15664/jtr.812 Vale, Gina (2020, January): Piety is in the Eye of the Bureaucrat: The Islamic State’s Strategy of Civilian Control. CTC Sentinel, 13(1), 34-40. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/piety-eye-bureaucrat-islamic-states-strategy- civilian-control/ Varouhakis, Myron; Stewart, Mark (2015): ISAF’s Afghan Truck Drivers: The Overlooked Counterinsurgency Population. Journal of Strategic Security, 8(4), 92-113. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.8.4.1457 Walsh, James I. (2014): Precision Weapons, Civilian Casualties, and Support for the Use of Force. Political Psychology, 36(5), 507-523. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12175 Walter, Nathan; Billard, Thomas J.; Murphy, Sheila T. (2017): On the Boundaries of Framing Terrorism: Guilt, Victimization, and the 2016 Orlando Shooting. Mass Communication and Society, 20(6), 849-868. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2017.1334071 Wheeler, Nicholas J. (2002): Dying for ‘Enduring Freedom’: Accepting Responsibility for Civilian Casualties in the War Against Terrorism. International Relations, 16(2), 205-225. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177% 2F0047117802016002003 Whiteside, Craig (2015): A Case for Terrorism as Genocide in an Era of Weakened States. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, 8(3), 232-250. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2015.1104418 Williams, Laron K.; Koch, Michael T.; Smith, Jason M. (2013): The Political Consequences of Terrorism: Terror Events, Casualties, and Government Duration. International Studies Perspectives, 14(3), 343-361. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44218749 Wood, Elisabeth J. (2018): Rape as a Practice of War: Toward a Typology of Political Violence. Politics & Society, 46(4), 513-537. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0032329218773710 Wood, Reed M. (2010): Rebel Capability and Strategic Violence Against Civilians. Journal of Peace Research, 47(5), 601-614. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343310376473 Wood, Reed M.; Kathman, Jacob A. (2015): Competing for the Crown: Inter-Rebel Competition ISSN 2334-3745 221 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 and Civilian Targeting in Civil War. Political Research Quarterly, 68(1), 167-179. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F1065912914563546 Wood, Reed M.; Kathman, Jacob D.; Gent, Stephen E. (2012): Armed Intervention and Civilian Victimization in Intrastate Conflicts.Journal of Peace Research, 49(5), 647-660. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177%2F0022343312449032 Zech, Steven T.; Kelly, Zane M. (2015, May): Off With Their Heads: The Islamic State and Civilian Beheadings. Journal of Terrorism Research, 6(2), 83-93. DOI: http://doi.org/10.15664/jtr.1157 Zettls, Rachel E.; Page, Lindsay E.; Bhatti, Saira; Duong, Karen; Patel, Tulsie; Dykema, John R.; Whitney, Meagan; Ayvaci, Emine R.; North, Carol S.; Sonis, Jeffrey (2020): Satisfaction With Justice and Desire for Revenge in Survivors of the September 11, 2001 Attacks on New York City’s World Trade Center. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 12(4), 307-323. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2019.17 01526

Grey Literature

Aboueldahab, Noha (2018, May): Writing Atrocities: Syrian Civil Society and Transitional Justice. (Brookings Doha Center, Analysis Paper No. 21). URL: https://www.brookings.edu/research/writing-atrocities-syrian- civil-society-and-transitional-justice

Alvazzi del Frate, Anna; De Martino, Luigi (2015, March): Every Body Counts: Measuring Violent Deaths. (Small Arms Survey, Research Note). URL: http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/about-us/highlights/ highlights-2015/highlight-rn49.html Amnesty International (2014, March): Squeezing the Life out of Yarmouk: War Crimes Against Besieged Civilians. (Report MDE 24/008/2014). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/MDE24/008/2014/en

Amnesty International (2015, March): Al-Raqqa Under Attack: Syrian Airforce Strikes Against Civilians. (Report MDE 24/1029/2015). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/1029/2015/en

Amnesty International (2015, May): Syria: “Death Everywhere” – War Crimes and Human Rights Abuses in Aleppo, Syria. (Report MDE 24/1370/2015). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ mde24/1370/2015/en/ Amnesty International (2016, October): Appendix: Cases of Suspected Civilian Casualties in US-Led Combined Joint Task Force Attacks in Syria Since 23 September 2014. (Report MDE 24/5037/2016). URL: https://www. amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/5037/2016/en/

Amnesty International (2017, August): “I Won’t Forget This Carnage”: Civilians Trapped in Battle for Raqqa – Syria. (Report MDE 24/6945/2017). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/6945/2017/en/ Amnesty International (2017, July): At any Cost: The Civilian Catastrophe in West Mosul, Iraq. (Report MDE 14/6610/2017). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde14/6610/2017/en/

Amnesty International (2018, July): Syria: Flaws in the US-Led Coalition’s Reporting on Civilian Casualties in Raqqa. (Report MDE 24/8801/2018). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/8801/2018/en/

Amnesty International (2018, June): “War of Annihilation”: Devastating Toll on Civilians, Raqqa – Syria. (Report MDE 24/8367/2018). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/8367/2018/en/ Amnesty International (2018, October): Syria: A Year on from the End of Battle for Raqqa, the US-Led Coalition Remains in Denial About the True Scale of Civilian Deaths it Caused. (Report MDE 24/9238/2018).

ISSN 2334-3745 222 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/9238/2018/en/ Amnesty International (2019): Somalia: The Hidden US War in Somalia; Civilian Casualties from Air Strikes in Lower Shabelle. (Report AFR 52/9952/2019). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr52/9952/2019/ en/ Amnesty International (2019, October): Libya’s Relentless Militia War: Civilians Harmed in the Battle for Tripoli, April-August 2019. (Report MDE 19/1201/2019). URL: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ mde19/1201/2019/en/ Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies (ACRPS) (2017, April): The April, 2017 Attacks on Egyptian Churches: ISIL Victimizes an Egyptian Religious Community. (ACRPS Assessment Report). URL: https://www. dohainstitute.org/en/lists/ACRPS-PDFDocumentLibrary/Egypt_Palm_Sunday_Bombings_2017.pdf ARK Group DMCC (2016, February): The Syrian Conflict: A Systems Conflict Analysis. URL: https://www. cdacollaborative.org/publication/the-syrian-conflict-a-systems-conflict-analysis/ Aslam, Wali (2014, June): Terrorist Relocation and the Societal Consequences of US Drone Strikes in Pakistan. (Oxford Research Group, Remote Control Project). URL: https://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/Handlers/ Download.ashx?IDMF=a5e7bc66-8b49-4131-8374-c0263b692317 Beining, Leonie; Dornig, Swen (2015, November): Die Agenda des Sicherheitsrats zum Schutz von Kindern in bewaffneten Konflikten: Vorschläge zur weiteren Ausgestaltung des deutschen Engagements. (SWP Aktuell, 2015/A 90). URL: https://www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/schutz-von-kindern-in-bewaffneten-konflikten/ BMJ (2015, September): Civilian Deaths from Weapons Used in the Syrian Conflict. (BMJ Analysis). URL: https://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h4736

Brydon, Amanda; Delić, Denisa; Tabrizi, Aniseh B. (2018, May): Ensuring the Protection of Civilians in Modern Conflict. (RUSI & Save the Children Conference Report). URL: https://rusi.org/publication/ conference-reports/ensuring-protection-civilians-modern-conflict Condra, Luke N.; Felter, Joseph H.; Iyengar, Radha K.; Shapiro, Jacob N. (2010, July): The Effect of Civilian Casualties in Afghanistan and Iraq. (NBER Working Paper No. 16152). URL: https://www.nber.org/system/ files/working_papers/w16152/w16152.pdf Cordesman, Anthony H. (2015, September): Trends in Iraqi Violence, Casualties, and Impact of War: 2003- 2015. (CSIS Report). URL: https://www.csis.org/analysis/trends-iraqi-violence-casualties-and-impact- war-2003-2015 Cordesman, Anthony H. (2016, February): The Human Cost of War in the Middle East: A Graphic Overview. (CSIS Report). URL: https://www.csis.org/analysis/human-cost-war-middle-east-graphic-overview Cordesman, Anthony H. (2017, April): Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen: Is Decisive Force an Option? (CSIS Report). URL: https://www.csis.org/analysis/afghanistan-iraq-syria-and-yemen-decisive-force-option

Czuperski, Maksymilian; Beals, Emma; Itani, Faysal; Higgins, Eliot; Nimmo, Ben (2017, February): Breaking Aleppo. (Atlantic Council Report). URL: https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/ breaking-aleppo/ Dalton, Melissa; Mahanty, Daniel; Snyder, Julie (2018, October): The Protection of Civilians in U.S. Partnered Operations. (CSIS Report). URL: https://www.csis.org/analysis/protection-civilians-us-partnered-operations Dardagan, Hamit; Salama, Hana (2013, November): Stolen Futures: The Hidden Toll of Child Casualties in Syria. (ORG Report). URL: https://syriaaccountability.org/library/stolen-futures-the-hidden-toll-of-child- casualties-in-syria/

ISSN 2334-3745 223 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Degnan, Kaitlyn; Lucas, Zachary; Mills, Sean (2017, April): Covered in Dust, Veiled by Shadow: The Siege and Destruction of Aleppo. (SAP White Paper). URL: http://syrianaccountabilityproject.syr.edu/wp-content/ uploads/covered-in-dust-veiled-by-shadow-by-syrian-accountability-project-syacuse-university.pdf

Department of Defense (2020, April): Annual Report on Civilian Casualties in Connection with United States Military Operations in 2019. URL: https://media.defense.gov/2020/May/06/2002295555/-1/-1/1/SEC-1057- CIVILIAN-CASUALTIES-MAY-1-2020.PDF Einav, Asaf; Baram, Nadav (2018, February): When Theory Meets Practice: Proportionality in Targeted Killings. (IDC Herzliya & ICT Report). URL: http://www.ict.org.il/Article/2145/When_Theory_Meets_Practice_ Proportionality_in_Targeted_Killings#gsc.tab=0 Fabbe, Kristin; Hazlett, Chad; Sinmazdemir, Tolga (2017): Displaced Loyalties: The Effects of Indiscriminate Violence on Attitudes Among Syrian Refugees in Turkey. (Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 18- 024). URL: https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=53274 Frederick, Bryan; Johnson, David E. (2015): The Continued Evolution of U.S. Law of Armed Conflict Implementation: Implications for the U.S. Military. (Rand Research Report RR1122). URL: https://www.rand. org/pubs/research_reports/RR1122.html Gillard, Emanuela-Chiara (2018, December): Proportionality in the Conduct of Hostilities: The Incidental Harm Side of the Assessment. (Chatham House Research Paper). URL: https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/ default/files/publications/research/2018-12-10-proportionality-conduct-hostilities-incidental-harm-gillard- final.pdf Gillard, Emanuela-Chiara (2019, June): Sieges, the Law and Protecting Civilians. (Chatham House Briefing). URL: https://www.chathamhouse.org/2019/06/sieges-law-and-protecting-civilians

Gorur, Aditi; Sharland, Lisa (2016, February): Prioritizing the Protection of Civilians in UN Peace Operations: Analyzing the Recommendations of the HIPPO Report. (Stimson Report). URL: https://www.stimson.org/wp- content/files/file-attachments/PCIC-HIPPO-REPORT-FINAL-WEB.pdf Grissom, Adam R.; Mueller, Karl P. (2017, December): Airpower in Counter-Terrorist Operations: Balancing Objectives and Risks. (RAND External Publication EP67403). URL: https://www.rand.org/pubs/external_ publications/EP67403.html Haid, Haid (2020, April): Breaking the Cycle of Violence: Transitional Justice for the Victims of ISIS in Syria. (Chatham House Research Paper). URL: https://www.chathamhouse.org/publication/breaking-cycle- violence-transitional-justice-victims-isis-syria Harmer, Christopher (2015, November): U.S. Options for a Syrian No-Fly Zone. (ISW Backgrounder). URL: http://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/us-options-syrian-no-fly-zone

Hashim, Ahmed S. (2016, May): Cities Under Siege: Mass Casualty Urban Terrorism Assaults. (RSIS Policy Report). URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/idss/cities-under-siege-mass-casualty-urban- terrorism-assaults/ HelpAge International; Handicap International (2014, April): Hidden Victims of the Syrian Crisis: Disabled, Injured and Older Refugees. (Report). URL: https://www.helpage.org/newsroom/latest-news/hidden-victims- new-research-on-older-disabled-and-injured-syrian-refugees/ Hoffman, Bruce; Kasupski, Anna-Britt (2007):The Victims of Terrorism: An Assessment of Their Influence and Growing Role in Policy, Legislation, and the Private Sector. (RAND Occasional Paper OP180-1). URL: https:// www.rand.org/pubs/occasional_papers/OP180-1.html Houry, Nadim; Kayyali, Sara; Lyons, Josh (2020, May): Into the Abyss: The al-Hota Mass Grave in Northern

ISSN 2334-3745 224 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Syria. (HRW Report). URL: https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/04/abyss Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2013, October): “Between a Drone and Al-Qaeda”: The Civilian Cost of US Targeted Killings in Yemen. (HRW Report). URL: https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/10/22/between-drone- and-al-qaeda/civilian-cost-us-targeted-killings-yemen Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2014, January): Razed to the Ground: Syria’s Unlawful Neighborhood Demolitions in 2012-2013. (HRW Report). URL: https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/01/30/razed-ground/ syrias-unlawful-neighborhood-demolitions-2012-2013

Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2017, September): All Feasible Precautions? Civilian Casualties in Anti-ISIS Coalition Airstrikes in Syria. (HRW Report). URL: https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/09/24/all-feasible- precautions/civilian-casualties-anti-isis-coalition-airstrikes-syria

Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2018, May): “No Safe Place”: Insurgent Attacks on Civilians in Afghanistan. (HRW Report). URL: https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/05/08/no-safe-place/insurgent-attacks-civilians- afghanistan Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2020, February): “How Much More Blood Must Be Spilled?” Atrocities Against Civilians in Central Mali, 2019. (HRW Report). URL: https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/02/11/how-much- more-blood-must-be-spilled/atrocities-against-civilians-central-mali Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2020, February): Kidnapped by ISIS: Failure to Uncover the Fate of Syria’s Missing. (HRW Report). URL: https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/02/11/kidnapped-isis/failure-uncover-fate- syrias-missing

International Crisis Group (ICG) (2016, March): The Human Cost of the PKK Conflict in Turkey: The Case of Sur. (ICG Briefing No. 80, Europe & Central Asia). URL:https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/ western-europemediterranean/turkey/human-cost-pkk-conflict-turkey-case-sur

International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) – Germany; Physicians for Social Responsibility; Physicians for Global Survival (2015, March): Casualty Figures After 10 Years of the “War on Terror”: Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan. URL: https://www.psr.org/blog/resource/body-count

Justice for Life Organization (JFL) (2018, June): They Killed Them to Make Them an Example: ISIS Crimes Against the Villages of Al Shuaitat Tribe in Deir Ezzor. (JFL Report). URL: https://jfl.ngo/en/they-killed-them- to-make-them-an-example/

Kishi, Roudabeh; Pavlik, Melissa; Matfess, Hilary (2019, May): ‘Terribly and Terrifyingly Normal’: Political Violence Targeting Women. (ACLED Report). URL: https://acleddata.com/2019/05/29/terribly-and- terrifyingly-normal-political-violence-targeting-women/ Lane, Roger; Shiotani, Himayu (2019): Opportunities to Strengthen Military Policies and Practices to Reduce Civilian Harm from Explosive Weapons. (UNIDIR Food-for-Thought Paper). URL:https://unidir.org/ publication/opportunities-strengthen-military-policies-and-practices-reduce-civilian-harm-explosive Lee, Martha; Schmitt, Alexandra; Tarini, Gabrielle (2019, June): Partnering to Protect: Reforming US Security Assistance to Reduce Civilian Harm. (Belfer Center Paper). URL: https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/ partnering-protect-reforming-us-security-assistance-reduce-civilian-harm

Lyall, Jason (2017): Bombing to Lose? Airpower, Civilian Casualties, and the Dynamics of Violence in Counterinsurgency Wars. (SSRN Report). DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2422170

Mahmood, Rafat; Jetter, Michael (2019, April): Military Intervention via Drone Strikes. (IZA Discussion Paper No. 12318). URL: https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/12318/military-intervention-via-drone-strikes

ISSN 2334-3745 225 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Matfess, Hilary (2018, December): Power, Elitism and History: Analyzing Trends in Targeted Killings in Nigeria, 2000-2017. (Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime Report). URL: https:// globalinitiative.net/analysis/analyzing-trends-in-targeted-killings-in-nigeria/ Miller, Erin (2015, November): Mass-Fatality, Coordinated Attacks Worldwide, and Terrorism in France. (START Background Report). URL: https://start.umd.edu/pubs/START_ ParisMassCasualtyCoordinatedAttack_Nov2015.pdf Minor, Elizabeth (2012, October): Towards the Recording of Every Casualty: Analysis and Policy Recommendations from a Study of 40 Casualty Recorders. (Oxford Research Group). URL: http://www. everycasualty.org/downloads/ec/ecppp-towards-recording-every-casualty.pdf

Momani, Bessma (2013, March): The Human Cost of the Iraq War Outweighs All Others. (Brookings op-ed). URL: https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/the-human-cost-of-the-iraq-war-outweighs-all-others/

Morrison, J. Stephen; Millard, Chris; Kenny, Justin (2017): The New Barbarism.(CSIS Documentary). URL: https://www.csis.org/features/new-barbarianism Mueller, Karl P. (Ed.) (2015): Precision and Purpose: Airpower in the Libyan Civil War. (RAND Research Report RR676). URL: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR676.html Munive, Jairo; Somer, Jonathan (2015, December): Maximizing the Protection of Civilians in Conflict. (DIIS Report). URL: https://www.diis.dk/en/research/maximizing-the-protection-of-civilians-in-conflict Nordås, Ragnhild; Nagel, Robert U. (2018): Continued Failure to End Wartime Sexual Violence. (PRIO Policy Brief 7/2018). URL: https://www.prio.org/Publications/Publication/?x=11122 Nygård, Håvard M.; Wheeler, Thomas; Urdal, Henrik (2016)Options for Measuring Conflict Deaths in Goal 16. (PRIO Paper). URL: https://www.prio.org/Publications/Publication/?x=9008 Pavesi, Irene (2017, March): Tracking Conflict-Related Deaths: A Preliminary Overview of Monitoring Systems. (Small Arms Survey Briefing Paper). URL:http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/T-Briefing- Papers/SAS-BP2-conflict-deaths.pdf Perkoski, Evan; Chenoweth, Erica (2018, May): Nonviolent Resistance and Prevention of Mass Killings During Popular Uprisings. (ICNC Special Report). URL: https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/nonviolent-resistance- and-prevention-of-mass-killings/ Rosén, Frederik; Tarp, Kristoffer N. (2015, September):Protection of Civilians in UN Peacekeeping: Action is Needed. (DIIS Policy Brief). URL: https://www.diis.dk/en/research/protection-of-civilians-in-un- peacekeeping-action-is-needed Russel-Brown, Sherrie (2018, May): Boko Haram’s Violence Against Women and Girls Demands Justice. (CFR Africa in Transition Blog Post). URL: https://www.cfr.org/blog/boko-harams-violence-against-women-and- girls-demands-justice Salyk-Virk (2020): Airstrikes, Proxy Warfare, and Civilian Casualties in Libya. (New America; International Security Report). URL: https://www.newamerica.org/international-security/reports/airstrikes-proxy-warfare- and-civilian-casualties-libya/ Save the Children (2014): A Devastating Toll: The Impact of Three Years of War on the Health of Syria’s Children. (Report). URL: https://www.savethechildren.org/content/dam/global/reports/emergency- humanitarian-response/devastating-toll-14.pdf Shaver, Andrew; Shapiro, Jacob N. (2016, February): The Effect of Civilian Casualties on Wartime Informing: Evidence from the Iraq War. (HiCN Working Paper 210). URL: https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/ files/jns/files/hicn_workingpaper210_shavershapiro.pdf

ISSN 2334-3745 226 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Simi, Pete; Windisch, Steven (2017): Why Radicalization Fails: Barriers to Mass Casualty Terrorism. (C-REX Working Paper No. 2). URL: https://www.sv.uio.no/c-rex/english/publications/c-rex-working-paper-series/ Pete_Simi Sims, Alyssa; Bergen, Peter (2018, June): Airstrikes and Civilian Casualties in Libya Since the 2011 NATO Intervention. (New America Report). URL: https://www.newamerica.org/international-security/reports/ airstrikes-and-civilian-casualties-libya/key-findings/ Stewart, David P. (2018, June): Terrorism and Human Rights: The Perspective of International Law. (MEI Policy Paper 2018-4). URL: https://www.mei.edu/sites/default/files/publications/PP4_Stewart_ humanrightsCT.pdf

Syrian Accountability Project (SAP), The (2017, April):Idlib Left Breathless: A Report on the Chemical Attack in Khan Sheikhoun. (SAP Report). URL: http://syrianaccountabilityproject.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/Idlib- left-breathless-white-paper-by-syrian-accountability-project-syacuse-university.pdf

Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR) (2015, November): The Main Conflict Parties Who are Killing Civilians in Syria: Civilian’s Death Toll up to the End of October 2015. URL: https://sn4hr.org/ blog/2015/11/19/14645/# Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR) (2016, April): Who’s Killing Civilians in Syria? URL: https://sn4hr. org/blog/2016/04/04/19989/ Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR) (2016, November): The Six Main Parties that Kill Civilians in Syria and the Death Toll Percentage Distribution Among Them: All Parties (Except for the Syrian Regime) Have Killed Less than 15,000 Syrian Civilians. (SNHR Report). URL: http://sn4hr.org/wp-content/pdf/english/ six_main_Actors_that_kill_civilians_in_Syria_2016_en.pdf

Triebert, Christiaan (2016, December): The Bombers and the Bombed. (Hate Speech International Analysis). URL: https://www.hate-speech.org/the-bombers-and-the-bombed/ United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2013, March): Syria’s Children: A Lost Generation? (UNICEF Crisis Report). URL: https://www.unicef.org/files/Syria_2yr_Report.pdf

United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI); Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (2017, July): Report on the Protection of Civilians in the Context of the Ninewa Operations and the Retaking of Mosul City, 17 October 2016 – 10 July 2017. URL: https://reliefweb.int/report/iraq/report-protection-civilians- context-ninewa-operations-and-retaking-mosul-city-17-october Våge, Anders S. (2014, March): Violence Against Civilians: Case-Studies of Perpetrators. (FFI Rapport 2014/00520). URL: https://publications.ffi.no/nb/item/asset/dspace:2414/14-00520.pdf

Werthes, Sascha; Heaven, Corinne; Vollnhals, Sven (2011): Assessing Human Security Worldwide: The Way to a Human (In)Security Index. (INEF Report 102/2011). URL: https://duepublico2.uni-due.de/receive/ duepublico_mods_00026983

Note for the Reader Whenever retrievable, URLs for freely available versions of subscription-based publications have been provided. In some cases, articles may only be cited after obtaining permission by the author(s).

About the Compiler: David Teiner is a student of Political Science and Sociology at the University of Trier. His research interests include civil wars and non-state armed actors in general and rebel governance and political institutions of insurgent groups in particular. E-Mail: [email protected]

ISSN 2334-3745 227 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Preparedness for, and Resilience to, Terrorism: Bibliography 60+ Full-Text Academic Theses (Ph.D. and M.A.) written in English between 2000 and 2020

Compiled and selected by Brody McDonald

Abstract

This bibliography contains Ph.D. Dissertations (Ph.D.) and Master Theses (M.A.) on issues relating to preparedness for, and resilience to, terrorism. Titles were retrieved manually by searching the Open Access Theses and Dissertations Database (OATD), using various combinations of search terms, including – but not limited to – ‘Terrorism’, ‘Violent Extremism’, ‘Resilience, and Preparedness. More than 850 entries were evaluated, of which 63 were ultimately selected for this list. All theses are open source. However, readers should observe possible copyright restrictions. The title entries below are hyperlinked, or ‘clickable’, allowing access to full texts.

Keywords: bibliography, theses, terrorism, resilience, preparedness, public policy, violent extremism, political violence

Bibliographic entries are sorted alphabetically by last name.

Adam, P L. (2018). “Assessing Ghana’s Preparedness to Counter Terrorism.” M.A. Thesis, University of Ghana. URL: http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/handle/123456789/27333. Al-Khaili, K S K. (2015). “Building disaster resilience within the Emirati energy sector and its infrastructure through a comprehensive strategic mitigation plan.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Salford. URL: http:// usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/36773/. Alperen, Martin J. (2006).“Towards a Homeland Security strategy for the United States Virgin Islands: The Terrorism and Natural Disasters Planning Group.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http:// hdl.handle.net/10945/2862. Alvarez, Maria Doris (2006).“Emergency Preparedness and Response Systems.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/2683. Armstrong, Melanie (2012). “Bio+Terror: Science, Security, Simulation.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of New Mexico. URL: https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/amst_etds/1. Ayazma, Tayfun (2019). “Examining the Impact of Community Policing on Public Attitudes toward Fear of Terrorism, Resilience, and Satisfaction with Police in the Face of New Terrorism.” M.A. Thesis, University of North Texas. URL: https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1609077/. Baldauf, Paul D. (2007). “Chemical Industry Security Voluntary or Mandatory Approach?” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/3657. Bolin, Christoffer (2018). “Terrorism in International Business: The Impact of Terrorism on Internationalization and Risk Management for Swedish Firms Prospecting or Operating in Less Developed Countries.” M.A. Thesis, Linnaeus University. URL:http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-74863 . Burns, Katherine M. (2014). “Emergency Preparedness Self-Efficacy and the Ongoing Threat of Disasters.” Ph. D. Thesis, The George Washington University. URL:http://pqdtopen.proquest. com/#viewpdf?dispub=3635102. Curtis, Anne E. (2006). “A Psychoanalytic Exploration of Media Exposure to Terrorism Intrapyschic Correlates of Adult Resilience to the Bali Bombing.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Swinburne University of Technology. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1959.3/21726. ISSN 2334-3745 228 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Crane, Jeffrey S. (2005). “Assessment of the Community Healthcare Providers’ Ability and Willingness to Respond to a Bioterrorist Attack in Florida.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of South Florida. URL:https:// scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/2839. Deutcher, Eric M. (2009). “Homeland Security and Terrorism in Selected European States.” M.A. Thesis, University of Denver. URL: http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=1462094. Doherty, Vincent J. (2004). “Metrics for Success: Using Metrics in Exercises to Assess the Preparedness of the Fire Service in Homeland Security.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL: http://hdl.handle. net/10945/1164. Dubay, Anthony R. (2010). “Improving Strategies to Prevent and Prepare for Radiological Attack.”. M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/10543. Dutcher, Suzanne T. (2011). “Not on My Watch: A Qualitative Study of the Role of Local Law Enforcement in Terrorism Prevention.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Capella University. URL: http://pqdtopen.proquest. com/#viewpdf?dispub=3481930. Drazin, William (2018). “Blast Propagation and Damage in Urban Topographies.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Cambridge. URL: https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.22051. Eriksson, Beatrice (2019). “War and Faith: Coping Strategies Among Christians Surviving ISIS in Northern Iraq.” M.A. Thesis, Uppsala University. URL: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-396411. Disraelly, Deena S. (2004). “Public-private Partnerships: security and emergency response collaboration in a new threat environment.” M.A. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). URL: http://hdl. handle.net/1721.1/34783. Gathii, Sophia Wanjiru (2018). “Assessment of Disaster Preparedness Against Terror Attacks in Boarding Secondary Schools: A Case Of Public Boarding Secondary Schools In Githunguri Sub-County, Kiambu County, Kenya.” M.A. Thesis, University of Nairobi. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/11295/105577 . Gibson, Stacey L. (2013). “Individual Emergency Preparedness in Canada: Widening the Lens on the Social Environment.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ottawa. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10393/24099 . Gorman, Chad M. (2012). “Getting Serious About Games: Using Video Game-based Learning to Enhance Nuclear Terrorism Preparedness.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL: http://hdl.handle. net/10945/6803. Gordon, Ellen M. (2004).“Multi-state Initiatives: Agriculture Security Preparedness.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/1584. Gregson-Green, Lucy E. (2018). “Resilience, Security, and the Railway Station: a unique case study of the current and future resilience to security threats.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Loughborough University. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/2134/33411. Green, Daryl Darwin (2013). “Exploring Police Active Shooter Preparedness in Michigan: A Grounded Study of Police Preparedness to Active Shooter Incidents, Developing a Normative Model.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Western Michigan University. URL: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/205. Haynes, Melissa R. (2012). “Perceived Risk of Homeland Security Incidents: The Insignificance of Actual Risk Factors.” M.A. Thesis, Southern Illinois University. URL:https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/theses/808 . Hegler, Benjamin L. (2007). “Biological Terrorism Preparedness Evaluating the Performance of the Early Aberration Reporting System (EARS) Syndromic Surveillance Algorithms.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/3373. Heirston, Bryan. (2009). “Terrorism Prevention and Firefighters: Where are the Information-Sharing

ISSN 2334-3745 229 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Boundaries?” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/4930 . Henderson-Ditchfield, Wendy (2010). “Have We Learned from Columbine? Exploring the Preparation of School Counselors Response to School Violence and Crises.” M.A. Thesis, University of Redlands. URL: http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=3422225. Henshaw, Andrew (2019). “Understanding Insurgent Resilience: The Comparative Robustness of Familial and Meritocratic Insurgent Organizations.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Macquarie University. URL: http://hdl.handle. net/1959.14/1271346. Hodoh, Ofia (2015). “Utilizing the Risk Reduction Effectiveness and Capabilities Assessment Program to emphasize emergency response capabilities from a food terrorism attack.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Georgia. URL: https://athenaeum.libs.uga.edu/handle/10724/35329. Harbour, Lance D. (2020) “Aligning the National Preparedness Goal and FEMA’s National Preparedness Grants” . M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/64928 . Jenkin, Clinton Michael (2006). “Responses to Terrorism Scenarios: Event Features, Individual Characteristics, and Subjective Evaluations.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of New Hampshire. URL: https://scholars.unh. edu/dissertation/341. Jones-Hard, Susan G. (2004). “Bio-terrorism: Steps to Effective Public Health Risk Communication and Fear Management.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/1198 . Kabatoff, Mathew (2010). “Subject to Predicate Risk, Governance and the Event of Terrorism within post-9/11 U.S. Border Security.” Ph.D. Dissertation, London School of Economics and Political Science. URL: http:// etheses.lse.ac.uk/496/; and http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.570964. Kiefer, John J. (2001). “Urban Terrorism: Strategies for Mitigating Terrorist Attacks Against the Domestic Urban Environment.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Old Dominion University. URL: https://digitalcommons.odu. edu/urbanservices_management_etds/29. Kovalevskiy, Andrey (2015). “Hotels as a Target for Terrorism: A Study of the Helsinki Area Hotels’ Preparedness for an Attack.” Thesis, Haaga-Helia University. URL:http://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/103379 . Lee, Jennifer E. C. (2007). “Terrorism Risk Perception and Individual Response in Canada: A social-cognitive perspective.” M.A. Thesis, University of Ottawa. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10393/29753 . Liquorie, Paul J. (2015).“Homeland Security is Hometown Security: Comparison and Case Studies of Vertically Synchronized Catastrophe Response Plans.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http://hdl. handle.net/10945/47297. Massey, Patrick J. (2007). “Forging a Framework to Improve the Emergency Management Community’s Ability to Respond to a Nuclear or Radiological Weapons Attack.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/3632. McInerney, Joan (2009). “Strengthening Hospital Surge Capacity in the Event of Explosive or Chemical Terrorist Attacks.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URLhttp://hdl.handle.net/10945/4806 . Munk, Tine Hojsgaard (2015). “Cyber-security in the European Region: Anticipatory Governance and Practices.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Manchester. URL: http://www.manchester.ac.uk/escholar/uk- ac-man-scw:266937. Mwenda, Kinyah J. (2014). “The impacts of terrorism acts on international business investment decisions by multinational companies operating in Kenya.” M.A. Thesis, University of Nairobi. URL:http://hdl.handle. net/11295/74621. Nunn, Carl. (2007). “Bio-terrorism and Municipality Preparedness.” Ph.D. Thesis, Sam Houston State University.

ISSN 2334-3745 230 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

URL: http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11875/1574. Stevens, Garry. (2014). “Terrorism threat perceptions and response in Australia and psychosocial impacts within a direct exposure group.” M.A. Thesis, Western Sydney University. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1959.7/ uws:29873. Odipo, George O. (2017). “The Nexus Between the Built Environment and Counter Terrorism Measures in Urban Areas, a Case Study of the City of Nairobi since 1998.” M.A. Thesis, University of Nairobi. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/11295/101859. Ozguler, Mustafa (2008). “Comparing and Assessing the Preparedness of Police Organizations in Counter- Terrorism (Netherlands and United Kingdom).” Ph.D. Dissertation, Kent State University. URL: http:// rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=kent1219738755. Payne, Jeffrey. (2019). “Community Responses to Mass Casualty Events: A Mixed Method Approach.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Central Florida. URL: https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/6765. Pearson, Edward M. (2014). “The Consequences to National Security of Jurisdictional Gray Areas between Emergency Management and Homeland Security.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http:// hdl.handle.net/10945/43977. Pennington, Daniel (2006). “Chemical facility preparedness a comprehensive approach.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10945/2610. Phillips, Margaret J. (2003). “Bioterrorism: A Survey of Western United States Hospital Response Readiness.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Oregon State University. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1957/30596. Register, David. (2007). “Programming Homeland Security: Citizen preparedness and the threat of terrorism.” M.A. Thesis, University of North Texas. URL:https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3922/ . Rosoff, Heather Beth (2009). “Using decision and risk analysis to assist in policy making about terrorism.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Southern California. URL: http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/ collection/p15799coll127/id/177451/rec/7759. Ryan, Saskia Xanthe (2019). “An Investigation of Resilience Constructs Alongside the Role of the Community, Religiosity and Attitudes of Intolerance: Implications for Countering Extremism.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Huddersfield. URL:http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/34832/1/Ryan%20THESIS.pdf. Santiago, Denise L. (2006). “Assessment of Public Health Infrastructure to Determine Public Health Preparedness.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/2962 . Sudnik, John (2006). “‘Dirty Bomb’ Attack: Assessing New York City’s Level of Preparedness from a First Responder’s Perspective.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/2944 . Spiegel, Eric Baron (2005). “Internal and Environmental Buffers of Terrorism-Related Anxiety.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Maryland. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1903/2367. Spinnenweber, Karl Eric (2018). “Prepare and Perform in a Dangerous World: Two Studies of Organizational Performance in Hazardous Contexts” Ph.D. Thesis, Temple University. URL: http://digital.library.temple. edu/u?/p245801coll10496288. Storme, Evelien (2007). “The Effects of Terrorism as a Form of Socio-political Instability on Tourism Governance: A Study of the July 2005 London Bombings.” M.A. Thesis, Stellenbosch University. URL: http://hdl.handle. net/10019.1/49404. Warnes, R J. (2016). “Mark 1 Counter-Terrorist: The significance of ‘human factors’ in effective counter- terrorism.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Surrey. URL: http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/812555/.

ISSN 2334-3745 231 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Watson, Stephanie Victoria (2007). “Transportation infrastructure resilience and disaster preparedness education in Alabama.” M.A. Thesis, University of Alabama – Birmingham. URL:http://contentdm.mhsl. uab.edu/u?/etd472. Welch, Alicia L. (2006). “Terrorism Awareness and Education as a Prevention Strategy for First Responders.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/2942 . Woodhams, Katrina Marie (2016). “Connections Among Communities: Preventing Radicalization and Violent Extremism through Social Network Analysis in the Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment (THIRA) Framework.” M.A. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. URL:http://hdl.handle.net/10945/51640 .

About the Compiler: Brody McDonald is a doctoral student at the University of Oxford and an Associate Member of Chatham House. His research interests include political violence, conflict, and the relationship between technology and extremism. Email Contact: [email protected]

ISSN 2334-3745 232 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Recent Online Resources for the Analysis of Terrorism and Related Subjects by Berto Jongman

Most of the clickable items included became available online between December 2020 and February 2021. They are categorized under thirteen headings (as well as sub-headings, not listed below):

1. Non-Religious Terrorism 2. Religious Terrorism 3. Terrorist Strategies and Tactics 4. Conflict, Crime and Political Violence other than Terrorism 5. Extremism, Radicalization 6. Counterterrorism - General 7. Counterterrorism: Specific Operations and/or Specific Policy Measures 8. Prevention, Preparedness and Resilience and Rehabilitation Studies 9. State Repression, Civil War and Clandestine Warfare 10. Intelligence Operations 11. Cyber Operations 12. Risk and Threat Assessments, Forecasts and Analytical Studies 13. Also Worth the Time to Read/Listen/Watch

N.B. Recent Online Resources for the Analysis of Terrorism and Related Subjects is a regular feature in ‘Perspectives on Terrorism’. For past listings, search under ‘Archive’ at https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/PoT

1. Non-Religious Terrorism Colombia’s fragile peace. France24, January 29, 201. URL: https://www.france24.com/en/tv-shows/ reporters/20210129-colombia-s-fragile-peace M. Ogbonnaya. From nationalist movements to organized crime groups: the trajectory of the Niger Delta struggles. ENACT Observer, December 7, 2020. URL: https://enactafrica.org/research/research-papers/from- nationalist-movements-to-organised-crime-groups-the-trajectory-of-the-niger-delta-struggles E. Farge. More than 200,000 flee ‘apocalyptic’ conflict in Central African Republic.Reuters , January 29, 2021. URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-centralafrica-security-un/more-than-200000-flee-apocalyptic- conflict-in-central-african-republic-idUSKBN29Y133 P. Yadav. Has the Khalistan movement lost its steam in India’s Punjab? Sputnik, January 29, 2021. URL: https://sputniknews.com/india/202101291081915582-has-the-khalistan-movement-lost-its-steam-in-indias- punjab/ Yemen: separatists form a new armed force in Aden. Middle East Monitor, January 22, 2021. URL: https:// www.middleeastmonitor.com/20210122-yemen-separatists-form-new-armed-force-in-aden/ M. Misto, E. Musa. YPG/PKK forcibly recruits over 50 young men in Syria. Anadolu Agency, January 20, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/ypg-pkk-forcibly-recruits-over-50-young-men-in- syria/2116877 J. Meitem, M. Navales. Philippine Communist guerillas say they will revive urban hit squads. Benar News, January 4, 2021. URL: https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/ph-communist-01042021104352. html

ISSN 2334-3745 233 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

J. Aliyev. Turkey: PKK membership in 2020 drops significantly.Anadolu Agency, January 2, 2020. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-pkk-membership-in-2020-drops-significantly/2096286 CAR violence forced closure of 800 polling stations: commission. Al Jazeera, December 28, 2020. URL: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/28/violence-forces-800-polling-stations-to-close-in-car- commission

2. Religious Terrorism

2.1. Al-Qaida and its Affiliates

Al-Qaida veut progresser vers le Golfe de Guinée. Le Figaro, February 1, 2021. URL: https://www.lefigaro.fr/ flash-actu/al-qaida-veut-progresser-vers-le-golfe-de-guinee-20210201 C. Faulkner. Taliban creep closer to capturing former heartland as lack of pay undermines Afghan forces. The Independent, January 30, 2021. URL: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/taliban-afghanistan- kandahar-conflict-peace-talks-b1794717.html Abdul Sayed. The jihadists’ war in Pakistan after the US withdrawal from Afghanistan: lessons from al- Qaeda’s assassination of Benazir Bhutto. TerrorismMonitor, 19(2), January 29, 2021. URL: https://jamestown. org/program/the-jihadists-war-in-pakistan-after-the-us-withdrawal-from-afghanistan-lessons-from-al- qaedas-assassination-of-benazir-bhutto/?mc_cid=64e12e4b70&mc_eid=9942bc67e0 P. Walter Wellman. Taliban prisoners released under peace deal arrested after rejoining fight, official says. Stars & Stripes, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.stripes.com/news/middle-east/taliban-prisoners- released-under-peace-deal-arrested-after-rejoining-fight-official-says-1.659766 Is Algeria once again confronted with the treat of terrorism? The Africa Report, January 22, 2021. URL: https://www.propublica.org/article/twitter-and-youtube-banned-steve-bannon-apple-still-gives-him- millions-of-listeners?utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=social - 1046838 J. Duhamel. Map of security incidents in Mali, December 2020. URL: https://julesduhamel.wordpress. com/2021/01/21/map-of-security-incidents-in-mali-december-2020/ A. Morris. Somalia – a triple threat to instability? Global Risk Insights, January 20, 2021. URL: https:// globalriskinsights.com/2021/01/somalia-a-triple-threat-to-instability/ Map of security incidents in Burkina Faso, December 2020. ACLED, January 19, 2021. URL: https:// julesduhamel.wordpress.com/2021/01/19/map-of-security-incidents-in-burkina-faso-december-2020/ Al-Qaeda’s new home base: Iran. European Eye on Radicalization, January 15, 2021. URL: https:// eeradicalization.com/al-qaedas-new-home-base-iran/ M.R. Pompeo. The Iran-al-Qa’ida Axis. US State Department, January 12, 2021. URL: https://www.state.gov/ the-iran-al-qaida-axis/ S. Neelakantan. Bangladesh again denies al-Qaida presence. Benar News, January 15, 2021. URL: https:// www.benarnews.org/english/news/bengali/bd-us-alqaeda-01152021173624.html R. Moore, A. Cooper. The next jihad: stop the Christian genocide in Africa. 2020. URL:https://www.amazon. com/Next-Jihad-Christian-Genocide-Africa/dp/0785241345 Taliban not ready for cease-fire, Afghan negotiator says.Daily Sabah, January 2, 2021. URL: https://www. dailysabah.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-not-ready-for-cease-fire-afghan-negotiator-says

ISSN 2334-3745 234 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

H. Nsaibia. Mali: any end to the storm? ACLED, December 17, 2020. URL: https://acleddata.com/2020/12/17/ mali-any-end-to-the-storm/ M. Levitt, A. Zelin. Al-Qaeda’s external operations one year after the Pensacola attack. The Washington Institute, December 11, 2020. URL: https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/al-qaedas-external- operations-one-year-after-pensacola-attack T. Asmara. Indonesian authorities fly dozens of Jemaah Islamiyah suspects to Jakarta. Benar News, December 16, 2020. URL: https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/indonesian/id-ji-arrests-12162020170639.html AISS launches book on Afghan conflict. Tolo News, December 26, 2020. URL: https://tolonews.com/ afghanistan-168752?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter

2.2. IS/ISIS/Daesh and its Affiliates

Spotlight on global jihad (January 21-27, 2021). The Meir Amit Intelligence & Terrorism Information Center, January 28, 2021. URL: https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/spotlight-on-global-jihad-january-27-21-2021/ Spotlight on global jihad (January 7-13, 2021). The Meir Amit Intelligence & Terrorism Information Center, January 14, 2021. URL: https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/spotlight-on-global-jihad-january-7-13- 2021/?fbclid=IwAR2rwYXd-8oxbSjV7kVIQkrIRuRC0p-CPm1G5Hg99OGBbe1r1-gZmIeg-Go Spotlight on global jihad (December 31, 2020 – January 6, 2021). The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center, January 7, 2021. URL: https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/spotlight-on-global-jihad- december-31-2020-january-6-2021/ K. Jangiz. ISIS is regrouping, gaining strength in Iraq’s disputed territories: Peshmerga ministry official. Rudaw, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/iraq/27012021 T. Refslund Hamming. The Islamic State in Mozambique.Lawfare, January 24, 2021. URL: https://www. lawfareblog.com/islamic-state-mozambique S. al-Kanj. Who is behind recent attacks against Turkish presence in Idlib? Al Monitor, January 22, 2021. URL: https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/01/syria-turkey-military-idlib-attacks-groups-hts-is- regime.html Daesh recovering in Iraq, Najba warns. International Quran News Agency, January 23, 2021. URL: https:// iqna.ir/en/news/3473773/daesh-recovering-in-iraq-nuajba-warns?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter F. Gardner. Islamic State tries to shore up relevance with Iraq carnage. BBC, January 23, 2021. URL: https:// www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-55764993 With the world distracted, Islamic State readies for a resurgence in Syria. The New Arab, January 14, 2021. URL: https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/comment/2021/1/15/islamic-states-resurgence-is-syria-is-going- unnoticed E. Stewart. The Islamic State stopped talking about China.War on the Rocks, January 19, 2021. URL: https:// warontherocks.com/2021/01/the-islamic-state-stopped-talking-about-uighurs/ M. Navales, R.V. Umel. Southern Philippines: senior BIFF militant dies. Benar News, January 13, 2021. URL: https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/biff-senior-militant-dies-01132021140758.html A. Ahmed. Despite crackdown, Islamic State continues to kill, kidnap civilians in east Syria. Al Monitor, January 14, 2021. URL: https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/01/syria-deir-ez-zor-islamic-state- assassinations-civilians.html - ixzz6jcaXSTlY J. Cope. ISIS, reborn: the Islamic State’s African revival is a lethal blind spot. The National Interest, January 13, 2021. URL: https://nationalinterest.org/feature/isis-reborn-islamic-state’s-african-revival-lethal-blind- ISSN 2334-3745 235 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 spot-176301 What do we know about Islamic State group in the DR Congo? France24, January 11, 2021. URL: https:// observers.france24.com/en/africa/20210111-video-adf-beni-dr-congo-islamic-state?ref=tw A. Ahmed. IS cells escalate attacks on civilians, regime soldiers in eastern Syria. Al-Monitor, January 6, 2020. URL:https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/01/syria-islamic-state-cells-attacks-civilians-kurds- regime.html - ixzz6isQ0C7fV E. Rizan. Esscom issues new wanted list, notorious Abu Sayyaf bombmaker among new faces. Daily Express, January 6, 2021. URL: https://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news/164250/esscom-issues-new-wanted-list- notorious-abu-sayyaf-bombmaker-among-new-faces-/ C.P. Clarke. Trends in terrorism: what’s on the horizon 2021? Foreign Policy Research Institute, January 5, 2020. URL: https://www.fpri.org/article/2021/01/trends-in-terrorism-whats-on-the-horizon-in-2021/ G. Waters. ISIS redux: the central Syria insurgency in December 2020. Counter Extremism Project, January 4, 201. URL: https://www.counterextremism.com/blog/isis-redux-central-syria-insurgency-december-2020 R. Ahmed. Daesh looks to gain foothold in Balochistan under ex-Karachi.cop. Samaa, September 18, 2020. URL : https://www.samaa.tv/news/2019/09/daesh-looks-to-gain-foothold-in-balochistan-under-ex-karachi- cop/ 6,800 people killed in Syria in 2020, lowest annual record since 2011. Daily Sabah, December 31, 2020. URL: https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/6800-people-killed-in-syria-in-2020-lowest-annual-record- since-2011?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter A. Jadoon, N. Jahanbani, C. Willis. Rising in the East: the evolution of the Islamic State in the Philippines. CTC sentinel, December 30, 2020. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/rising-in-the-east-the-evolution-of-the-islamic- state-in-the-philippines/

2.3. Other Groups/Organizations

Islamic Jihad sets conditions to participate in elections. Asharq al-Awsat, February 1, 2021. URL: https:// english.aawsat.com/home/article/2778236/islamic-jihad-sets-conditions-participate-elections H. Ghoraba. Islamists still seek power a decade after Arab Spring revolutions. The Investigative Project on Terrorism, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.investigativeproject.org/8709/islamists-still-seek-power-a- decade-after-arab S. Ramachandran. Hefazat-e-Islam Bangladesh’s rivalry with Awami League: the growing Islamist-secular divide. Terrorism Monitor, 19(2), January 29, 2021. URL: https://jamestown.org/program/hefazat-e-islam- bangladeshs-rivalry-with-awami-league-the-growing-islamist-secular-divide/?mc_cid=64e12e4b70&mc_ eid=9942bc67e0 Fatah rejects Dahlan party’s proposal to run on one list. Middle East Monitor, January 26, 2021. URL: https:// www.middleeastmonitor.com/20210126-fatah-rejects-dahlan-partys-proposal-to-run-on-one-list/ H. Ghoraba. Islamists still seek power a decade after Arab Spring revolutions. The Investigative project on Terrorism, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.investigativeproject.org/8709/islamists-still-seek-power-a- decade-after-arab E. Fard. Who is Quds Force chief Esmail Qaani? BESA Center Perspectives Paper No. 1900, January 24, 2021. URL: https://besacenter.org/perspectives-papers/quds-force-esmail-qaani/ S. Lateef. Militants target non-Kashmiris amid tensions over land laws. Deutsche Welle, January 19, 2021. URL: https://www.dw.com/en/kashmir-land-laws-militancy/a-56277000

ISSN 2334-3745 236 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

E. Hagedorn. Houthi terror designation could set off Yemen’s oil tanker ‘time bomb’. Al-Monitor, January 19, 2021. URL: https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/01/yemen-fto-houthi-fso-safer-oil-tanker- designation.html A. Mukhtar Mirza. Causes of Kashmiri belligerence: call for China’s leadership – OpEd. Eurasia Review, January 24, 2021. URL: https://www.eurasiareview.com/24012021-causes-of-kashmiri-belligerence-call-for- chinas-leadership-oped/ M. Knights, H. Malik, C. Smith. Changing of the guard: new Iraqi militia trends and responses. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, January 19, 2021. URL:https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy- analysis/changing-guard-new-iraqi-militia-trends-and-responses S. Moubayed. The Muslim Brotherhood in Europe’s ties to the Middle East and North Africa. European Eye on Radicalization, January 15, 2021. URL: https://eeradicalization.com/the-muslim-brotherhood-in-europes- ties-to-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/ M. Carlin. Iranian-backed Houthis test Yemen’s new unity government. The National Interest, January 11, 2021. URL: https://nationalinterest.org/blog/middle-east-watch/iranian-backed-houthis-test-yemen’s-new- unity-government-176187 Hezbollah’s precision missiles can ‘paralyze strategic systems of Israel’: commentator. Al Masdar News, January 15, 2021. URL: https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/hezbollahs-precision-missiles-can-paralyze- strategic-systems-of-israel-commentator/ ‘We will not hesitate to declare jihad against Israel’: Houthis. Al Masdar News, January 11, 2021. URL: https:// www.almasdarnews.com/article/we-will-not-hesitate-to-declare-jihad-against-israel-houthis/ Syria war killed 6,800 in 2020, lowest annual toll: monitor. Al Arabiya, December 31, 2020. URL: https:// english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2020/12/31/Syria-War-killed-6-800-in-2020-lowest-annual-toll- Monitor Another Arab country has joined the ‘axis of evil’ against Israel: Channel 12. Al Masdar News, January 2, 2020. URL: https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/another-arab-country-has-joined-the-axis-of-evil- against-israel-channel-12/

3. Terrorist Strategies and Tactics J. Hamida Andisha. Unprecedented threats to journalists & civil society activists are threatening Afghanistan. Just Security, January 29, 2021. URL: https://www.justsecurity.org/74421/unprecedented-threats-to- journalists-civil-society-activists-are-threatening-afghanistan/ J.P. Sullivan, R.J. Bunker. Use of weaponized consumer drones in Mexican crime war. Counter-IED Report, 2021. URL: https://www.academia.edu/45000611/Use_of_Weaponized_Consumer_Drones_in_Mexican_ Crime_War?email_work_card=view-paper C. Winter, S. Maher, A. Jawad al-Tamimi. Understanding Salafi-Jihadist attitudes towards innovation. ICSR, January 19, 2021. URL: https://icsr.info/2021/01/19/understanding-salafi‑jihadist-attitudes-towards- innovation/ M. McNabb. The ban on Chinese drones: lawmakers set their sights on China-made tech. Drone Life, August 10, 2010. URL; https://dronelife.com/2020/08/10/the-ban-on-chinese-drones/?utm_source=twitter&utm_ medium=social&utm_campaign=ReviveOldPost M. McNabb. Military drones and sensors are an exploding market. Drone Life, January 11, 2021. URL: https://dronelife.com/2021/01/11/military-drones-and-sensors-are-an-exploding-market/?utm_

ISSN 2334-3745 237 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 source=twitter&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=ReviveOldPost R.L. Earnhardt, B. Hyatt, N. Roth. A threat to confront: far-right extremists and nuclear terrorism. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, January 14, 2021. URL: https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-2021-january-14/ Y. Schweizer, A. Mendelboim, A. Henler-Bloom. Suicide bombings worldwide in 2021. INSS, Insight No. 1424, January 11, 2021. URL: https://www.inss.org.il/publication/suicide-attacks-2020/ B. Torossian. The widening arsenal of terrorist organizations: environmental terrorism on the rise in the Middle East and North Africa. The Hague Center for Strategic Studies, January 5, 2021. URL: https://hcss.nl/ report/widening-arsenal-terrorist-organizations-environmental-terrorism-rise-middle-east-and-north S. Stern, J. Ware, N. Harrington. Terrorist targeting in the age of coronavirus. Nextgen, June 9, 2020. URL: https://www.nextgen50.org/post/terrorist-targeting-in-the-age-of-coronavirus Y. Lappin. As terror groups increase drone usage, Israeli firm counters with pioneering jamming technology. Jewish News Syndicate, January 5, 2021. URL: https://www.jns.org/as-terror-groups-increase-drone-usage-an- israeli-firm-counters-with-pioneering-jamming-technology/ A. Kurth Cronin. The Nashville bombing and threats to critical infrastructure: we saw this coming.War on the Rocks, December 31, 2020. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3GYU8EPobI J. van der Made. Islamic State terrorists used Nazi technology to produce devastating weapons. RFI, December 8, 2020. URL: https://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20201208-islamic-state-terrorists-used-nazi- technology-to-produce-devastating-weapons N. Weaver. How easy is it to build a robot assassin? Lawfare, December 2, 2020. URL: https://www. lawfareblog.com/how-easy-it-build-robot-assassin

4. Conflict, Crime, Political Violence other than Terrorism

4.1. Criminal Groups

J.P. Sullivan, R.J. Bunker. How Covid-19 is influencing organized crime and conflict.Homeland Security Today, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/25/19-burned-bodies-found-near- mexico-us-border-town J.P. Sullivan, R.J. Bunker (Eds.) COVID-19, gangs and conflict.A Small Wars Journal-El Centro Reader, 2020, 200p. URL: https://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/covid-19-gangs-and-conflict-small-wars-journal-el-centro- reader Chinese ‘El Chapo’ arrested in Amsterdam. Deutsche Welle, January 24, 2021. URL: https://www.dw.com/en/ chinese-el-chapo-arrested-in-amsterdam/a-56327449 Italian police bust massive Mafia fraud scheme. Deutsche Welle, January 21, 2021. URL: https://www.dw.com/ en/italian-police-bust-massive-mafia-fraud-scheme/a-56304393 J. Rinoza. Philippine police catch eight suspected Chinese members of kidnap gang. Benar News, January 12, 2021. URL: https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/chinese-crime- philippines-01122021133151.html MS-13’s highest-ranking leaders charged with terrorism offenses in the United States.US Department of Justice, January 14, 2021. URL: https://www.justice.gov/usao-edny/pr/ms-13-s-highest-ranking-leaders- charged-terrorism-offenses-united-states

ISSN 2334-3745 238 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

S. Cooper. Alleged RCMP mole accused of selling secrets to kingpin money launderer and terror-financier’s network. Global News, January 14, 2021. URL: https://globalnews.ca/news/7568801/rcmp-cameron-ortis- global-money-laundering/ L. Tondo. Italy’s largest mafia trial in three decades to begin against ‘Ndrangheta. The Guardian, January 13, 2021. URL: https://amp-theguardian-com.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/amp.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/13/ italy-mafia-trial-ndragheta-calabria J. P. Sleinan. Colombia arrests 198 suspected Clan del Golfo members. OCCRP, January 9, 2021. URL: https:// www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9132321/Nancy-Pelosi-says-wants-Donald-Trump-impeached-stop- running-president-again.html

4.2. Riots

Lebanon’s caretaker PM condemns overnight violence in Tripoli. Al Arabiya, January 29, 2021. URL: https:// english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2021/01/29/Beirut-explosion-Lebanon-s-caretaker-PM-condemns- overnight-violence-in-Tripoli- E. Ferguson. France riots: Macron braced for furious lockdown rebellion as chaos erupts on streets. Express, January 28, 2021. URL: https://www.express.co.uk/news/politics/1390258/france-news-lockdown-emmanuel- macron-announcement-protests-riots-paris-airports S. Derks, I. Gercama. Netherlands: anti-curfew riots shake Dutch society. Deutsche Welle, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www.dw.com/en/netherlands-anti-curfew-riots-shake-dutch-society/a-56362461 C. Mitchell. Hundreds of ultra-Orthodox Jews throw rocks at riot cops and set fire to vehicles as police blast them with water cannons during anti-lockdown protests in Israel. Daily Mail Online, January 26, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9189371/Hundreds-ultra-Orthodox-Jews-clash-riot-cops-anti- lockdown-protests-Israel.html COVID: Dutch curfew riots rage for third night. BBC, January 26, 2021. URL: https://www.bbc.com/news/ world-europe-55799919 R. Parashar. Violence, death & invasion of Delhi: here’s how the 72nd Republic Day unfolded in India’s capital. Sputnik, January 26, 2021. URL: https://sputniknews.com/india/202101261081885502-violence-death-- invasion-of-delhi-heres-how-the-72nd-republic-day-unfolded-in-indias-capital/ K. Bo Williams, B. Peniston. Right-wing extremists storm US Capitol. Defense One, January 6, 2021. URL: https://www.defenseone.com/threats/2021/01/right-wing-extremists-storm-capitol-building/171216/ A. Zilber. ‘We don’t want Biden. We want revenge for police murders, imperialist wars, and fascist massacres’” Antifa mob smash up Portland’s Democratic Party hq, burn US flags in Denver and run riot in Seattle in protest at Biden presidency. Daily Mail Online, January 21, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/ article-9170237/Protesters-gather-damage-Democratic-headquarters-Oregon.html?ito=social-twitter_ dailymailus 1,000 arrested, troops deployed as Tunisia erupts in new riots. Arab News, January 18, 2021. URL: https:// www.arabnews.com/node/1794576/middle-east L.V. Groeger, J. Kao, A. Shaw, M. Syed, M. Eliahou. What Parler saw during the attack on the Capitol. ProPublica, January 17, 2021. URL: https://projects.propublica.org/parler-capitol-videos/ QAnon and the storming of Capitol Hill. Acast, January 7, 2021. URL: https://play.acast.com/s/cyber/ qanonandthestormingofcapitolhill E. Crane. Capitol rioters included at least 21 military and cops who were caught on camera using combat- style tactics like the ‘ranger file’ – as it’s revealed white supremacists are actively recruiting in US forces.Daily

ISSN 2334-3745 239 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Mail Online, January 15, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9151597/Capitol-rioters- included-21-ex-military-cops.html?ito=social-twitter_dailymailus US says Capitol rioters meant to ‘capture and assassinate’ officials, court filing.Haaretz, January 14, 2021. URL: https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/u-s-says-capitol-rioters-meant-to-capture-and-assassinate-officials- court-filing-1.9454158?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter J. Gordon Meek, C. Samz. Video shows retired Navy SEAL boasting of ‘breaching the Capitol’. ABC News, January 13, 2021. URL: https://abcnews.go.com/US/video-shows-retired-navy-seal-boasting-breaching- capitol/story?id=75206495 Analysis of Ashli Babbitt video suggest coordinated actions –interview with Masako Ganaha. Crossroads with Joshua Phillipp. YouTube, January 11, 2021. URL: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=5nvqvvsqJ_s&feature=youtu.be Shooting and storming of the US Capitol in Washington DC (view discretion is advised). Jayden X, YouTube, January 8, 2021. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PfiS8MsfSF4&feature=youtu. be&bpctr=1610513411 K. Sengupta. The Capitol riot is part of a growing battlefield – the ‘grey zone’. The Independent, January 12, 2021. URL: https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/trump-capitol-riots-qanon-russia-b1785622.html T. Mehra, J. Cook. An attack on the Capitol and democracy: an act of terrorism? The Hague:ICCT, January 11, 2021. URL: https://icct.nl/publication/an-attack-on-the-capitol-and-democracy-an-act-of-terrorism/ A. Feinberg. White House insiders say Trump knew what was about to happen at the Capitol – because of his social media guru Dan Scavino. The Independent, January 12, 2021. URL: https://www.independent.co.uk/ voices/trump-dan-scavino-white-house-insiders-capitol-b1786148.html The attack on the Capitol was a success. So what happens next?Political Violence at a Glance, January 12, 2021. URL: https://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2021/01/12/the-attack-on-the-capitol-was-a-success-so- what-happens-next/ M.Shen. Republican Rep. Mike Nearman is caught on security camera holding door open to let right-wing demonstrators storm the Oregon Capitol. Daily Mail Online, January 9, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail. co.uk/news/article-9128721/Rep-Nearman-caught-security-vid-holding-door-let-right-wing-demonstrators- Oregon-Capitol.html K. Griffith. FBI is investigating whether MAGA mob plotted to take hostages in Capital riot after retired Lieutenant Colonel and another rioter were spotted carrying zip-ties. Daily Mail Online, January 9, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9129367/FBI-investigating-Trump-rioters-planned-hostages. html E. Crane. FBI releases new wanted poster of 10 more MAGA mob rioters they’re hunting following the arrests of more than 80 others – as Justice Department says there’s no evidence Antifa was involved in Capitol siege. Daily Mail Online, January 9, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9127411/FBI-releases- wanted-poster-10-MAGA-mob-rioters-theyre-hunting.html B. Nelson, Y. Sulaiman. The attack on the Capitol building.Center for World Conflict & Peace, January 8, 2021. URL: https://centerforworldconflictandpeace.blogspot.com/2021/01/the-attack-on-capitol-building. html?spref=tw Former head of Homeland Security on the dangers of Trump’s rhetoric. PBS, January 7, 2021. URL: https:// www.pbs.org/newshour/show/former-head-of-homeland-security-on-the-dangers-of-trumps-rhetoric J. Williams. RNC communications director calls Capitol violence ‘domestic terrorism’ The Hill, January 6, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/news/533040-rnc-communications-director-calls-

ISSN 2334-3745 240 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 capitol-violence-domestic?utm_source=iterable&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=1881218_ Capitol riots: who broke into the building? BBC, January 7, 2021. URL: https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/ originals/2020/12/iraq-iran-pmu-sistani.html

4.3. Hate Crimes, Anti-Semitism, Islamophobia, Xenophobia,

Y. Ozcan. France: Islamophobic attacks up sharply last year. Anadolu Agency, January 29, 2021. URL: https:// www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/france-islamophobic-attacks-up-sharply-last-year/2126901 UN adopts resolution to combat sectarian hate, protect religious sites. Asharq al-Awsat, January 23, 2021. URL: https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2759526/un-adopts-resolution-combat-sectarian-hate- protect-religious-sites M. Masters. The Capitol riot, anti-Semitism and what Joe Biden can do.The Hill, January 14, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/opinion/criminal-justice/534088-the-capitol-riot-anti-semitism-and-what-joe-biden-can- do A mosque attacked twice in two weeks in Germany: report. MEHR, January 2, 2021. URL: https:// en.mehrnews.com/news/167942/A-mosque-attacked-twice-in-2-weeks-in-Germany-Report Pakistan: Christian families flee homes after extremist threats.Eurasia Review, January 2, 2021. URL: https:// www.eurasiareview.com/02012021-pakistan-christian-families-flee-homes-after-extremist-threats/

5. Extremism, Radicalization M. Sommers. Violent extremism and the governance challenge. Just Security, January 29, 2021. URL: https:// www.justsecurity.org/74417/violent-extremism-and-the-governance-challenge/ M. Trindada Viana, P. Paulo dos Santos da Silva. Preventing extremisms, taming dissidence: Islamic radicalism and black extremism in the US making of CVE. Critical Studies on Terrorism, January 29, 2021. URL: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17539153.2020.1870259?journalCode=rter20 A. Dijkman. ‘De radicaliseringsindustrie’ van pionieren naar professionaliseren. 2021. URL: https://dezwijger. nl/programma/de-radicaliseringsindustrie J.L. Holt. We still don’t take online extremism seriously. Gen.medium.com, January 7, 2021. URL: https://gen. medium.com/the-capitol-shows-we-still-dont-take-online-extremism-seriously-enough-2d1be555bfa0 How and why ideologies are shared and learned. CREST Research, December 11, 2020. URL: https://crestresearch.ac.uk/resources/how-and-why-ideologies-are-shared-and-learned/?utm_ source=CREST+Newsletter+%28Public%29&utm_campaign=ecacbeb47b-EMAIL_ CAMPAIGN_2020_04_28_08_25_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_00377b1cb7- ecacbeb47b-188751729 C.P. Clarke. From COVID to the Caliphate: a look at violent extremism heading into 2021. USIP, December 15, 2020. URL: https://www.usip.org/publications/2020/12/covid-caliphate-look-violent-extremism- heading-2021 La Toya Waha. United by violence, divided by cause? A comparison of drivers of radicalization and violence in Asia and Europe. Nomos, 2020, 223p. URL: https://www.nomos-shop.de/titel/united-by-violence-divided- by-cause-id-82053/

ISSN 2334-3745 241 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

5.1. Right-wing Extremism

R.A. Pape, K. Ruby. The capitol rioters aren’t like other extremists. The Atlantic, February 2, 2021. URL: https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/02/the-capitol-rioters-arent-like-other-extremists/617895/ Neo-Nazi Feuerkrieg Division – which counted Britain’s youngest terrorist among its members – is run by a 13-year-old Estonian boy who calls for the ‘rape of Christian nuns in Hitler’s name.’ Daily Mail Online, February 1, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9211625/Neo-Nazi-Feuerkrieg-Division- run-Estonian-boy-13-calls-rape-Hitlers-name.html Proud Boys’ member ‘kept hundreds of guides for making bombs and homemade weapons in his home’ and ‘planned to kill every single ‘m**f**er’ he could during the Capitol riots. Daily Mail Online, January 30. 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9204205/Proud-Boys-member-displayed-planning- determination-coordination-Capitol-riots.html Bibliography: 2021. Centre for Analysis of the Radical Right (CARR). URL: https://www.radicalrightanalysis. com/bibliography/bibliography-2021/ E. Bevensee. How COVID and Syria conspiracies introduce fascism to the left. Part. I: the red-brown media spectrum. Centre for Analysis of the Radical Right, September 9, 2020. URL: https://www.radicalrightanalysis. com/2020/09/09/spectrum/ S. Burley. New far right party aims to stoke fear of BLM into organized White Supremacy. Truthout, August 25, 2020. URL: https://truthout.org/articles/new-far-right-party-aims-to-stoke-fear-of-blm-into-organized- white-supremacy/ J. Zenn. Proud Boys and Antifa face uncertain futures after Capitol siege. TerrorismMonitor, 19(2), January 29, 201.URL: https://jamestown.org/program/briefs-342/?mc_cid=64e12e4b70&mc_eid=9942bc67e0 Documentaries about the far right. UiO:C-REX – Center for Research on Extremism, 2020. URL: https://www. sv.uio.no/c-rex/english/groups/bibliographies/documentaries-and-fiction/documentaries.html ‘Trump was … their last chance’: far-right forum frustrations with political inaction lead to violent incitements. SITE, January 29, 2021. URL: https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Far-Right-/-Far-Left-Threat/trump- was-their-last-chance-far-right-forum-frustrations-with-political-inaction-lead-to-violent-incitements.html N. Mckenzie, J. Tozer. Neo-Nazis go bush: Grampians gathering highlights rise of Australia’s far right. Sydney Morning Herald, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/neo-nazis-go-bush- grampians-gathering-highlights-rise-of-australia-s-far-right-20210127-p56xbf.html R. Kishi, H. Stall, S. Jones. The future of ‘Stop the Steal’: post-election trajectories for right-wing mobilization in the US. ACLED, December 10, 2020. URL: https://acleddata.com/2020/12/10/the-future-of-stop-the-steal- post-election-trajectories-for-right-wing-mobilization-in-the-us/ L.L. Dawson. Keeping faith with Trump: the dangerous causes and the consequences. The Hague:ICCT , January 21, 2021. URL: https://icct.nl/publication/keeping-faith-with-trump-the-dangerous-causes-and-the- consequences/ E. Palmer. Joe Biden’s policies and QAnon fallout could see proliferation of militia groups. Newsweek, January 22, 2021. URL: https://www.newsweek.com/joe-biden-qanon-militia-groups-1563384 P. Gurski. So, what’s up with Christian extremism? Borealis Threat & Risk Consulting, January 26, 2021. URL: https://borealisthreatandrisk.com/quick-hits-whats-up-with-christian-extremism/ A. Speckhard, J. Morton, M. Ellenberg, N. Kates, A. Ash, K. Reidy. Perspective: What incels can tell us about isolation, resentment, and terror designations. Homeland Security Today, January 19, 2021. URL: https:// www.hstoday.us/subject-matter-areas/counterterrorism/perspective-what-incels-can-tell-us-about-isolation-

ISSN 2334-3745 242 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 resentment-and-terrorism-designations/ Asking Incels: an insiders account of the involuntary celibate community. ICSVE, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www.eventbrite.com/e/asking-incels-an-insiders-account-of-the-involuntary-celibate-community- tickets-137283082395 J.M. Berger. Without prejudice: what sovereign citizens believe. GW Program on Extremism. URL: https:// extremism.gwu.edu/sites/g/files/zaxdzs2191/f/downloads/JMB Sovereign Citizens.pdf M. Money. The Boogaloo Bois prepare for civil war.Defense One, January 16, 2021. URL: https://www. defenseone.com/threats/2021/01/boogaloo-bois-prepare-civil-war/171455/ E. Mitchell. Lawmakers move to oust extremists from military. The Hill, January 24, 2021. URL: https:// thehill.com/policy/defense/535503-lawmakers-move-to-oust-extremists-from-military R. Devereaux. Capitol attack was culmination of generations of far-right extremism. The Intercept, January 23, 2021. URL: https://theintercept.com/2021/01/23/capitol-riot-far-right-extremism/?utm_ source=twitter&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=theintercept T. Mockaitis. Extremism in the US military. The Hill, January 23, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/opinion/ national-security/535470-extremism-in-the-us-military C.P. Clarke. A new era of far-right terrorism. The New York Times, January 21, 2021. URL: https://www. nytimes.com/2021/01/22/opinion/domestic-terrorism-far-right-insurrection.html L.S. Domestic terrorism and the attack on the US Capitol – analysis. Eurasia Review, January 22, 2021. URL:https://www.eurasiareview.com/22012021-domestic-terrorism-and-the-attack-on-the-us-capitol- analysis/ J.A.Ravndal, S. Lygren, A. R. Jupskås, T. Bjørgo. RTV Trend Report 2020 Right-Wing Terrorism and Violence in Western Europe, 1990-2019. Center for Research on Extremism, University of Oslo, 2020. URL: https://www. sv.uio.no/c-rex/english/publications/2020/rtv-trend-report-2020-right-wing-terrorism-and-vio.html Compendium: an overview of the far right. Center for Research on Extremism, University of Oslo. URL: https://www.sv.uio.no/c-rex/english/groups/compendium/index.html L.L. Dawson. Keeping faith with Trump: the dangerous causes and the consequences. The Hague:ICCT , January 21, 2021. URL: https://icct.nl/publication/keeping-faith-with-trump-the-dangerous-causes-and-the- consequences/ B. O’Connor. Trump’s useful thugs: how the Republican party offered a home to the Proud Boys.The Guardian, January 21, 2021. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jan/21/donald-trump-useful- thugs-proud-boys-far-right-republican-party J. Carrie Wong. QAnon’s ‘Great Awakening’ failed to materialize. What’s next could be worse. The Guardian, January 20, 2021. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jan/20/qanon-biden-inauguration- trump-antisemitism-white-nationalism CNN airs guide to deprogram MAGA supporters as cult expert claims entire country needs post-Trump help. Blacklisted News, January 20, 2021. URL: https://www.blacklistednews.com/article/79074/cnn-airs-guide-to- deprogram-maga-supporters-as-cult-expert-claims-entire-country-needs-posttrump.html?utm_source=dlvr. it&utm_medium=twitter C. Mills Rodrigo. QAnon followers struggle to explain Biden inauguration. The Hill, January 20, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/homenews/news/535083-qanon-followers-struggle-to-explain-biden-inauguration A. Coleman, S. Sardarizadeh. Biden inauguration: what are far right Trump supporters saying. BBC, January 20, 2021. URL: https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-55679813

ISSN 2334-3745 243 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

IntelBrief: Leadership and organizational dynamics of the Oath Keepers. The Soufan Center, January 19, 2021. URL: https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-leadership-and-organizational-dynamics-of-the-oath-keepers/ M. Mooney. The Boogaloo Bois prepare for civil war. Defense One, January 16, 2021. URL: https://www. defenseone.com/threats/2021/01/boogaloo-bois-prepare-civil-war/171455/ B. Makuch. Russia-based neo-Nazi terror leader offers training to American far right.Vice , January 19, 201. URL: https://www.vice.com/en/article/3anj8w/russia-based-neo-nazi-terror-leader-offers-training-to- american-far-right IntelBrief: The enduring implications of the Capitol insurrection.The Soufan Center, January 19, 2021. URL: https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-2021-january-19/ J. Horton, C. Giles. Capitol riots: are US militia groups becoming more active? BBC, January 18, 2021. URL: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-55638579 H. Ashby. Far-right extremism is a global problem. Foreign Policy, January 15, 2021. URL: https:// foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/15/far-right-extremism-global-problem-worldwide-solutions/ What’s fueling the growth of far right wing terrorism? CNN, January 16, 2021. URL: https://edition.cnn.com/ videos/us/2021/01/16/right-wing-domestic-threats-terror-sciutto-pkg-nr-vpx.cnn A. Slisco. Proud Boys intended to kill Mike Pence and Nancy Pelosi, FBI witness says. Newsweek, January 15, 2021. URL: https://www.newsweek.com/proud-boys-intended-kill-mike-pence-nancy-pelosi-fbi-witness- says-1562062 S. Kutner. Swiping right: the allure of hyper masculinity and crypto-fascism for men who join the Proud Boys. The Hague: ICCT, May 26, 2020. URL: https://icct.nl/publication/swiping-right-the-allure-of-hyper- masculinity-and-cryptofascism-for-men-who-join-the-proud-boys/ E. Mitchell. Pentagon watchdog to launch probe of white supremacists in the military. The Hill, January 14, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/policy/defense/534315-pentagon-watchdog-to-launch-probe-of-white- supremacists-in-the-military R. Kishi, H. Stall, S. Jones. The future of ‘Stop the Steal’: post-election trajectories for right-wing mobilization in the US. ACLED, January 13, 2021. URL: https://acleddata.com/2020/12/10/the-future-of-stop-the-steal- post-election-trajectories-for-right-wing-mobilization-in-the-us/ The journey of Ashli Babbitt. Bellingcat, January 8, 2021. URL: https://www.bellingcat.com/news/2021/01/08/ the-journey-of-ashli-babbitt/ M. Giglio. A mob attacked the Capitol for Trump. Now what? The Intercept, January 11, 2021. URL: https:// theintercept.com/2021/01/10/capitol-riot-far-right/ B. Latza Nadeau. Adolf Hitler cult caught running submachine guns for international drugtraffickers.The Daily Beast, January 11, 2021. URL: https://www.thedailybeast.com/adolf-hitler-cult-caught-running- submachine-guns-for-international-drug-traffickers?source=articles&via=rss&utm_source=feedly&utm_ medium=webfeeds Hate on Display Hate symbols database. ADL, January 2021. URL: https://www.adl.org/hate-symbols J. Hutchinson. The rise of radical right extremism in Trump’s America. Rantt Media, January 10, 2021. URL: https://rantt.com/the-rise-of-radical-right-extremism-in-trumps-america L.E. Adkins, E. Burack. Neo-Nazis, QAnon and Camp Auschwitz: a guide to the hate symbols and signs on display at the Capitol riots. Haaretz, January 9, 2021. URL: https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/neo-nazis- qanon-and-camp-auschwitz-a-guide-to-the-hate-symbols-at-the-capitol-riot-1.9434983

ISSN 2334-3745 244 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

E. Grey Ellis. The DC mobs could become a mythologized recruitment tool.WIRED, January 8, 2021. URL: https://www.wired.com/story/trump-dc-protest-online-extremism/ C. Mudde. What happened in Washington DC is happening around the world. The Guardian, January 7, 2021. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/jan/07/what-happened-in-washington-dc-is- happening-around-the-world R. Coalson. ‘We know what to do’: far-right figures across Eastern Europe applaud US Capitol violence. RFE/RL, January 7, 2021. URL: https://www.rferl.org/a/far-right-figures-across-eastern-europe-applaud-us- capitol-violence/31038085.html K. Belew. Bring the war home. The White Power movement and paramilitary America. Harvard University Press, 2018, 352p. URL: https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674286078

5.2. Left-wing Extremism

Andy Ngo: infiltrating CHAZ; Antifa’s plot to destroy America; ‘Unmasked’. American Thought Leaders,The Epoch Times, February 2, 2021. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2yQVMNnGQU A. Goldman, K. Benner, Z. Kanno-Younga. How Trump’s focus on Antifa distracted attention from the far- right threat. The New York Times, January 30, 2021. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/30/us/politics/ trump-right-wing-domestic-terrorism.html?smid=tw-share A. Ngo. Unmasked. Inside Antifa’s radical plan to destroy democracy. 2021. URL: https://www.centerstreet. com/titles/andy-ngo/unmasked/9781546059561/ D.D. Denton. ANTIFA: the anti-fascist handbook and from fascism to populism in history. Terrorism and Political Violence, January 8, 2021. URL: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.1080/09546553.2021.1864970?journalCode=ftpv20 In 2020, the Black Lives Matter movement shook the world. Al Jazeera, December 31, 2020. URL: https:// www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/12/31/2020-the-year-black-lives-matter-shook-the-world

5.3. Islamism

A. Taher. Ban on Anjem Choudary’s gospel of hatred is about to be lifted as security sources fear the notorious Islamic preacher will immediately resume his campaign to radicalize young Muslims. Daily Mail Online, January 31, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9205925/Ban-Anjem-Choudarys- gospel-hatred-lifted.html T. Hamid. Defining ‘metrics’ to measure radical Islam is vital to defeating it.The Gatestone Institute, January 21, 201. URL: https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/16915/radical-islam-definition J.M. Dorsey. The battle for the soul of Islam.The Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, January 17, 2021. URL: https://besacenter.org/mideast-security-and-policy-studies/battle-soul-of-islam/ Bali bombings: Indonesia frees suspected mastermind Abu Bakr Bashir. The Guardian, January 7, 2021. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/08/bali-bombings-indonesia-frees-suspected-mastermind- abu-bakar-bashir

ISSN 2334-3745 245 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

6. Counterterrorism – General Interview with B.M. Jenkins. PfP Consortium: Euro-Atlantic Spot Series. February 2021. URL: https://mail. google.com/mail/u/0/ - inbox/FMfcgxwLsKDHDmqkmhxcdtbXtJkGfBCQ?projector=1 Flashpoints: an interactive game on counter-terrorism. The Hague:ICCT , February 2021. URL: https://icct. nl/flashpoints-game/ Hybrid warfare of the future: sharpening NATO’s competitive edge. CEPA, January 2021. URL: https://cepa. org/programs/transatlantic-defense-and-security-program/hybrid-warfare-of-the-future-sharpening-natos- competitive-edge/ Y. Lappin. Stealthy F-35’s play a lead role in Israel’s shadow war on terror. The Investigative Project on Terrorism, January 29, 2021. URL: https://www.investigativeproject.org/8713/stealthy-f-35-play-a-lead-role- in-israel-shadow M.W. Meier. Army and Marine Corps publish new manual: the Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Land Warfare. Just Security, August 9, 2019. URL: https://www.justsecurity.org/65766/army-and-marine-corps- publish-new-manual-the-commanders-handbook-on-the-law-of-land-warfare/ T. Bridgeman, R. Goodman, S. Pomper, S. Vladeck. Principles for a 2021 Authorization for Use of Military Force. Just Security, January 21, 2021. URL: https://www.justsecurity.org/74273/principles-for-a-2021- authorization-for-use-of-military-force/ A. Mumford. The West’s War against Islamic State.I.B. Tauris, 2021. URL: https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/ the-wests-war-against-islamic-state-9781788317337/ D. Pearlstein. Counter-terrorism and the rule of law. War on the Rocks, January 22, 2021. URL: https:// warontherocks.com/2021/01/counter-terrorism-and-the-rule-of-law/ M. Harding McGill, A. Gold. Tech digs in for long domestic terror fight. Axios, January 25, 021. URL: https:// www.axios.com/tech-domestic-terror-fight-individual-attacks-603fd4b8-3db9-4653-b2aa-72ea263c4fab. html?utm_campaign=organic&utm_medium=socialshare&utm_source=twitter R.S. Ford. US strategy in Syria has failed. Washington must acknowledge that it can’t build a state. Foreign Affairs, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2021-01-25/us-strategy-syria- has-failed IntelBrief: countering terrorism and insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa: opportunities for the Biden-Harris administration. The Soufan Center, January 25, 2021. URL: https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-2021- january-25/ A. Maruyama. How to fight domestic terrorism and win public trust.Defense One, January 21, 021. URL: https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2021/01/how-fight-domestic-extremism-and-win-public-trust/171544/ C. Serioli. Jihadist terrorism: Italy the next target? Global Risk Insights, January 20, 2021. URL; https:// globalriskinsights.com/2021/01/jihadist-terrorism-italy-the-next-target/ A. Lojo. Joe Biden and counter-terrorism in Africa: more of the same? ISS, January 20, 2021. URL: https:// issafrica.org/iss-today/joe-biden-and-counter-terrorism-in-africa-more-of-the-same A. Speckhard, M. Ellenberg. Trump vs Biden: policies countering terrorism and violent extremism. Trends Research, January 20, 2021. URL: https://trendsresearch.org/insight/trump-vs-biden-policies-countering- terrorism-and-violent-extremism/ C. Miller. Stronger DoD means a safer America. The Hill, January 20, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/blogs/ congress-blog/politics/534959-stronger-dod-means-a-safer-america

ISSN 2334-3745 246 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

A. Sampaio. The militia challenge in cities.Urban Violence Research Network, January 19, 2021. URL: https:// urbanviolence.org/the-militia-challenge-in-cities/ B. Hoffman, C. P. Clarke. The growing irrelevance of organizational structure for US domestic terrorism.The Cipher Brief, January 18, 2021. URL: https://www.thecipherbrief.com/the-next-american-terrorist J. Stein. Can US spy agencies stop white terror? The Daily Beast, January 18, 2021. URL: https://www. thedailybeast.com/after-the-capitol-riots-can-us-spy-agencies-stop-white-terror?ref=home?ref=home Strengthening governance in Pakistan. Assessing the National Action Plan to counter terrorism and extremism. The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, December 2020. URL: https://www.pakpips.com/web/wp-content/ uploads/2021/01/NAP-Final-from-Hamayun.pdf S. Hummel, P. Cruickshank, D. Rassler. A view from the CT foxhole: David Lasseter, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for countering weapons of mass destruction. CTC Sentinel, 14(1), January 2021. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/a-view-from-the-ct-foxhole-david-lasseter-deputy-assistant-secretary-of-defense-for- countering-weapons-of-mass-destruction/ B. Hoffman, J. Ware. Terrorism and counterterrorism challenges for the Biden administration. CTC Sentinel, 14(1), January 2021. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/terrorism-and-counterterrorism-challenges-for-the-biden- administration/ B. Mendelsohn. The limits of ideologically-unlikely partnerships: Syria’s support for jihadi terrorist groups. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, January 4, 2021. URL: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.1080/1057610X.2020.1868094?journalCode=uter20 - .X_PMyhvSEvk.twitter The top 20 most dangerous extremists around the world. Counter Extremism Project, January 5, 2021. URL: https://www.counterextremism.com/content/top-20-extremists Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses. S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSiS), 13(1), 2021. URL: https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/CTTA-January-2021.pdf Intelbrief: New year, new international counterterrorism landscape. The Soufan Center, January 4, 201. URL: https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-2021-january-4/

7. Counterterrorism: Specific Operations and/or Specific Policy Measures

7.1. Military: Kinetic Operations, Military Assistance & Training, Rescue Operations

Lebanon army arrests 18 Lebanese, Syrians linked to ISIS. Asharq al-Awsat, February 1, 2021. URL: https:// english.aawsat.com/home/article/2778371/lebanon-army-arrests-18-lebanese-syrians-linked-isis V. Mallet, N. Munshi. Macron signals military pullback from Sahel terrorist fight.Financial Times, February 1, 2021. URL: https://www.ft.com/content/d5e7c04a-1f10-4fcd-a7f1-9af7faedb8a6 T. Axelrod. Top ISIS leader in Iraq killed in US airstrike. The Hill, January 29, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/ policy/defense/536580-top-isis-leader-in-iraq-killed-in-us-airstrike J. Bowden. ‘No full withdrawal’ of international troops from Afghanistan by May: report. The Hill, January 31, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/policy/defense/536650-no-full-withdrawal-of-international-troops-from- afghanistan-by-may-report B. Binnur Dinmez. Pentagon to evaluate special ops, war crimes of US army. Anadolu Agency, January 29, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/americas/pentagon-to-evaluate-special-ops-war-crimes-of-us- army/2127417

ISSN 2334-3745 247 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

H. Ibrahim Sincar. Turkey launches anti-terrorism operation in southeast. Anadolu Agency, January 26, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-launches-anti-terrorism-operation-in-southeast/2122758 Central African Republic says dozens of rebels killed in counter-offensive.France24 , January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20210125-central-african-republic-says-dozens-of-rebels-killed-in- counter-offensive French-led coalition touts military successes ahead of Sahel summit. France24, January 28, 2021. URL: https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20210128-french-led-coalition-touts-military-successes-ahead-of-sahel- summit M. Eriksson. Sweden to send 150 soldiers to high-risk campaign in Mali. Sveriges Radio, January 30, 2021. URL: https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/sweden-to-send-150-soldiers-to-high-risk-campaign-in-mali J. Vandiver. AFRICOM launches airstrike in Somalia shortly after troop pullout. Stars & Stripes, January 19, 2021. URL: https://www.stripes.com/news/africa/africom-launches-airstrike-in-somalia-shortly-after-troop- pullout-1.659032 J. Zenn. Will Chad and Cameroon ‘Mow the lawn’ against ISWAP and Boko Haram? TerrorismMonitor, 19(2), January 29, 2021. URL: https://jamestown.org/program/briefs-342/?mc_cid=64e12e4b70&mc_ eid=9942bc67e0 Islamic State ‘Wali’ Abu Yasser al-Issawi killed in Iraq: Prime Minister. The Defense Post, January 29, 2021. URL: https://www.thedefensepost.com/2021/01/29/is-al-issawi-killed-iraq/ J. Ditz. Saudi airstrikes kill 34 Houthis in central Yemen. Anti War.com, January 24, 2021. URL: https://news. antiwar.com/2021/01/24/saudi-airstrikes-kill-34-houthis-in-central-yemen/ J. Szuba. Iraqi security forces kill senior Islamic State commander. Al Monitor, January 28, 2021. URL: https:// www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/01/isis-iraq-commander-killed-abu.html Yemenis seek justice for ‘unlawful’ US drone strike killings. The New Arab, January 28, 2021. URL: https:// english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2021/1/28/yemenis-seek-justice-for-unlawful-us-drone-strike-killings T. Stickings. ISIS ‘deputy caliph’ who was terror group’s leader in Iraq is killed in military strike. Daily Mail Online, January 28, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9198219/ISIS-deputy-caliph-terror- groups-leader-Iraq-killed-military-strike.html?ito=social-twitter_mailonline Hundred jihadists killed in joint French-Malian offensive in central Mali, says army. France24, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20210127-100-jihadists-killed-in-joint-french-malian- offensive-in-central-mali-says-army K. Jangiz. Seven ISIS militants killed in Kirkuk. Rudaw, January 27, 2021. URL: https://icct.nl/publication/ keeping-faith-with-trump-the-dangerous-causes-and-the-consequences/ US to help defend Saudi against attacks on its territory. Middle East Monitor, January 26, 2021. URL: https:// www.middleeastmonitor.com/20210126-us-to-help-defend-saudi-against-attacks-on-its-territory/ US oil firm operating in ‘murky’ Syria oil business.Middle East Monitor, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www. middleeastmonitor.com/20210125-us-oil-firm-operating-in-murky-syria-oil-business/ J. Donati. The forgotten people fighting the forever war. Defense One, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www. defenseone.com/ideas/2021/01/forgotten-people-fighting-forever-war/171596/ US to deploy Israeli ‘Iron Dome’ rocket interception system in Gulf countries. The New Arab, January 24, 2021. URL: https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2021/1/24/us-to-deploy-israeli-iron-dome-system-in- gulf

ISSN 2334-3745 248 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Ugandan army says it killed 189 al-Shabab fighters in Somalia.Al Jazeera, January 23, 2021. URL: https:// www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/23/ugandan-army-says-it-has-killed-198-al-shabab-fighters-in-somalia French troops kill over 20 extremists in Burkina Faso. Asharq al-Awsat, January 22, 2021. URL: https:// english.aawsat.com/home/article/2757666/french-troops-kill-over-20-extremists-burkina-faso L. Miller. The myth of a responsible withdrawal from Afghanistan.Foreign Affairs, January 22, 2021. URL: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/afghanistan/2021-01-22/myth-responsible-withdrawal-afghanistan France’s Macron says success in Sahel enables operational change. France24, January 19, 2021. URL: https:// www.france24.com/en/africa/20210119-france-s-macron-says-success-in-sahel-enables-operational-change K. Gänsler. Mali: French military operations face growing resistance. Deutsche Welle, January 22, 2021. URL: https://www.dw.com/en/mali-french-military-operations-face-growing-resistance/a-56309457 US military strikes al-Shabaab base in Somalia, again. Garowe Online, January 19, 2021. URL: https://www. garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/us-military-strikes-al-shabaab-base-in-somalia-again A. Quilty. The CIA’s Afghan death squads. The Intercept, December 18, 2020. URL: https:// theintercept.com/2020/12/18/afghanistan-cia-militia-01-strike-force/?utm_medium=social&utm_ campaign=theintercept&utm_source=twitter Nigeria army retakes military base in Borno from ISWAP jihadists. The Defense Post, January 18, 2021. URL: https://www.thedefensepost.com/2021/01/18/nigeria-army-retakes-base-jihadists/ Israeli warplanes hit Gaza after rocket fire: army.The Defense Post, January 18, 2021. URL: https://www. thedefensepost.com/2021/01/18/israeli-warplanes-hit-gaza/ Russia carries out 40 raids on Daesh areas in Syria. Arab News, January 17, 2021. URL: https://www.arabnews. com/node/1793991/middle-east A. Mengli, S. Smith. ‘Savage Act’: anger at Afghan government after 18 members of family feared killed in airstrike. NBC News, January 16, 2021. URL: https://news.yahoo.com/savage-act-searching-bodies- lost-093122405.html Nine coalition airstrikes target four Yemeni provinces. Risk Map, January 16, 2021. URL: https://english. alarabiya.net/en/News/world/2021/01/16/Sudan-imposes-curfew-in-West-Darfur-amid-deadly-clashes J. Schroden. Afghanistan security forces versus the Taliban: a net assessment. CTC Sentinel, 14(1), January 2021. URL: https://ctc.usma.edu/afghanistans-security-forces-versus-the-taliban-a-net-assessment/ Syrian soldiers, Iran-backed fighters among 40 killed in deadliest Israeli strikes.Al Arabiya, January 13, 2021. URL: https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2021/01/13/Syria-crisis-Israeli-strikes-kill-seven- Syrian-soldiers-16-Iran-backed-fighters-Monitor M. Lee, J. LaPorta. US, Israel worked together to track and kill al-Qaida No.2. Associated Press, November 15, 2021. URL: https://apnews.com/article/embassies-israel-iran-dar-es-salaam-tanzania-1df82848c97cb11f0d82 f50055faf7b5 C.K. Brinton. Clausewitz in the Sahel: an analysis of Operation Serval through the lens of On War. FAOA Journal of International Affairs, January 6, 2021. URL: https://faoajournal.substack. com/p/clausewitz-in-the-sahel-an-analysis?token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjo1NTI5MDI5LCJwb3N0X2 lkIjoxNDEwNzcwMCwiXyI6ImNSQVB2IiwiaWF0IjoxNjEwMzg3MDU4LCJleHAiOjE2MTA- zOTA2NTgsImlzcyI6InB1Yi0yMTYwNCIsInN1YiI6InBvc3QtcmVhY3Rpb24ifQ.S7CQzjrIy_ L. Berthiaume. Canada’s mission in Middle East at crossroads as ISIS declines, new threats emerge. CBC, January 10, 2021. URL: https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-iraq-mission-crossroads-1.5868007

ISSN 2334-3745 249 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

130 airstrikes target Islamic State positions in Syrian desert in last two days: report. News18, January 11, 2021. URL: https://www.news18.com/news/world/130-airstrikes-target-islamic-state-positions-in-syrian-desert-in- last-two-days-report-3268739.html Overnight strikes by Israel on Syria killed three Iran-backed fighters: monitor. Al Arabiya, January 7, 2020. URL: https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2021/01/07/Overnight-strikes-by-Israel-on-Syria- killed-three-Iran-backed-fighters-Monitor- Israel launches first attack on Syria in 2021.Al Masdar News, January 7, 2021. URL: https://www. almasdarnews.com/article/israel-launches-first-attack-on-syria-in-2021/ Iraqi Navy foils potential attack on its only port. Al Masdar News, January 3, 2021. URL: https://www. almasdarnews.com/article/iraqi-navy-foils-potential-attack-on-its-only-port/ Algeria seizes $98,000 France ransom to al-Qaeda. Middle East Monitor, January 5, 2020. URL: https://www. middleeastmonitor.com/20210105-algeria-seizes-98000-france-ransom-to-al-qaeda/ Israeli army carried out 300 attacks on Gaza Strip in 2020. Middle East Monitor, January 1, 2020. URL: https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20210101-report-israel-army-carried-out-300-attacks-on-gaza-strip- in-2020/ Press release- US strikes target al-Furqan media. Idaacadda al-Furqaan. January 3, 2021. URL: https:// radioalfurqaan.com/2021/01/press-relase-u-s-strikes-target-al-furqan-media/ Military airstrikes destroy terrorists’ new settlement, kill scores in Borno. Today, January 3, 2020. URL: https://www.today.ng/news/nigeria/military-airstrikes-destroy-terrorists-settlement-kill-scores- borno-337205 Future of peacekeeping. United Nations Peacekeeping. 2021. URL: https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/future-of- peacekeeping Y. Okur. Turkey piles on misery for YPG/PKK terror group. Anadolu Agency, January 2, 2021. URL: https:// www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-piles-on-misery-for-ypg-pkk-terror-group/2096321 DR Congo army says lost two soldiers, killed 14 ADF fighters. Al Jazeera, January 2, 2021. URL: https://www. aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/2/drcongo-army-says-lost-two-soldiers-killed-14-rebels

7.2. Police: Law Enforcement, Arrests

Indonesia detains British woman on terror suspect list. Asharq al-Awsat, February 2, 2021. URL: https:// english.aawsat.com/home/article/2780441/indonesia-detains-british-woman-terror-suspect-list Mapping insecurity: tracking domestic violent extremism. The Soufan Center, January 29, 2021. URL: https:// thesoufancenter.org/mapping-insecurity/ Israeli soldiers kill young Palestinian near West Bank settlement. Middle East Eye, January 31, 2021. URL: https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/israeli-soldiers-kill-young-palestinian-near-west-bank-settlement S. Acil, C. Tasdan, T. Ozkaya. Turkey: 12 PKK terror suspects arrested. Anadolu Agency, January 26, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-12-pkk-terror-suspects-arrested/2122874 O. Onur Gemici. Senior FETO member nabbed in Turkish capital. Anadolu Agency, January 30, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/july-15-coup-bid/senior-feto-member-nabbed-in-turkish-capital/2128477 The year in review: crackdown on the Gülen movement. Stockholm Center for Freedom, January 29, 2021. URL: https://stockholmcf.org/the-year-in-review-crackdown-on-the-gulen-movement/ Singaporean youth arrested for planning mass Muslim slaughter. Daily Sabah, January 27, 2021. URL: https://

ISSN 2334-3745 250 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 www.dailysabah.com/world/asia-pacific/singaporean-youth-arrested-for-planning-mass-muslim-slaughter J. Aliyev, Y. Kazandioglu. Sixteen PKK suspects arrested by Turkish forces. Anadolu Agency, January 29, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/16-pkk-suspects-arrested-by-turkish-forces/2127061 Tunisian forces arrest high-ranking al-Qaeda operative, Interior Ministry says. Sputnik, January 7, 2021. URL: https://sputniknews.com/africa/202101071081698965-tunisian-forces-arrest-high-ranking-al-qaeda- operative-interior-ministry-states/ Turkey nabs Daesh terrorist sought with Red Notice. Daily Sabah, January 26, 2021. URL: https://www. dailysabah.com/politics/war-on-terror/turkey-nabs-daesh-terrorist-sought-with-red-notice G. Olukya. Uganda: three suspected rebels arrested. Anadolu Agency, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www. aa.com.tr/en/africa/uganda-3-suspected-rebels-arrested/2125224 At least 126 Daesh/ISIS suspects nabbed in Turkey. Anadolu Agency, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www. aa.com.tr/en/turkey/at-least-126-daesh-isis-suspects-nabbed-in-turkey/2124900 H. Akcay, E. Yasar, V. Kasik. Turkey: 15 FETO-linked suspects arrested. Anadolu Agency, January 21, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/july-15-coup-bid/turkey-15-feto-linked-suspects-arrested/2118622 M. Urer, S. Guler, K. Yildiz, M. Akif Parlak. Turkey: 203 suspects arrested for FETO links. Anadolu Agency, January 19, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-203-suspects-arrested-for-feto- links/2115852 E. Mitchell. Nearly 1 in 5 people charged in capitol riot have military history: analysis. The Hill, January 21, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/policy/defense/535321-nearly-one-in-five-people-charged-in-capitol-riot- have-military-history J. Choi. Feds arrest right-wing media figure who promoted storming Capitol.The Hill,January 20, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/535060-feds-arrest-right-wing-media-figure-who-promoted- storming-capitol Jacob J. Indonesian terror outfits ‘actively recruiting and raising funds’ says counterterrorism chief.IB Times, January 18, 2021. URL: https://www.ibtimes.sg/indonesian-terror-outfits-actively-recruiting-raising-funds- says-counterterror-chief-54988?utm_campaign=/indonesian-terror-outfits-actively-recruiting-raising-funds- says-counterterror-chief-54988 Cybersecurity expert: groups like Proud Boys need to be treated like ISIS online. CNN, January 18, 2021. URL: https://edition.cnn.com/videos/business/2021/01/17/extremist-groups-media-alex-stamos-rs-stelter- vpx.cnn Report: Democrats making move to classify MAGA rallies as domestic terrorist activity. GOPUSA, January 13, 2021. URL: https://www.gopusa.com/report-democrats-making-move-to-classify-maga-rallies-as- domestic-terrorist-activity/ D. Wallace. FBI arrest Florida ‘hardcore leftist’ who plotted armed attack on pro-Trump protesters at State Capitol. Fox News, January 18, 2021. URL: https://www.foxnews.com/us/fbi-florida-hardcore-leftist-armed- attack-trump-supporters-state-capitol-tallahassee-antifa R. Klar. Social media posts, cellphone data aid law enforcement investigations into riots. The Hill, January 16, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/policy/technology/534515-social-media-posts-cellphone-data-aid-law- enforcement-investigations-into Greek police arrest suspected al-Nusra Front member. Al Masdar News, January 16, 2021. URL: https://www. almasdarnews.com/article/greek-police-arrest-suspected-al-nusra-front-member/ Philippine commander: suspected Indonesian bomber says parents forced her to join IS. Benar News, January

ISSN 2334-3745 251 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

15, 2021. URL: https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/suicide-bomb-suspect-indonesia- philippines-01152021160026.html Greece arrests suspected Syrian extremist wanted in the Netherlands. Al Arabiya, January 15, 2021. URL: https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/world/2021/01/15/Greece-arrests-suspected-Syrian-extremist-wanted- in-the-Netherlands J. Choi. Dozens on FBI’s terrorist watchlist were in DC day of Capitol riot. The Hill, January 14, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/news-by-subject/defense-homeland-security/534352-dozens-on-fbis-terrorist-watchlist- were-in-dc-the A. Yildiz. Ex-officer arrested in Turkey’s MIT trucks case. Anadolu Agency, January 8, 2021. URL: https:// www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/ex-officer-arrested-in-turkeys-mit-trucks-case/2103498 M. Akif Parlak. YPG/PKK terrorist arrested in northern Syria. Anadolu Agency, January 12, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/ypg-pkk-terrorist-arrested-in-northern-syria/2107777 S. Guler. 226 terrorists neutralized over last month: Turkey. Anadolu Agency, January 10, 2020. URL: https:// www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/226-terrorists-neutralized-over-last-month-turkey/2105062 L. Ralph. To protect and to serve. Global lessons in police reform. Foreign Affairs, September/October 2020. URL:Mhttp://saharareporters.com/2021/01/06/scores-missing-boko-haram-terrorists-attack-another-borno- community?utm_source=iterable&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=1881218_ N. Hazar, B. Alkan. Turkey: dozen Daesh/ISIS suspects remanded. Anadolu Agency, January 5, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-dozen-daesh-isis-suspects-remanded/2098970 R. Maltas. Turkey: informant PKK member identified 14 terrorists. Anadolu Agency, January 5, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-informant-pkk-member-identifies-14-terrorists/2099163 France arrests former DRC rebel leader for role in ‘crimes against humanity’. The Guardian, January 4, 2020. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/04/france-arrests-former-drc-rebel-for-crimes-against- humanity-roger-lumbala Turkey: more than 250 detained over alleged terror links. Asharq al-Awsat, January 2, 2021. URL: https:// english.aawsat.com/home/article/2717191/turkey-more-250-detained-over-alleged-terror-links D. Sharma. Mumbai attack mastermind, LeT operations commander Lakhvi arrested in Pakistan. Hindustan Times, January 2, 2021. URL: https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/mumbai-attack-mastermind- and-let-operations-commander-lakhvi-arrested-in-pakistan/story-wGkc528RYaRmHhk9dkg9rK.html

8. Prevention, Preparedness and Resilience & Rehabilitation Studies S. Leach. Why Biden needs to scrap ‘countering violent extremism’. Responsible Statecraft, February 1, 2021. URL: https://responsiblestatecraft.org/2021/02/01/why-biden-needs-to-scrap-countering-violent-extremism- programs/ A. Sage. Inside France’s pioneering deradicalisation programme. The Times, January 27, 2021. URL: https:// www.thetimes.co.uk/article/inside-frances-pioneering-deradicalisation-programme-9lxj0pw9t I. Sawhill. How Biden can rebuild a divided and distrustful nation. Foreign Affairs, January 4, 2021. URL: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/how-biden-can-rebuild-divided-and-distrustful-nation?utm_ campaign=tw_daily_soc&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter_posts

ISSN 2334-3745 252 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

T. Bjørgo, I. M. Gjelsvik. Norwegian research on the prevention of radicalisation and violent extremism: a status of knowledge. Center for Research on Extremism, University of Oslo, December 17, 2020. URL: https://www.sv.uio.no/c-rex/english/publications/2015/norwegian-research-on-the-prevention-of-radicalisa. html J. Carr. Only 147 out of 6,287 suspects in terror dossier given to security chiefs last year are still being monitored by Prevent programme. Daily Mail Online, January 3, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ news/article-9107389/Only-147-6-287-terror-suspects-monitored-Prevent-programme.html B. Clifford, S. Hughes, A. Meleagrou-Hitchens. An abridged history of America’s terrorism prevention programs: opposition grows, supporters adapt. Lawfare, December 30, 2020. URL: https://www.lawfareblog. com/abridged-history-americas-terrorism-prevention-programs-opposition-grows-supporters-adapt H. Ghoraba. European Union seeks stricter measures against Islamism. Investigative Project on Terrorism (IPT), December 29, 2020. URL: https://www.investigativeproject.org/8681/european-union-seeks-stricter- measures-against B. Slama, B. Kemmesies, Uwe E. Handbuch Extremismusprävention. Gesamtgesellschaftlich. Phänomenübergreifend. BKA, 2020, 755p. URL: https://www.bka.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/ Publikationen/Publikationsreihen/PolizeiUndForschung/1_54_HandbuchExtremismuspraevention.html I. Acheson. The problem with deradicalisation.The Spectator, December 14, 2020. URL: https://www. spectator.co.uk/article/the-problem-with-deradicalisation M. Kenney, J. Chernov Hwang. Should I stay or should I go? How British and Indonesian extremists disengage and why they don’t. Political Psychology, December 10, 2020. URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/abs/10.1111/pops.12713 - .X9ZxM_-fPGQ.twitter W. Cole. Deradicalisation of jihadis does not work, warns terror watchdog in call for offenders to be closely monitored and given regular lie-detector tests. Daily Mail Online, December 14, 2020. URL: https://www. dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9050665/Deradicalisation-jihadis-does-NOT-work-warns-terror-watchdog. html J. Jenkins. Britain is still failing to confront Islamism. The Spectator, December 12, 2020. URL: https://english. alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2020/12/12/Explosion-reported-in-Iraqi-military-compounds-near- Baghdad-airport P. Gurski. Debunking deradicalisation programs or terrorists. Borealis Threat & Risk Consulting, December 8, 2020. URL: https://borealisthreatandrisk.com/debunking-deradicalisation-programs-for-terrorists/

9. State Repression, Civil War and Clandestine Warfare

9.1. Arbitrary Arrest/Detention/ Prison System

At least 213 cases of arbitrary arrest/ detention documented in Syria in January 2021, including 24 children and five women.Syrian Network for Human Rights, February 2, 2021. URL: https://sn4hr.org/ blog/2021/02/02/55909/ An open letter to President Biden about Guantanamo. Mansoor Adayfi, Moazzam Begg, Lakhdar Boumediane, Sami Al Hajj, Ahmed Errachidi et.al. The New York Review of Books, January 29, 2021. URL: https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2021/01/29/an-open-letter-to-president-biden-about-guantanamo/ T. Axelrod. Navalny allies detained in Russia. The Hill, January 28, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/policy/ international/russia/536245-navalny-allies-detained-in-russia

ISSN 2334-3745 253 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

M. Tsvetkova. Russian court rules that Kremlin critic Navalny must stay in jail. Reuters, January 28, 2021. URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-politics-navalny-appeal-idUSKBN29X1MZ?taid=6012b685 5f12730001612e94&utm_campaign=trueAnthem:+Trending+Content&utm_medium=trueAnthem&utm_ source=twitter A. Mackenzie. Hong Kong mass arrest: a further erosion of freedoms? Deutsche Welle, January 28, 201. URL: https://www.dw.com/en/hong-kong-mass-arrest-a-further-erosion-of-freedoms/a-56365060 Ten years after uprising, prisoners of conscience suffer in Egypt’s ‘horrid prisons’: Amnesty.The New Arab, January 23, 2021. URL: https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2021/1/25/prisoners-of-conscience-suffer- in-egypts-horrid-prisons-amnesty F. Hamilton. Prisons too soft on extremist inmates, warns terrorism watchdog.The Times, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/prisons-too-soft-on-extremist-inmates-warns-terrorism-watchdog- bwp0r0378 H. Maas. What the West can do about China’s Uyghur labour camps. The Spectator, January 23, 2021. URL: https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/what-the-west-can-do-about-chinas-uyghur-labour-camps ‘Survivor of the Chinese Gulag’: Uighur refugee in France recounts her ordeal. France24, January 16, 2021. URL: https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20210116-survivor-of-the-chinese-gulag-uighur-refugee-in- france-recounts-her-ordeal Syrian regime forces arrested a civilian in Da’el city in Daraa suburbs on January 8. Syrian Network for Human Rights, January 9, 2021. URL: https://news.sn4hr.org/2021/01/09/syrian-regime-forces-arrested-a- civilian-in-dael-city-in-daraa-suburbs-on-january-8/ Former Russian energy executive given 15 years on ‘absurd’ spying charge. RFE/RL, December 29, 2021, URL: https://www.rferl.org/a/former-russian-energy-executive-spying-karina-tsurkan/31024463.html Algerian protester sentenced to three years for posting satirical memes. France24, January 4, 2020. URL: https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20210104-algerian-protester-sentenced-to-three-years-for-posting- satirical-memes?ref=tw_i

9.2. Extra-Judicial Killings, Executions, Death Sentences

Iran hangs Baluch militant for killing two revolutionary Guards, judiciary says. Asharq al-Awsat, January 30, 2021. URL: https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2774226/iran-hangs-baluch-militant-killing-2- revolutionary-guards-judiciary-says Iran executes Javid Dehghan despite calls from UN, organizations to end killing spree. Al Arabiya, January 30, 2021. URL: https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2021/01/30/Iran-executes-Baluchi-man- despite-calls-from-UN-organizations-to-end-killing-spree UN condemns Iran execution spree, worried about minorities. Al Arabiya, January 30, 2021. URL: https:// english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2021/01/30/UN-condemns-Iran-execution-spree-worried-about- minorities Iraq hangs three people convicted of terrorism: security source. The New Arab, January 25, 2021. URL: https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2021/1/25/iraq-hangs-three-people-convicted-of-terrorism- security-source B. Weinthal. Iran’s regime executes second wrestler within five months.The Jerusalem Post, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/irans-regime-executes-second-wrestler-within-5-months-656634 S. Salahuddin. Afghan VP pushes for execution of Taliban prisoners. Arab News, January 19, 2021. URL: https://www.arabnews.com/node/1794856/world

ISSN 2334-3745 254 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

B. Binnur Dönmez. China at its ‘darkest’ for human rights since 1989: HRW. Anadolu Agency, January 13, 2021. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/china-at-its-darkest-for-human-rights-since-1989- hrw/2108860 K. Ferguson. Architectures of violence. The command structures of modern mass atrocities.Hurst, 2020, 240p. URL: https://www.hurstpublishers.com/book/architectures-of-violence/?mc_cid=2400d1c606&mc_ eid=6f7f3aa64c - !/ Addis Ababa: ’Sudan’s killing of Ethiopian farmers is unacceptable’. Middle East Monitor, January 9, 2021. URL: https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20210109-addis-ababa-sudans-killing-of-ethiopian-farmers-is- unacceptable/ T. Asmara. Indonesian military: soldiers killed two Papuans in custody. Benar News, December 23, 2020. URL: https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/indonesian/papua-military-human-rights-12232020172330. html Iran executes three over ‘terrorist’ acts, murder. Asharq al-Awsat, January 3, 2020. URL: https://english. aawsat.com/home/article/2718891/iran-executes-three-over-‘terrorist’-acts-murder Extrajudicial killing claims the lives of 1,734 civilians in Syria in 2020, including 99 in December. Syrian Network for Human Rights, January 1, 2020. URL: https://sn4hr.org/blog/2021/01/01/55788/

9.3. Forced Disappearances

Mexico: witness to disappearance of 43 students alleges soldiers involved in attack. The Guardian, January 21, 2021. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/21/mexico-witness-ayotzinapa-rural-teachers- college-disappearance-soldiers F. Abdul Ghany. The tale of enforced disappearances in Syria. Völkerrechtsblog, December 23, 2020. URL: https://voelkerrechtsblog.org/articles/99000-disappeared-and-counting/ Whereabouts of over 3,000 Syrians unknown. Middle East Monitor, December 7, 2020. URL: https://www. middleeastmonitor.com/20201207-whereabouts-of-over-3000-syrians-unknown/

9.4. Torture

3,362 people killed, 3,534 mistreated or tortured in Turkey in 2020: report. Stockholm Center for Freedom, January 18, 2021. URL: https://stockholmcf.org/3362-people-killed-3534-mistreated-or-tortured-in-turkey- in-2020-report/ Civilian from Hasaka is due to torture in a Syrian regime detention center. Syrian Network for Human Rights, January 6, 2021. URL: https://news.sn4hr.org/2021/01/08/civilian-from-hasaka-dies-due-to-torture-in-a- syrian-regime-detention-center-january-6/ The year in review: torture and humane treatment.Stockholm Center for Freedom, January 5, 2021. URL: https://stockholmcf.org/the-year-in-review-torture-and-inhuman-treatment/ Azerbaijani hostages released after six years traumatized by Armenian torture.Daily Sabah, January 1, 2021. URL: https://www.dailysabah.com/world/europe/azerbaijani-hostages-released-after-6-years-traumatized- by-armenian-torture Nine Egyptian policemen jailed for torture, killing. The New Arab, December 13, 2020. URL: https://english. alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2020/12/12/nine-egyptian-policemen-jailed-for-torture-killing A. Ullah. Six times the ICC says British forces committed war crimes in Iraq. Middle East Eye, December 10, 2020. URL: https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/uk-british-forces-six-war-crimes-committed-icc

ISSN 2334-3745 255 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Yang Guang’an Church of Almighty God members tortured to reveal information. Bitter Winter, December 8, 2020. URL: https://bitterwinter.org/church-of-almighty-god-members-tortured-to-reveal-information/?fbcli d=IwAR1o05K27vA_DotxYZo9b7YnnlqayOvrD51I2SKWf0zfxBREhDtEEQKyeYU

10. Intelligence Operations M. Giannangeli. Iranian spy chief behind bomb plot in Paris ‘had contacts all over Europe.’ Express, January 31, 2021. URL: https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1391415/iranian-spy-assadollah-assadi-germany- paris-bombing How Iran lured a dissident from France to execution. Asharq al-Awsat, February 2, 201. URL: https://english. aawsat.com/home/article/2779756/how-iran-lured-dissident-france-execution Egypt’s Sisi calls for Arab intelligence cooperation to counter terrorism. Asharq al-Awsat, February 2, 2021. URL: https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2779746/egypt’s-sisi-calls-arab-intelligence-cooperation- counter-terrorism The CIA war in Kurdistan. The untold story of the northern front in the Iraq war. Shafaq, January 30, 2021. URL: https://shafaq.com/en/Report/Book-Review-The-CIA-War-in-Kurdistan Navalny poison squad implicated in murders of three Russian activists. Bellingcat, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www.bellingcat.com/news/uk-and-europe/2021/01/27/navalny-poison-squad-implicated-in-murders- of-three-russian-activists/ M. Coker. The spymaster of Baghdad: a true story of bravery, family and patriotism in the battle against ISIS. Dev.St, 2021, 336p. URL: https://www.libraryjournal.com/?reviewDetail=the-spymaster-of-baghdad-a-true- story-of-bravery-family-and-patriotism-in-the-battle-against-isis Y. Mellman. Assassination, bribes and smuggling Jews: inside the Israeli Mossad’s long secret alliance with Morocco. Haaretz, January 26, 2021. URL: https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.HIGHLIGHT- assassination-bribes-smuggling-jews-inside-mossad-s-secret-alliance-with-morocco-1.9372580 US intelligence Committee urge release of report on Khashoggi’s killing ‘without delay’. The New Arab, January 23, 2021. URL: https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2021/1/23/us-committee-urges-release-of- report-on-khashoggis-killing J. Easley. White House launches sweeping review of domestic terror threats. The Hill, January 22, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/535438-white-house-launches-sweeping-review-of-domestic- terror-threats Strategic intelligence. Strategic insights and contextual intelligence from the World Economic Forum. January 2021. URL: https://intelligence.weforum.org/?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_ campaign=2721506_Agenda_weekly-5June2020&utm_term= R. Philp. How opensource experts identified the US Capitol rioters.Global Investigative Journalism Network. January 15, 2021. URL: https://gijn.org/2021/01/15/how-open-source-experts-identified-the-us-capitol- rioters/ H. Alexander. More ‘Russiagate’ documents set for release to the Senate including hundreds of pages of interviews, transcripts and depositions. Daily Mail Online, January 15, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail. co.uk/news/article-9149897/More-Russiagate-documents-set-release-Senate.html J. Solomon. Bombshell revelations as Trump declassifies all FBI documents in Russia probe.Just the News, January 15, 2021. URL: https://justthenews.com/podcasts/john-solomon-reports/bombshell-revelations- trump-declassifies-all-fbi-documents-russia

ISSN 2334-3745 256 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

C. Hill. Intelligence report: Capitol riot has emboldened domestic extremists who now pose ‘greatest domestic terrorism threats in 2021’. Yahoo, January 14, 2021. URL: https://news.yahoo.com/intelligence- report-capitol-riot-has-emboldened-domestic-extremists-who-now-pose-greatest-domestic-terrorism- threats-in-2021-000441645.html?soc_src=social-sh&soc_trk=tw&tsrc=twtr J. Smith. Capitol rioters face 20 year sentences for sedition and conspiracy: FBI finally addresses MAGA mob riot and says it did tell Capitol Police about the siege plot as prosecutors vow to charge hundreds. Daily Mail Online, January 12, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9138821/Stonewall-silence-FBI- complete-failure-stop-MAGA-mob-riot.html?ito=social-twitter_dailymailus J. Smith. Silence from the FBI over MAGA mob riot as it’s revealed agents circulated a memo warning a ’war’ was coming the day before thousands stormed the Capitol but did nothing to stop it. Daily Mail Online, January 12, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9138821/Stonewall-silence-FBI-complete- failure-stop-MAGA-mob-riot.html?ito=social-twitter_dailymailus A. Stent. The meddlers. Moscow’s and Washington’s covert campaigns. Foreign Affairs, January/February 2021. URL: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/review-essay/2020-12-08/meddlers?utm_campaign=tw_ daily_soc&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter_posts T. Rid. Active measures: the secret history of disinformation and political warfare. Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 2020, 528p. URL: https://hiddenforces.io/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Active-Measures-The-Secret-History- of-Disinformation-Political-Warfare-Thomas-Rid.pdf T. Weiner. The folly and the glory: America, Russia and political warfare, 1945-2020. Henny Holt, 2020, 366p. URL: https://www.amazon.com/Folly-Glory-America-Political-1945-2020/dp/1627790853 P. Tucker. US Space Force become the 18th member of the US intelligence community. Defense One, January 8, 2021. URL: https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2021/01/us-space-force-becomes-18th-member-us- intelligence-community/171285/ K. Weston. Russian hit squad accused of trying to kill Putin critic Alexei Navalny with Novichok may be linked to four other deaths and poisonings, travel records show. Daily Mail Online, January 6, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9119383/Russian-squad-accused-trying-kill-Navalny-linked-four- deaths-poisonings.html?ito=social-twitter_mailonline R. Laksmanan. British court rejects US request to extradite Wikileaks’ Julian Assange. The Hacker News, January 4, 2021. URL: https://thehackernews.com/2021/01/british-court-rejects-us-request-to.html?utm_ source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+TheHackersNews+%28The+Hackers+ News+-+Cyber+Security+Blog%29 Undercover policing inquiry. January 6, 2021. URL: https://www.ucpi.org.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2021/01/20210106-ruling-CP_39-RLR_32-costs_31-anonymity.pdf T. Durden. Leaked documents reveal Chinese regime’s orders to steal foreign technologies. ZeroHedge, January 5, 2021. URL: https://www.zerohedge.com/geopolitical/leaked-documents-reveal-chinese-regimes- orders-steal-foreign-technologies Wikileaks founder Julian Assange extradition blocked by British judge. Deutsche Welle, DWNews, YouTube, January 4, 2021. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nKcD9bqkB6g J. Lauria. US intel spying on Assange detailed in court, including plans to kidnap or poison him. Consortium News, September 30, 2020. URL: https://consortiumnews.com/2021/01/03/us-spying-on-assange-in- embassy-may-weigh-on-judgement/

ISSN 2334-3745 257 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

11. Cyber Operations

11.1. Cyber Warfare & Espionage

F. Holcomb. Countering Russia and Chinese cyber aggression. CEPA, December 4, 2021. URL: https://cepa. org/countering-russia-and-chinese-cyber-aggression/ A. Lubin. SolarWinds as constitutive moment: a new agenda for the International Law of Intelligence. Just Security, December 23, 2020. URL: https://www.justsecurity.org/73989/solarwinds-as-a-constitutive- moment-a-new-agenda-for-the-international-law-of-intelligence/ Z. Dorfman, In cyberespionage, US is both hunted and hunter. Axios, January 27, 201. URL: https://www. axios.com/american-cyber-warfare-solarwinds-d50815d6-2e03-4e3c-83ab-9d2f5e20d6f5.html C.D. May. Is America prepared for a catastrophic cyberattack? Washington Times, January 26, 2021. URL: https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2021/jan/26/is-america-prepared-for-a-catastrophic- cyberattack/?utm_campaign=shareaholic&utm_medium=twitter&utm_source=socialnetwork M. Pomerleau. Pentagon’s weapon tester pushes for better assessments of offensive cyber tools.C3ISRNET, January 14, 2021. URL: https://www.c4isrnet.com/cyber/2021/01/14/pentagons-weapon-tester-pushes- for-better-assessments-of-offensive-cyber-tools/?utm_source=Sailthru&utm_medium=email&utm_ campaign=C4ISRNET Cyber 1.26&utm_term=Editorial - Daily Brief R. Slayton. What is a cyber warrior? The emergency of US military cyber expertise, 1967-2018.Texas National Security Review, 4(1), Winter 2020/2021. URL: https://tnsr.org/2021/01/what-is-a-cyber-warrior- the-emergence-of-u-s-military-cyber-expertise-1967-2018/ R. Knake. The US failed to execute its cyberstrategy – and Russia pounced.Foreign Affairs, January 6 2021. URL: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/2021-01-06/us-failed-execute- its-cyberstrategy-and-russia-pounced?utm_campaign=tw_daily_soc&utm_source=twitter_posts&utm_ medium=social M. Ha. America must take North Korea’s cyber warfare capabilities seriously. National Interest, December 9, 2021. URL: https://www.4cmitv.com/2021/01/10/2021-jan-08-tipping-point-scott-mckay-sting-of-stings- underway-in-usa/ C. Cimpanu. State Department creates bureau to reduce ‘likelihood of cyber conflict’.ZDNet, January 8, 2021. URL: https://www.zdnet.com/article/state-department-creates-bureau-to-reduce- likelihood-of-cyber-conflict/?ftag=COS-05-10aaa0g&taid=5ffae53f7bb4b5000181e5df&utm_ campaign=trueAnthem%3A+Trending+Content&utm_medium=trueAnthem&utm_source=twitter Z. Dorfman. China used stolen data to expose CIA operatives in Africa and Europe. Foreign Policy, December 21, 2020. URL: https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/12/21/china-stolen-us-data-exposed-cia-operatives-spy- networks/ D.J. Blake. Loaded for Guccifer 2.0: following a trail of digital geopolitics. 2020. URL: https://www.amazon. co.uk/Loaded-Guccifer2-0-Following-Digital-Geopolitics/dp/B08MSZHMGP ‘Russian hacking’: NATO psyop revealed. Blacklisted News, January 4, 2021. URL: https://www. blacklistednews.com/article/78942/russian-hacking-nato-psyop.html?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_ medium=twitter E. Braw. The SolarWinds hack doesn’t demand a violent response.Defense One, December 31, 2020. URL: https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2020/12/solarwinds-hack-doesnt-demand-violent-response/171105/

ISSN 2334-3745 258 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

11.2. Internet Regulation, Censorship, Removal of Harmful Content

M. Miller. Former cyber chief pushes for renewed focus on combating disinformation. The Hill, February 2, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/536863-former-cyber-chief-pushes-for-renewed-focus- on-combating-disinformation Russia has plan to cut off country from ‘US-controlled’ global Internet, but only as ‘last resort,’ says former president Medvedev. RT, February 1, 2021. URL: https://www.rt.com/russia/514236-cut-internet-last-resort/ C. Giles. Myanmar coup: how the military disrupted the Internet. BBC, February 1, 2021. URL: https://www. bbc.com/news/world-asia-55889565 W. Malik. Pakistan’s digital economy faces grim future amid harsh censorship rules. Deutsche Welle, February 1, 2021. URL: https://www.dw.com/en/pakistans-digital-economy-faces-grim-future-amid-harsh-censorship- rules/av-56396994 Content moderation case study: Twitter removes account of human rights activist (2018). Techdirt, January 29, 2021. URL: https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20210129/15255546150/content-moderation-case-study- twitter-removes-account-human-rights-activist-2018.shtml R. Hamilton. De-platforming following Capitol insurrection highlights global inequities behind content moderation. Just Security, January 20, 2021. URL: https://www.justsecurity.org/74258/de-platforming- following-capitol-insurrection-highlights-global-inequities-behind-content-moderation/ W. Marks. De-platforming is a fix, but only a short-term one.JustSecurity, January 27, 2021. URL: https:// www.justsecurity.org/74258/de-platforming-following-capitol-insurrection-highlights-global-inequities- behind-content-moderation/ The terrorist content analytics platform and transparency by design.VoxPol, November 11, 2020. URL: https://www.voxpol.eu/the-terrorist-content-analytics-platform-and-transparency-by-design/ S. Windwehr, J.C. York. One database to rule them all. VoxPol, November 4, 2020. URL: https://www.voxpol. eu/the-terrorist-content-analytics-platform-and-transparency-by-design/ Yemen: YouTube closes seven Houthi-affiliated channels. Middle East Monitor, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20210125-yemen-youtube-closes-7-houthi-affiliated-channels/ L. Kenton. Twitter launches fact-checking program called Birdwatch where any member can flag a tweet they think is misleading or inaccurate. Daily Mail Online, January 25 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ news/article-9186073/Twitter-launches-fact-checking-program-called-Birdwatch-member-flag-tweet.html P. Tucker. It’s harder to boot right-wing extremists from social media than ISIS. Defense One, January 12, 2021. URL: https://www.defenseone.com/threats/2021/01/purging-right-wing-extremists-social-media-will- be-much-harder-purging-isis/171344/ P. W. Singer. Three steps to fight online disinformation and extremism. Defense One, January 24, 2021. URL: https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2021/01/three-steps-fight-online-disinformation-and-extremism/171563/ J. Phillips. Over 78,000 Facebook, Instagram users removed for QAnon, ‘militarization’ policy violations. The Epoch Times, January 24, 2021. URL: https://www.theepochtimes.com/over-78000-facebook-instagram- users-removed-for-violating-qanon-and-militarization-policies_3669061.html?utm_source=newsnoe&utm_ medium=email&utm_campaign=breaking-2021-01-24-4 E. Douek. Facebook has referred Trump’s suspension to its oversight board. Now what? Lawfare, January 21, 2021. URL: https://www.lawfareblog.com/facebook-has-referred-trumps-suspension-its-oversight-board- now-what A. Lucente. Twitter suspends account linked to Iran’s supreme leader following threat against Trump. Al

ISSN 2334-3745 259 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Monitor, January 22, 2021. URL: https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/01/twitter-account- suspends-ayatollah-iran-trump-threat.html P. Geller. Nazi-inspired censorship goes official: House democrats are now urging FBI to investigate Parler. Geller Report, January 22, 2021. URL: https://gellerreport.com/2021/01/nazi-inspired-censorship-goes- official-house-democrats-are-now-urging-fbi-to-investigate-parler.html/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_ medium=twitter L. Eustachewich. Twitter suspends Antifa accounts with more than 71k followers. New York Post, January 22, 2021. URL: https://nypost.com/2021/01/22/twitter-suspends-antifa-accounts-with-over-71k-followers/?utm_ source=NYPTwitter&utm_medium=SocialFlow&utm_campaign=SocialFlow R. Klar. Democrats urge tech giants to change algorithms that facilitate spread of extremist content. The Hill, January 21, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/policy/technology/535342-democrats-urge-tech-giants-to- change-algorithms-that-facilitate-spread-of ‘They act as a Spanish inquisition’: Mexico’s president vows to lead international push against social media censorship. RT, January 15, 2021. URL: https://www.rt.com/news/512574-mexico-president-internet- censorship/ Twitter senior executive Vijaja Gadde details plans for political censorship on a global scale. Project Veritas, January 18, 2021. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OkQgTY5_cF0&t=166s&ab_ channel=ProjectVeritas B. Eberle. Big tech declares war! After Trump and Parler, who is next?GOPUSA , January 18, 2021. URL: https://www.gopusa.com/?p=105311?omhide=true Facebook, Instagram to comply with new Turkish law, open offices in country Ankara says. Sputnik, January 18, 2021. URL: https://sputniknews.com/world/202101181081805441-facebook-instagram-to-comply-with- new-turkish-law-open-offices-in-country-ankara-says/ J. Phillips. Parler’s website back online with a message from its CEO. The Epoch Times, January 17, 2021. URL: https://www.theepochtimes.com/parlers-website-back-online-with-a-message-from-its-ceo_3660235. html?utm_source=newsnoe&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=breaking-2021-01-17-4 Extremists exploit a loophole in social moderation: podcast. Associated Press, January 16, 2021. URL: https:// apnews.com/article/donald-trump-conspiracy-theories-media-misinformation-social-media-b7bb0ace8a617 af733357f6ee15aca03 Poland proposes social media ‘free speech’ law. Today, January 15, 2021. URL: https://www.today.ng/news/ world/poland-proposes-social-media-free-speech-law-340364 P. Ticker. It’s harder to boot right-wing extremists from social media than ISIS. Defense One, January 12, 2021. URL: https://www.defenseone.com/threats/2021/01/purging-right-wing-extremists-social-media-will- be-much-harder-purging-isis/171344/ T. Korso. Facebook operations chief mulls permanent ban for Trump on social media platform. Sputnik, January 12, 2021. URL: https://sputniknews.com/us/202101121081745813-facebook-operations-chief-mulls- permanent-ban-for-trump-on-social-media-platform/ M. Wright. Why is Iran’s Ayatollah allowed to keep his Twitter account? Site hides tweet calling vaccines ‘completely untrustworthy’ but doesn’t ban him – even though he’s previously called for genocide in Israel. Daily Mail Online, January 9, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9129751/Twitter-hides- Iran-Iyatollahs-tweet-vaccine-conspiracy-permanently-banning-Trump.html Snowden: Zuckerberg’s decision to silence Trump is ‘the turning point in the battle for control of digital speech’. True Pundit, January 9, 2021. URL: https://truepundit.com/snowden-zuckerbergs-decision-to-

ISSN 2334-3745 260 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1 silence-trump-is-the-turning-point-in-the-battle-for-control-of-digital-speech/ J. Byrnes. Trump suggests building own platform after Twitter ban.The Hill, January 8, 2021. URL: https:// thehill.com/homenews/administration/533455-trump-suggests-building-own-platform-after-twitter-ban S. Chen. Google suspends Parler from app store after deadly Capitol violence.Axios, January 8, 2021. URL: https://www.axios.com/capitol-mob-parler-google-ban-826d808d-3e06-4468-a7c6-6157557818b3.html A. Amarasingam, S. Maher, C. Winter. How Telegram disruption impacts jihadist platform migration. CREST, January 8, 2021. URL: https://crestresearch.ac.uk/resources/how-telegram-disruption-impacts- jihadist-platform-migration/

12. Risk and Threat Assessments, Forecasts and Analytic Studies

12.1. Analytic Studies

P. Gurski. The peaceable kingdom? A history of terrorism in Canada from Confederation to the Present. 2020. URL: https://borealisthreatandrisk.com/the-peaceable-kingdom/ Extremists & Online propaganda. Counter Extremism Project, 2020. URL: https://www.counterextremism. com/extremists-online-propaganda S. Kalyvas, S. Strauss. Stathis Kalyvas on 20 years of studying political violence. Violence: an International Journal, November 25, 2020. URL: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2633002420972955 S. Yehoshua. Terrorist minds. From social-psychological profiling to assessing the risk.World Scientific, Insurgency and Terrorism Series: Volume 13, 2020, 316p. URL: https://www.europol.europa.eu/newsroom/ news/virtual-tabletop-exercise-coordinated-europol-disrupting-terrorism-and-violent-extremism-online G. Truc. Face aux attentats. 2020. URL: https://www.puf.com/actualites/Revue_de_presse_-_Face_aux_ attentats A. Khan. Steps-to-war theory and interstate wars in the Middle East: is state-sponsored terrorism another escalating step? Journal of Asian and African Studies, November 12, 2020. URL: https://journals.sagepub.com/ doi/abs/10.1177/0021909620970573

12.2. Terrorism Databases

R. Klar. Twitter opens tweet archive to academic researchers. The Hill, January 27, 2011. URL: https://thehill. com/policy/technology/536063-twitter-opens-tweet-archive-to-academic-researchers Reversing the trend. Putting civilians first. CIVIC’s 2021-2025 Strategic Plan. URL:https://civiliansinconflict. org/reversing-the-trend/ V. Page Fortna, N.J. Lotito, M.A. Rubin. Terrorism in Armed Conflict: New Data Attributing Terrorism to Rebel Organizations. Conflict Management and Peace Science, December 21, 2020. URL: https://journals. sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0738894220972996 Curated data. ACLED, December 2020. URL: https://acleddata.com/curated-data-files/ Dashboard. ACLED. URL: https://acleddata.com/dashboard/ - /dashboard Conflict pulse.ACLED . URL: https://acleddata.com/conflict-pulse/ Liveuamap.com. URL: https://usa.liveuamap.com/

ISSN 2334-3745 261 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

12.3. Special and National Threat Assessments/ Warnings

C. Farrell. John Brennan’s dark fantasies become a Homeland Security Bulletin. The Gatestone Institute, January 28, 2021. URL: https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/17008/john-brennan-dark-fantasies B. Fox, E. Ticker. US terrorism alert warns of politically motivated violence. Associated Press, January 27, 2021. URL: https://apnews.com/article/us-terrorism-alert-75156eae27532bd9e5cbfe35e6485a3b US issues terror alert over anti-government extremists. Yahoo News, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www. yahoo.com/news/us-issues-terror-alert-over-171250871.html B. Murphy, W. Carless, M. Kwiatkowski, T.L. Nadolny. A 2009 warning about right-wing extremism was engulfed by politics. There are signs it’s happening again.Yahoo News, January 27, 2021. URL: https:// news.yahoo.com/2009-warning-wing-extremism-engulfed-194243397.html?ncid=twitter_yahoonewst_ sjwumo1bpf4 National terrorism advisory system bulletin – January 27, 2021. Department of Homeland Security, January 27, 2021. URL: https://www.dhs.gov/ntas/advisory/national-terrorism-advisory-system-bulletin- january-27-2021 R. Beitsch. DHS warns of heightened risk posed by domestic violent extremists. The Hill, January 27, 2021. URL: https://thehill.com/policy/national-security/536136-dhs-warns-of-heighten-risk-posed-by-domestic- violent-extremists I. Ghosh. Visualized: a global risk assessment of 2021 and beyond. Visual Capitalist, January 25, 2021. URL: https://www.visualcapitalist.com/visualized-a-global-risk-assessment-of-2021-and-beyond/ 59th Presidential Inauguration, Washington, DC, January 20, 2021. URL: https://cryptome.org/2021/01/ Inauguration-Threat-Assessment-2021.pdf J. Fitsanakis. Analysis: Emergence of an armed insurgency is now a distinct possibility in the US. Intelnews. org, January 15, 2021. URL: https://intelnews.org/2021/01/15/01-2938/ - more-19171 FBI director Chris Wray finally breaks cover to warn of ‘concerning online chatter’ about more armed violence nationwide and reveals 100 more MAGA suspects have been IDed saying: ’Agents are coming to find you’.Daily Mail Online, January 15, 2021. URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9149259/FBI- director-Chris-Wray-warn-online-chatter-armed-violence-D-C-nationwide.html E. Crane. Secret service issues internal warning over potential armed protests by Boogaloo Bois and others in Washington DC before and after Biden’s inauguration.Daily Mail Online, January 13, 2021. URL: https:// www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9144219/Secret-Service-issues-warning-planned-Boogaloo-protests. html?ito=social-twitter_dailymailus J. Williams. FBI tells police chiefs nationwide to be a high alert. The Hill, January 13, 2021. URL: https:// thehill.com/policy/national-security/534155-fbi-tells-police-chiefs-nationwide-to-be-on-high-alert P. Neumann. Terrorismus-Experte: ‘Die USA sind schon länger in einer fragilen Lage’. Augsburger Allgemeine, January 13, 2021. URL: https://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/politik/Terrorismus-Experte-Die-USA-sind- schon-laenger-in-einer-fragilen-Lage-id58896391.html E. Lederer. UN official: terrorists using pandemic to stoke extremism.Associated Press, January 13, 2021. URL: https://apnews.com/article/race-and-ethnicity-coronavirus-pandemic-united-nations-terrorism- united-states-71fe8fc4b22317609d8d9c131c297582 J. Shiffman. US Capitol Police intelligence chief warned Congress in July of right-wing attacks. Reuters, January 13, 2021. URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-donohue/u-s-capitol-police- intelligence-chief-warned-congress-in-july-of-right-wing-attacks-idUSKBN29I0BN

ISSN 2334-3745 262 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

P.R. Neumann. Die gefährlichste Bewegung unserer Zeit. Der Spiegel Online, January 10, 2021. URL: https:// www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/sturm-aufs-kapitol-qanon-die-gefaehrlichste-bewegung-unserer-zeit- gastbeitrag-a-26108c0f-9ee2-4304-bbe1-ab00b0b7b7e6 Regional threat outlook: Daesh, Iraq and Syria (December 2020) (accessible version). Ministry of Defense, GovUk, December 16, 2020. URL: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/regional-threat-outlook- report-daesh-iraq-and-syria/regional-threat-outlook-daesh-iraq-and-syria-december-2020-accessible- version?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter Ex-Mossad chief claims Iran will avenge Soleimani after Biden’s inauguration.Al Masdar News, January 4, 2020. URL: https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/ex-mossad-chief-claims-iran-will-avenge-soleimani- after-bidens-inauguration/ Deux attentats islamistes déjoués, selon Laurant Nunez. Ouest France, January 3, 2021. URL: https://www. ouest-france.fr/faits-divers/attentat/deux-attentats-islamistes-dejoues-en-2020-selon-laurent-nunez-7106429 B. Trew. Why 2021 could be even worse than 2020. The Independent, January 1, 2020. URL: https://www. independent.co.uk/news/world/2021-predictions-covid-war-famine-poverty-b1781258.html?utm_ content=Echobox&utm_medium=Social&utm_source=Twitter - Echobox=1609515684 2020: a year in conflict. Al Jazeera, December 30, 2020. URL: https://www.aljazeera.com/ features/2020/12/30/2020-a-year-in-conflict R. Malley. Ten conflicts to watch in 2021.Foreign Policy, December 29, 2020. URL: https://foreignpolicy. com/2020/12/29/10-conflicts-to-watch-in-2021-ethiopia-iran-yemen-somalia-venezuela/ D. Banse, U. Müller. Verfassungsschützer warnen vor Islamisten im Schafspelz. Die Welt, December 28, 2020. URL: https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article222507968/Innere-Sicherheit-Verfassungsschuetzer- warnen-vor-Islamisten-im-Schafspelz.html

12.4. Forecasts and Trend Studies

Ten conflicts to worry about in 2021.ACLED, February 2021. URL: https://acleddata.com/2021/02/02/ten- conflicts-to-worry-about-in-2021/ - 1612195870459-59840c64-a2b4 WPS Global early warning tool December 2020 Quarterly update. WPS, December 2020. URL: https:// waterpeacesecurity.org/info/global-tool-update-December-2020 Outlook 2021. Perspective and analysis from defense leaders on the future state of global security. Defense News, January 2021. URL: https://hub.defensenews.com/ebooks/outlook2021/ Strategic Outlook 2021. Control and containment. RiskAdvisory SIAS, January 2021. URL: https://www. riskadvisory.com/publications/strategic-outlook-2021-lp/form The Global Risks Report 2021.World Economic Forum, January 2021. URL: https://www.weforum.org/ reports/the-global-risks-report-2021 S. Fleming. These are the world’s greatest threats in 2021.World Economic Forum, January, 19, 2021. URL: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/01/world-greatest-threats-2021/?utm_ source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=2740380_Agenda_weekly-22January2021&utm_ term=&emailType=Newsletter F. Gaub. Conflicts to come. Fifteen scenarios for 2030.Institute for Security Studies, December 18, 2020. URL: https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/conflicts-come G. Parker. Eight predictions for the world in 2030. World Economic Forum, November 12, 2021. URL: https:// www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/8-predictions-for-the-world-in-2030/

ISSN 2334-3745 263 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

A. Reed, K. Aryaeinejad. 2020 Trends in terrorism: from ISIS fragmentation to lone-actor attacks. USIP, January 8, 2021. URL: https://www.usip.org/publications/2021/01/2020-trends-terrorism-isis-fragmentation- lone-actor-attacks B. Johnson. Five terrorism trends to watch in 2021. Homeland Security Today, January 5, 2021. URL: https:// www.hstoday.us/subject-matter-areas/infrastructure-security/5-terrorism-trends-to-watch-in-2021/ Crisis24. 2021 Global Risk Map and Forecast. URL: https://crisis24.garda.com/2021-global-risk-map-and- report

13. Also Worth the Time to Read/Listen/Watch Global Go To Think Tank Index Report 2020. URL:https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1019&context=think_tanks Annual Report 2020. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies (HCSS). 2021. URL: https://hcss.nl/report/hcss- annual-report-2020 Jaaroverzicht Clingendael Spectator 2020. December 5, 2020. URL: https://spectator.clingendael.org/nl/ publicatie/jaaroverzicht-clingendael-spectator-2020 The most popular RAND research of 2020.The RAND blog, December 21, 2020. URL: https://www.rand. org/blog/2020/12/the-most-popular-rand-research-of-2020.html?utm_campaign=YearEndContent&utm_ content=1609162261&utm_medium=rand_social&utm_source=linkedin M. Chilton. The books to look for in 2021: from Snow Country to Milk Fed.Independent , December 27, 2020. URL: https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/best-books-2021-list-b1777536.html W. Sparks. Reviewing the top risks of 2020. Gzero, December 17, 2020. URL: https://www.gzeromedia.com/ reviewing-the-top-risks-of-2020 Chris Hedges in conversation with Roger Hallam. Roger Hallam, YouTube, December 11, 2020. URL: https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=IiReK2bpBe4 The best books 2020.Foreign Affairs, December 4, 2020. URL: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ lists/2020-12-04/best-books-2020?utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter_posts&utm_campaign=tw_ daily_soc 2020 War on the Rocks holiday reading list. War on the Rocks, December 1, 2020. URL: https:// warontherocks.com/2020/12/2020-wotr-holiday-reading-list/

About the Compiler: Berto Jongman is Associate Editor of ‘Perspectives on Terrorism’. He is a former senior Military Intelligence Analyst and currently serves as an International Consultant on CBRN issues. A sociologist by training, he previously worked for Swedish and Dutch civilian research institutes. Drs. Jongman was the recipient of the Golden Candle Award for his World Conflict & Human Rights Maps, published by PIOOM. He is editor of the volume ‘Contemporary Genocides’ (1996) and has also contributed to various editions of ‘Political Terrorism’, the award-winning handbook of terrorism research, edited by Alex P. Schmid.

ISSN 2334-3745 264 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Conference Monitor/Calendar of Events Compiled by Olivia Kearney

The Terrorism Research Initiative (TRI), in its mission to provide a platform for academics and practitioners in the field of terrorism and counter-terrorism, compiles an online calendar, listing recent and upcoming academic and professional conferences, symposia and similar events that are directly or indirectly relevant to the readers of Perspectives on Terrorism. The calendar includes academic and (inter-) governmental conferences, professional expert meetings, civil society events and educational programs organised between February and April 2021 (with a few shortly thereafter). The listed events are organised by a wide variety of governmental and non-governmental institutions, including several key (counter) terrorism research centres and institutes identified in this issue. We encourage readers to contact the journal’s Associate Editor for Conference Monitoring, Olivia Kearney, and provide her with relevant information, preferably in the same format as the items listed below. Olivia Kearney can be reached at or via Twitter: @oliviajkearney.

February 2021 Book Launch: Terrorist Mind – From Social-Psychological Profiling to Assessing the Risk International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation (ICSR), London 1 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @ICSR_Centre

How Did 9/11 Affect Terrorism Research? A Look at Disciplines and Gender National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), College Park, Maryland 3 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @START_umd

Empowering the Youth on the Path to Conflict Prevention Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS), Washington, DC 8 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @CSIS

ISIS & Al Qaeda: What’s the State of Global Terrorism? The Soufan Center, New York 9 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @thesoufancenter

Storming the Capitol: Implications for Intelligence, Security, and American Society Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Cambridge, MA 10 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @BelferCenter

Understanding Q-Anon International Center for the Study of Violent Extremism (ICSVE), Washington, DC 10 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @icsve

ISSN 2334-3745 265 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Approaching Counter-Terrorism in Sub-Saharan Africa in Covid 19 Era – The Case of ISIS in Central & West Africa GTTAC, Bethseda, MD 11 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @DSGNow

Normalisation to the Right: Analysing the Micro-politics of the Far Right Center for Research on Extremism (C-REX), Oslo 11 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @CrexUiO

The Caravan: Abdallah Azzam and the Rise of Global Jihad Sam Nunn School at Georgia Tech, Atlanta, GA 11 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @NunnSchoolGT

Open-Source Intelligence Summit SANS CyberDefense, Worldwide 11-12 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @SANSDefense

Edlis Neeson Great Decisions: Persian Gulf Security Issues Aspen Institute, Washington DC 16 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @aspeninstitute

The Growth of the Far Right in the United States and its Implications for Australia Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA) 16 February, NSW, Australia Website: visit | Twitter: @ausoutlook

Virtual Information Session: Global Terrorism Studies Minor Program National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), College Park, MD 16 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @START_umd

Radicalisation Hubs in the EU Radicalisation Awareness Network (RAN), Brussels 17 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @RANEurope

Nonstate Armed Actors and the US Global Fragility Strategy: Challenges and Opportunities Brookings Institute, Washington, DC 18 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @BrookingsInst

Paper Launch – The Contested Relationship Between Youth and Violent Extremism Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), London 18 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @Rusi_Terrorism

ISSN 2334-3745 266 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Security Challenges in Africa: 2021 and Beyond – Countering Violent Extremism by Refocusing on Communities United States Institute of Peace (USIP), Washington, DC 24 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @USIP

ICCT Live Briefing: How Terror Evolves International Centre for Counter-Terrorism (ICCT), The Hague 25 February, online Website: visit | Twitter: @ICCT_TheHague

March 2021

The UK Experience of Learning Lessons from Countering Terrorism 2014 to 2020 International Center for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR), Singapore 4 March, online Website: visit | Twitter: @rsis_ntu

A Tale of Two Caliphates National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), College Park, MD 8 March, online Website: visit | Twitter: @START_umd

Islamic State: A View from Within with Nicolas Hénin Co-hosted by ICSR and RESOLVE Network 9 March, online Website: visit | Twitter: @ICSR_Centre

Is Ebola the “The ISIS of Disease”?: When Counter-Terrorism Meets Humanitarian Medicine Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford, CA 10 March, online Website: visit | Twitter: @FSIStanford

An Observational Study of the Norwegian Far Right: Some Reflections Center for Research on Extremism (C-REX), Oslo 11 March, online Website: visit | Twitter: @CrexUiO

Tracking Emerging Threats and Risk Networks in Eurasia National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), College Park, MD 24 March, online Website: visit | Twitter: @START_umd

April 2021 & Beyond

International Online Conference on Terrorism and Political Violence Eastern Mediterranean Academic Research Center (DAKAM), Beyoğlu 23 April, online Website: visit | Twitter: @dakamtr

ISSN 2334-3745 267 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Online Seminar: Cyber Terrorism The Institute of World Politics, Washington, DC 28 April, online Website: visit | Twitter: @theIWP

2021 Stockholm Forum on Peace and Development Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Stockholm 4-6 May, online Website: visit | Twitter: @sipriorg

26th German Prevention Congress/ 14th Annual International Forum German Prevention Congress 10-11 May 2021, Cologne, Germany Website: visit | Twitter: @praeventionstag

Online Seminar: Counterintelligence and Cyber Technology The Institute of World Politics, Washington, DC 9 June, online Website: visit | Twitter: @theIWP

The 20th Jan Tinbergen European Peace Science Conference European Peace Scientists 29 June – 1 July 2021, London, United Kingdom Website: visit | Twitter: @NEPS01

Acknowledgement: Special thanks go to Alex Schmid and Berto Jongman for their suggestions and contributions to this conference calendar.

About the Compiler: Olivia Kearney is an Associate Editor of Perspectives on Terrorism as well as a member of the Editorial Board for the ICTR Journal. She is the Community Building Officer for Project CRAAFT led by RUSI Europe. Before that, she worked as an Project Assistant for the International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague (ICCT) after having obtained a Master’s degree in Crime and Criminal Justice at Leiden University.

ISSN 2334-3745 268 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Words of Appreciation from Alex Schmid and James Forest Perspectives on Terrorism is entirely the product of volunteers – academics, professionals and practitioners – who for fourteen consecutive years have been giving their time and providing their expertise to keep this free and independent scholarly online journal alive and increasing in circulation to nearly 9,400 subscriptions today. While the main burden of producing six issues per year rests on the shoulders of the Editorial Team and those of the Editorial Board members who do most of the reviewing, there are many others who assist us in producing timely Articles and Research Notes six times a year. The 18 members of the Editorial Team and the 29 Editorial Board members alone would not be able to handle and review the growing number of submissions that reach us now on an almost daily basis. We could not function without the selfless help of our esteemed external reviewers who read and critique the articles submitted to us. Once a year we wish to thank these anonymous reviewers publicly by listing here their names.

For reviewing article submitted to Perspectives on Terrorism in 2020, we sincerely thank the individuals listed here: Eitan Alimi, Dina Al Raffie, Victor Asal,Tricia Bacon, Jason Bakas, Bahar Baser, Mia Bloom, Eke Bont, Anneli Botha, Neil Bowie, Clairissa Breen, Miguel Buesa Blanco, Robert Bunker, Alex Carter, Mahmut Cengiz, Maura Conway, Ryan Cummings, Jessica M. Davis, Gianluca De Fazio, Catriona Dowd, Nils Duits, Neil Ferguson, Marcos Alan Ferreira, Joseph Franco, Sajjan Gohel, Zakir Gul, Claire Hamilton, Tore Hamming, William Hansen, Gareth Harris, John Hart, Dorle Hellmuth, Rolando Ochoa Hernandez, Sam Jackson, Ali Jones, Nathan P. Jones, Marc Juergensmeyer, Aleksandre Kvakhadze, Ariel Koch, Daniel Koehler, Benjamin Lee, Genevieve Lennon, Jorge M. Lasmar, Rüdiger Lohlker, Russell Lundberg, James Lutz, Devorah Margolin, Francesco Marone, Sarah Marsden, Alex Meleagrou-Hitchens, Erin Miller, Vera Mironova, Cerwyn Moore, Mark E. Murtha, Brigitte Nacos, Petter Nesser, Jesse Norris, Jessica Northey, Oscar Palma, Christophe Paulussen, Anita Peresin, Arie Perlinger, Daniela Pisoiu, Muhammad Rahim, Elizabeth Ralph-Morrow, Jacob Ravndal, Ken Reidy, Fernando Reinares, Anthony Richards,Peter Romaniuk, Raquel da Silva, Hussein Salomon, Thomas Samuels, Daniela Scerri, Andrew Silke, Anne Stenersen, J.P. Sullivan, Matthew Valasik, Carlos Vazquez, Fabian Virchow, Stanislav Vysotsky, Daan Weggemans, Tony Wege, Gabriel Weimann, James Welch, Julie Wilhelmsen, James Wirtz, Joel Young, Mark Youngman, and Pedro Zuquete.

THANK YOU, Peer Reviewers for Perspectives on Terrorism (2020)!

We also wish to thank our not so anonymous regular members of the Editorial Board:

Max Abrahms, Shazad Ali, Joost Augusteijn, Jeff Bale, Michael Boyle, Jarret Brachman, Richard J. Chasdi, Colin P. Clarke, James ‘Chip’ O. Ellis, Leah Farrall, Paul Gill, Jennifer Giroux, M.J. Gohel, Beatrice de Graaf, Thomas Hegghammer, Aaron Hoffman, Jeffrey Kaplan, Bradley McAllister, John Morrison, Assaf Moghadam, Sam Mullins, Brian Nussbaum, Brian J. Phillips, David C. Rapoport, Thomas Riegler, Peter Romaniuk, Simon Shen, Neil Shortland, Anne Speckhard, and Ahmet S. Yayla.

These members of the Editorial Board were approached most often and asked again and again to give us their professional assessment on the quality of submissions reaching our Open Access journal.

And of course, our team of Associate Editors also served as peer reviewers many times throughout the year:

Tore Bjørgo, Christine Boelema Robertus, Gregory Miller, John Morrison, Bart Schuurman, Rashmi Singh, and Aaron Y. Zelin.

Thanks also go to our other Associate Editors, Assistant Editors and Editorial Assistants: Reinier Bergema, Berto Jongman, Olivia Kearney, Brody McDonald, Joshua Sinai, David Teiner, Judith Tinnes, and Jodi Moore.

They were also crucial in making our Resources Section what it is – an indispensable resource in the field of (Counter-)Terrorism Studies.

ISSN 2334-3745 269 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

Altogether, many authors submitting manuscripts have benefitted from the reviews, constructive criticism, editing, formatting and proof-reading provided by everyone listed above.

Again, THANK YOU to all!

Alex Schmid & James Forest (Editor-in-Chief & Co-Editor)

ISSN 2334-3745 270 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

TRI Award for Best Ph.D. Thesis Submitted in 2019 or 2020 Deadline for Submissions – 31 March 2021 - Approaching Fast

The Terrorism Research Initiative (TRI) seeks to enhance the quality of research in the field of Terrorism Studies. For this purpose, TRI established in 2014 an Award for the Best Doctoral Dissertation on Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism. Among the incoming submissions of Ph.D. theses, the TRI Award jury identifies three finalists and from these the winner.

With the present announcement, a call is being made for sending to the jury Ph.D. theses submitted or defended at an academic institution in the calendar years 2019 or 2020. Doctoral theses in the field of terrorism- and counterterrorism studies can be submitted either by the authors or by the academic supervisors.

Theses should be sent in electronic form as a Word document to the chairman of the jury at , together with a cover letter (1-3 pp.), highlighting the merits of the submitted Ph.D. thesis. Submissions must be in English (or translated into English).

The deadline for entries is31 March, 2021. The TRI Award jury - consisting of Prof. Edwin Bakker, Prof. James Forest, Prof. Clark McCauley and Prof. em. Alex P. Schmid - will evaluate and compare the submissions, based on criteria such as originality in terms of introducing new data, theory and/or methodology, novelty and uniqueness of findings as well as degree of in-depth research.

The chairman of the jury will inform the three finalists identified by the jury’s evaluation process before the end of July 2021. The winner among them will be announced during the summer of 2021 and can expect an Award of US $ 1,000.-, plus a certificate of achievement, signed by the chairman of the jury, acknowledging the granting of the TRI Thesis Award. The other two finalists will receive a certificate of achievement. For all three finalist theses, TRI will assist the authors in finding a publisher for their thesis. The winner of the latest TRI Thesis Award will also be invited to submit an article for publication inPerspectives on Terrorism, summarising the winning thesis’ main findings.

P.S.: Due to an insufficient number of submissions up to 31 March 2020, no thesis award was issued for theses completed in 2019 and the TRI annual thesis award was changed into a bi-annual award. Those who have submitted their doctoral thesis for the skipped past round of submissions are invited to reconfirm their submission for the current round before 31 March 2021 to the chairman at .

ISSN 2334-3745 271 February 2021 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 1

About Perspectives on Terrorism Perspectives on Terrorism (PoT) is a joint publication of the Terrorism Research Initiative (TRI), headquartered in Vienna, Austria, and the Institute of Security and Global Affairs (ISGA) of Leiden University, Campus The Hague. Now in its 15th year, PoT is published six times annually as a free, independent, scholarly peer-reviewed online journal available at the URL: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/perspectives-on-terrorism.

Perspectives on Terrorism has recently been ranked by Google Scholars again as No. 3 in ‘Terrorism Studies” (as well as No. 5 in “Military Studies”). PoT has close to 9,400 subscribers and many more occasional readers. Our journal seeks to provide a platform for established scholars as well as academics and professionals entering the interdisciplinary fields of (Counter-)Terrorism, Political Violence and Conflict Studies.

The editors invite researchers and readers to:

• present their perspectives on the prevention of, and response to, terrorism and related forms of violent conflict;

• submit to the journal accounts of evidence-based, empirical scientific research and analyses on terrorism;

• use the journal as a forum for debate and commentary on issues related to the above.

Perspectives on Terrorism has sometimes been characterised as ‘non-traditional’ in that it dispenses with some of the rigidities associated with commercial print journals. Topical articles can be published at short notice and reach, through the Internet, a much larger audience than subscription-fee based paper journals. Our online journal also offers contributors a higher degree of flexibility in terms of content, style and length of articles – but without compromising professional scholarly standards. The journal’s Research Notes, Special Correspondence, Op-Eds and other content are reviewed by members of the Editorial Team, while its Articles are peer-reviewed (double-blind) by outside academic experts and professionals. Due to the hundreds of submissions we receive every year, only the most promising and original ones can be sent for external peer-review.

While aiming to be policy-relevant, PoT does not support any partisan policies regarding (counter-) terrorism and waging conflicts. Impartiality, objectivity and accuracy are guiding principles that we require contributors to adhere to. They are responsible for the content of their contributions and retain the copyright of their publication.

The Editorial Team of Perspectives on Terrorism consists of:

Prof. em. Alex P. Schmid, Editor-in-Chief Dr. Craig Whiteside, Associate Editor Dr. James J.F. Forest, Co-Editor Dr. Aaron Y. Zelin, Associate Editor M.Sc. Christine Boelema Robertus, Associate Editor for IT Dr. Joshua Sinai, Books Reviews Editor Dr. Tore Bjørgo, Associate Editor Dr. Judith Tinnes, Information Resources Editor Dr. Leah Farrall, Associate Editor Mr. David Teiner, Assistant Information Resources Editor Dr. Jeffrey Kaplan, Associate Editor Drs. Berto Jongman, Associate Editor for Web Resources Dr. Gregory Miller, Associate Editor Ms. Olivia Kearney, Associate Editor for Conference Monitoring Dr. John Morrison, Associate Editor Mr. Brody McDonald, Assistant Editor for Theses Dr. Bart Schuurman, Associate Editor Mrs. Jodi Moore, Editorial Assistant Dr. Rashmi Singh, Associate Editor

ISSN 2334-3745 272 February 2021