RevistaIslasEnglishSept09 11/10/09 8:44 PM Page 66 Art and Literature Two Nineteenth-Century Black Cuban Poets To Plácido’s Memory (1809-2009) Víctor Manuel Domínguez Writer and journalist Havana, Cuba he contribution of black people to the The importance of this tacit acknowledg- birth, consolidation, and development ment of a black slave rests not only in this Tof the Cuban nationality has been con- man’s act of heroism in killing French pirate stant. Blacks were present in the earliest liter- Gilberto Girón in battle, but also in its incipi- ary attempts that began to shape the contours ent bestowal of a sense of Cuban belonging on of the anguished pilgrimage that would bring the slave, when Balboa writes: Oh, Salvador us closer to a concept of nationhood. criollo, negro honrado [Oh criollo Salvador, All too often, on account of their slave honorable black]. condition, they were considered inferior mem- Despite this seemingly unprejudiced bers of the human species, or as folkloric sub- assessment, which might appear to promote jects who offered their African customs to our the integration of blacks during a time as long identity until they fused, through miscegena- ago as the seventeenth century, the only road tion, with other groups on the island. In either for blacks was extremely difficult or humiliat- example, their actions made them seem like ing regarding any one of the economic, politi- beings precursory to the historical advent of cal, and social situations that successively pre- Cubanness. vailed in Cuba as it worked towards the idea of When in his epic poem Espejo de Paciencia an independent nation. [Mirror of Patience] (1608) Silvestre de Yet, despite the fact that this idea does not Balboa Troyas y Quesada calls black slave emerge and begin to take shape until what in Salvador Golomón, who was not born in Cuba is referred to as the Transformation Africa but in Cuba, a criollo, he establishes his (1790-1868)—when the island goes from right to be a legitimate son of the island. being a flowering colony to seeking a national 66 ISLAS RevistaIslasEnglishSept09 11/10/09 8:44 PM Page 67 identity—as groups like La Sociedad writing. Their talent and the attendance of Económica de Amigos del País [Economic other writers at these sorts of meetings made it Society of the Country’s Friends], the San so. Yet, there is more. This kind of gathering in Ambrosio and San Basilio seminars, and the Cuba, under del Monte’s tutelage, made possi- University of Havana, and other economic and ble works that for the first time ever revealed cultural spaces, it was no longer possible to the inhumane nature of slavery, its humiliating erase the indelible imprint of black people consequences, and the mercilessly offensive from the creation of our national identity. actions that whites imposed on people of color. In light of the undeniable fact that black Del Monte takes his fellow writers’com- cultural elements took root in the nation’s positions about the lives of slaves and gives racial milieu, and began to mix with others to them to Richard Madden, Judge Arbitrator to create the human characteristics that have the International Mixed Commission Court for defined the country throughout history, I want the Suppression of the Slave Trade in Havana. to somewhat emphasize the role that slave and He publishes an anti-slavery album containing free mulatto poets played during the first half several Cuban works in London, among the of the Cuban nineteenth century. most significant of which is poetry by Juan Francisco Manzano and Gabriel de la Blacks as literary authors in Concepción Valdés (Plácido). the first half of the nineteenth Juan Francisco Manzano century (1797-1854) The very first steps that were taken to Manzano, who was born in Havana, him- reveal the ignominious social context with self, suffered the vicissitudes of slavery. After which blacks had to deal were taken via litera- having been spiritually touched by having ture, through a call to reflect upon reality, in attended operas, masses, and sermons with his all its forms. This originated in the conversa- owners, he began primary schooling in 1818 tions initiated by Domingo del Monte between and begins to publish his poems. By 1821, his 1829 and 1843. book Cantos a Lesbia [Songs to Lesbia] is pub- Del Monte criticized the asocial character lished; Flores pasajeras [Passing Flowers] by of the popular romantic literature that served 1830. He also publishes “Romances cubanos” as a model to island writers. He demanded that [Cuban Poems] in El pasatiempo [The his interlocutors assist brethren who came Passtime] (Matanzas). Yet, it was not till 1836, from their very same society through their when patron and critic Domingo del Monte writing. heard the sonnet “Mis treinta años”[My Thirty Acknowledged as one of the founders of Years], that a collection effort for 500 pesos Cuban national identity, and as having the was started to procure him his freedom. The greatest influence on Cuban literature of the surprise brought about by this slave’s ability to first half of the nineteenth century, José Martí versify, and del Monte having found the “pro- considered del Monte “the most useful and real foundest native human feelings”in his sonnet, Cuban of his time.” were enough to stimulate enthusiasm among Blacks who participated in del Monte’s those who could see in the poem’s first-hand literary gatherings achieved not only celebrity testimony a denouncement, and a path towards but also their freedom, by dint of their literary the elimination of slavery. ISLAS 67 RevistaIslasEnglishSept09 11/10/09 8:44 PM Page 68 Despite the fact that in his book Historia Regardless the reaction to this work, de la Literatura Cubana [History of Cuban interest in Juan Francisco Manzano’s poetry Literature], Salvador Bueno considers “My was directly tied to the anti-slavery campaign. Thirty Years”only a notable work, the sonnet’s In fact, its value as something that documented perfectible verses erased any intellectual limita- the horrors of slavery and the colonial period tion blacks were said to suffer. surpassed its literary importance. Cuban liter- ary history looks similarly upon his “Mis treinta años” Autobiografía [Autobiography], written at the [My Thirty Years] behest of Domingo del Monte, and his tragedy “Zafira,” which did not necessarily make Cuando miro al espacio que he corrido Manzano more famous, but did reveal his pos- [When I think of the course I have run sibilities as an author. It wouldn’t be right to Desde la cuna hasta el presente día, fail to point out the limitations he faced in his From my childhood itself to this day, incursions into various literary genres—he Tiemblo y saludo a la fortuna mía was born a slave and raised as such till an I tremble, and fain would I shun advanced age. This disadvantage prevented him Más de terror que de atención movido. from traveling and studying the same way The remembrance its terrors would array. those who used a highly sharpened critical Sorpréndeme la lucha que he podido scalpel to dissect his own poetry did—even in I marvel at struggles endured posterity. Sostener contra suerte tan impía, With a destiny frightful as mine. Gabriel de la Concepción Si tal llamarse puede la porfía Valdés (1809-1844) At the strength for such efforts —assured De mi infelice ser al mal nacido. Plácido is another relevant black author Tho’I am, (tis in vain to repine). for this time period (he also attended the del Monte gatherings). This mulatto poet was Treinta años ha que conocí la tierra; born in Havana and shot in the back (like a I’ve known this sad life thirty years traitor) on June 28th, 1844, the victim of a Treinta años ha que en gemidor estado persecution set into motion by Captain And to me, thirty years it has been General O’Donnell against liberal Cubans and Triste infortunio por doquier me asalta: people of color. Of suff ’ring, of sorrow and tears Plácido’s case is unique because of the his- Más nada es para mí la cruda guerra torical importance of his life and work, and Ev’ry day of its bondage I’ve seen. because it inspired passion both for and Que en vano suspirar he soportado against his cause among prominent contempo- But ‘tis nothing the past -or the pains, raries. Born of a mestizo Havana hairstylist Si la comparo ¡Oh, Dios! Con la que falta. and a Spanish-born ballerina, the boy was Hitherto I have struggled to bear, commited to the Casa Cuna de Maternidad [an When I think, Oh my God! on the chains orphanage home for illegitimate children], and That I yet know I’m destined to wear.] given the surname Valdés, the same as all the other orphans. 68 ISLAS RevistaIslasEnglishSept09 11/10/09 8:44 PM Page 69 A few days later, his paternal grandmoth- Tornad a México, esclavos; er got him out, yet the child knew no peace [Return to Mexico, slaves; regarding the ability to help support his fami- Nadie vuestra marcha turba, ly until he found one of the few jobs open to Not one of yours to the crowd, free mulattoes and blacks. He became a typeset- Y decid a vuestro amo, ter’s apprentice at the Boloña Printing House, Say to your master, the most important in early nineteenth-centu- Vencido ya veces muchas, ry Cuba. His salary at the job was barely Already many times conquered, enough for him to survive on, but it did allow Que el joven Jiconténcatl him to broaden his horizons through reading, That the young Jicontencatl enrich himself culturally, and complement his Crueldades como él no usa, poetic talent.