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Dunmore2015.Pdf (2.934Mb) This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Bilingual life after school? Language use, ideologies and attitudes among Gaelic-medium educated adults Stuart S. Dunmore Thesis presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh 2014 Declaration of authorship I confirm that this thesis has been composed solely by myself, and that the work contained within it has neither previously been published nor submitted for another degree. Stuart S. Dunmore ii Abstract Gaelic-medium education (GME) as it exists today started in 1985, when two classes offering instruction through the medium of Gaelic opened within primary schools in Glasgow and Inverness. GME grew rapidly throughout the first decade of its availability, and 1258 students were enrolled in the system by 1995. This thesis examines outcomes of this system in terms of the degree to which former pupils who started in GME during this period continue to use Gaelic in their daily lives, and provides an assessment of their language ideologies and attitudes. The 2011 census showed a diminution in the decline of Gaelic speakers in Scotland, but marginal growth of 0.1% was recorded in the number of speakers under the age of 20. Whilst this growth has been understood by politicians and policy-makers as evidence of the role of GME in revitalising the language, the census figures give a limited picture of the actual language practices of reported speakers, the extent to which they use Gaelic, or of their beliefs, feelings and attitudes regarding the language. Internationally, little research appears to have been done on the life trajectories of adults who received a bilingual education through a minority language; that is to say, on the effect that the bilingual classroom has on such individuals’ relationship to the language after formal schooling is completed. The first students to receive GME at primary school are now in their late 20s and early 30s, and prospects for the maintenance and intergenerational transmission of Gaelic by this group are currently unknown. The principal research questions of this investigation comprise the following: What role does Gaelic play in the day-to-day lives of former Gaelic-medium students who started in GME during the first decade of its availability; how and when do they use the language? What sets of beliefs and language ideologies do these Gaelic-medium educated adults express in relation to Gaelic? How do these beliefs and ideologies relate to their actual language practices, to their attitudes concerning the language, and to future prospects for the maintenance of Gaelic? Through a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods, I provide an assessment of Gaelic use, language ideologies and attitudes among a sample of 130 Gaelic-medium educated adults. A thematic, ethnography of speaking methodology is employed to analyse qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with 46 informants. Additionally, responses to an electronic questionnaire are evaluated by statistical analysis using Spearman’s rank order correlation co-efficient to investigate the relationships between non-parametric variables of reported language use, ability, socialisation and attitudes. The results are discussed with reference to extensive research literatures on language, culture and identity, language revitalisation in the international context, and the perceived limitations of GME which have previously been identified with regard to the revitalisation of Gaelic. iii Table of Contents Page Declaration of authorship ii Abstract iii Table of contents iv List of tables vii List of figures viii Figures and tables in appendices ix Acknowledgements x Transcription conventions x 1. Introduction – Gaelic in Scotland: Bilingual life? 1 1.1. Gaelic language and culture in Scotland 2 1.2. Theoretical foundations: 12 Language revitalisation and the role of education 1.3. Concluding remarks and thesis structure 20 2. Language, culture and identities: Theoretical perspectives 21 2.1. Theorising the relation of language, culture and identities 21 2.1.1. Language and ethnic identity: (Socio)linguistic, 23 anthropological and sociological perspectives 2.1.2. The symbolic value of language 27 2.1.3. Essentialist perspectives on language and identity 29 2.1.4. Language and nationalism 31 2.2. Language ideologies 35 2.3. Language socialisation 40 2.4. Researching language and culture: Concluding remarks 42 on language, identities, ideologies, and socialisation 3. Minority language revitalisation and bilingual education: 45 Evidence from the international and domestic contexts 3.1. Language acquisition and attrition in bilingual immersion 45 education 3.1.1. Language acquisition and immersion education 45 3.1.2. Immersion education and language attrition 50 3.2. Principles from overseas: Immersion revitalisation education 57 in Europe, North America and Australasia 3.2.1. European perspectives: The Celtic world and Iberia 58 3.2.2. Indigenous language education in North America 64 and Australasia 3.3. GME: Past, present and revitalisation prospects 67 3.3.1. The development of GME in Scotland 1872–1985 67 3.3.2. Expectations and experiences of GME: 1980s–1990s 73 3.3.3. Limitations of GME in Gaelic language revitalisation 78 3.4. Concluding remarks: Bilingual education and language 87 revitalisation 4. Research design and analytic methods 89 4.1. Research design: Mixed methods and data triangulation 89 iv 4.2. Sample design and questionnaire analysis 93 4.2.1. Defining and accessing the informant universe 93 4.2.2. Questionnaire design and analysis 96 4.2.3. Conducting interviews in the field 98 4.3. Qualitative methods and the ethnography of speaking 101 4.3.1. Methodological and epistemic foundations 102 of qualitative research 4.3.2. Analysing language and culture in interaction: 104 The ethnography of speaking 4.3.3. Transcription: Approaches and application 109 4.3.4. Qualitative data analysis procedure 114 4.4. Concluding remarks 116 5. Gaelic language use and socialistion among Gaelic-medium 117 educated adults 5.1. Reported language use 117 5.1.1.‘High’ reported use of Gaelic and the role of 117 Gaelic employment 5.1.2. Intermediate to limited use: Family and peers? 120 5.1.3. Low use of Gaelic 126 5.1.4. Language practice I: Gaelic as a ‘secret code’ 130 5.1.5. Language practice II: Code-switching and 133 ‘informal’ Gaelic use 5.2. Interviewees’ Gaelic use and reported ability 136 5.2.1. High reported ability 137 5.2.2. Intermediate reported ability 140 5.2.3. Low reported ability 141 5.2.4. Reported use and ability in Gaelic: Some conclusions 143 5.3. Gaelic language socialisation at home 143 5.3.1. Gaelic socialisation by both/single parents at home 144 5.3.2. Socialisation by one Gaelic-speaking parent at home 147 5.3.3. No Gaelic at home 150 5.4. GME and Gaelic language socialisation 156 5.4.1. The role of GME in Gaelic language socialisation 156 5.4.2. GME: Socialisation in Gaelic culture? 160 5.4.3. Negative affect in school language socialisation 162 5.4.4. Gaelic language socialisation experiences: Some 166 conclusions 6. Gaelic language ideologies among former GME students 167 6.1. Ideologies of Gaelic I: Language use 167 6.1.1. Desire to use Gaelic differently: Regret/‘guilt’ 168 6.1.2. Intergenerational transmission and Gaelic use 171 6.1.3. ‘Judgement’ and ‘snobbery’ in the Gaelic community 175 6.1.4. Disuse, loss and ‘having’ Gaelic 179 6.1.5. ‘Opportunity’ and choice in Gaelic use 184 6.2. Ideologies of Gaelic II: Language policy and revitalisation 188 6.2.1. GME in discourses of Gaelic language revitalisation 188 v 6.2.2. Benefits of GME not related to revitalisation 193 6.2.3. (Mandatory) Gaelic learner education 195 6.2.4. Focus and efficiency: Criticism of Gaelic language 197 policy 6.3. Ideologies of Gaelic III: Language and identities 202 6.3.1. Gaelic and personal identity 203 6.3.2. Gaels?–Gàidheil? Gaelic identity, culture and heritage 207 6.3.3. National or regional language?–‘Highlands and 213 Islands’ identity? 6.3.4. Gaelic and Scottish identity: Language, nation 220 and culture 6.3.5. Gaelic, national identity and Scottish independence 227 6.4. Ideologies of Gaelic: Some conclusions 231 7. Questionnaire analysis: Gaelic ability, use and attitudes 233 7.1. Survey design and data collection 233 7.2. Social background variables 234 7.3. Reported abilities in Gaelic 242 7.4. Reported Gaelic language use 245 7.5. Gaelic language attitudes 260 7.5.1. Identities and attitudes 260 7.5.2. Questionnaire respondents’ comments 269 7.6. Summary of principal findings 270 8. Conclusions 271 8.1. Language use among Gaelic-medium educated adults: 272 Past, present and future prospects 8.1.1. Present Gaelic language use 272 8.1.2. Language abilities 277 8.1.3. Language socialisation 278 8.2. Language ideologies and attiudes 280 8.2.1. Ideologies of Gaelic language use 280 8.2.2. Gaelic language policy, GME and revitalisation 282 in Scotland 8.2.3.
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