DESIGNING FOR FLOOD RISK A Study of European Strategies for Climate Adaptation

Adria Boynton Harvard University Sinclair Kennedy Traveling Fellow

DESIGNING FOR FLOOD RISK A Study of European Strategies for Climate Adaptation

Adria Boynton Harvard University Sinclair Kennedy Traveling Fellow June 2018 ABSTRACT

This project focuses on design strategies for climate change adaptation. This includes studying the impact of Arno River flooding on Italian architecture and infrastructure, analyzing historic and current European strategies for mitigating flood risk, discussing the benefits of building-scale adaptation, and making recommendations for resilient design in cities at risk of flooding.

This report was created as part of the Harvard University Sinclair Kennedy Traveling Fellowship program. It is intended as an exploratory study. N

Natural features (OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014b) 0 40 80 160 Roads and Railways (OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014c and d) Miles A view of the Ponte Vecchio in Florence CONTENTS

Part I: Context

Introduction...... 10 Historic Flood Resilience in Florence...... 15 The Flood of 1966...... 21 Contemporary Flood Resilience in Florence...... 27

Part II: Case Studies

Biblioteca degli Alberi...... 34 Bosco Verticale...... 37 Basilica di Santa Croce...... 38 Tempio Ebraico di Firenze...... 41 Querini Stampalia...... 42 St. Giobbe +160...... 45 Piscina San Samuele...... 46 Calle delle Beccarie...... 49 Flood Resilient Repair Home...... 50 Adaptation in Art...... 53

Part III: Conclusions

Strategies & Materials...... 56 Recommendations...... 66

Appendix

Acknowledgments...... 71 Reference List...... 72 PART I: CONTEXT

Resilient and adaptable buildings are a community’s “first line of defense against disasters and changing conditions of life and property.

- The American Institute of Architects, 2018 “Where Architects Stand: A Statement of Our Values” 8 ” A diagram of water-related “flows” in Florence 9 INTRODUCTION Floods are the most common natural disaster.

Between 1994 and 2013, floods impacted 2.5 billion people globally. This number represents more than half of the people affected by any disaster. Flooding also caused the greatest amount of damage to buildings, even more than earthquakes or other storms (CRED 2015, 18, 32).

Research suggests that every dollar spent preparing for risk saves six dollars in recovery efforts (National Institute of Building Sciences 2017). Preparing individual properties for disaster can also help lessen demand on emergency responders in the aftermath of an event (Kaysen 2017).

This report will prioritize building-scale strategies for climate adaptation. This scale works well for historic buildings, buildings that are infrequently flooded, buildings with water-dependent uses, and floodplain properties where development is already planned. This scale is also appropriate when existing buildings cannot be moved, or larger methods cannot be implemented. Building-scale strategies offer property owners options for independent action and can act as effective midterm strategies that lead to the adoption of longer- term protections and industry-wide changes in design practice.

Building scale strategies can also help create resilient retail spaces, a crucial part of getting back to business in the aftermath of a disaster (NYC Planning 2016, 24). In the wake of the historic 1966 flood in Florence, some of the most sought-after materials were those needed for recovery; including hacksaws, cleaning supplies, and shovels (Clark 2008, 169). These items were difficult to find because stores and inventories were damaged by water, mud, and heating oil. Florence’s recovery depended on reopening its museums and libraries quickly because the city’s economy relied heavily on visiting tourists, students, and scholars (Nencinci 1967, 25). By better protecting buildings from damage, building-scale resilience can also help reduce “secondary risks”

10 Part I: Context A view of the Rialto Bridge in Venice Key buildings (Google Earth Pro 2017, OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014a) Green space (Google Earth Pro 2017, OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014b) Historic center (Sistema Informativo Territoriale 2015) N Roads and Railways (OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014c and d)

Arno river 0 0.75 1.5 (OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014b) Miles caused by storms, including health impacts from sewage, mold, and pollution from hazardous materials (Jha, Bloch and Lamond 2012, 263).

Successful resiliency strategies are often multidisciplinary and multiscalar, and combining building-scale methods with larger infrastructure or landscape projects can help provide comprehensive solutions. For example, a building prepared for flooding can act as an additional layer of resilience even ifa flood barrier already protects the surrounding community. Similarly, resilience strategies can counter many different kinds of environmental risks. Permeable pavement can improve stormwater management while also mitigating the urban heat island effect.

Resilient buildings cannot independently solve the problem of environmental risk. In some areas, where flooding is especially common and severe, retreat may be a better option. Location is also crucial: high vulnerability sites should not be paired with high vulnerability buildings like hospitals. Building-scale resilience is not a guarantee against damage and for some, the cost of installing adaptation strategies may be a barrier to implementation.

Even in dense cities with historic buildings, there can be opportunities to minimize damage from flooding, protect building contents, improve on-site stormwater management, and better educate residents about climate risks. Florence is an example of such a city. Located in the Tuscany region of Italy, Florence experiences a major flood approximately every 100 years. The most famous example of flooding in this city is the inundation during 1966, which left more than 30 people dead and 5,000 families homeless (Clark 2008, 9).

Florence is home to one of the most significant collections of art and architecture in the world. Flooding puts the lives of residents at risk while also endangering the city’s rich cultural heritage. Despite a history of inundations, critics allege that not enough has been done to prepare Florence for the next disaster.

Opposite page: a map of Florence Part I: Context 13 You have to ask yourself, why, knowing what they know, “people kept rebuilding here, knowing that every hundred and fifty years there will be a deluge. It seems irrational, but perhaps it’s not. Maybe people weighed the benefits of being here against the cost of losing half or a third of it every century, and they decided it’s worth it - to be here, on the Arno.

- Giovanni Menduni former director of the Autorità di Bacino del Fiume Arno, or Arno River Basin Authority (AdB) (Clark 2008, 318)

14 Part I: Context ” Historic Flood Resilience in Florence

The history of Florence is a story of a city and its river.

Caesar himself may have chosen the strategic spot along the Arno for his Roman camp, which grew into the city of Florence (Vannucci 1988, 9). The river would later change as the city expanded, as weirs were built to support the textile industry, as the riverbanks became the Lungarni embankments, and as human intervention transformed the meandering river painstakingly documented by Leonardo da Vinci to the narrower and straighter course that exists today.

The city of Florence has survived centuries of war, occupations, political infighting, and major inundations. These floods were blamed on everything from the alteration of the Arno River’s original course, to the prevalence of weirs along the riverbanks, to deforestation in the surrounding Tuscan countryside.

The following timeline summarizes the history of floods and flood risk interventions in Florence, from inundation in the 12th century to the most famous example of contemporary flooding in 1966.

Part I: Context 15 Growth during the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance Trees and lumber piled led to increased construction against the Ponte Santa of buildings and weirs. Weirs Trinita during this flood, were built along the Arno increasing water pressure River to combat erosion, against the bridge and store water, provide irrigation, leading to its collapse. and generate energy for Giovanni Villani remarked manufacturing. At one time, that flood levels finally dropped once the debris A serious flood destroyed the many of the mills along the river were used for the destroyed the Ponte della Ponte Vecchio (Salvestrini Carraia bridge downstream 2016, 1). creation of wool and other fabrics (Progetto Firenze, (Nencini 1967, 123). 1.2.2).

As construction increased, the width of the Arno River decreased, exacerbating flood risk (Pallecchi, Benvenuti and Cianferoni 2010, 323).

1177 1200s-1500s 1269

1589 1566 1559

Duke Cosimo’s decree Bartolomeo Ammannati As a response to the 1557 banning wood storage near started construction on the flood, the “Half-mile Law” the river reportedly helped Ponte Santa Trinita, designed prohibited deforestation in limit damage during the 1589 to allow water and debris to certain areas (Salvestrini flood (Nencini 1967, 130). pass easily under the bridge 2016, 3). during a flood. Similarly, Duke Cosimo forbid the storage of wood within a certain distance of the Arno, in an effort to limit waterborne debris (Nencini 1967, 128).

16 Part I: Context This flood killed an estimated 300 people and destroyed both the Ponte Vecchio and parts of the ancient city walls. The severity of this flood was blamed on the increased number of weirs Some modifications were dotting the Arno riverbank. made to the Arno starting in Consequently, the city The Ponte Vecchio, built the Renaissance, including banned weirs in certain by Neri di Fioravante, was building canals to divert the areas. Many exceptions were designed to accommodate water flow and straightening granted and this law was the passage of more water portions of the river (Caporali, largely ignored (Salvestrini during a flood (Santini 1972, Rinaldi and Casagli 2005, 2016, 2). 36). 180).

1333 1345 1500-1700

1557 1547 1503

Leonardo da Vinci and Niccolò Machiavelli attempted to divert the Arno River to protect against future floods, win a war against Pisa, and ensure Florence’s access to the sea.

A disastrous flood destroyed The severity of a flood The engineer in charge the Ponte Santa Trinita and in August was attributed altered Leonardo’s design led to the construction of to engineering projects and underestimated the the Uffizi museum and the and deforestation that led time and labor required to Vasari Corridor by Giorgio to erosion and elevated complete the project. This Vasari (Clark 2008, 49-50). riverbeds (Nencini 1967, miscalculation, combined with After the flood, the engineer 127). a severe storm that destroyed led Bartolomeo Ammannati used parts of the construction, to a complete collapse of the remaining mud to build the project embankments (Nencini 1967, (Masters 1988, 128). 20-131).

Part I: Context 17 Perhaps mistakenly, the severity of this flood was blamed on a recently completed engineering project by Alessandro The previous Medici laws Manetti, which involved restricting deforestation building river locks and ended during this period dredging the Arno to lower (Caporali, Rinaldi and the city’s flood risk. The Casagli 2005, 181). By now, impact of the 1844 flood led The Medici issued laws the Medici family had died to the construction of walls limiting deforestation out, and the Lorraine family along the river bank and (Caporali, Rinaldi and Casagli governed Florence (Clark improvements to the sewer 2005, 180). 2008, 57). system (Clark 2008, 66-71).

1622-1646 1776-1780 1844

1966 1950-1960s 1955-1957

Construction began on the Levane and La Penna dams, primarily used to generate power but also intended to store water during a flood (Clark 2008, 118).

The catastrophic 1966 flood Post-war migration from left more than 30 people the country to the city dead and 5,000 families complicated flood-prevention homeless (Clark 2008, 9). efforts, because contour terracing farmland had helped minimize erosion Photo: Kunsthistorisches Institut in (Carniani and Paoletti 2016, Florenz - Max-Planck-Institut 125-126).

18 Part I: Context Florence briefly became the The Bilancino reservoir was capital of Italy, leading to a first suggested.It would take more than one hundred flurry of urban development. Some changes were made years to complete (Caporali, with flood risk in mind: Rinaldi and Casagli 2005, buildings were designed more 186-187). carefully, river banks were reinforced, and part of the Photo below by Massimiliano Galardi Arno River was straightened (Kraczyna 2007, 6).

Architect Giuseppe Poggi The minimal damage of this dug an underground channel flood reflected well on the that reportedly did little to engineering projects enacted minimize the impact of the twenty years earlier (Clark next flood (Carniani and 2008, 71). Paoletti 2016, 124).

1857 1864 1865-1870

1952 1912-1933 1865, 1877

Introduced in 1923, Law 3267 funded reforestation efforts and the creation of weirs. This work ended during the 1960s and the interventions fell into a state of disrepair (Progetto $ Firenze 2016, 2.2.5). A “river regulation plan” was Similar laws that also New laws addressing given a budget to combat addressed slope stabilization reforestation were enacted flood risk. But a review of were introduced in 1912 and during these years (Caporali, the program’s work revealed 1933 (Caporali, Rinaldi and Rinaldi and Casagli 2005, that, during the first decade, Casagli 2005, 181). 181). barely a third of the budget was spent (Nencini 1967, 30).

Part I: Context 19 As a rule, culture is “stored underground, in that the majority of libraries, archives, cultural institutions and university faculties store their books in cellars and basements.

- Giorgio Batini Author of 4 November 1966 (Batini 1967, 66)

20 Part I: Context ” THE FLOOD OF 1966

The most famous example of contemporary flooding in Florence occurred in 1966. In the first three days of November, the city experienced a third ofits typical annual rainfall (Horne 2016).

By 8:00 AM on November 4th, Florence’s historic center was inundated. The rushing water carried mud, cars, furniture, uprooted trees, and other debris. Roughly 4,100 cubic meters of water was running through the river each second, twofold its capacity. In many parts of the city, flooding exceeded first- floor windows (Listri and Haybittle 2002, 167). Although Florence’s ancient walls had helped slow the speed of floods in past years, there was no buffer during the 1966 flood, and water ripped through the city at up to 37 miles per hour (Batini 1967, 12).

In 1966, Florence did not have an adequate flood monitoring and forecasting system, and November 4th was still celebrated as a public holiday. Since many residents had the day off, they slept through the early-morning flooding and power outages that otherwise would have alerted them sooner. Church bells eventually served as a warning system later in the day (Carniani and Paoletti 2016, 127; Horne 2016). After the flood, Mayor Bargellini explained that no one raised the alarm earlier because no one anticipated the severity of the unfolding disaster. The government was trying to avoid inciting widespread panic (Nencini 1967, 32).

After the flood receded, mud and heating oil covered everything. Sewers and walls along the riverbanks had to be repaired (Kraczyna 2007, 54, 84-88). Mud had to be removed from buildings, and art and books had to be rescued from lower floors. Food and clean water were scarce. Volunteers dubbed “Mud Angels,” or “Gli Angeli del Fango,” came from all over the world to work in churches, libraries, and hospitals. Some stayed until the spring of the following year (Vannucci 1988, 433).

The Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, a major library in Florence, stored some of its most important documents in the basement, where they had been sheltered

Part I: Context 21 since WWII (Horne 2016). 1.3 million books were flooded and nearly a quarter of its collection was ruined beyond repair (Clark 2008, 162-163; Batini 1967, 66). Books that were salvageable were sent to tobacco factories and laundromats, which had spaces well suited to drying out the saturated texts (Carniani and Paoletti 2016, 220). The many creative strategies developed to restore books, art, and other artifacts damaged by the flood would help establish Florence as a leader in conservation (Kirchgaessner 2016).

The Basilica di Santa Croce is sited on the lowest-lying land in Florence and was hard hit by the 1966 flood. Water levels reached 22 feet outside of the building, 16.5 feet in the church’s museum, and 8 feet in the more elevated interior of the Basilica (Kraczyna 2007, 44; Basilica di Santa Croce 2017). A famous crucifix painted by Cimabue was displayed in the museum and almost completely submerged by the flood. Assistants used tea strainers to sift through the muddy water for the flakes of paint that had peeled off of the cross (Carniani and Paoletti 2016, 198; Batini 1967, 42). After losing roughly 70% of its pigment, the cross became a symbol of the damage of the 1966 flood (Basilica di Santa Croce 2017).

The Jewish Temple of Florence, or Tempio Ebraico di Firenze, experienced twelve feet of flooding in 1966. Vestments and smaller pieces of furniture were lost, while the large altar, lectern, and fixed pews were heavily damaged. Out of a collection of more than one hundred scrolls dating back to the 1400s, only about a quarter were salvageable. A library of Hebrew books and a collection of marriage contracts dating back to the 1500s were also damaged (L’Opera del Tempio Ebraico di Firenze 2010; Batini 1967, 63).

The immediate aftermath brought investigations into the public warning system and into the officials who may have been able to predict the disaster (Vannucci 1988, 434). The severity of the flood was attributed to deforestation, erosion, mismanagement of the La Penna and Levane Dams, unfinished engineering projects including the Bilancino reservoir, and the lack of an adequate warning system and emergency management plan (Caporali, Rinaldi and Casagli 2005, 186-187).

Mud and water outside of the Refectory Mud, water, and debris in the Piazza di Santa Croce at the Basilica di Santa Croce after the after the 1966 flood. Photo: Kunsthistorisches Institut in 1966 flood. Photo: Kunsthistorisches Florenz - Max-Planck-Institut. Institut in Florenz - Max-Planck-Institut.

22 Part I: Context Damage near the Ponte Vecchio after the 1966 flood

The Vasari Corridor inundated by Photo: Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florenz - The Piazza del Duomo inundated the 1966 flood Max-Planck-Institut during the 1966 flood

Photo: Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florenz - Photo: Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florenz - Max-Planck-Institut Max-Planck-Institut

A comparative image of the Vasari A comparative image of the Piazza Corridor photographed in 2018 del Duomo photographed in 2018 A comparative image of the Ponte Vecchio photographed in 2018

Part I: Context 23 The three examples below are representative of the many flood plaques scattered across Florence, marking the heights of floods in 1333, 1557, and 1966. The map to the right illustrates the extent of flooding in 1966 and the locations of flood plaques in the city.

Location: Location: Location: Piazza di Santa Croce The Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale The corner of Via delle Casine and di Firenze Via San Giuseppe Top Plaque Translation: “On November 4, 1966 the water of Plaque Translation: Plaque Translation: the Arno arrived at this height.” “In this library and elsewhere “November 4, 1966, a woman in Florence, where the flood of tragically died here, immobilized Bottom Plaque Translation: November 4, 1966 had raged, by disease, secured with a sheet to “On September 13, 1557 the water many young Italians and foreigners the window grating.” of the Arno arrived at this height.” came through the water and the mud with generous selflessness “It was the saddest and most and brought help.” moving tragedy in all the city. To assist, without being able to do anything, one who must die and sees death approach, only because a railing could not be broken...” (From the diary of Pastor Don Giuseppe Boretti).

24 Part I: Context N

Key buildings 4-5 m flood depth (Google Earth Pro 2017, (Autorità di Bacino del Fiume Arno 2006a) OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014a) Green space 2-4 m flood depth (Google Earth Pro 2017, (Autorità di Bacino del Fiume Arno 2006a) OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014b) Historic center 0-2 m flood depth (Sistema Informativo Territoriale 2015) (Autorità di Bacino del Fiume Arno 2006a)

Roads and Railways Flood plaques (OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014c and d) (Autorità di Bacino del Fiume Arno 2006b)

Arno river 0 0.75 1.5 (OpenStreetMap Contributors 2014b) Miles Our river embankments “remain just as they were when they were constructed by the grand dukes, the doges and the popes.

We may console ourselves, however, with the thought that we have seriously entered the space race with our San Marco satellite.

- Franco Nencini Author of Florence: The Days of the Flood (Nencini 1967, 30)

26 Part I: Context ” CONTEMPORARY FLOOD RESILIENCE IN FLORENCE

The many mitigation strategies proposed in the aftermath of the 1966 flood could be summarized in the following categories:

Infrastructure: including building reservoirs, updating the sewer system, and removing existing weirs.

Interventions along the river: including dredging the Arno and strengthening walls along the river bank.

Landscape strategies: including reforestation throughout the Arno River Basin.

Monitoring: including developing flood forecasting and public alert systems.

Risk awareness: including flood drills, robust emergency management plans, and public education about risk.

The following timeline outlines flood risk interventions in Florence after the 1966 flood.

Part I: Context 27 The National Commission appointed after the flood recommended the use of up to 23 small reservoirs that The De Marchi Commission could store water during a recommended constructing flood but could also be used 25 reservoirs to increase for irrigation or water supply water storage capacity along during clement weather the Arno River (Caporali, (Progetto Firenze 2016, Rinaldi and Casagli 2005, 1.4.2). 189).

Professor Livio Zoli proposed the construction of underground tunnels to drain and store water (Nencini 1967, 36-39).

1966 1967 1974

1999

During a 1996 interview, Raffaello Nardi, an official leading efforts to protect the Arno River Basin said, “The situation has actually got much worse than in 1966” because of deforestation $ in the Arno River Basin and an increase in development Between 1989 and 1999, On the 30th anniversary of that replaced farms with only about a third of the 160 the flood, the Basilica di impervious surfaces (Gumbel billion lire available for flood Santa Croce hosted a flood 1996). mitigation was spent (Progetto drill. More than a thousand Firenze 2016, 2.3.7). This participants transported echoed a similar situation in paintings and books to upper 1952. floors, and the “Tree of Life” fresco by Taddeo Gaddi was covered with a custom waterproof cloth (Shulman 1997).

28 Part I: Context A pilot study by the Lotti Ingegneria SpA company recommended building 11 multi-use reservoirs (with less than half the total water storage dedicated to flood The Ponte Vecchio and Ponte prevention) and the creation Santa Trinita bridge aprons of a canal stretching from were lowered by a meter the Arno to the Trasimeno to allow more water to flow Lake (Progetto Firenze 2016, under the structures (Giusti 1.4.2). 2016). The National Group for the Prevention of Hydrogeological Disasters formed to create strategies to monitor and manage risk. They later published a map specific to risk in the Arno River basin (Caporali, Rinaldi and Casagli 2005, 190).

1978 1980 1984

1996 1989

The AdB approved a Hydraulic Risk Plan, which attributed Florence’s flood risk to inadequate water storage capacity, increased urbanization, aging infrastructure, deforestation, and loss of farmlands. The Plan proposed building ten new flood detention areas upstream of Florence; enlarging the existing Levane dam to increase water storage capacity; completing the Bilancino dam; constructing new dams, levees, and reservoirs; and widening the channels of some tributaries. Law 183 outlined seven Hydraulic modeling suggested that the proposed reservoirs would nationally-significant water reduce the peak discharge of a 200-year flood by roughly 85% basins and created a Water but would do little to minimize the impact of a 1966-level flood Basin Authority for each. This (Progetto Firenze 2016, 3.4). included the Arno River Basin Authority (AdB) (Progetto These proposals were limited to large-scale water storage facilities Firenze 2016, 2.1.2). because this Plan introduced two new main objectives: minimizing flood risk upstream could not exacerbate flood risk downstream, and new construction must prepare for anticipated flooding over the next 200 years (Massini 2014, 2).

Part I: Context 29 The AdB released a Hydro- Geological Plan (PAI) to update the 1996 Plan but proposed no new mitigation strategies (Progetto Firenze 2016, 2.3). The cost of The European Union issued implementing the PAI was the Water Framework estimated at 200 million Directive, establishing Water euro. The damage caused District Authorities to oversee by a 1966-level flood today the previously created Water could reach 30 billion euro Basin Authorities (Progetto (Basilica di Santa Croce Firenze 2016, 2.1.2). 2017).

An interdisciplinary group led by the Arno River Basin Authority created the Arno Toscana Umbria (ARTU) system to predict floods (Caporali, Rinaldi and Casagli 2005, 191).

2000 2002 2005

2016

The ITSC determined that In 2014, Giovanni Massini Florence is not adequately proposed a temporary protected from future floods strategy to protect Florence and that the impact of a from flooding while more 1966-level event would be permanent projects were even greater today (Progetto constructed. Firenze 2016). Massini’s proposal was a 3.5 mile-long system of inflatable barriers. The system would take 28 workers, 15 trucks, and 4 hours to set up.

These barriers would protect Florence’s center but increase flooding in the Cascine neighborhood by almost one foot (Massini 2014, 4-5).

30 Part I: Context On the 40th anniversary of the flood, the Basilica di Santa Croce hosted a flood drill (Basilica di Santa Croce 2017).

Italy also adopted the EU Water Framework Directive but did not immediately The Progetto Firenze 2016 establish the required Water organization created an District Authorities, further International Technical fragmenting flood planning Scientific Committee (ITSC) (Progetto Firenze 2016, to assess flood risk and to 2.1.2). make recommendations.

These included building A survey documented an Arno River Museum culturally-significant buildings and re-releasing movies at risk of flooding in Florence. documenting the 1966 flood, The AdB continued to develop to better communicate flood flood forecasting systems risk to the public (Progetto (Giusti 2016; AdB 2010). Firenze 2016, 4.6).

2006 2010 2014

Law 116 created a position The Flood Risk Management Plan (PGRA) replaced the PAI and included in the Italian Prime Minister’s protecting cultural heritage as a goal. A notable departure from both the Office to fast-track disaster 1996 Plan and the PAI is the PGRA’s statement that Florence cannot be planning by partnering with completely protected from flooding. relevant agencies (Progetto Firenze 2016, 2.1.2). Instead, the PGRA proposed managing flood impact with small reservoirs, enlarging the Levane dam, and removing silt deposits in both the La Penna and the Levane reservoirs. Although the AdB wrote the PGRA, it stated that the agency was not responsible for the plan’s implementation (Progetto Firenze 2016, 2.4).

Part I: Context 31 32 The Querini Stampalia in Venice Part II: CASE STUDIES

The following case studies include examples of parks, buildings, and exhibitions. These projects are drawn from cities in Italy, England, and Scotland.

Biblioteca degli Alberi: Milan, Italy Bosco Verticale: Milan, Italy Basilica di Santa Croce: Florence, Italy Tempio Ebraico di Firenze: Florence, Italy Querini Stampalia: Venice, Italy St. Giobbe +160: Venice, Italy Piscina San Samuele: Venice, Italy Calle delle Beccarie: Venice, Italy Flood Resilient Repair Home: Watford, England Adaptation in Art: Venice, Florence, London, and Glasgow

33 BIBLIOTECA DEGLI ALBERI

Location: Milan, Italy Designers: Studio Giorgetta and Inside Outside, Petra Blaisse Date: 2017

The Biblioteca degli Alberi, or, “Library of Trees,” is a public park built after a competition initiated by the City of Milan. The name of the space references a central design element: circular groupings of trees planted throughout the park to display biodiversity. The project uses a series of pedestrian paths crisscrossing the park, and a permeable pavement product called “i.idro DRAIN,” to play on the idea of porosity. Spaces in the Biblioteca include a playground, fountain, educational gardens, and areas for meetings and performances (Italcementi 2018b).

“i.idro DRAIN” is a concrete paving system designed to decrease surface temperature and surface runoff. This product can be used to collect rainwater, or to help water percolate into the ground and recharge the water table. “i.idro DRAIN” can be cleaned with a high-pressure washer and requires only basic maintenance. The pavement is an appropriate material for parks, walkways, parking lots, and roads (Italcementi 2018a).

Permeable Pavement Systems (PPS) have many benefits: they can store water, facilitate infiltration, and improve water quality through filtration. PPS canbe used in existing spaces and can make roads safer by absorbing water that would otherwise cover the driving surface. Without maintenance, permeable pavements can clog over time, which does lower their level of porosity (Marchioni and Becciu 2015, 806; Brugin et al. 2017, 2).

Two barriers to the use of permeable pavements include concerns about cost and clogging. When discussing costs, Researcher Mariana Marchioni advises against making direct comparisons between conventional pavements and PPS, pointing out that a permeable system is not just a pavement, it is a drainage system. Marchioni’s research has also found that even a clogged PPS can help manage runoff, and still functions better than a conventional material (Marchioni 2018).

34 Part II: Case Studies Photos of the Biblioteca degli Alberi on the north side of the park, near the main entrance on Via Gaetano de Castillia

Part II: Case Studies 35 Views of Bosco Verticale in Milan

36 Part II: Case Studies BOSCO VERTICALE

Location: Milan, Italy Designer: Boeri Studio Date: 2014

The Bosco Verticale, or Vertical Forest, is a sustainably designed apartment complex located near the Biblioteca degli Alberi park. The project incorporates 800 trees and 15,000 plants spread across the balconies of two towers positioned side-by-side. Redistributed across a flat surface, these plants would cover an area roughly 20,000 square meters, or almost five acres, in size. The trees provide shade, buffer noise, absorb carbon dioxide, filter dust, produce oxygen, and create habitat for wildlife. The building’s facade transforms each season, as the trees change color and appearance (Stefano Boeri Architetti 2018).

Building Management oversees maintenance for all of the Bosco Verticale’s plant life. The trees are cared for by “Aerial Arborists” who scale the building like window washers. These locally-sourced plants were chosen based on their ability to thrive in windy conditions, and the building’s planters were specially designed to accommodate root mass (Xie 2017).

Part II: Case Studies 37 BASILICA DI SANTA CROCE

Location: Florence, Italy Designer: Arnolfo di Cambio Date: 1294

During the 1966 flood, water levels reached 22 feet outside of the Basilica di Santa Croce, 16.5 feet in the Santa Croce museum, and 8 feet in the more elevated interior of the church. A famous crucifix painted by Cimabue was displayed in the museum and lost roughly 70% of its paint (Kraczyna 2007, 44; Basilica di Santa Croce 2017). In 2013, the restored cross was hung from stainless steel cables well above floor level in the Santa Croce Sacristy. These cables can also lift the crucifix above projected flood levels when needed (Clark 2008, 308; Shulman 1997).

Another masterpiece housed in the Basilica, the “Last Supper” by Giorgio Vasari, was damaged by water and mud in 1966. It took 50 years, significant funding, and advancements in restoration technology to restore this piece. While other repaired artworks were hung in the Basilica at higher elevations, the Last Supper was installed in the low-lying museum using custom counterweights and pulleys that allow it to be quickly elevated before a flood. It takes only 11 seconds to lift the painting twenty feet from the ground (Basilica di Santa Croce 2017d; @santacroceopera 2018).

In addition, the Basilica moved the permanent display of several large-scale paintings from the low-lying museum to the more elevated Sacristy Corridor and Medici Chapel (Basilica di Santa Croce 2017).

38 Part II: Case Studies Flood plaques in the courtyard. From Cimabue’s “Crucifix,” hung above projected The back of the support attached to the top to bottom: 1966, 1557, and 1844 flood levels “Crucifix”

Art relocated to the Sacristy Corridor A model of the mechanism used to elevate the The back of the model “Last Supper”

Above: The restored painting of the Last Supper by Giorgio Vasari Right: The lift used to elevate the “Last Supper” is visible from outside the museum Part II: Case Studies 39 A view of the Tempio Ebraico di Firenze from The interior of the Tempio Ebraico di Firenze. The interior of the Tempio Ebraico di outside The stain left by the 1966 flood is still visible Firenze and is outlined above

40 Part II: Case Studies TEMPIO EBRAICO DI FIRENZE

Location: Florence, Italy Designers: Mariano Falcini, Vincenzo Micheli, and Marco Treves Date: 1882

The Tempio Ebraico di Firenze, or Jewish Temple of Florence, is an example of the Moorish architectural style. The facade is made of white Istrian stone and pink limestone, topped with a distinctive green copper dome. The Temple is the oldest building in a larger complex that includes exhibition space, offices, a nursery school, and a retirement home. The building houses a rich collection of historical artifacts and receives an average of more than one hundred visitors a day (L’Opera del Tempio Ebraico di Firenze 2010).

The Temple experienced 12 feet of flooding during the 1966 flood. The AdB estimates that the site would see 7 feet of flooding during a 200-year event and 9.5 feet of flooding during a 500-year event. These projections put the contents of the basement and the ground floor at risk. These spaces store sacred scrolls, gilded wood furniture, walnut wood benches, a decorated wooden lectern, and historic books and clothing. The basement and ground floor also include tempera and oil paintings on the walls and ceilings, an elevator and machine room, and mechanical systems (L’Opera del Tempio Ebraico di Firenze 2010).

The Temple’s 2010 emergency plan outlines seven distinct emergency phases and their corresponding actions. These actions largely deal with evacuating the building, notifying volunteers of the flood warning, and carrying transportable artifacts like the sacred scrolls to higher floors. After a flood recedes, volunteers are contacted a second time to return the relocated artifacts to their original locations and to assist with clean-up efforts. The emergency plan also proposes several strategies that have not yet been implemented, including installing temporary flood shields to cover windows and doors, and using automatic non- return valves to prevent flooding from sewers. The Temple is now looking for funding to carry out these remaining recommendations (L’Opera del Tempio Ebraico di Firenze 2010).

Part II: Case Studies 41 QUERINI STAMPALIA

Location: Venice, Italy Designer: Carlo Scarpa Date: 1963

Carlo Scarpa’s ground floor renovation of the Querini Stampalia is an inspiring example of a space designed to flood. In the 1940’s, the foundation in charge of this Venetian Palazzo commissioned Carlo Scarpa to restore the ground floor (Fondazione Querini Stampalia 2017). When asked how he would prevent the building from flooding, Scarpa replied, “...high water inside the building, the same as in the rest of the city. Only we must contain and control it, use it as a source of light and reflection. Wait and see the light playing on the yellow and purple stuccoes on the ceilings. Extraordinary!” (Manzelle and Bennett 2012).

As a result, part of the ground floor is open to the canal outside and routinely floods. A raised, stone covered cement path (the fondamenta) keeps water from entering an adjacent glass exhibition area known as the Gino Luzzatto Room. This space is used for temporary exhibitions and serves as a bridge between the exterior canal and the interior courtyard. The palazzo’s secluded garden was nearly destroyed in favor of expanding the library, but Scarpa chose to use this space to continue exploring water as a design medium. Scarpa raised the level of the ground to make the garden more visible, incorporated a water channel that echoes the canal outside, and used the same paving material for the path as he did for the floor of the exhibition room (Manzelle and Bennett 2012).

42 Part II: Case Studies A view of the fondamenta, facing A view of the external canal A view of the fondamenta, facing towards the towards the entrance of the palazzo interior of the palazzo

Steps leading into the canal A view of the external canal

A view of the fondamenta and The Gino Luzzatto Room, with a view of the The secluded garden external canal garden outside

Part II: Case Studies 43 The exterior canal The front entryway A view of the entryway basin

Separation between basins Steps to the living room basin The living room

Steps to the elevated kitchen, bedroom, and A view of the elevated kitchen and bathroom A view of the sunken living room bathroom basin, seen from the kitchen

44 Part II: Case Studies The images above are courtesy of Act_Romegialli Studio di Architettura ST. GIOBBE +160

Location: Venice, Italy Designer: Act_Romegialli Date: 2015

This ground-floor apartment is located on Fondamenta di San Giobbe, facing a canal in Venice. In some ways, this project resembles a residential version of Carlo Scarpa’s ground-floor renovation of the Querini Stampalia. The project has been designed with flooding in mind, although it is not intended to flood regularly. After analyzing tide levels spanning from 1870 to 2000, the architects chose to design to a +160 centimeter datum that would minimize risk to the building even during “centennial maximum high tides” (Mairs 2015).

The apartment is designed as a sequence of three main spaces: a small basin in the entryway, a larger basin in the central living room, and an elevated living space towards the back of the home. Both the entryway basin and the living room basin are made of reinforced concrete (Mairs 2015).

The level of the street outside of the apartment lies at +84 centimeters. The apartment’s threshold is elevated one step above the street. After crossing the threshold, a visitor climbs another two steps to reach the top of the entryway basin before descending two steps to enter the living room basin. The walls of the concrete basin top out at +160 centimeters and the floor of the living room is set at +122 centimeters. The walls of the basin are attached to the slab below and sealed with bentonite joints. The height of this entryway space is designed to prevent flooding from spilling over into the living room. Above the top of the concrete basin, the walls are covered by wood paneling, which hides both waterproofing material and insulation (Act_romegialli 2015).

The kitchen, bathroom, and bedroom are all located in the back of the single- floor apartment, and are each elevated to the +160 centimeter datum. The project does not use temporary flood shields over the door. Instead, the design and height of the entryway basin is intended to eliminate the need for a flood shield (Act_romegialli 2015).

Part II: Case Studies 45 PISCINA SAN SAMUELE

Location: Venice, Italy Designer: The Venice Team Date: restored in 2017

During a November 2017 site visit, this building was undergoing renovation. The major challenges included the deterioration of the existing materials from salt water inundation and the gradual deformation of the structure. The main remediation methods involved washing salt out of the walls, drying the building envelope, installing a lead salt barrier, and using bentonite clay as a waterproofing membrane. Bentonite expands when it comes into contact with water. Although this renovation process is effective, it is also time-consuming, expensive, and intrusive to current residents (Schubert and Millerchip 2017).

To wash away the salt, fresh water was piped into the walls through a series of holes. The same holes were used to pipe in air and dry the walls out. The washing process took three months, with an additional three months needed to dry the building envelope. This process is only required once because the installation of the lead barrier prevents future salt intrusion (Schubert and Millerchip 2017).

To insert the lead barrier, the team made a small cut through the wall, laid down mortar, inserted the lead barrier, and rebuilt the bricks. They then repeated this procedure in a section of wall on the opposite side of the building. The team continued to repeat this process until the lead barrier ran throughout the wall. Rather than laying in a straight line, the barrier bends up and down to minimize damage during an earthquake (Schubert and Millerchip 2017).

46 Part II: Case Studies The existing condition of the exterior wall A deployable flood shield

A pipe inserted into the wall to dry out the Pipes inserted into the building envelope building envelope using air

Detail showing the zig-zaging pattern of the lead barrier

Part II: Case Studies 47 Washing walls during the restoration. Photo by Leo Schubert, 2005

A room on the completed ground floor. Photo by Vittorio Pavan, 2006

48 Part II: Case Studies CALLE DELLE BECCARIE

Location: Venice, Italy Designer: The Venice Team Date: restored in 2005

This project informed the previous Piscina San Samuele renovation and is documented in a book entitled, Un Restauro per Venezia: Il Recupero della Casa in Calle delle Beccarie 792.

Calle delle Beccarie started with a comprehensive “deformation study,” to understand the current state of the building and the interventions required. The study found that the highest level of salts in the building envelope was less than a foot above the first floor. Similar to Piscina San Samuele, the team washed the masonry walls with fresh water and installed a lead barrier to prevent future salt intrusion. PVC pipes were attached to holes drilled into the wall and a section of the floor along the bottom of the walls was removed to allow for drainage into a collection channel. Water was piped into the walls through the PVC pipes for about 2.5 months, using roughly 360,000 liters. Shared party walls were not washed. Instead, the team inserted vertical lead plates that separated those shared walls from the independent walls that were washed (Millerchip and Schubert 2006, 69-79).

The building redesign created four apartments, including one handicap accessible unit located on the ground floor. To flood proof this ground floor apartment, the architects built a structurally independent, waterproof tank surrounding the living spaces. This design included a layer of bentonite clay panels and doors that can accommodate temporary flood shields. The entire ground floor was built over a drainage layer made of river pebbles (Millerchip and Schubert 2006, 79-85).

Part II: Case Studies 49 FLOOD RESILIENT REPAIR HOME

Location: Watford, England Designer: Baca Architects Date: retrofit in 2017

This project is a retrofit of one unit in a Victorian Terrace building that dates back to 1855 (BRE 2018b). The unit is designed to resist flooding up to two feet and to minimize the impact of any flooding exceeding two feet. The design allows the building to dry quickly after inundation. The project uses flood-resistant materials, a sump pump, elevated electrical outlets that connect to wiring in the ceiling, and windows and doors that incorporate waterproof seals. Appliances like the washing machine and the oven are mounted above floor level. Low-lying kitchen cabinets can slide out of their frames to be placed on the counter before a flood. Waterproof membranes installed under the floor prevent flooding from rising groundwater. Similarly, waterproof membranes installed in the wall can protect an apartment in a multi-unit building, even if the space next door floods. Drains in the floor and channels under the floor divert flooding towards pumpsand keep water from reaching the living spaces. A drain channel running underneath the periphery of the room works similarly. One-way valves connected to sinks and toilets prevent flooding from overloaded sewers (BRE 2018a; BRE 2018c).

This building is an example of a floodable house that still feels like a home. For example, while fitted carpet would not be appropriate for a floodable space, small area rugs can easily be thrown over water resistant ceramic tile and replaced after a flood. (BRE 2018a).

If the worst happens, property resilience measures play a crucial “role in limiting flood damage, so home and business owners can get back on their feet as quickly as possible.

- Thérèse Coffey, Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department for Environment in the United Kingdom (BRE 2018b) 50 Part II: Case Studies ” The inside of the Flood Resilient Repair Home The exterior of the 19th century Victorian Terrace

The front door is designed with a Kitchen cabinets are installed above floor level Kitchen appliances are installed above floor waterproof seal level

This floodable house still feels like a home The window is designed with a waterproof seal

Part II: Case Studies 51 “Living with Water” Museum of Architecture and Design “BIG U: Humanhattan 2050” Venice, Italy BIG - Bjarke Ingels Group “Chasing Ice” June 2018 Venice, Italy Directed by Jeff Orlowski June 2018 Venice, Italy The Slovenia Pavilion at the 2018 Released in 2012 Venice Biennale selected a series On display during the of statements related to climate 2018 Venice Biennale, this On display during the 2018 Venice change policy and recorded visitors’ exhibition visualized the BIG Biennale, this film chronicles responses as they pressed a button U project designed to protect photographer James Balog’s journey to either “agree” or “disagree” with Lower Manhattan from flood to document climate change. each statement. risk.

“Il Fiume e la Città” exhibition “Flooded London” Sustainable Building Basilica di Santa Croce Squint/Opera Materials Library Florence, Italy London, England Glasgow, Scotland September 2017 January 2018 January 2018

This exhibition detailed the impact of Included in the “London Visions” Open to the public in the 1966 flood on Florence. exhibition at the Museum of London, the famous Lighthouse this piece used four panels to imagine building, this space includes the city flooded by sea level rise in samples of sustainable 2090. Only one panel is pictured materials and descriptions above. of finished projects that use environmentally conscious designs. 52 Part II: Case Studies ADAPTATION IN ART

The following selections are examples of climate change-related art and exhibitions observed in Europe from 2017 to 2018.

“Support” Lorenzo Quinn Venice, Italy November 2017

This monumental installation represents human-caused climate change, using hands to “symbolize tools that can both destroy the world, but also have the capacity to save it” (Halcyon Gallery 2018).

Art may be a species of faith, the assurance of things hoped for. It contains nothing so much as our wish that we persist. “ - Robert Clark, Author of Dark Water: Flood and Redemption in the City of Masterpieces (Clark 2008, 258) ”Part II: Case Studies 53 54 The Ponte alla Carraia in Florence PART III: CONCLUSIONS

Part III: Conclusions 55 STRATEGIES & MATERIALS

The information in the following matrix is grouped by scale and type, from infrastructure to art. Many of the strategies and materials mentioned here reference projects discussed in the earlier timelines and in the Case Studies section of this report.

The “Green Dock” at the Thames Barrier Park in London The Thames Barrier in London

The Ponte Vecchio in Florence The Ponte Santa Trinita in Florence

56 Part III: Conclusions Infrastructure Precedent Description Source scale Harbor Barrier MOSE Barrier in First suggested in 1988, the MOSE Barrier should allow Windsor Venice, Italy Venice to continue to operate for the next 100 years. When 2015; the barrier is needed, the gates are filled with compressed Ministero air, forcing them to rise above the water level. The gates delle return below water level when they are filled with water. Each Infrastrutture gate is independent of the others, so portions of the barrier 2015 can be erected if the entire barrier is not needed. The gates will be deployed if the water level exceeds 110 cms (about 3.5 feet). Thames Barrier The Barrier can be closed at low tide, a process that The in London, takes about an hour and a half, and can be opened when Environment England downstream and upstream water levels equalize. At the Agency 2018, time, the barrier cost £535 million to construct and currently 8-18 costs roughly £8 million annually for use and maintenance. Even when factoring in anticipated sea level rise, the Barrier was only intended to protect London against a 0.1% annual chance event until 2030. A more recent analysis suggests that the level of protection provided by the barrier will likely last until 2070, at which time a new barrier may be needed. Floodable Thames Barrier The Thames Barrier Park spans seven hectares over what Greater park Park in London, was formerly a brownfield site. The design included three London England main layers: the original contaminated soil at the bottom, a Authority 6-foot deep layer of crushed concrete above it, and a layer of 2018 fresh soil at the top. The landscape design’s central element is dubbed the “Green Dock.” Spanning 130 feet through the site, the Green Dock creates a garden that lies below the rest of the site. Other features include gravel walkways. Permeable Biblioteca degli Permeable pavements can store water, facilitate infiltration, Marchioni pavement Alberi Park in and improve water quality through filtration. In addition, and Becciu Milan, Italy these systems can be used in existing spaces and can make 2015, 806; roads safer by absorbing water that would otherwise cover Brugin et the driving surface. Without maintenance, PPS can clog al. 2017, 2; over time, which does lower their level of porosity. However, Marchioni research has found that even a clogged permeable 2018 pavement can help manage runoff, and still functions better than conventional pavement. Temporary Florence, Italy In 2014, Giovanni Massini proposed temporary inflatable Massini 2014, inflatable barriers to protect Florence from flooding while more 4-5 barriers permanent projects were constructed. The system was 3.5 miles long and would require 28 workers, 15 trucks, and 4 hours to set up. Increasing Dredging in By 1996, flood protection measures in Florence included Gumbel 1996 river capacity Florence, Italy increasing the depth of the river beneath the Ponte Vecchio. Lowering In 1980, The Ponte Vecchio and Ponte Santa Trinita bridge Giusti 2016 bridge aprons aprons were lowered by a meter to allow more water to flow under the structures. Reservoirs Bilancino The Bilancino is a multi-use reservoir that supplies the city Progetto reservoir in of Florence with water and generates power. However, less Firenze 2016, Florence, Italy than a quarter of its capacity is reserved for storing floodwater 3.3 from the Sieve River (a tributary of the Arno River).

Part III: Conclusions 57 Reforestation Florence, Italy Laws encouraging reforestation were enacted in Florence Caporali, throughout the 1800s and 1900s. Rinaldi and Casagli 2005, 181 Improving Florence, Italy Improvements to Florence’s sewer system were made after Clark 2008, sewer systems the floods of 1844 and 1966. 66-71; Kraczyna 2007, 54, 84-88 Underground Florence, Italy Professor Livio Zoli proposed the construction of underground Nencini 1967, water storage tunnels to drain and store water in 1967. 36-39 Building Precedent Description Source Scale Wet floodproof Wet Querini Carlo Scarpa’s ground floor renovation of the Querini Fondazione floodproofing Stampalia in Stampalia was designed to flood. Querini Venice, Italy Stampalia 2017 Floodable St. Giobbe A concrete entryway basin was designed to minimize flood Mairs 2015 entryway +160 in Venice, damage. basin Italy Dry floodproof Waterproof Calle delle To floodproof a ground floor apartment up to 5.5 feet above Millerchip tank Beccarie in sea level, the architects built a structurally independent, and Schubert Venice, Italy waterproof tank surrounding the living spaces, with bentonite 2006, 69-85 clay panels and doors that accommodate temporary flood shields. Fitted water- “Tree of Life” A custom waterproof cloth was made to protect this fresco Shulman repellent cloth fresco by from flooding in the Santa Croce Refectory. 1997 Taddeo Gaddi, in Florence, Italy Waterproof Flood Resilient Waterproof membranes installed under the floor prevent BRE 2018a membranes Repair Home flooding from rising groundwater. Waterproof membranes in Watford, installed in the wall can protect an apartment when the unit England next door floods. Waterproof Windows and doors can incorporate waterproof seals. windows and doors Temporary Venice, Italy Temporary flood shields are fitted to doors and windows as Observed in flood shields needed. November 2017 Elevate Elevating Venice, Italy Some buildings have been elevated by increasing the height Schlamp buildings of their foundations. 2012 Abandoning Venice, Italy Some residents have abandoned ground floors in favor of Schlamp the ground upper-level living spaces. 2012 floor Safe havens St. Giobbe Safe havens are rooms above anticipated flood levels. The St. Barker and +160 in Venice, Giobbe project designed the bedroom at a higher elevation Coutts 2016, Italy than the living room or entryway. 54; Act_ romegialli 2015

58 Part III: Conclusions The “Tree of Life” fresco by Taddeo Gaddi, in Florence Detail of the “Tree of Life” fresco

A doorway showing that the ground floor of this Venetian building has Metal channels installed in a doorway in Venice, to been elevated over time accomodate temporary floodshields

Part III: Conclusions 59 Tables stacked near Campo San Giacomo di Rialto in Venice, in Tables stacked near Santo Stefano in Venice, in preparation preparation for flooding for flooding

Tables set up in Saint Mark’s Square in Venice, creating pedestrian Tables leading into Saint Mark’s Basilica in Venice, creating a pathways during flooding pedestrian pathway during flooding

A boat with a green roof and solar panels, spotted in Paris The L’oasis D’Aboukir green wall by Patrick Blanc in Paris

60 Part III: Conclusions Temporary Venice, Italy Tables stacked in Venice side streets are used as temporary Observed in elevated pedestrian pathways when low-lying areas flood. November walkways 2017 Retractable Hermès store in Mechanical racks lifted merchandise above floodwater while McHugh displays Venice, Italy this store was open in the early 2000s. 2003 "Crocifisso" by Cimabue's painted cross, damaged by the 1966 flood, now Clark 2008, Cimabue in hangs from stainless steel cables that can lift the crucifix 308; Shulman Florence, Italy above projected flood levels when needed. 1997 "Last Supper" The "Last Supper" painting was installed using custom Basilica di by Giorgio counterweights and pulleys that allow it to be raised twenty Santa Croce Vasari in feet from the ground in only 11 seconds. 2017d; @ Florence, Italy santa croce opera 2018 Elevated Flood Resilient Elevated electrical outlets connect to wiring in the ceiling. BRE 2018a electrics Repair Home Elevated in Watford, Appliances including the washing machine and the oven are building England mounted above the floor level. contents Low-lying kitchen cabinets can slide out of their frames and be stored on the counter before a flood Exhibition and Basilica di The Basilica moved the permanent display of several Basilica di storage above Santa Croce in paintings from the low-lying museum to the Sacristy Corridor Santa Croce flood levels Florence, Italy and the Medici Chapel, which both sit at higher elevations. 2017 Relocating Tempio Ebraico Volunteers are alerted before a flood and carry transportable L’Opera small objects di Firenze in artifacts to higher floors. del Tempio Florence, Italy Ebraico di Firenze 2010 Other Lead salt Calle delle To restore a building damaged by saltwater, the team washed Millerchip barrier Beccarie in and dried the masonry walls, and installed a lead barrier to and Schubert Washing Venice, Italy prevent future salt intrusion. 2006, 69-79 masonry walls Green roof Paris, France Green roofs can be added to structures from buildings to Observed in boats, and can couple with other eco-friendly strategies like April 2018 solar panels. Green wall L'oasis This green wall uses 237 species of plants to cover a five- Andrews D'Aboukir by story building facade in Paris. 2013 Patrick Blanc in Paris, France Non-return Tempio Ebraico A 2010 emergency plan proposed using one-way valves to L’Opera valves di Firenze in prevent flooding from overloaded sewers. del Tempio Florence, Italy Ebraico di Firenze 2010 Drains Flood Resilient Drains in the floor and channels under the floor divert flooding BRE 2018a Repair Home towards an automatic pump. A drain channel running in Watford, underneath the periphery of the ground floor works similarly. Area rugs England While fitted carpet would not be appropriate for a floodable house, small area rugs can easily be thrown over water resistant ceramic tile and replaced after a flood.

Part III: Conclusions 61 Reuse of Restoring books After the 1966 flood, books that were salvageable were sent Carniani and existing in Florence, to tobacco factories and laundromats, which had spaces Paoletti 2016, structures Italy well suited to drying out the saturated texts. 220 The Arsenale in Space at the Arsenale, a former armory and shipyard, may Tantucci Venice, Italy be used to help maintain and clean the MOSE floodgates. 2018 Resilient retail Florence, Italy In the wake of the historic 1966 flood in Florence, some of the Clark 2008, most sought-after materials were those needed for recovery; 169; NYC including hacksaws, cleaning supplies, and shovels. These Planning items were difficult to find because stores and inventories 2016, 24 had been damaged by water, mud, and heating oil. Resilient retail spaces can help properties get back to business faster in the aftermath of a disaster. Gabion walls Athlete’s Village Formerly a brownfield site, the sustainably designed Athlete’s Observed in in Glasgow, Village neighborhood near the River Clyde includes gabion January 2018 Scotland walls along a communal green space. Typically made of rocks or other aggregates inside a metal frame, gabion walls can be used as retaining walls or flood walls. Non- Precedent Description Source Structural Education Flood plaques Florence, Italy Plaques on Florence buildings mark the height and extent of Observed in flooding in 1333, 1557, and 1966. These serve as reminders September of risk and help make the scale of past floods more 2017 understandable. Sustainability L'altra Mappa This map shows the locations of clean water fountains and Città di map di Venezia ("The gives tips for sustainability in the city. A similar map could be Venezia 2014 Other Map of made detailing resiliency actions. Venice") Eco-themed Carnevale Eco- In February and March 2016, Chianciano Terme hosted Associazione events Rinascimentale an eco-themed version of Carnevale. Participants wearing Eco- in Chianciano costumes made from recycled materials entered for free. Rinascimento Terme, Italy Existing holidays could also be celebrated with a resiliency 2016 theme. Materials Sustainable Open to the public, this space displays examples of Visited in library Materials sustainable materials and designs. A similar library could be January 2018 Library in used for resilience-specific projects. Glasgow, Scotland Public art "Support" by This monumental installation represents human-caused Halcyon Lorenzo Quinn climate change, using hands to “symbolise tools that can Gallery 2018 in Venice, Italy both destroy the world, but also have the capacity to save it”. Public “Il Fiume e la This exhibition detailed the impact of the 1966 flood on Visited in exhibitions Città” exhibition Florence. September at the Basilica 2017 di Santa Croce in Florence, Italy Flood museum Arno River This is an unbuilt project recommended by the International Progetto Museum in Technical Scientific Committee in 2014, to help communicate Firenze 2016, Florence, Italy the extent of flood risk to the public. 4.6.1 Games FloodRangers Players choose engineering and design strategies to mitigate Jha, Bloch game by flood risk in the United Kingdom. and Lamond Discovery 2012, 477 Software Ltd.

62 Part III: Conclusions The outside of the Arsenale in Venice

A gabion wall in the Athlete’s Village neighborhood in Glasgow

A flood plaque on the corner of Via Don Giancarlo Setti and Via dei Neri, marking the height of the 1966 flood in Florence Part III: Conclusions 63 Community Preparedness- Fun events in popular locations can help increase community Henry 2018 events themed trivia resilience. night at a local business or community gathering place Individual Raising Florence participates in the RACES program, which pairs Morozzo family Awareness on households with a sustainability expert to help increase their 2009b counseling Climate and eco-friendly practices and decrease their energy bills. A Energy Savings similar program could focus on resilience. (RACES), part of the European Commission's LIFE+ program Multimedia "Our Resilient The “Our Resilient Glasgow” Plan proposed a Resilience Resilient Glasgow" Plan Animation to help raise awareness. Glasgow 2016, 4-78 Information "Our Resilient The “Our Resilient Glasgow” Plan proposed a City Resilience Resilient sharing Glasgow" Plan Dashboard to illustrate and connect resilience initiatives Glasgow across Glasgow and share lessons learned with the public. 2016, 4-78 Climate Change Planning Community "Our Resilient Glasgow's community outreach engaged more than 3,500 Resilient outreach Glasgow" Plan residents and included the use of social media, street games, Glasgow interactive public art, workshops with local groups, an online 2016, 4-6, survey, and an art competition for young residents. 29-30 Facilitating The Innovation The Innovation License would encourage and fast-track Baca resilient License creative approaches to resilient construction. The License Architects development would grant projects in at-risk areas exceptions to current 2015 policies, to facilitate the construction of adaptive projects that could serve as case studies for future development. Resilient Amphibious The Amphibious house, the first of its kind in the U.K., rests Winston building House by Baca in a wet dock during normal weather and floats when the 2014; Coutts regulations Architects site floods. Because building regulations did not already 2018 in Marlow, address an amphibious architectural design, the project England was approved using regulations related to wet docks and marinas. Survey of at- Florence, Italy In 2010, a survey documented culturally-significant buildings Giusti 2016 risk cultural at risk of flooding in Florence. heritage Community Resilience Volunteer Tempio Ebraico The Tempio Maggiore has a network of volunteers to help L’Opera network di Firenze in carry transportable artifacts like sacred scrolls to higher del Tempio Florence, Italy floors. After a flood recedes, volunteers are contacted again Ebraico di to return the relocated artifacts to their original location and Firenze 2010 to assist with recovery. Flood drills Flood drills at The Basilica hosted flood drills on both the 30th and 40th Shulman the Basilica di anniversaries of the 1966 flood. Participants practiced 1997; Basilica Santa Croce in transporting paintings and books to upper floors and the di Santa Florence, Italy “Tree of Life” fresco by Taddeo Gaddi was covered with a Croce 2017 custom waterproof cloth.

64 Part III: Conclusions Materials Precedent Description Source Permeable Pavement Pervious The Biblioteca These materials can be used as part of a permeable Marchioni concrete degli Alberi pavement system and can support car traffic. and Becciu Pervious Park in Milan, 2015, 809 asphalt Italy uses permeable Aggregates These materials can be used as part of a permeable pavement. (i.e. gravel) pavement system. Grass Plastic grids Insulation Spray-applied Flood Resilient This insulation is water-resistant. BRE 2018a PUR foam Repair Home Injected in Watford, foamed cavity England insulation Water-proofing Waterproof Saint Mark’s A water-resistant plastic resin has been applied to parts of Schlamp plastic resin crypt in Venice, this underground space. 2012 Italy Bentonite clay Piscina San Used as a waterproofing membrane, this material expands Schubert and Samuele in when it comes into contact with water. Millerchip Venice, Italy 2017 St. Giobbe Act_ +160 in Venice, romegialli Italy 2015 Other River pebbles Calle delle Used for drainage underneath the ground floor of Calle delle Millerchip Beccarie in Beccarie. and Schubert Venice, Italy 2006, 81 Waterproof Flood Resilient A resilient alternative to plasterboard. BRE 2018a magnesium Repair Home oxide wall in Watford, boards England Resin-bonded Flood Resilient A water-resistant material for kitchen cabinets. BRE 2018a board Repair Home Ceramic in Watford, A water-resistant material for kitchen worktops. worktops England Ceramic tile A resilient floor material. Cavity drain Flood Resilient Used in floors and walls. BRE 2018c membranes Repair Home in Watford, England Concrete St. Giobbe This project uses reinforced concrete in both the floodable Mairs 2015 +160 in Venice, entryway basin and the protected living room basin. The Italy spaces are resilient and easy to clean after inundation.

Part III: Conclusions 65 RECOMMENDATIONS

There’s no doubt that it’s more cost-effective to make your home or business as resilient as possible “rather than pay for the damage afterwards.

I know the devastating impact that flooding can have and urge people to keep themselves safe and to adapt their homes so that they are able to recover as quickly as possible.

- Emma Howard Boyd, Chair of the Environment Agency in the United Kingdom (BRE 2018b) 66 Part III: Conclusions ” Venice-based preservation expert Toto Bergamo Rossi explains his theory of restoration with the words, “it [the building] is mine for now, but when I pass, it’ll be a nice place, in good order” (Bowles 2018). Climate change adaptation requires similarly long-term thinking. Architect Richard Coutts calls this the Three Generation Rule and recommends that policies consider the natural and built environment over a 150 or 200-year timeline. In other words, decision-makers should plan and design with the third generation in mind (Barker and Coutts 2016).

The framing of certain environmental risks can sound comfortably, and misleadingly, distant. One example is the term “100-year storm,” which describes events with a 1% annual chance of occurring. Properties in the 100- year floodplain actually have a 1 in 4 chance of experiencing a 100-year flood during a 30-year mortgage (FEMA 2003). Climate change will make these storms increasingly frequent. Although planning for the next 150 years can seem daunting, starting with small or incremental actions can lead to powerful impacts. Building-scale strategies for properties in the floodplain and exhibitions about resiliency options can go a long way towards changing industry practices and educating the public about risk.

Roughly six million Italian residents live in flood-risk areas, more than any other country in Europe (AdB 2018). This report uses the city of Florence and the devastating flood of 1966 as case studies for climate adaptation. Designers have an opportunity and an obligation to prepare buildings and cities to weather extreme conditions. The history of flooding and adaptation in Florence can inform these efforts.

Mitigation methods after the 1966 flood range from developing a flood monitoring and warning system, to constructing a reservoir and practicing flood drills. While sites like the Basilica di Santa Croce have started to exhibit artwork above anticipated flood levels, more could be done to prepare buildings for future flooding. The strategies detailed in the previous section include examples of these options; from increasing pervious surfaces, to elevating ground floors, to installing temporary flood shields.

Part III: Conclusions 67 While some of these design strategies are already a familiar part of the resilience lexicon, this study of European adaptation includes examples of new ideas. A historic painting in Florence is displayed on a custom-made lift. A program in the same city paired households with experts to increase eco- friendly habits and decrease energy bills. A store in Venice displayed clothing on mechanical racks that could be pulled toward the ceiling before a flood. An alternative map of Venice reimagined the city through a sustainability lens. A celebration of Carnevale in Chianciano Terme rewarded participants wearing costumes made from recycled materials. A boat in Paris combined a green roof with solar panels. An exhibition in London visualized residents living in a city flooded by sea level rise. A floating house in Marlow became the first of its kind by complying with building regulations for wet docks rather than for architecture. An apartment in Watford uses cabinets that can slide out of their low-lying frames to be placed on elevated countertops. A materials library in Glasgow educates visitors about sustainable design. And a recent computer game challenges players to try their hand at mitigating flood risk in the United Kingdom. More information about each of these projects is included in the “Strategies & Materials” section of this report.

Although some of these examples are specific to sustainability, it is easy to imagine their resiliency counterparts. A publicly accessible, resilient design library could educate visitors about options for climate change adaptation. Existing holidays could be celebrated with a preparedness theme. A pilot program could pair households with an expert to help them plan for the next flood. A series of alternative maps could reimagine cities through a resiliency lens.

The ideas outlined in this report range from the infrastructure scale to the scale of art. They do not aim to prevent flooding completely. Instead, these methods can help increase preparedness, minimize damage, and get back to business quickly. A resilient system is often a layered system, and the best approach may be a combination of these ideas. Ideally, a resilient system is also able to recover from disaster by becoming stronger and more prepared than it was before the event.

Florence was the birthplace of innovators, from Dante and Giotto to Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. The challenges posed by climate change can inspire the next generation of innovators as we plan and design for an increasingly uncertain future.

68 Part III: Conclusions Opposite page: flood preparation at the Basilica di Santa Croce

APPENDIX

70 Sunset over Glasgow, Scotland ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project was sponsored by the Harvard University Sinclair Kennedy Traveling Fellowship, in affiliation with the Università degli Studi di Firenze.

A special thanks to Rebecca Lock and Lisa Bruzzese from the Harvard University Committee on General Scholarships; and to Professore Stefano Carnicelli, Professore Claudio Saragosa, and Umberto Santagata from the Università degli Studi di Firenze.

In addition, thank you to all those who took the time to speak about their resiliency work and to contribute their insights to this research. I am especially grateful to John Millerchip, Leo Schubert, Giovanni Cecconi, Richard Coutts, Duncan Booker, Toto Bergamo Rossi, Renzo Funaro, and Mariana Marchioni for generously sharing their time and expertise.

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74 Appendix Massini, Giovanni. 2014. “Inflatable Rubber Dams for Flood Protection of the Center of Florence.” In. Florence, Italy: Progetto Firenze 2016: L’alluvione, le alluvioni.

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Appendix 75 Shulman, Ken. 1997. “30 Years Later, Florence Warily Watches the Arno.” The New York Times, 1997. www. nytimes.com.

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76 Appendix