Landscapes of the West Polesie Regional Identity and Its Transformation Over Last Half Century

International Consortium ALTER-Net Environmental History Project

University of Life Sciences in Lublin Department of Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation Polesie National Park

LANDSCAPES OF THE WEST POLESIE REGIONAL IDENTITY AND ITS TRANSFORMATION OVER LAST HALF CENTURY

Authors: Tadeusz J. Chmielewski, Szymon Chmielewski, Agnieszka Kułak, Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek, Weronika Maślanko

International Coordinator of the ALTER-Net Environmental History Project: Andy Sier

Lublin – Urszulin 2015 Affiliation

Tadeusz J. Chmielewski, Agnieszka Kułak, Weronika Maślanko, Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek: University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Department of Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation

Szymon Chmielewski: Contents University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Institute of Soil Science, Engineering and Environmental Management

Andy Sier 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………….………....4 Centre of Ecology & Hydrobiology; Lancaster Environmental Centre; Lancaster, UK 2. Characteristic of the Polish study area …………………………………….……….……..7 3. The unique landscape identity of the West Polesie region…………………..…………..21 4. Changes in land use structure and landscape diversity in the area of the ‘West The reviewers Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over a last half century ….……………….....…...……...….43 Prof. UAM dr hab. Andrzej Macias 5. A model of landscape ecological structure in the central part of the Biosphere Reserve..79 Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań 6. A preliminary assessment of landscape physiognomy changes of West Polesie Institute of Physical Geography and Environmental Planning from the half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century ………………..…91 7. A preliminary evaluation of changes in landscape services potential ………………....109 Prof. SGGW dr hab. Barbara śarska 8. Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………….115 Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW, 9. References………………………………………………………………………………119 Department of Environmental Protection

Cover graphic design Agnieszka Kułak

Photographs on the cover Tadeusz J. Chmielewski

Printed by

Poleski Park Narodowy

ISBN:83-905476-8-6

2 3 Affiliation

Tadeusz J. Chmielewski, Agnieszka Kułak, Weronika Maślanko, Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek: University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Department of Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation

Szymon Chmielewski: Contents University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Institute of Soil Science, Engineering and Environmental Management

Andy Sier 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………….………....4 Centre of Ecology & Hydrobiology; Lancaster Environmental Centre; Lancaster, UK 2. Characteristic of the Polish study area …………………………………….……….……..7 3. The unique landscape identity of the West Polesie region…………………..…………...21 4. Changes in land use structure and landscape diversity in the area of the ‘West The reviewers Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over a last half century ….……………….....…...... 43 Prof. UAM dr hab. Andrzej Macias 5. A model of landscape ecological structure in the central part of the Biosphere Reserve..79 Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań 6. A preliminary assessment of landscape physiognomy changes of West Polesie Institute of Physical Geography and Environmental Planning from the half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century ………………..….91 7. A preliminary evaluation of changes in landscape services potential ……………….....109 Prof. SGGW dr hab. Barbara śarska 8. Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………….115 Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW, 9. References………………………………………………………………………………119 Department of Environmental Protection

Cover graphic design Agnieszka Kułak

Photographs on the cover Tadeusz J. Chmielewski

Printed by

ISBN:

2 33 1. Introduction on biodiversity and ecosystem services in Europe’ was established. Under this umbrella, a set of sub-projects could be supported. In 2012 the ALTER-Net Management Board were encouraged to suggest a new The following sub-project ideas were accepted for realization [Sier 2013]: activities that Consortium ALTER-Net could undertake. These ideas were presented to the P 1. Changes in landscape diversity, landscape connectivity and land use structure in the ALTER-Net Council. Andy Sier suggested two ideas. One was an unspecific suggestion that ’West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over the last half century ALTER-Net should promote a collaborative internal scientific project. The other suggestion Proposed by: Tadeusz J. Chmielewski, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland; was dubbed ’back to the future’, and suggested running a project inspired by another, ALTER-Net partners involved: ICE PAS (in Łódź); similarly-named project, that took place in Arctic and alpine locations. The idea was to bring P 2. Impact on landscapes under the pressure to produce resources for war young and old scientists together to revisit field sites, and make use of old datasets, old Proposed by: Verena Winiwarter, Institute of Social Ecology, Austria; photos, maps, etc. for the new generation of scientists to use. The Management Board ALTER-Net partners involved: ISE (UNI-KLU); subsequently agreed to combine these, and work on developing a single activity [Sier 2013]. P 3. Drivers of long term biodiversity change in a range of Scottish habitats The project “Retrospective and Prospective Vegetation Change in the Polar Regions: Proposed by: Alison Hester, James Hutton Institute, UK; Back to the Future, BTF”, was endorsed as an International Polar Year (IPY) activity. Polar ALTER-Net partners involved: JHI and others and alpine environments are changing rapidly due to increases in temperature, which are P 4. Long-term land use changes in the Carpatho-Pannonian area amplified in the Arctic, as well as changes in many local factors. The impacts on ecosystems Proposed by: Dr. Ľuboš Halada, ILE-SAS, Slovakia; and their function have potential consequences for local residents and the global community. ALTER-Net partners involved: ILE-SAS. Tundra areas are vast and diverse, and the knowledge of geographical variation in environmental and ecosystem change is limited to relatively few locations, or to remote This monograph presents an extended version of the Final Report of the P 1. – sensing approaches that are limited mostly to the past few decades. The IPY provided a Polish sub-project; supplemented by the results of the latest landscape studies of the context, stimulus and timely opportunities for re-visiting old research sites and data sets to authors team. The objectives of the Polish sub-project were: collate data on past changes, to pass knowledge from old to new generations of researchers • To evaluate changes in landscape diversity in the area of the West Polesie Biosphere and to document environmental characteristics of sites to facilitate detection and attribution of Reserve over a last half century; future changes. With national funding support, teams of researchers re-visited former sites • To build a model of landscape ecological structure in the central part of the Biosphere and data sets throughout the Arctic and some alpine regions. These efforts led to a range of Reserve; ‘‘BTF’’ studies covering many locations and disciplines [Sier 2013]. • To evaluate changes in land use structure in selected lake and peatbog catchments over When studying present environmental conditions in a location, it is necessary to know the last half century; about past conditions to understand how the place has changed. Equally, an historical • To conduct a preliminary assessment of landscape physiognomy changes of the West perspective is helpful when predicting how the environment at a location may change in the Polesie from the half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century. future, given certain scenarios. For well-studied sites there may be long-term time series of The main research questions were: data available, but such sites are relatively few in number (such as Long-Term Ecosystem • How has the structure and functioning of the landscape in the West Polesie Biosphere Research - LTER – sites), and the range of data available may be limited. Reserve changed in time and space? Rather than addressing a single specific research question, an umbrella project with • How may these changes influence landscape services potential? the title ‘Exploring historical drivers of land use and environmental history and their impacts Andy Sier, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski

4 4 5 1. Introduction on biodiversity and ecosystem services in Europe’ was established. Under this umbrella, a set of sub-projects could be supported. In 2012 the ALTER-Net Management Board were encouraged to suggest a new The following sub-project ideas were accepted for realization [Sier 2013]: activities that Consortium ALTER-Net could undertake. These ideas were presented to the P 1. Changes in landscape diversity, landscape connectivity and land use structure in the ALTER-Net Council. Andy Sier suggested two ideas. One was an unspecific suggestion that ’West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over the last half century ALTER-Net should promote a collaborative internal scientific project. The other suggestion Proposed by: Tadeusz J. Chmielewski, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland; was dubbed ’back to the future’, and suggested running a project inspired by another, ALTER-Net partners involved: ICE PAS (in Łódź); similarly-named project, that took place in Arctic and alpine locations. The idea was to bring P 2. Impact on landscapes under the pressure to produce resources for war young and old scientists together to revisit field sites, and make use of old datasets, old Proposed by: Verena Winiwarter, Institute of Social Ecology, Austria; photos, maps, etc. for the new generation of scientists to use. The Management Board ALTER-Net partners involved: ISE (UNI-KLU); subsequently agreed to combine these, and work on developing a single activity [Sier 2013]. P 3. Drivers of long term biodiversity change in a range of Scottish habitats The project “Retrospective and Prospective Vegetation Change in the Polar Regions: Proposed by: Alison Hester, James Hutton Institute, UK; Back to the Future, BTF”, was endorsed as an International Polar Year (IPY) activity. Polar ALTER-Net partners involved: JHI and others and alpine environments are changing rapidly due to increases in temperature, which are P 4. Long-term land use changes in the Carpatho-Pannonian area amplified in the Arctic, as well as changes in many local factors. The impacts on ecosystems Proposed by: Dr. Ľuboš Halada, ILE-SAS, Slovakia; and their function have potential consequences for local residents and the global community. ALTER-Net partners involved: ILE-SAS. Tundra areas are vast and diverse, and the knowledge of geographical variation in environmental and ecosystem change is limited to relatively few locations, or to remote This monograph presents an extended version of the Final Report of the P 1. – sensing approaches that are limited mostly to the past few decades. The IPY provided a Polish sub-project; supplemented by the results of the latest landscape studies of the context, stimulus and timely opportunities for re-visiting old research sites and data sets to authors team. The objectives of the Polish sub-project were: collate data on past changes, to pass knowledge from old to new generations of researchers • To evaluate changes in landscape diversity in the area of the West Polesie Biosphere and to document environmental characteristics of sites to facilitate detection and attribution of Reserve over a last half century; future changes. With national funding support, teams of researchers re-visited former sites • To build a model of landscape ecological structure in the central part of the Biosphere and data sets throughout the Arctic and some alpine regions. These efforts led to a range of Reserve; ‘‘BTF’’ studies covering many locations and disciplines [Sier 2013]. • To evaluate changes in land use structure in selected lake and peatbog catchments over When studying present environmental conditions in a location, it is necessary to know the last half century; about past conditions to understand how the place has changed. Equally, an historical • To conduct a preliminary assessment of landscape physiognomy changes of the West perspective is helpful when predicting how the environment at a location may change in the Polesie from the half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century. future, given certain scenarios. For well-studied sites there may be long-term time series of The main research questions were: data available, but such sites are relatively few in number (such as Long-Term Ecosystem • How has the structure and functioning of the landscape in the West Polesie Biosphere Research - LTER – sites), and the range of data available may be limited. Reserve changed in time and space? Rather than addressing a single specific research question, an umbrella project with • How may these changes influence landscape services potential? the title ‘Exploring historical drivers of land use and environmental history and their impacts Andy Sier, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski

4 55 2. Characteristic of the Polish study area

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves, established by UNESCO, at present (the end of 2014) comprises 631 objects in 119 countries. Among them 14 sites have a status of Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (TBR) because they lie on the borders of two or three countries. One of them is the West Polesie Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere reserves). Polesie is one of the large structural units in Eastern Europe, known as physiographic sub-provinces. It stretches from east to west over approx. 700 × 300 km. The western border of the sub-province Polesie is based on the first order of physiographic boundary, separating Eastern and Western Europe. From the south and south- west, Polesie is adjacent to the large European highlands and old mountains physiographic zone. In the biogeographical aspect, Polesie is located inside the biome of deciduous forest of moderate climatic zone (continental biogeographic region). From the north it is adjacent to the biome of coniferous forests, in the province of sub-taiga (boreal biogeographic region) [Biogeographic regions…2015]. Location at the crossroads of so contrasting physiographic and ecological macro-structures, with simultaneous abundance of stagnant and flowing surface water, contributes to the unique natural richness of the western part of Polesie and to the uniqueness of its role in the European ecological structure. In this particular place for Europe, on the western edge of Polesie, on the eastern edge of the European Union, in the adjoining zone of three countries borders: Belarus, Polish and Ukraine, is precisely located the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005] (Fig. 1). A characteristic feature of the landscape is very flat terrain, covered with a mosaic of forests, bogs, meadows and fields, among which numerous lakes and diverse wetlands of great biological diversity are located [Chmielewski T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2008] (Fig. 2 – 9).

7 2. Characteristic of the Polish study area

77 Fig. 2. Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland; the group of Uściwierz Lakes. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2001

Fig. 1. Location of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve on the background of physicogeographical division of Europe (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski & W. Maślanko 2015). Legend: 1 – the main European physiographic borders, 2 – A. north section, 3 – B. west section, 4 – C. south section, 5 – D. east section, 6 – European Union country members, 7 – TBR ‘West Polesie’.

In order to protect the unique natural and landscape values of West Polesie, from the 30’s of the 20th century, most valuable areas were acquired by various forms of legal nature conservation, up to the creation of current vast system of protected areas. The final of this lasting for over 80 years process was the establishment of the Transboundary Biosphere Reserve the ‘West Polesie’. It was created in 2012, on the area 263 016 ha by combining three individual Biosphere Reserves: the Pribuzskoe Polesie (48 024 ha) in Brest district in Belarus, established in 2004; the West Polesie (139 917 ha) in Lublin province in Poland, established in 2002 and the Shatsk Biosphere Reserve (75 075 ha), established in 2002 in Volhynia district in Ukraine (Fig. 10).

Western part of the ‘West Polesie’ TRB, located in Poland, has been accepted as Fig. 3. Sumin lake. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2009 a study area of the ALTER-Net Environmental History Project.

8 8 9 Fig. 2. Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland; the group of Uściwierz Lakes. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2001

Western part of the ‘West Polesie’ TRB, located in Poland, has been accepted as Fig. 3. Sumin Lake. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2009 a study area of the ALTER-Net Environmental History Project.

8 99 Fig. 6. Perehod Sacred Spot in the Polesie National Park. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2012

Fig. 4. Łukie Lake in the Polesie National Park. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013

Fig. 7. Natura 2000 site „Bubnów Swamp”. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013

Fig. 5. Wet forest in the Moszne Sacred Spot. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2009

10 10 11 Fig. 6. Perehod Sacred Spot in the Polesie National Park. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2012

Fig. 4. Łukie lake in the Polesie National Park. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013

Fig. 7. Natura 2000 site „Bubnów Swamp”. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013

Fig. 5. Wet forest in the Moszne Sacred Spot. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2009

10 1111 The centre of the Polish part of the Biosphere Reserve occupies the Polesie National Park (PNP), established in 1990 [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 1990]. PNP is surrounded by 3 landscape parks: Łęczna Lake District L.P., Polesie L.P. and Sobibór L.P. (Fig. 11), joined with Polesie Landscape Protected Area and a part of Chełm Landscape Protected Area. Two more landscape parks are protected in this area: Włodawa Forests L.P. and Parczew Forests L.P. Moreover, there are also 12 sanctioned and 10 proposed nature reserves [Chmielewski ed. 2005]. Since 2004, on the area of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR, 14 Natura 2000 Fig. 8. Tafle Sacred Spot in the Polesie National Park. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013 sites were established. This category of protected areas is not present in the Belarusian and Ukrainian part of the Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 12).

Fig. 9. Meander of the Bug river. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski , 1999

The Polish part of the TBR includes the whole physiographic mesoregion: Łęczna – Włodawa Lakeland and small fragments of 3 other mesoregions: Parczew Plain, Włodawa

Hummock and Chełm Hillocks. It stretches from the River Bug below Wola Uhruska in the Fig. 10. The main structural parts of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve south-east to Siemień Ponds in the Tyśmienica River valley in the north-west. (WP TBR) (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski & Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek 2015). Legend: A. Location of the WP TBR on the background of administrative division; B – The In terms of administration, the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR is wholly main structural parts of the WP TBR: 1 – country borders, 2 – the border of the situated within the Lublin voivodship, on the territory of 19 communes belonging to 5 ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve, 3 – West Polesie BR (Poland), 4- Pribuzskoye Polesie BR (Belarus), 5 – Shatskiy BR (Ukraine). administrative districts: Włodawa, Chełm, Parczew, Lubartów and Łęczna.

12 12 13 The centre of the Polish part of the Biosphere Reserve occupies the Polesie National Park (PNP), established in 1990 [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1986; Chmielewski T. J. et al. 1990]. PNP is surrounded by 3 landscape parks: Łęczna Lake District L.P., Polesie L.P. and Sobibór L.P. (Fig. 11), joined with Polesie Landscape Protected Area and a part of Chełm Landscape Protected Area. Two more landscape parks are protected in this area: Włodawa Forests L.P. and Parczew Forests L.P. Moreover, there are also 12 sanctioned and 10 proposed nature reserves [Chmielewski ed. 2005]. Since 2004, on the area of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR, 14 Natura 2000 Fig. 8. Tafle Sacred Spot in the Polesie National Park. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013 sites were established. This category of protected areas is not present in the Belarusian and Ukrainian part of the Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 12).

Fig. 9. Meander of the Bug river. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski , 1999

The Polish part of the TBR includes the whole physiographic mesoregion: Łęczna – Włodawa Lakeland and small fragments of 3 other mesoregions: Parczew Plain, Włodawa

12 1313 Fig. 12. Natura 2000 sites located on the area of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Fig. 11. The main protected areas located on the area of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Reserve (WP TBR) (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski, Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek & Biosphere Reserve (WP TBR) (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski, Malwina Michalik- Weronika Maślanko 2015). ŚnieŜek & Weronika Maślanko 2015). Legend: A. Location of the WP TBR on the background of administrative division; B – The Legend: A. Location of the WP TBR on the background of administrative division; B – The elements of the Natura 2000 network: 1 – country borders, 2 – the border of the main protected areas located on the area of the WP TBR: 1 – country borders, 2 – the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve, 3 – Bird Natura 2000 Sites, 4 – border of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve, 3 – national parks, Habitat Natura 2000 Sites, 5 – areas in which Bird Sites and Habitat Sites overlaps. 4 – nature reserves, 5 – landscape parks.

Zone B (43 215 ha) covers territories of landscape parks, where conservation is as According to the Sevillan Strategy [Biosphere Reserves … 1996], the area of the important as the protection of cultural heritage, sustainable agriculture, forestry and tourism. Transboundary Biosphere Reserve has been divided into 3 categories of zones with a different In such areas landscape beauty protection and local style design are important. Population protective rank: core area (Zone A), buffer zone (Zone B) and transitional zone (Zone C). density in these regions is 10 people per sq. km and it has diminished by 3.5% within the last Zones A and B are surrounded and joined by zone C, thus forming a unity (Fig. 13). 30 years. Villages situated in this area have a chance to develop agro tourism and service In the Polish part of the Reserve, the zoning system goes as follows: sector, as well as the priority in the development of technical infrastructure (sewerage system, Zone A (5225.5 ha) includes areas with the highest degree of naturalness, not gasification, improvement in waste management) and improvement in technical condition of inhabited by humans. These constitute nature reserves and desolate areas of the Polesie NP. buildings. Here, as well, a series of national and international nature protection, agriculture, forestry and research projects will be realized.

14 14 15 Fig. 12. Natura 2000 sites located on the area of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Fig. 11. The main protected areas located on the area of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Reserve (WP TBR) (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski, Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek & Biosphere Reserve (WP TBR) (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski, Malwina Michalik- Weronika Maślanko 2015). ŚnieŜek & Weronika Maślanko 2015). Legend: A. Location of the WP TBR on the background of administrative division; B – The Legend: A. Location of the WP TBR on the background of administrative division; B – The elements of the Natura 2000 network: 1 – country borders, 2 – the border of the main protected areas located on the area of the WP TBR: 1 – country borders, 2 – the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve, 3 – Bird Natura 2000 Sites, 4 – border of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve, 3 – national parks, Habitat Natura 2000 Sites, 5 – areas in which Bird Sites and Habitat Sites overlaps. 4 – nature reserves, 5 – landscape parks.

14 1515 old and there are several hypotheses about their origin [Wilgat et al. 1991]. It is probable that particular lakes have different origin. The majority of them is characterized by inconsiderable maximal depth, small surface and little shore accessibility. The east and mid-west part of the Lake District is ecologically most precious and only insignificantly transformed [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1989]. Until present day 61 lakes with surface area over 1 ha have survived∗. Particular lakes are in various stages of succession and contain water of different trophy. Next to the lakes with hardly any plants and mesotrophic waters (e.g. Lake Piaseczno) there are reservoirs slightly eutrophic and strongly eutrophic as well as dystrophic [Radwan ed. 1995, 1996]. Microflora of the lakes is rich and interesting. The research on the conjugate (Conjugate) has proved especially precious for science. On the whole 341 algae species were identified in the lakes of the region. Land and water assemblies of macrophytes are also extremely interesting. Parts of this area are a miniature of European tundra and forest-tundra which is here the farthest advanced to the south-east in Europe [Fijałkowski 1960]. This is the area of unusual variety of high moors, transitional moors, low moors and – in some places – very unique carbonate moors. Large collection of northern plant species (150 species) and simultaneous presence of many

Fig. 13. Zonation system of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (elaborated by plants from Atlantic zone (25 species), east continental zone (43 species) create a curiosity on A. Breymeyer & Adamczyk J.; 2007/2008) the European scale [Fijałkowski 1960, Chmielewski T. J. et al. 1990]. In the region of Łęczna –Włodawa Lake District there appear 1466 species of vascular plants, among them 152 rare Zone C (91 477.5 ha) is designed to protect zones A and B from negative external and vanishing ones [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005]. pressures on nature. It plays a key role in various forms of service to zones A and B. The The most precious plant communities are situated around lakes: Długie, Moszne, population density in that zone is 37 people per sq. km and over last 30 years has diminished Łukie, Uściwierz, Brudno, Płotycze, in Durne Marsh, Orłów Peatbog, Bubnów Marsh and to 3%. This zone has the greatest opportunity for sustainable development of its major Dubeczno Peatbog as well as in inner-forest peatbogs of Sobibór Landscape Park settlement areas as service centres for the whole Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR area [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005]. In the forest complexes the share of alder carr and humid [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005]. coniferous forests is much bigger than in many other regions. Grey willows constitute Łęczna – Włodawa Lakeland is the largest one in Poland grouping of lakes occurring considerably large areas. Shrubby birch thicket which is really rare in Poland constitutes a outside the areas formed by glacial morphogenesis of the last glaciations [Kondracki 1998]. curiosity here. Physiographic features of Polish lowland and upland zone create a unique mosaic of natural The mosaic arrangement of forests, peatbogs, grasslands, waters and cultivated fields phenomena. This terrain is the landscape of accumulation plain located in the Bug and Wieprz is the source of great biological and landscape variety of this region. interfluves. The process of valley formation in the area is in the initial stage, which gives the The animal life is also abundant here. According to research in the lakes of Łęczna – region the character of geomorphologic youth. The flatness of the terrain and shallow-lying Włodawa region there are 350 species of water non-vertebrates. In the ichtio-fauna of Łęczna first level of ground waters cause that considerable parts of the Lake District are permanently or temporarily water-logged. Broad peatbogs and marshes have developed on the wetlands. ∗ In 1954 T. Wilgat referred to 68 lakes with surface area over 1 ha [Wilgat 1954]. Since then seven of them: Lakes are the characteristic element of the landscape. It is estimated that they are 11,300 years Orzechówek, Lejno, Wąskie, Myczółki, Karaśne near Urszulin and Laskie have completely disappeared and in Lake Ciesacin (Uściwierzek) the actual surface area is only 0.6 ha.

16 16 17 old and there are several hypotheses about their origin [Wilgat et al. 1991]. It is probable that particular lakes have different origin. The majority of them is characterized by inconsiderable maximal depth, small surface and little shore accessibility. The east and mid-west part of the Lake District is ecologically most precious and only insignificantly transformed [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1989]. Until present day 61 lakes with surface area over 1 ha have survived∗. Particular lakes are in various stages of succession and contain water of different trophy. Next to the lakes with hardly any plants and mesotrophic waters (e.g. Lake Piaseczno) there are reservoirs slightly eutrophic and strongly eutrophic as well as dystrophic [Radwan ed. 1995, 1996]. Microflora of the lakes is rich and interesting. The research on the conjugate (Conjugate) has proved especially precious for science. On the whole 341 algae species were identified in the lakes of the region. Land and water assemblies of macrophytes are also extremely interesting. Parts of this area are a miniature of European tundra and forest-tundra which is here the farthest advanced to the south-east in Europe [Fijałkowski 1960]. This is the area of unusual variety of high moors, transitional moors, low moors and – in some places – very unique carbonate moors. Large collection of northern plant species (150 species) and simultaneous presence of many

Fig. 13. Zonation system of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (elaborated by plants from Atlantic zone (25 species), east continental zone (43 species) create a curiosity on A. Breymeyer & Adamczyk J.; 2007/2008) the European scale [Fijałkowski 1960, Chmielewski T. J. et al. 1990]. In the region of Łęczna –Włodawa Lake District there appear 1466 species of vascular plants, among them 152 rare Zone C (91 477.5 ha) is designed to protect zones A and B from negative external and vanishing ones [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005]. pressures on nature. It plays a key role in various forms of service to zones A and B. The The most precious plant communities are situated around lakes: Długie, Moszne, population density in that zone is 37 people per sq. km and over last 30 years has diminished Łukie, Uściwierz, Brudno, Płotycze, in Durne Marsh, Orłów Peatbog, Bubnów Marsh and to 3%. This zone has the greatest opportunity for sustainable development of its major Dubeczno Peatbog as well as in inner-forest peatbogs of Sobibór Landscape Park settlement areas as service centres for the whole Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR area [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005]. In the forest complexes the share of alder carr and humid [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005]. coniferous forests is much bigger than in many other regions. Grey willows constitute Łęczna – Włodawa Lakeland is the largest one in Poland grouping of lakes occurring considerably large areas. Shrubby birch thicket which is really rare in Poland constitutes a outside the areas formed by glacial morphogenesis of the last glaciations. Physiographic curiosity here. features of Polish lowland and upland zone create a unique mosaic of natural phenomena. The mosaic arrangement of forests, peatbogs, grasslands, waters and cultivated fields This terrain is the landscape of accumulation plain located in the Bug and Wieprz interfluves. is the source of great biological and landscape variety of this region. The process of valley formation in the area is in the initial stage, which gives the region the The animal life is also abundant here. According to research in the lakes of Łęczna – character of geomorphologic youth. The flatness of the terrain and shallow-lying first level of Włodawa region there are 350 species of water non-vertebrates. In the ichtio-fauna of Łęczna ground waters cause that considerable parts of the Lake District are permanently or temporarily water-logged. Broad peatbogs and marshes have developed on the wetlands. ∗ In 1954 T. Wilgat referred to 68 lakes with surface area over 1 ha [Wilgat 1954]. Since then seven of them: Lakes are the characteristic element of the landscape. It is estimated that they are 11,300 years Orzechówek, Lejno, Wąskie, Myczółki, Karaśne near Urszulin and Laskie have completely disappeared and in Lake Ciesacin (Uściwierzek) the actual surface area is only 0.6 ha.

16 1717 –Włodawa Lake District 35 species were registered in standing waters as well as in running Hańsk – the seat of the Proecological Community’s Association of this region waters. The curiosity among the reptiles is the mud turtle (Emys orbicularis). Its population in Uhrusk – has a great historical and cultural significance. Łęczna – Włodawa Lake District is the most numerous in Poland and one of the largest in Wola Uhruska – one of the most active, economically and culturally, of the Europe [Holuk et al. 1998]. Amphibians, which are dying out in other parts of Europe, are municipality's centres in this part of Polesie. here fairly numerous. Avifauna, represented by at least 150 breeding species, is also very Vari interesting and valuable is cultural heritage of this region. valuable. Out of mammals otter, wolf and elk are worth mentioning. The ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve is a melting pot of different influences: 98 species of the region’s fauna are listed on the European CORINE list and 25 are in cultures, nationalities and religions; such as Catholicism, Orthodoxian, and Judaism. The the “Polish Red Book of Animals” [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005, on the basis of Red List by West Polesie Biosphere Reserve area represents and protects a unique landscape on the Głowaciński ed. 1992]. cultural edge of both Eastern and Western Europe. West Polesie is considered as the main distribution area of the World wide endangered There are precious architectural sacred monuments in Parczew, Włodawa, Łęczna and Aquatic warbler (Acrocephalus paludicola). It is also breeding place for European wide Ostrów Lubelski. There is also Zamojski’s Mansion in Adampol, noble manors in Sosnowiica endangered birds like Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis), Cranes (Grus grus) and others. and Łęczna, and historical residential houses in Włodawa. The area is considered to be an important cross-point for migratory birds. The flyways of The Sobibór Forests has within its mists a martyrology museum, which previously was north-south (White Sea – Baltic – Mediterranean migratory birds’ passage) and east-west one of Hitler’s concentration camps, where 250,000 Jews were executed between 1942-1943. migration (the Polesie latitudinal) of birds meet in the West Polesie. Therefore the entire In rural areas there are many examples of traditional wooden architecture, which is region has a high importance for birds as resting place during the migration period characteristic of the Polesie region. Polesie traditions, peculiarities of folkway of life, culture, [Chmielewski ed. 2005]. rites, religious cult objects are conserved here. Interestingly is the open-air museum of a The dominating economic functions of this area are: agriculture, nature tourism, Polish village, located in the Hola village. Many interesting folk activities take place there. weekend recreation and agrotourism, as well as a sustainable forestry and fishing economy. There is also a wooden Orthodox Church near-by, where popular Orthodox fairs are A low population, a large range of forests, plus a very low level of environmental pollution organised. Every year in Włodawa there is an International Atrisitc Open-air – “Kresy” allows for the production of healthy foods and recreation in a naturally rich environment. (“Borderland”) event. On the outskirts of the C zone of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere By the end of the 1970’s tourism had begun to play a growing economic role in this Reserve, there are 2 small cities: (1) Ostrów Lubelski (2000 inhabitants) on the west, by the region. In some villages (Okuninka, Piaseczno, Rogóźno, Krzywe, Krasne, Zagłębocze, Tyśmienica river and (2) Włodawa (15000 inhabitants) on the east, by the Bug river. Both Grabniak, Sumin) tourism appears to be the main source of income, and it is a growing field. these cities have interesting architectural monuments and many cultural traditions. Not far The region has natural richness, clean air, large water and forest supplies, good from the C Zone of the Biosphere Reserve there are located next 2 small cities: Parczew physical structure of the settlements, diversity in the ways of living, many prospects for (11000 inhabitants) in the north and Łęczna (22000 inhabitants) in south-west. All these cities tourism, recreation and border trade development – all the above are trumps of this region have excellent features for providing a role of service centres for the entire Polish part of the showing that the implementation of sustainable development rules are utilised and are realistic TBR. [Chmielewski ed. 2005, Breymeyer ed. 2008]. In the C zone of BR, aside from the above, are some other management centres for this region: Urszulin – the main centre servicing Polesie National Park Sosnowica – a town with many historical and cultural traditions, in connection with, among others, Tadeusz Kościuszko

18 18 19 –Włodawa Lake District 35 species were registered in standing waters as well as in running Hańsk – the seat of the Proecological Community’s Association of this region waters. The curiosity among the reptiles is the mud turtle (Emys orbicularis). Its population in Uhrusk – has a great historical and cultural significance. Łęczna – Włodawa Lake District is the most numerous in Poland and one of the largest in Wola Uhruska – one of the most active, economically and culturally, of the Europe [Holuk et al. 1998]. Amphibians, which are dying out in other parts of Europe, are municipality's centres in this part of Polesie. here fairly numerous. Avifauna, represented by at least 150 breeding species, is also very Very interesting and valuable is cultural heritage of this region. valuable. Out of mammals otter, wolf and elk are worth mentioning. The ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve is a melting pot of different influences: 98 species of the region’s fauna are listed on the European CORINE list and 25 are in cultures, nationalities and religions; such as Catholicism, Orthodoxian, and Judaism. The the “Polish Red Book of Animals” [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005, on the basis of Red List by West Polesie Biosphere Reserve area represents and protects a unique landscape on the Głowaciński ed. 1992]. cultural edge of both Eastern and Western Europe. West Polesie is considered as the main distribution area of the World wide endangered There are precious architectural sacred monuments in Parczew, Włodawa, Łęczna and Aquatic warbler (Acrocephalus paludicola). It is also breeding place for European wide Ostrów Lubelski. There is also Zamojski’s Mansion in Adampol, noble manors in Sosnowica endangered birds like Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis), Cranes (Grus grus) and others. and Łęczna, and historical residential houses in Włodawa. The area is considered to be an important cross-point for migratory birds. The flyways of The Sobibór Forests has within its mists a martyrology museum, which previously was north-south (White Sea – Baltic – Mediterranean migratory birds’ passage) and east-west one of Hitler’s concentration camps, where 250,000 Jews were executed between 1942-1943. migration (the Polesie latitudinal) of birds meet in the West Polesie. Therefore the entire In rural areas there are many examples of traditional wooden architecture, which is region has a high importance for birds as resting place during the migration period characteristic of the Polesie region. Polesie traditions, peculiarities of folkway of life, culture, [Chmielewski ed. 2005]. rites, religious cult objects are conserved here. Interestingly is the open-air museum of a The dominating economic functions of this area are: agriculture, nature tourism, Polish village, located in the Hola village. Many interesting folk activities take place there. weekend recreation and agrotourism, as well as a sustainable forestry and fishing economy. There is also a wooden Orthodox Church near-by, where popular Orthodox fairs are A low population, a large range of forests, plus a very low level of environmental pollution organised. Every year in Włodawa there is an International Atrisitc Open-air – “Kresy” allows for the production of healthy foods and recreation in a naturally rich environment. (“Borderland”) event. On the outskirts of the C zone of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere By the end of the 1970’s tourism had begun to play a growing economic role in this Reserve, there are 2 small cities: (1) Ostrów Lubelski (2000 inhabitants) on the west, by the region. In some villages (Okuninka, Piaseczno, Rogóźno, Krzywe, Krasne, Zagłębocze, Tyśmienica river and (2) Włodawa (15000 inhabitants) on the east, by the Bug river. Both Grabniak, Sumin) tourism appears to be the main source of income, and it is a growing field. these cities have interesting architectural monuments and many cultural traditions. Not far The region has natural richness, clean air, large water and forest supplies, good from the C Zone of the Biosphere Reserve there are located next 2 small cities: Parczew physical structure of the settlements, diversity in the ways of living, many prospects for (11000 inhabitants) in the north and Łęczna (22000 inhabitants) in south-west. All these cities tourism, recreation and border trade development – all the above are trumps of this region have excellent features for providing a role of service centres for the entire Polish part of the showing that the implementation of sustainable development rules are utilised and are realistic TBR. [Chmielewski ed. 2005, Breymeyer ed. 2008]. In the C zone of BR, aside from the above, are some other management centres for this region: Urszulin – the main centre servicing Polesie National Park Sosnowica – a town with many historical and cultural traditions, in connection with, among others, Tadeusz Kościuszko

18 1919 3. The unique landscape identity of the West Polesie region

3.1. Introduction

Landscape is the effect of centuries-long activity of a specific community in a specific natural and cultural environment, and at the same time human activity is strongly conditioned by the features of the environment of individual regions. Those complex natural, temporal and social-cultural determinants have contributed to the formation of a wide array of landscapes with specific features, sometimes distinct and expressive enough to represent a specific regional style [Chmielewski 2012]. The specificity of expression of local landscape features creates the so-called canon loci that, together with the local culture and tradition, makes up the genius loci [Myczkowski 1993-1994]. The identity is the most profound relation between the landscape perceived by man (environment), and its historically accumulated elements: contents (culture, tradition of the place) and form (canon loci) [Myczkowski 2009]. If those features have an above-local reach, then we can speak about the landscape identity of an area, subregion or region. Highly important for the emergence of the sense of landscape identity is the existence of characteristic, distinguishing, outstanding features of the natural and cultural heritage of a given area, called landmarks [Nasar ed. 1988, Niedźwiedzka-Filipiak 2009]. Natural landmarks can be e.g. a mountain with a unique shape, a group of rocks, a scarp above a meander of a river, a complex of lakes, a lake, an old and imposing tree or a group of such trees, etc. Positively perceived cultural landmarks can be e.g. a castle, a church, a town hall, a manor house, a water mill, a wayside shrine, etc. [Chmielewski et al. 2014]. Areas having a unique and harmoniously composed set of positive landmarks are referred to sometimes as so-called “magical spots” in the landscape [Pawłowska 2008]. At present, however, more and more often we encounter negatively perceived landmarks. Those are e.g. complexes of structures of heat and power generation plants, windmill farms, RTV transmission towers, masts of mobile telephone systems, large-area production, shopping and storage buildings, big advertising billboards, etc. The force of their impact depends on the character of the environment and on the degree of conformance with the cultural heritage and tradition of the place. The lower the level of anthropogenic transformation of the environment, and the less conforming the given object with the canon loci, and the more strongly exposed it is in the landscape, the greater the effect of its negative impact. If the number of negatively perceived landmarks is significant, the community can

21 3. The unique landscape identity of the West Polesie region

3.1. Introduction

Landscape is the effect of centuries-long activity of a specific community in a specific natural and cultural environment, and at the same time human activity is strongly conditioned by the features of the environment of individual regions. Those complex natural, temporal and social-cultural determinants have contributed to the formation of a wide array of landscapes with specific features, sometimes distinct and expressive enough to represent a specific regional style [Chmielewski 2012]. The specificity of expression of local landscape features creates the so-called canon loci that, together with the local culture and tradition, makes up the genius loci [Myczkowski 1993-1994]. The identity is the most profound relation between the landscape perceived by man (environment), and its historically accumulated elements: contents (culture, tradition of the place) and form (canon loci) [Myczkowski 2009]. If those features have an above-local reach, then we can speak about the landscape identity of an area, subregion or region. Highly important for the emergence of the sense of landscape identity is the existence of characteristic, distinguishing, outstanding features of the natural and cultural heritage of a given area, called landmarks [Nasar ed. 1988, Niedźwiedzka-Filipiak 2009]. Natural landmarks can be e.g. a mountain with a unique shape, a group of rocks, a scarp above a meander of a river, a complex of lakes, a lake, an old and imposing tree or a group of such trees, etc. Positively perceived cultural landmarks can be e.g. a castle, a church, a town hall, a manor house, a water mill, a wayside shrine, etc. [Chmielewski et al. 2014a]. Areas having a unique and harmoniously composed set of positive landmarks are referred to sometimes as so-called “magical spots” in the landscape [Pawłowska 2008]. At present, however, more and more often we encounter negatively perceived landmarks. Those are e.g. complexes of structures of heat and power generation plants, windmill farms, RTV transmission towers, masts of mobile telephone systems, large-area production, shopping and storage buildings, big advertising billboards, etc. The force of their impact depends on the character of the environment and on the degree of conformance with the cultural heritage and tradition of the place. The lower the level of anthropogenic transformation of the environment, and the less conforming the given object with the canon loci, and the more strongly exposed it is in the landscape, the greater the effect of its negative impact. If the number of negatively perceived landmarks is significant, the community can

2121 develop an opinion of a negative landscape identity of a given area. This may result in a deep- has remained an area where until today landscape style features with distinct Polesie identity seated conviction that the region is ugly and unfriendly to both local inhabitants and visitors have been preserved and are still cultivated. [Chmielewski 2012]. A sociological study conducted in the area of the Polish part of the “West Polesie” That methodological approach can be applied also for the diagnosis of landscape Biosphere Reserve [Chmielewski et al. 2012] revealed that for an overwhelming majority of style. the public opinion the features on natural components of landscaper that are worth preserving In this study it has been assumed that landscape style landmarks are particularly are the following: characteristic for a specific region and historical epoch: • expansiveness of views over flat open spaces (landscape interiors and macro- 1) natural and anthropogenic forms of land relief and cover; interiors), relieved with gentle undulating hills; 2) joining them features of spatial composition; • abundance of waters (lakes and flood waters), marshes and peatlands, 3) materials and processes (techniques) necessary for their formation. surrounded with forests; Diagnosing landscape style one should take into account the following: • characteristic features of regional natural determinants; • great richness of animate nature (large biodiversity and numerous peculiarities • characteristic elements of regional cultural features; of flora and fauna) [Chmielewski et al. 2012]. • elements characteristic of historical epochs; Whereas, as characteristic, regional, worthy of cultivation features of the cultural • characteristic elements of the continuum, or discontinuum, of landscape landscape of West Polesie the respondents indicated the following: transformation; • small-scale rural settlements, concentrated on gentle elevations of the terrain;

• characteristic features of the integration, or disintegration, of style. • “patchy” landscape of fields stretching over slopes and large patches of wet multi-species meadows in depressions of the terrain; 3.2. Landmarks of landscape identity of the West Polesie region • complexes of ponds, often with long historical traditions;

The distinctness and expressiveness of the physiographic, ecological, social-cultural • rural and farm-tourism architecture with regional features and colourful and physiognomic features of Polesie caused that the region, until as late as the nineteen traditional house gardens; thirties, was described as a mysterious and magical land. That opinion was created jointly by • monuments of architecture and other element of cultural heritage, concentrated works of art and literature, touring books, and even songs [Ossendowski 1934/2008, Marczak mainly in larger localities situated on the edges of the region, in Włodawa, 1935/2008, Wysłouch 2002a, 2002b, Masłowski 1973, Kraszewski 1985, Kieniewicz 1989]. Sosnowica, Ostrów Lubelski, as well as the Orthodox church and private th Since the end of the 19 century the exceptional, at European scale, features of the region skansen (open-air museum) in Hola [Chmielewski et al. 2012]. (and especially of West Polesie) have been documented more and more forcibly also in scientific elaborations [Roztworowski 1882, Lityński 1909, Kulczyński 1940, Wilgat ed. 1963, Radwan ed. 1995, 1996, Harasimiuk et al. ed. 1998, Radwan et al. ed. 2002, Chmielewski ed. 2009]. In spite of the enormous scale of changes that took place in the past century in the natural environment, land use, culture and physiognomy of Polesie, and especially in the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland (see chapters 4, 5 and 7), the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve

22 22 23 develop an opinion of a negative landscape identity of a given area. This may result in a deep- has remained an area where until today landscape style features with distinct Polesie identity seated conviction that the region is ugly and unfriendly to both local inhabitants and visitors have been preserved and are still cultivated. [Chmielewski 2012]. A sociological study conducted in the area of the Polish part of the “West Polesie” That methodological approach can be applied also for the diagnosis of landscape Biosphere Reserve [Chmielewski et al. 2012] revealed that for an overwhelming majority of style. the public opinion the features on natural components of landscape that are worth preserving In this study it has been assumed that landscape style landmarks are particularly are the following: characteristic for a specific region and historical epoch: • expansiveness of views over flat open spaces (landscape interiors and macro- 1) natural and anthropogenic forms of land relief and cover; interiors), relieved with gentle undulating hills; 2) joining them features of spatial composition; • abundance of waters (lakes and flood waters), marshes and peatlands, 3) materials and processes (techniques) necessary for their formation. surrounded with forests; Diagnosing landscape style one should take into account the following: • characteristic features of regional natural determinants; • great richness of animate nature (large biodiversity and numerous peculiarities • characteristic elements of regional cultural features; of flora and fauna) [Chmielewski et al. 2012]. • elements characteristic of historical epochs; Whereas, as characteristic, regional, worthy of cultivation features of the cultural • characteristic elements of the continuum, or discontinuum, of landscape landscape of West Polesie the respondents indicated the following: transformation; • small-scale rural settlements, concentrated on gentle elevations of the terrain;

The distinctness and expressiveness of the physiographic, ecological, social-cultural • rural and farm-tourism architecture with regional features and colourful and physiognomic features of Polesie caused that the region, until as late as the nineteen traditional house gardens; thirties, was described as a mysterious and magical land. That opinion was created jointly by • monuments of architecture and other element of cultural heritage, concentrated works of art and literature, touring books, and even songs [Ossendowski 1934/2008, Marczak mainly in larger localities situated on the edges of the region, in Włodawa, 1935/2008, Wysłouch 2002a, 2002b, Masłowski 1973, Kraszewski 1985, Kieniewicz 1989]. Sosnowica, Ostrów Lubelski, as well as the Orthodox church and private th Since the end of the 19 century the exceptional, at European scale, features of the region skansen (open-air museum) in Hola [Chmielewski et al. 2012]. (and especially of West Polesie) have been documented more and more forcibly also in scientific elaborations [Roztworowski 1882, Kulczyński 1940, Wilgat ed. 1963, Harasimiuk et al. ed. 1998, Radwan et al. ed. 2002, Chmielewski ed. 2009]. In spite of the enormous scale of changes that took place in the past century in the natural environment, land use, culture and physiognomy of Polesie, and especially in the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland (see chapters 4, 5 and 7), the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve

22 2323 On the basis of the above results of the social opinion polls and based on many years of studies conducted by our author team [Chmielewski ed. 1989, 2005, 2009, Chmielewski 2001] it was assumed that in the area of the Polish part of the Reserve the currently preserved natural landmarks of Polesie landscape features include the following: • Expansive flat lake-peatbog basins, separated with gently dry elevations; expansiveness of views over flat open spaces. Due to the significant increase of afforestation of the region over the last half-century, the spatial reaches of such views are becoming more and more limited (Fig. 14). • Abundance of surface waters, peatbogs and marshes with great habitat and species diversity (Fig. 15 – 19). As a result of large-scale drainage programs conducted in the region mainly in the nineteen fifties, sixties and seventies, the area of wetland ecosystems is rapidly shrinking. • Scattered individually among a mosaic of waters, peatbogs and meadows small gentle hills, overgrown with sand grasses and heaths (Fig. 20). Such sandy hills are sometimes also valuable hatching sites for mud turtle. • Various forest ecosystems, with especially valuable marshy coniferous forests, Fig. 14. Basin of Staw Swamp, surrounded by dry hills. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014 alder carrs and riparian forests in particular (Fig. 21, 22). • Wide, nature-rich ecotones of the type water – land and forest – non-forest ecosystems, forming scenically attractive rims of landscape interiors. • Imposing old oak trees as landscape dominants and accents, especially attractive visually whether single or in groups (Fig. 23), on hill tops (where they can occur together with pine trees), in river valleys, on the rims of lake-peatbog basins and near roads and cultural objects (near the latter two categories of objects old lime trees and ash trees also occur). However, great powerful old oak trees are becoming less and less frequent, as from the moment of introduction of market economy in Poland they are felled for economic reasons.

Fig. 15. Włodawka river valley. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014

24 24 25 On the basis of the above results of the social opinion polls and based on many years of studies conducted by our author team [Chmielewski ed. 1989, 2005, 2009, Chmielewski 2001] it was assumed that in the area of the Polish part of the Reserve the currently preserved natural landmarks of Polesie landscape features include the following: • Expansive flat lake-peatbog basins, separated with gently dry elevations; expansiveness of views over flat open spaces. Due to the significant increase of afforestation of the region over the last half-century, the spatial reaches of such views are becoming more and more limited (Fig. 14). • Abundance of surface waters, peatbogs and marshes with great habitat and species diversity (Fig. 15 – 19). As a result of large-scale drainage programs conducted in the region mainly in the nineteen fifties, sixties and seventies, the area of wetland ecosystems is rapidly shrinking. • Scattered individually among a mosaic of waters, peatbogs and meadows small gentle hills, overgrown with sand grasses and heaths (Fig. 20). Such sandy hills are sometimes also valuable hatching sites for mud turtle. • Various forest ecosystems, with especially valuable marshy coniferous forests, Fig. 14. Basin of Staw Swamp, surrounded by dry hills. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014 alder carrs and riparian forests in particular (Fig. 21, 22). • Wide, nature-rich ecotones of the type water – land and forest – non-forest ecosystems, forming scenically attractive rims of landscape interiors. • Imposing old oak trees as landscape dominants and accents, especially attractive visually whether single or in groups (Fig. 23), on hill tops (where they can occur together with pine trees), in river valleys, on the rims of lake-peatbog basins and near roads and cultural objects (near the latter two categories of objects old lime trees and ash trees also occur). However, great powerful old oak trees are becoming less and less frequent, as from the moment of introduction of market economy in Poland they are felled for economic reasons.

Fig. 15. Włodawka river valley. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014

24 2525 Fig. 16. Mesohumic (formerly dystrophic) Lake Moszne Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2009 Fig. 18. Transitional moor surrounding lake Moszne. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1999

Fig. 19. Wetlands in Mietiułka river valley. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013 Fig. 17. Mesotrophic Lake Białe Włodawskie. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014

26 26 27 Fig. 16. Mesohumic (formerly dystrophic) lake Moszne Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2009 Fig. 18. Transitional moor surrounding Lake Moszne. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1999

Fig. 19. Wetlands in Mietiułka river valley. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013 Fig. 17. Mesotrophic lake Białe Włodawskie. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014

26 2727 Fig. 20. A bird refuge on the Perehod Ponds. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013 Fig. 22. The riparian forest in the Bug river valley. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2012

Fig. 21. Heath and the psammophilous turf near New Orzechów village. Fig. 23. Spring in alder forest in the Spławy Sacred Spot. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2015 Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013

28 28 29 Fig. 20. A bird refuge on the Perehod Ponds. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013 Fig. 22. The riparian forest in the Bug river valley. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2012

Fig. 21. Heath and the psammophilous turf near New Orzechów village. Fig. 23. Spring in alder forest in the Spławy Sacred Spot. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2015 Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013

28 2929 In turn, the currently preserved cultural landmarks of Polesie landscape features include the following: • Small Polesie towns with single or two-story housing, with dominants or accents in the form of sacral buildings of 3 religions - the Catholic, the Orthodox and the Judaic (Fig. 26). • Remnants of old palace and park-manor house establishments (Fig. 27). • Multi-ribbon or large-patch expansions of fields situated on elevations of the terrain (Fig. 28) and bands of compact rural housing. • Traditional spatial arrangements of villages. • Wooden architectural objects and objects of so-called “small architecture” that retained the features of the regional style (Fig. 29, 30). • Rural house gardens and small orchards, characteristic for the tradition of the region (Fig. 31). • Strings of trees and bushes along water courses, at small water bodies and Fig. 24. Broad swamp-forest ecotone on the Staw Swamp. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014 peatbogs, with suitable selected species composition, and tree alleys along roads. • Mid-field dirt tracks with wild pear and apple trees, bird cherries and other similar accents of the traditional agricultural landscape (Fig. 32).

For the landscape identity of the region the historical-political and social determinants as well as the cultural values that do not fall into the category of landscape landmarks (such as e.g. local sub-dialect, beliefs, customs, regional dress, songs, history of particular families etc.) are also very important. However, those issues are beyond the scope of this book. They have been described in other publications [e.g. Witwicka 2003, Szejnert 2015], while the authors of this monograph focused primarily on the ecological-landscape and architectural- landscape determinants.

Neither the natural nor the cultural landmarks of the regional landscape identity are permanent features – they change with time. Such changes cannot be completely stopped. However, if features of key importance for the natural or cultural character of the landscape of a region disappear, one should strive to preserve and even to recreate their key landmarks.

Fig. 25. Group of old oaks near the Wólka Nadrybska village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1999 Natural forms characteristic for the landscape of the Polish part of West Polesie that These oaks have been cut at the beginning of the XXI ct. disappeared over the last 30 years (1985 – 2015) include e.g. the following:

30 30 31 In turn, the currently preserved cultural landmarks of Polesie landscape features include the following: • Small Polesie towns with single or two-story housing, with dominants or accents in the form of sacral buildings of 3 religions - the Catholic, the Orthodox and the Judaic (Fig. 26). • Remnants of old palace and park-manor house establishments (Fig. 27). • Multi-ribbon or large-patch expansions of fields situated on elevations of the terrain (Fig. 28) and bands of compact rural housing. • Traditional spatial arrangements of villages. • Wooden architectural objects and objects of so-called “small architecture” that retained the features of the regional style (Fig. 29, 30). • Rural house gardens and small orchards, characteristic for the tradition of the region (Fig. 31). • Strings of trees and bushes along water courses, at small water bodies and Fig. 24. Broad swamp-forest ecotone on the Staw Swamp. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014 peatbogs, with suitable selected species composition, and tree alleys along roads. • Mid-field dirt tracks with wild pear and apple trees, bird cherries and other similar accents of the traditional agricultural landscape (Fig. 32).

30 3131 • Dystrophic lakes, with orange-brown coloured acidic water. As a result of hydrological and limnological changes they have been transformed into so-called mesohumus lakes. • Submerged meadows of charophyta in peat pits with crystal-clear water. Disappearing forms, or preserved only locally, in relic form, include the following: • Floating islands – mats of tangled peatbog vegetation floating on water, giving way by up to 1 m underfoot, like a giant water bed. Due to the lowering of the water level, those unique natural forms settled down on sediments of lake gyttja. • Open water spots on floating islands (Fig. 33) – specific habitat of several extremely valuable species, e.g. Aldrowanda vesiculosa (that species of aquatic insectivorous plants, threatened with extinction, has now migrated to several shallow bays of peatbog-surrounded lakes). • Peat pits with nympheid communities of exceptional landscape value (Fig. 34). Due to the lowering of water level and eutrophication of habitats, most of the peat pits completely dried out and became overgrown with reed communities. Elsewhere – shrub and forest communities developing around peat pits overshadowed the water table precluding further development of Nymphea alba. Fig. 26. Włodawa town – Chuch street. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013

Cultural forms characteristic for the landscape of the Polish part of West Polesie that disappeared over the last 30 years (1985 – 2015), or remained only in relic form, include the following: • Wooden windmills (Fig. 35), • Straw thatches on village houses (Fig. 36), • Shadoofs (well poles) (Fig. 37), • Haystacks and hay barracks (ricks) on meadows (Fig. 38, 39) and sheaves of cereals on fields. The compilation of a detailed register, classification, and estimation of the rank and degree of threat to such forms should be the subject of a separate research project.

There also appear a new forms of land development, important for the contemporary regional paysage, which – drawing from the cultural heritage of Polesie – become a new distinguishing features, a new landmarks of its landscape (Fig. 40).

Fig. 27. Zamoyski palace (1923 – 1928) in Adampol. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2005

32 32 33 • Dystrophic lakes, with orange-brown coloured acidic water. As a result of hydrological and limnological changes they have been transformed into so-called mesohumus lakes. • Submerged meadows of charophyta in peat pits with crystal-clear water. Disappearing forms, or preserved only locally, in relic form, include the following: • Floating islands – mats of tangled peatbog vegetation floating on water, giving way by up to 1 m underfoot, like a giant water bed. Due to the lowering of the water level, those unique natural forms settled down on sediments of lake gyttja. • Open water spots on floating islands (Fig. 33) – specific habitat of several extremely valuable species, e.g. Aldrowanda vesiculosa (that species of aquatic insectivorous plants, threatened with extinction, has now migrated to several shallow bays of peatbog-surrounded lakes). • Peat pits with nympheid communities of exceptional landscape value (Fig. 34). Due to the lowering of water level and eutrophication of habitats, most of the peat pits completely dried out and became overgrown with reed communities. Elsewhere – shrub and forest communities developing around peat pits overshadowed the water table precluding further development of Nymphea alba. Fig. 26. Włodawa town – Chuch street. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013

Fig. 27. Zamoyski palace (1923 – 1928) in Adampol. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2005

32 3333 Fig. 28. Stripes of fields near the Wola Uhruska village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2015

Fig. 30. A wooden Orthodox church in the Hola village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2009

Fig. 29. A traditional Polesie cottage. Open-air museum in the Hola village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014. Fig. 31. Rural backyard garden in the śłobek village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2002

34 34 35 Fig. 28. Stripes of fields near the Wola Uhruska village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2015

Fig. 30. A wooden Orthodox church in the Hola village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2009

Fig. 29. A traditional Polesie cottage. Open-air museum in the Hola village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014. Fig. 31. Rural backyard garden in the śłobek village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2002

34 3535 Fig. 32. Wild apple tree at a dirt road near New Orzechów village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013.

Fig. 34. Peat concavity with Nymphea alba and Chara sp. communities. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1988. Fig. 33. Water holes on the transitional moor by the Moszne Lake. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1986.

36 36 37 Fig. 32. Wild apple tree at a dirt road near New Orzechów village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2013.

Fig. 34. Peat concavity with Nymphea alba and Chara sp. communities. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1988. Fig. 33. Water holes on the transitional moor by the Moszne lake. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1986.

36 3737 Fig. 35. Windmill in the Łomnica village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1986 Fig. 37. Haystacks on the Cow Swamp. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1988

Fig. 36. Wooden hut with a thatched roof. At the back – the well crane. Old Załucze village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1986. Fig. 38. Rick near the Pieszowola village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1988

38 38 39 Fig. 35. Windmill in the Łomnica village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1986 Fig. 37. Haystacks on the Cow Swamp. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1988

38 3939 The following chapters of this monograph will present some results of research on selected aspects of changes taking place in the landscapes of the Polish part of the West Polesie.

Fig. 39. A new tourist carport by the Wereszczyńskie Lake, resembling in its design a traditional rick. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014

Fig. 40. The head of the Polesie National Park office. Design of the building refers to a non existing jet manor house in Sosnowica. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2010

40 40 41 The following chapters of this monograph will present some results of research on selected aspects of changes taking place in the landscapes of the Polish part of the West Polesie.

Fig. 39. A new tourist carport by the Wereszczyńskie lake, resembling in its design a traditional rick. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014

Fig. 40. The head of the Polesie National Park office. Design of the building refers to a non existing jet manor house in Sosnowica. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2010

40 4141 4. Changes in land use structure and landscape diversity in the area of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve over a last half century

4.1. Introduction Landscape fragmentation, loss of biodiversity and unification of landscape identity are listed on the top of actual landscape management problems [Turner et al. 2001; Berkes et al. eds. 2006; Wu & Hobbs eds. 2007]. Landscape structure is crucial not only for the maintenance of biodiversity and stability of ecological systems [Antrop, 2005], but also for the economic efficiency, quality of life and human well-being [Harris 2007, Chmielewski 2012]. Therefore in last 2 decades, on the issues of landscape diversity evaluation, conservation and design, more and more attention is given [Cassatella, Peano eds. 2011; Chmielewski Sz. et al. 2014; Plexida et al. 2014]. Categorized land cover (land use) maps are the primary data source for landscape analysis concerning for land cover diversity and pattern. Studies of this type are the domain of landscape ecology which is largely founded on the notion that environmental patterns strongly influence ecological processes [Turner et al. 1989]. In this chapter of the monograph is presented a chronological overview of research results concerning land cover and landscape diversity changes, which were undertaken within the area of current ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve in Poland. There are presented also the results of the latest research of this issue, carried out in 2014 – 2015 under the ALTER-Net Environmental History project.

Studies on the changes taking place in land-use structure and ecological conditions in the territory of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland (nowadays it is a Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve) under the effect on intensifying human economic activity, were initiated in 1993 by T. J. Chmielewski, at first with the use of the method of retrospective carthometric analysis, using the physical maps 1” 25000 from the years 1959-1964 and 1984- 1986 [Chmielewski T. J., Radwan 1993], and then with the method of photoinetrpretative comparative analysis, developed on the basis of archival stereo-pairs of black-and-white aerial photographs covering the period 1952 – 1992 [Zakrzewski et al. 1993], supported with detailed field penetration of the area, provided over 1986 – 1992. All photoinetrpretative analysis were conducted in the cluster of 63 basic catchment basins, located in western and central part of the region. The eastern part of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland was not tested due to the lack of the aerial photographs from 1952. The results indicated the large-scale

43 4. Changes in land use structure and landscape diversity in the area of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve over a last half century

4343 changes in land use structure, in density and structure of landscape boundaries network and in part of the region analyses were made for the period of 1971 – 1999 – 2007, due to the lack of water conditions, strongly unfavourable for nature [Chmielewski et al. 1997, Chmielewski T. archival aerial photographs of the area from before 1971 and from 1992. J. 2001]. The photographs were converted to the form of an orthophotomap with land value of In 2015, under the realisation the Environmental History Project, for the same study one pixel of 0.5 m. Identification of particular taxons was made on the basis of field area, the analysis of land-use changes during the period 1952 – 2012 was conducted, using – inventories performed in the course of work on the documentation for the creation of the as a new time section – the true colour otophotomap from 2012, with 0,5 m land value of one particular protected areas of the region (1988-92), then in the course of development of the pixel. conservation plans for those areas, i.e. in 1993-94 and 1998-99, and within the framework of In the years 2006–2009 a team headed by T. J. Chmielewski realized in the whole area realization of a research project of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education implemented of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland the research project: Transformations of the ecological in the years 2006 – 2009 [Chmielewski T. J., ed. 2009]. structure and current conditions of functioning of hydrogenic landscapes of the “West As a result of that study it was demonstrated that: Polesie” Bioshpere Reserve and perspectives for the conservation of their nature values. The In spite of the existence of a highly developed system of protected areas, the landscape scope of the project included analysis of the changes that took place in the research area in of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is subject to far-reaching transformations. The primary 1952–2007 (for the east part of the region in 1971 – 2007) in the following ranges of data: recorded directions of changes taking place in the ecological structure of landscape of the - climate conditions of the region, region from the nineteen fifties to the beginning of the 21st century include the following - water relations of the region, [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009]: - land-use structure of the region, with special focus on the areas of 12 lake catchments - Draining of ca. 80% of total area of wetlands, including 73.3% of the area of basins, peatbogs; - vegetation communities and flora of 12 lake catchment basins, - Disappearance of 7 out of 68 lakes and notable shrinkage of open water surface - trophy of the waters, phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish fauna of 12 lakes, area in the remaining lakes, - ornithofauna of 12 lake catchment basins, - Embankment and raising of 6 lakes and their transformation into retention - volume and structure of tourist traffic on 8 lakes in the period of 1985–2007 (no reservoirs for agriculture, supplied from the Wieprz–Krzna Canal system. That archival data were available for an earlier period and for other lakes). entailed a total change of the ecological structure of those ecosystems. Two of In addition, an interdisciplinary analysis was performed concerning the relations them, after many years of no hydrotechnical use, have undergone the process of re- among changes in the various components of the landscape systems on the study area. naturalization and partially regained high nature values; The boundaries of the catchment basins were identified on the basis of analysis of a - Destruction of natural structure of phytolittoral of certain lakes by intensive tourist digital terrain model using the ArcHydro software, and on the basis of hydrological studies traffic; conducted for the needs of the conservation plans for the Łęczyńskie Lakeland Landscape - Regulation and deepening of beds of most of the rivers and destruction of the Park [Radwan, ed. 1995], Polesie National Park [Radwan, ed. 1999] and the Sobibór natural structure of their ecotone zones. The only river that retained its nearly Landscape Park [Chmielewski, ed. 2002]. natural character over a major part of its length is the border river Bug; The study of changes in land use structure was conducted with the method of - Dissection of the natural structure of peatbog ecosystes with a dense network of photointerpretative retrospective analysis [Chmielewski et al. 1996; Chmielewski Sz., drainage ditches draining off own, usually acidic, poly-humus waters of the Chmielewski T. J. 2009] with the use of analogue aerial photographs at 1:25000, taken in the peatbogs and introducing into the ecosystems hydrochemically and years 1952 and 1992, and of digital aerial true colour photographs from 2007, taken with a hydrobiologically alien, usually strongly polluted waters from the Wieprz–Krzna DMC Intergraph camera. Only for the catchments of lakes and peatbogs located in the eastern Canal system; destruction of natural biodiversity of peatbog micro-habitats;

44 44 45 changes in land use structure, in density and structure of landscape boundaries network and in part of the region analyses were made for the period of 1971 – 1999 – 2007, due to the lack of water conditions, strongly unfavourable for nature [Chmielewski et al. 1997, Chmielewski T. archival aerial photographs of the area from before 1971 and from 1992. J. 2001]. The photographs were converted to the form of an orthophotomap with land value of In 2015, under the realisation the Environmental History Project, for the same study one pixel of 0.5 m. Identification of particular taxons was made on the basis of field area, the analysis of land-use changes during the period 1952 – 2012 was conducted, using – inventories performed in the course of work on the documentation for the creation of the as a new time section – the true colour otophotomap from 2012, with 0,5 m land value of one particular protected areas of the region (1988-92), then in the course of development of the pixel. conservation plans for those areas, i.e. in 1993-94 and 1998-99, and within the framework of In the years 2006–2009 a team headed by T. J. Chmielewski realized in the whole area realization of a research project of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education implemented of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland the research project: Transformations of the ecological in the years 2006 – 2009 [Chmielewski T. J., ed. 2009]. structure and current conditions of functioning of hydrogenic landscapes of the “West As a result of that study it was demonstrated that: Polesie” Bioshpere Reserve and perspectives for the conservation of their nature values. The In spite of the existence of a highly developed system of protected areas, the landscape scope of the project included analysis of the changes that took place in the research area in of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is subject to far-reaching transformations. The primary 1952–2007 (for the east part of the region in 1971 – 2007) in the following ranges of data: recorded directions of changes taking place in the ecological structure of landscape of the - climate conditions of the region, region from the nineteen fifties to the beginning of the 21st century include the following - water relations of the region, [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009]: - land-use structure of the region, with special focus on the areas of 12 lake catchments - Draining of ca. 80% of total area of wetlands, including 73.3% of the area of basins, peatbogs; - vegetation communities and flora of 12 lake catchment basins, - Disappearance of 7 out of 68 lakes and notable shrinkage of open water surface - trophy of the waters, phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish fauna of 12 lakes, area in the remaining lakes, - ornithofauna of 12 lake catchment basins, - Embankment and raising of 6 lakes and their transformation into retention - volume and structure of tourist traffic on 8 lakes in the period of 1985–2007 (no reservoirs for agriculture, supplied from the Wieprz–Krzna Canal system. That archival data were available for an earlier period and for other lakes). entailed a total change of the ecological structure of those ecosystems. Two of In addition, an interdisciplinary analysis was performed concerning the relations them, after many years of no hydrotechnical use, have undergone the process of re- among changes in the various components of the landscape systems on the study area. naturalization and partially regained high nature values; The boundaries of the catchment basins were identified on the basis of analysis of a - Destruction of natural structure of phytolittoral of certain lakes by intensive tourist digital terrain model using the ArcHydro software, and on the basis of hydrological studies traffic; conducted for the needs of the conservation plans for the Łęczyńskie Lakeland Landscape - Regulation and deepening of beds of most of the rivers and destruction of the Park [Radwan, ed. 1995], Polesie National Park [Radwan, ed. 1999] and the Sobibór natural structure of their ecotone zones. The only river that retained its nearly Landscape Park [Chmielewski, ed. 2002]. natural character over a major part of its length is the border river Bug; The study of changes in land use structure was conducted with the method of - Dissection of the natural structure of peatbog ecosystems with a dense network photointerpretative retrospective analysis [Chmielewski et al. 1996; Chmielewski Sz., of drainage ditches draining off own, usually acidic, poly-humus waters of the Chmielewski T. J. 2009] with the use of analogue aerial photographs at 1:25000, taken in the peatbogs and introducing into the ecosystems hydrochemically and years 1952 and 1992, and of digital aerial true colour photographs from 2007, taken with a hydrobiologically alien, usually strongly polluted waters from the Wieprz–Krzna DMC Intergraph camera. Only for the catchments of lakes and peatbogs located in the eastern Canal system; destruction of natural biodiversity of peatbog micro-habitats;

44 4545 - Nearly 3-fold increase of forest cover of the whole region: from 21.5% in 1952 to features e.g. Fragstats 3.3, r.li, GRASS, V-Late 1.1, PA4 beta, Pattern/Texture, APACK, IAN, 48.3% in 1992 and 60.1% in 2007; some of them are available as open source software packages [Zaragozí et. al. 2012]. - Approximately 2-fold increase of density of the network of anthropogenic border Using a set of selected landscape metrics, in 2013 Sz. Chmielewski, T. J. Chmielewski lines between land use patches, creating an effect of fragmentation of the spatial and P. Tompalski made the first evaluation of the actual state of landscape diversity in the structure of landscape and of the ecosystems; area of the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve [Chmielewski Sz. et al. 2014] - Increase of built-up areas by ca. 88% in the period of 1952 – 2007; In the study provided in 2015, under the ALTER-Net Environmental History project, - 5.6-fold increase in the volume of tourist traffic in the period of 1985–2008 (with Sz. Chmnielewski and T. J. Chmielewski conducts a monitoring of landscape diversity the initiation of recreational use of the region in 1975) [Chmielewski T. J., changes in the Polish part of the “West Polesie” TBR for the following time transects: 1989 – Jankowska 2009]. 2002 – 2014. The source materials were 3 satellite scenes from the Landsat satellite, covering the whole area of the Polish part of the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve: The studies on changes in the land use structure in the area of the “West Polesie” Scene from 1989, acquired by the satellite Landsat 7 TM on the 24th of September, Biosphere Reserve was continued in 2010, expanding the set of lake and peatbog catchment 1989 (image quality 7); basins by another 12 objects. In effect, detailed data on changes in land use structure in 24 Scene from 2002, acquired by the satellite Landsat 7 on the 19th of August, 2002 catchment basins were accumulated [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009, Chmielewski Sz., (image quality 9); Chmielewski T. J. 2010]. Scene from 2014, acquired by the satellite Landsat 8 on the 13th of September, 2014 In 2015, under the ALTER-Net Environmental History project, another series of this (image quality 9). type of research was carried out. It included an analysis of land use structure in 3 catchment In relation to these series of satellite scenes, the procedure consisted of: basins of lakes: mesotrophic lake Piaseczno, eutrophic lake Łukie and mesohumic (previously 1. Acquisition of satellite scenes; – dystrophic) lake Moszne, registered on the digital true colour orthophotomap in 2012. 2. After radiometric and geometric correction, 5-channel colour compositions: Red, Obtained data were compared with the results of previous time sections measurements. Green, Blue, NIR, IR, were prepared; 3. Additionally, principal components analysis (PCA) and Normalised Difference Since the end of XX ct., in many landscape studies a landscape metrics are used. Vegetation Index (NDVI) was performed on a set of raster bands; These are a kind of environmental indicators, defined as measurable biotic and abiotic 4. The images were subjected to supervised classification with the use of 124 training characteristics of the environment, which allow to obtain quantitative data concerning fields; For all three sets of satellite scenes subjected to the classification a common set ecological resources and landscape functioning [McAlpine, Eyre 2002]. Nowadays, landscape of training fields was developed. The training fields were designated on pixels that in metrics are often used for the quantification of landscape patterns [Gustafson 1998] and are each of the three satellite scenes identified the same form of land cover; often used as indicators for landscape functions [Uuemaa et al. 2009]. Uuemaa [2013] 5. For the classification the maximum likelihood classification algorithm was used; reviewed landscape metrics and according to three main groups of landscape functions 6. The following classes were proposed: Meadows, C-Forest, D-forest, Arable areas, classification: habitat, regulation and information [De Groot, 2006], pointed that landscape Wetlands, Water, Built-up Areas; metrics have been mostly used in evaluating these three landscape functions and changes in 7. The result of the classification (raster) was converted to the vector form with land use and land cover landscape structure. conversion to the Polish system of geodesic coordinates PUWG 1992; Computer software is an important element associated with landscape metrics. There 8. The area of the individual classes was calculated; are many desktop software packages that have been designed to provide calculations and analysis of landscape structure patterns in categorical maps, many of them have common

46 46 47 - Nearly 3-fold increase of forest cover of the whole region: from 21.5% in 1952 to features e.g. Fragstats 3.3, r.li, GRASS, V-Late 1.1, PA4 beta, Pattern/Texture, APACK, IAN, 48.3% in 1992 and 60.1% in 2007; some of them are available as open source software packages [Zaragozí et. al. 2012]. - Approximately 2-fold increase of density of the network of anthropogenic border Using a set of selected landscape metrics, in 2013 Sz. Chmielewski, T. J. Chmielewski lines between land use patches, creating an effect of fragmentation of the spatial and P. Tompalski made the first evaluation of the actual state of landscape diversity in the structure of landscape and of the ecosystems; area of the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve [Chmielewski Sz. et al. 2014] - Increase of built-up areas by ca. 88% in the period of 1952 – 2007; In the study provided in 2015, under the ALTER-Net Environmental History - 5.6-fold increase in the volume of tourist traffic in the period of 1985–2008 (with project, Sz. Chmielewski and T. J. Chmielewski conducts a monitoring of landscape the initiation of recreational use of the region in 1975) [Chmielewski T. J., diversity changes in the Polish part of the “West Polesie” TBR for the following time Jankowska 2009]. transects: 1989 – 2002 – 2014. The source materials were 3 satellite scenes from the Landsat satellite, covering the whole area of the Polish part of the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve: The studies on changes in the land use structure in the area of the “West Polesie” Scene from 1989, acquired by the satellite Landsat 7 TM on the 24th of September, Biosphere Reserve was continued in 2010, expanding the set of lake and peatbog catchment 1989 (image quality 7); basins by another 12 objects. In effect, detailed data on changes in land use structure in 24 Scene from 2002, acquired by the satellite Landsat 7 on the 19th of August, 2002 catchment basins were accumulated [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009, Chmielewski Sz., (image quality 9); Chmielewski T. J. 2010]. Scene from 2014, acquired by the satellite Landsat 8 on the 13th of September, 2014 In 2015, under the ALTER-Net Environmental History project, another series of this (image quality 9). type of research was carried out. It included an analysis of land use structure in 3 catchment In relation to these series of satellite scenes, the procedure consisted of: basins of lakes: mesotrophic lake Piaseczno, eutrophic lake Łukie and mesohumic (previously 1. Acquisition of satellite scenes; – dystrophic) lake Moszne, registered on the digital true colour orthophotomap in 2012. 2. After radiometric and geometric correction, 5-channel colour compositions: Red, Obtained data were compared with the results of previous time sections measurements. Green, Blue, NIR, IR, were prepared; 3. Additionally, principal components analysis (PCA) and Normalised Difference Since the end of XX ct., in many landscape studies a landscape metrics are used. Vegetation Index (NDVI) was performed on a set of raster bands; These are a kind of environmental indicators, defined as measurable biotic and abiotic 4. The images were subjected to supervised classification with the use of 124 training characteristics of the environment, which allow to obtain quantitative data concerning fields; For all three sets of satellite scenes subjected to the classification a common set ecological resources and landscape functioning [McAlpine, Eyre 2002]. Nowadays, landscape of training fields was developed. The training fields were designated on pixels that in metrics are often used for the quantification of landscape patterns [Gustafson 1998] and are each of the three satellite scenes identified the same form of land cover; often used as indicators for landscape functions [Uuemaa et al. 2009]. Uuemaa [2013] 5. For the classification the maximum likelihood classification algorithm was used; reviewed landscape metrics and according to three main groups of landscape functions 6. The following classes were proposed: Meadows, C-Forest, D-forest, Arable areas, classification: habitat, regulation and information [De Groot, 2006], pointed that landscape Wetlands, Water, Built-up Areas; metrics have been mostly used in evaluating these three landscape functions and changes in 7. The result of the classification (raster) was converted to the vector form with land use and land cover landscape structure. conversion to the Polish system of geodesic coordinates PUWG 1992; Computer software is an important element associated with landscape metrics. There 8. The area of the individual classes was calculated; are many desktop software packages that have been designed to provide calculations and analysis of landscape structure patterns in categorical maps, many of them have common

46 4747 9. On the basis of the resultant images of the classification two landscape metrics were habitats, mainly in catchment basins of rivers: Tyśmienic, Bobryk and Włodawka, (Tab. 1). In calculated in the Moving Window approach: SHDI and ED (Edge Density). In both many of the elementary basins of lakes and peatbogs the shrinkage of those habitats cases the adopted value of the search radius was 1000 m; exceeding even 80% (Fig. 41) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. 10. Using the method of map algebra [Tomlin 1994], the differences between metrics The total length of constructed canals and ditches, identified on air photos and calculated for the images from 1989 and the metrics from 2014 were calculated. Areas confirmed on the 1:25000 maps, attained in the study area nearly 1000 km, which gives an where the value of the metrics decreases, increases or remains relatively stable were average density of their network at the level of 47 m/ha of all terrains occupied in the middle indicated. of the century by water bodies and wetlands [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].

Table 1. Changes in the extent of surface waters and wetlands in 6 studied catchment Presented in this chapter a chronological overview of results of landscape research basins of rivers of Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland over 1952 – 1992 [Chmielewski T. J. 2001] allows on the one hand to know the history of research concerning changes occurring in the Catchment Area of waters and Area of waters and Scale of Ite Catchment landscape ecological structure of the West Polesie BR, on the other hand – allows to evaluate basin area wetlands in 1952 wetlands in 1992 change m basin progress in methods and techniques of landscape transformation research, finally – allows to (ha) ha % ha % % 1 Tyśmienica 13.835,0 3.625,64 26,20 1.347,16 9,74 -62,84 explore different stages and aspects of landscape evolution occurred in this unique region. 2 Bobrówka 9.671,0 1.221,14 12,63 908,10 9,39 -25,64 3 Bobryk 2.959,9 1.331,13 44,97 178,29 6,02 -86,61 4 Piwonia 11.763,0 3.589,36 30,51 1.647,77 14,01 -54,09 4.2. Selected results 5 Mietiułka 7.756,0 4.149,50 53,50 2.412,12 31,10 -41,87 6 Włodawka 15.422,6 7.049,80 45,71 1.646,40 10,68 -76,65 7 Total 61.407,5 20.966,57 34,16 8.169,84 13,26 -61,18 4.2.1. Changes in land cover structure in 63 catchment basins in the years 1952 – 1992, based on black & white aerial photos

From the end of the nineteen fifties to mid-eighties of the XXth century area of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland was subjected to intensive large-scale transformations of water relations, related primarily with the construction of the melioration system of the Wieprz– Krzna Canal, development of agriculture and intensified recreational use of the lakes. In the beginning of the 90. XX ct, the carthometric comparative analysis of photointerpretation maps illustrating the land cover structure in 1952 and 1992 were conducted on the area of western and central sectors of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland, with total surface 61,407.5 ha. That area, belonging to the catchment basins of 6 rivers: Tyśmienica, Bobrówka, Bobryk, Piwonia, Mietiułka and Włodawka, was divided into 63 elementary catchment basins, that were then compared to one another in terms of the character and scale of changes taking place in them. This works was supported by field studies, systematically carried out in the period 1986-1992, as well as by the analysis of the description of the environment of this region, included in the studies form the 50. XX ct. [Wilgat 1954; Fijałkowski 1960]. It was Fig. 41. Changes in the share of water and wetlands (%) in 63 catchment basins in the western and central part of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland over 1952 – 1992 [Chmielewski 2001]. demonstrated that in 1952 – 1992 in the study area a strong drainage was performed on a total of ca. 12,800 ha, i.e. on over 61% of all areas occupied hitherto by water and wetland

48 48 49 9. On the basis of the resultant images of the classification two landscape metrics were habitats, mainly in catchment basins of rivers: Tyśmienica, Bobryk and Włodawka, (Tab. 1). calculated in the Moving Window approach: SHDI and ED (Edge Density). In both In many of the elementary basins of lakes and peatbogs the shrinkage of those habitats cases the adopted value of the search radius was 1000 m; exceeding even 80% (Fig. 41) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. 10. Using the method of map algebra [Tomlin 1994], the differences between metrics The total length of constructed canals and ditches, identified on air photos and calculated for the images from 1989 and the metrics from 2014 were calculated. Areas confirmed on the 1:25000 maps, attained in the study area nearly 1000 km, which gives an where the value of the metrics decreases, increases or remains relatively stable were average density of their network at the level of 47 m/ha of all terrains occupied in the middle indicated. of the century by water bodies and wetlands [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].

48 4949 The natural beds of the rivers of the Lakeland were not only straightened and dredged, Table 2. Changes in area of peatbog and cyperaceous communities in 6 studied catchment basins of rivers of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland over 1952-1992 [Chmielewski but is several regions their course was shifted, at the same time changing the system of supply T. J. 2001]. of several lakes. E.g., in the fifties of the 20th century river Piwonia flew across lakes Item Catchment Area of peatbogs and sedge Area of peatbogs and sedge Scale of Nadrybie and Bikcze, while now it bypasses them, like river Tyśmienica bypasses lake basin of river moors in 1952 moors in 1992 changes Krzczeń from which it once flew out. Lake Krasne was once an endorheic lake, but now it is ha % of catch. area ha % of catch. area % supplied from the Wieprz–Krzna Canal and its water supplies river Bobrówka via a system of 1 Tyśmienica 1770,7 12,8 169,3 1,2 -90,4 2 Bobrówka 378,5 3,9 129,2 1,3 -65,8 ponds. 3 Bobryk 657,3 22,2 78,4 2,6 -88,1 4 Piwonia 1611,6 13,7 667,4 5,7 -58,6 Lakes: Dratów, Mytycze, Krzczeń, Tomaszne, Skomielno and Wytyckie have been 5 Mietiułka 1202,0 15,5 131,0 1,7 -89,1 surrounded with embankments and turned into retention reservoirs for agriculture, with 6 Włodawka 5210,1 33,7 1741,3 11,3 -66,6 7 Total 10830,2 17,6 2916,6 4,8 -73,1 combined area of 1200 ha, supplied from system of the Wieprz–Krzna Canal. Also lakes Uściwierz, Bikcze and Zagłębocze, with outstanding nature values, have been partially embanked and included into the WKC system. Up till the year 1992, the largest areas of open (not covered with forests and bushes) The intensive drainage programs conducted in the Lakeland from the fifties to the peatbogs and sedge swamps were preserved in the upper parts of catchment basins of rivers eighties of the XXth century were accompanied by significant changes in land use structure. Piwonia and Włodawka, forming 3 main territorial complexes: It was found that in the 2nd half of the XXth century 7 trends dominated in the – Bog Bubnów and Bog Staw transformations of the area under analysis: – Complex of Uściwierskie Lakes and basin of Lake Łukie 1 – shrinkage of area of water bodies, peatbogs, sedge moors and bogs, combined – Catchment basins of lakes Moszne and Długie and Durne Marsh. with terrain dissection with a dense network of melioration ditches However, in none of the 63 analysed elementary catchments the share of open 2 – increase of forest areas peatbogs and sedge swamps exceeded 15% in 1992. 3 – decrease of area of agrocenoses with simultaneous increase of crop diversity A part of the drained peatbogs were ploughed and transformed into grasslands, while 4 – increase of built-up areas with the following character: another part was subject to natural forest succession. Also, the poorest agricultural lands were – scattered in the open agricultural landscape artificially afforested. As a result, over the period of 1952 – 1992 the forest area of the region – dense around lakes under recreational use increased by 7484.8 ha, i.e. 2.3-fold, which meant an increase of afforestation from 9.1 to 5 – increase of road network density 21.3% (Tab. 3). 6 – intensive development of tourist traffic 7 – fragmentation of spatial structure of landscape and increase of mosaic character Table 3. Changes in forest area in 6 studied catchment basins of rivers of the Łęczna– Włodawa Lakeland over 1952-1992 [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. of agricultural-settlement-forest terrains [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. Item Catchment Area of forests in 1952. Area of forests in 1992 Scale of basin of river changes During 40 years (1952 – 1992), in the study area over 73% of the surface of peatbog ha % of catch. area ha % of catch. area % and sedge communities underwent degradation, out of which in the catchment basins of river 1 Tyśmienica 1166,2 8,4 1695,8 12,2 45,4 Tyśmienica – 90.4%, Mietiułka – 89.1%, Bobryk – 88.1%, and Włodawka – 66.6%. A 2 Bobrówka 1554,4 16,1 2754,6 28,5 77,2 3 Bobryk 184,6 6,2 1039,3 35,1 46,3 somewhat smaller scale of degradation of peatbogs and sedge swamps was observed in the 4 Piwonia 636,1 5,4 2576,4 21,9 305,0 5 Mietiułka 1357,0 17,5 3009,0 38,8 121,7 catchment basins of rivers Piwonia (58.6%) and Bobrówka (65.1%) (Tab. 2). 6 Włodawka 681,6 4,4 1989,6 12,9 191,9 7 Total 5579,9 9,1 13064,7 21,3 134,1

50 50 51 The natural beds of the rivers of the Lakeland were not only straightened and dredged, Table 2. Changes in area of peatbog and cyperaceous communities in 6 studied catchment basins of rivers of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland over 1952-1992 [Chmielewski but is several regions their course was shifted, at the same time changing the system of supply T. J. 2001]. of several lakes. E.g., in the fifties of the 20th century river Piwonia flew across lakes Item Catchment Area of peatbogs and sedge Area of peatbogs and sedge Scale of Nadrybie and Bikcze, while now it bypasses them, like river Tyśmienica bypasses lake basin of river moors in 1952 moors in 1992 changes Krzczeń from which it once flew out. Lake Krasne was once an endorheic lake, but now it is ha % of catch. area ha % of catch. area % supplied from the Wieprz–Krzna Canal and its water supplies river Bobrówka via a system of 1 Tyśmienica 1770,7 12,8 169,3 1,2 -90,4 2 Bobrówka 378,5 3,9 129,2 1,3 -65,8 ponds. 3 Bobryk 657,3 22,2 78,4 2,6 -88,1 4 Piwonia 1611,6 13,7 667,4 5,7 -58,6 Lakes: Dratów, Mytycze, Krzczeń, Tomaszne, Skomielno and Wytyckie have been 5 Mietiułka 1202,0 15,5 131,0 1,7 -89,1 surrounded with embankments and turned into retention reservoirs for agriculture, with 6 Włodawka 5210,1 33,7 1741,3 11,3 -66,6 7 Total 10830,2 17,6 2916,6 4,8 -73,1 combined area of 1200 ha, supplied from system of the Wieprz–Krzna Canal. Also lakes Uściwierz, Bikcze and Zagłębocze, with outstanding nature values, have been partially embanked and included into the WKC system. Up till the year 1992, the largest areas of open (not covered with forests and bushes) The intensive drainage programs conducted in the Lakeland from the fifties to the peatbogs and sedge swamps were preserved in the upper parts of catchment basins of rivers eighties of the XXth century were accompanied by significant changes in land use structure. Piwonia and Włodawka, forming 3 main territorial complexes: It was found that in the 2nd half of the XXth century 7 trends dominated in the – Bog Bubnów and Bog Staw transformations of the area under analysis: – Complex of Uściwierskie Lakes and basin of Lake Łukie 1 – shrinkage of area of water bodies, peatbogs, sedge moors and bogs, combined – Catchment basins of lakes Moszne and Długie and Durne Marsh. with terrain dissection with a dense network of melioration ditches However, in none of the 63 analysed elementary catchments the share of open 2 – increase of forest areas peatbogs and sedge swamps exceeded 15% in 1992. 3 – decrease of area of agrocenoses with simultaneous increase of crop diversity A part of the drained peatbogs were ploughed and transformed into grasslands, while 4 – increase of built-up areas with the following character: another part was subject to natural forest succession. Also, the poorest agricultural lands were – scattered in the open agricultural landscape artificially afforested. As a result, over the period of 1952 – 1992 the forest area of the region – dense around lakes under recreational use increased by 7484.8 ha, i.e. 2.3-fold, which meant an increase of afforestation from 9.1 to 5 – increase of road network density 21.3% (Tab. 3). 6 – intensive development of tourist traffic 7 – fragmentation of spatial structure of landscape and increase of mosaic character Table 3. Changes in forest area in 6 studied catchment basins of rivers of the Łęczna– Włodawa Lakeland over 1952-1992 [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. of agricultural-settlement-forest terrains [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. Item Catchment Area of forests in 1952. Area of forests in 1992 Scale of basin of river changes During 40 years (1952 – 1992), in the study area over 73% of the surface of peatbog ha % of catch. area ha % of catch. area % and sedge communities underwent degradation, out of which in the catchment basins of river 1 Tyśmienica 1166,2 8,4 1695,8 12,2 45,4 Tyśmienica – 90.4%, Mietiułka – 89.1%, Bobryk – 88.1%, and Włodawka – 66.6%. A 2 Bobrówka 1554,4 16,1 2754,6 28,5 77,2 3 Bobryk 184,6 6,2 1039,3 35,1 46,3 somewhat smaller scale of degradation of peatbogs and sedge swamps was observed in the 4 Piwonia 636,1 5,4 2576,4 21,9 305,0 5 Mietiułka 1357,0 17,5 3009,0 38,8 121,7 catchment basins of rivers Piwonia (58.6%) and Bobrówka (65.1%) (Tab. 2). 6 Włodawka 681,6 4,4 1989,6 12,9 191,9 7 Total 5579,9 9,1 13064,7 21,3 134,1

50 5151 – development of the recreation function (the first resort in the study area appeared The greatest scale of those changes occurred in the centre of the study area, i.e. in the in 1975, on lake Piaseczno; in 1998 at the height of the summer season there were catchment basins of rivers: Bobryk and Piwonia, while the highest rate of afforestation was up to 20,000 persons daily in that region); characteristic in 1992 for the catchments of Bobrówka and Bobryk and for the complex of – establishment, from the start of the nineteen seventies, of large-scale breeding catchments of lake Moszne - lake Długie - Durne Marsh situated in the watershed zone of farms and construction of housing for employees next to them (in the areas under rivers Piwonia and Włodawka (belonging to the Vistula and Bug river basins). analysis 8 such complexes were built); Comparative analysis of the aerial photos revealed, however, that in the study area – start of operation (in 1975) – in the vicinity of the study region – of the Lublin deforestation took place as well as afforestation. In total only ca. 20% of the forest areas Coal Basin (Lubelskie Zagłębie Węglowe); occurring there in the 50. of the XXth century remained on the same sites until the end of the – development of road network (over the period of 1952-1992 the length of surfaced century. This means that ca. 80% of forest ecosystems of the region are 50 years old or less. roads in the study area increased 2.1-fold) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. The area of agrocenoses had been increasing in the till the beginning of the nineteen With the development of the recreational function, next to the rural buildings eighties, mainly at the expense of large-area elimination of peatbogs. After that, however, it recreational construction started to appear in the landscape of the Lakeland. However, it did began to shrink gradually. In the period of 1952 – 1992 the total area of agrocenoses not appear in the existing structures of village settlement systems but initially formed colonies decreased by ca. 1500 ha, i.e. less than 5%. That process, however, was accompanied by on the shores of the most recreationally attractive lakes, and then – increasingly compact rings notable fragmentation of the spatial structure of the agrocenoses. The main reasons for that around the lakes, up to the point of significant degradation of the nature and recreational phenomenon were the following: values of the lakes and of the cultural landscape. – succession of a mosaic of tree and bush patches on post-arable lands Over the period of 1952-1992 the greatest expansion of built-up areas occurred in the – secondary division of private plots of land, especially in the vicinity of lakes under catchment basins of rivers: Tyśmienica (162.3 ha), Bobrówka (161.0 ha) and Włodawka recreational use (106.7 ha), and the smallest – in the basins of rivers: Mietiułka (23.0 ha) and Bobryk (30.5 – privatisation of fragments of former extensive agricultural monocultures (after the ha). In turn, the percentage scale of the increase was the greatest in the catchment basins of defunct State Farms) rivers Piwonia (100.3%) and Bobryk (96.9%) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. – increase of density of road network in the agricultural landscape. However, compared to the dynamics of quantitative and qualitative changes that 4.2.2. Changes in the length and density of landscape boundary network in 63 catchment during the study period occurred in the peatbog and forest ecosystems, agrocenoses turned out basins in the years 1952 – 1992, based on black & white aerial photos to be land use systems with greater stability. After 1975 the processes of development of settlement network had a significant effect Analysis of density of the network of landscape boundaries (i.e. the density of the in the functional-spatial structure of the region. Those were a resultant of several coinciding network of boundaries between patches of various forms of land cover, melioration ditches, factors: roads, permanent fencing etc.) revealed that generally, in almost the entire area, in the years – reduction of rural population and ageing of villages (in the period of 1978-1999 1952 – 1992 there was an increase of the total length of landscape boundaries (by 20 % on the population of the entire area under analysis decreased by 3.2%, the average) and an increase of the density of their network (average of 24.1 %). It means that depopulation of areas with a large share of forests and bogs being faster than of there was a disintegration of the ecological structure of landscape, indicated by a decrease in areas with predominance of arable lands); average size of patches by 12.4% (Fig. 42) [Chmielewski 2003].

52 52 53 – development of the recreation function (the first resort in the study area appeared The greatest scale of those changes occurred in the centre of the study area, i.e. in the in 1975, on lake Piaseczno; in 1998 at the height of the summer season there were catchment basins of rivers: Bobryk and Piwonia, while the highest rate of afforestation was up to 20,000 persons daily in that region); characteristic in 1992 for the catchments of Bobrówka and Bobryk and for the complex of – establishment, from the start of the nineteen seventies, of large-scale breeding catchments of lake Moszne - lake Długie - Durne Marsh situated in the watershed zone of farms and construction of housing for employees next to them (in the areas under rivers Piwonia and Włodawka (belonging to the Vistula and Bug river basins). analysis 8 such complexes were built); Comparative analysis of the aerial photos revealed, however, that in the study area – start of operation (in 1975) – in the vicinity of the study region – of the Lublin deforestation took place as well as afforestation. In total only ca. 20% of the forest areas Coal Basin (Lubelskie Zagłębie Węglowe); occurring there in the 50. of the XXth century remained on the same sites until the end of the – development of road network (over the period of 1952-1992 the length of surfaced century. This means that ca. 80% of forest ecosystems of the region are 50 years old or less. roads in the study area increased 2.1-fold) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. The area of agrocenoses had been increasing in the till the beginning of the nineteen With the development of the recreational function, next to the rural buildings eighties, mainly at the expense of large-area elimination of peatbogs. After that, however, it recreational construction started to appear in the landscape of the Lakeland. However, it did began to shrink gradually. In the period of 1952 – 1992 the total area of agrocenoses not appear in the existing structures of village settlement systems but initially formed colonies decreased by ca. 1500 ha, i.e. less than 5%. That process, however, was accompanied by on the shores of the most recreationally attractive lakes, and then – increasingly compact rings notable fragmentation of the spatial structure of the agrocenoses. The main reasons for that around the lakes, up to the point of significant degradation of the nature and recreational phenomenon were the following: values of the lakes and of the cultural landscape. – succession of a mosaic of tree and bush patches on post-arable lands Over the period of 1952-1992 the greatest expansion of built-up areas occurred in the – secondary division of private plots of land, especially in the vicinity of lakes under catchment basins of rivers: Tyśmienica (162.3 ha), Bobrówka (161.0 ha) and Włodawka recreational use (106.7 ha), and the smallest – in the basins of rivers: Mietiułka (23.0 ha) and Bobryk (30.5 – privatisation of fragments of former extensive agricultural monocultures (after the ha). In turn, the percentage scale of the increase was the greatest in the catchment basins of defunct State Farms) rivers Piwonia (100.3%) and Bobryk (96.9%) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. – increase of density of road network in the agricultural landscape. However, compared to the dynamics of quantitative and qualitative changes that 4.2.2. Changes in the length and density of landscape boundary network in 63 catchment during the study period occurred in the peatbog and forest ecosystems, agrocenoses turned out basins in the years 1952 – 1992, based on black & white aerial photos to be land use systems with greater stability. After 1975 the processes of development of settlement network had a significant effect Analysis of density of the network of landscape boundaries (i.e. the density of the in the functional-spatial structure of the region. Those were a resultant of several coinciding network of boundaries between patches of various forms of land cover, melioration ditches, factors: roads, permanent fencing etc.) revealed that generally, in almost the entire area, in the years – reduction of rural population and ageing of villages (in the period of 1978-1999 1952 – 1992 there was an increase of the total length of landscape boundaries (by 20 % on the population of the entire area under analysis decreased by 3.2%, the average) and an increase of the density of their network (average of 24.1 %). It means that depopulation of areas with a large share of forests and bogs being faster than of there was a disintegration of the ecological structure of landscape, indicated by a decrease in areas with predominance of arable lands); average size of patches by 12.4% (Fig. 42) [Chmielewski 2003].

52 5353 Comparing to 1952, several or even over a dozen new types of land use boundaries A moderate scale of transformations of the structure of landscape boundaries occurred have appeared in many elementary basins, which is related to the increase of land use in the catchment basins of lakes: Mytycze, Krzczeń, Zagłębocze, Głębokie Uścimowskie, diversity (productive grasslands, recreational facilities, permanent building structures, etc.). Miejskie and Rotcze, located in the western part of the study area. Peatbogs were transformed Total length of land use boundaries between forest and other types of ecosystems into meadows there, so boundaries: peatbog / watercourse decreased and boundaries: meadow increased, as well as the length of the following land use boundaries: meadow/watercourse, / watercourse – increased. Recreational facilities have greatly developed in the lake basins forest/watercourse, meadow/linear afforestation, field/linear afforestation. The number of land Zagłębocze and Rotcze (over areas of about 60 and 50 ha). Around Mytycze and Krzczeń lake use boundaries between peats and other ecosystems has decreased. catchment basins, embankments were built and water level elevated (changed into a storage In the catchment basin of Lake Brzeziczno, protected since 1959 as a nature reserve, reservoir for agriculture). the loss of total length of peatbog boundaries (by ~ 4 %) and an increase in the content of The greatest changes occurred in structure of lake catchment basins Kleszczów and forest boundaries (9.6 %) was noticed. A loss of lake’s area and drying of a part of peatbog Płotycze. Peatbogs surrounding these lakes were cut apart by a dense network of drainage were noticed here. It is the only catchment of lake among the investigated ones, at which there ditches ,and as a result, many patches of shrubs and rushes appeared, so a very significant was a slight growth of the average size of the patch (forests succession) and a decrease of the increase (by 62 %) of the total length of transitional zones occurred and a decrease in the network of land use boundaries density. Similar trends have occurred only in 3 catchments average size of the patch ( –24 % in the object Kleszczów and –25.5 % in the object Płotycze) located in small river valleys, dominated by wet forests (Włodawka river valley) or big ponds was observed. This means that the landscape of the catchment basins of these lakes became and hay meadows (Tyśmienica river valley) (Fig. 42) [Chmielewski 2003]. more mosaic [Chmielewski 2003]. Some of the analysed landscape boundaries (in 1992 – approx. 36 %) are natural zones between adjacent ecosystems, which means that they constitute ecotones in the classic understanding of this term [Van den Maarel 1976, Naiman et al. 1989]. Some (approx. 12 %) of the analysed boundaries can be considered as natural/anthropogenic ecotones (for example: peatbog / meadow; forest / field). However, among the analysed boundaries, the biggest group (about 52%) is that constituted by linear structures developed by human activity (for example: field – settlement, field – orchard, meadow – road, etc.). Over the analysed period, the share of anthropogenic boundaries in some naturally valuable sectors of the investigated area increased even over 2-fold (Fig. 43, 44) [Chmielewski 2001].

4.2.3. Changes in land use structure in western and central part of the West Polesie BR in the years 1952 – 2012, based on black & white and true colour aerial photos

In 2015, for the area covering the same cluster of 63 elementary catchment basins described in section 4.2.1., the analysis of land cover structure changes that have taken place in this area during the period of 60 years (1952 – 2012) was performed.

Fig. 42. Changes in the density of landscape boundaries network in 63 catchment basins over 1952 – 1992 [Chmielewski 2003].

54 54 55 Comparing to 1952, several or even over a dozen new types of land use boundaries A moderate scale of transformations of the structure of landscape boundaries occurred have appeared in many elementary basins, which is related to the increase of land use in the catchment basins of lakes: Mytycze, Krzczeń, Zagłębocze, Głębokie Uścimowskie, diversity (productive grasslands, recreational facilities, permanent building structures, etc.). Miejskie and Rotcze, located in the western part of the study area. Peatbogs were transformed Total length of land use boundaries between forest and other types of ecosystems into meadows there, so boundaries: peatbog / watercourse decreased and boundaries: meadow increased, as well as the length of the following land use boundaries: meadow/watercourse, / watercourse – increased. Recreational facilities have greatly developed in the lake basins forest/watercourse, meadow/linear afforestation, field/linear afforestation. The number of land Zagłębocze and Rotcze (over areas of about 60 and 50 ha). Around Mytycze and Krzczeń lake use boundaries between peats and other ecosystems has decreased. catchment basins, embankments were built and water level elevated (changed into a storage In the catchment basin of Lake Brzeziczno, protected since 1959 as a nature reserve, reservoir for agriculture). the loss of total length of peatbog boundaries (by ~ 4 %) and an increase in the content of The greatest changes occurred in structure of lake catchment basins Kleszczów and forest boundaries (9.6 %) was noticed. A loss of lake’s area and drying of a part of peatbog Płotycze. Peatbogs surrounding these lakes were cut apart by a dense network of drainage were noticed here. It is the only catchment of lake among the investigated ones, at which there ditches ,and as a result, many patches of shrubs and rushes appeared, so a very significant was a slight growth of the average size of the patch (forests succession) and a decrease of the increase (by 62 %) of the total length of transitional zones occurred and a decrease in the network of land use boundaries density. Similar trends have occurred only in 3 catchments average size of the patch ( –24 % in the object Kleszczów and –25.5 % in the object Płotycze) located in small river valleys, dominated by wet forests (Włodawka river valley) or big ponds was observed. This means that the landscape of the catchment basins of these lakes became and hay meadows (Tyśmienica river valley) (Fig. 42) [Chmielewski 2003]. more mosaic [Chmielewski 2003]. Some of the analysed landscape boundaries (in 1992 – approx. 36 %) are natural zones between adjacent ecosystems, which means that they constitute ecotones in the classic understanding of this term [Van den Maarel 1976, Naiman et al. 1989]. Some (approx. 12 %) of the analysed boundaries can be considered as natural/anthropogenic ecotones (for example: peatbog / meadow; forest / field). However, among the analysed boundaries, the biggest group (about 52%) is that constituted by linear structures developed by human activity (for example: field – settlement, field – orchard, meadow – road, etc.). Over the analysed period, the share of anthropogenic boundaries in some naturally valuable sectors of the investigated area increased even over 2-fold (Fig. 43, 44) [Chmielewski 2001].

4.2.3. Changes in land use structure in western and central part of the West Polesie BR in the years 1952 – 2012, based on black & white and true colour aerial photos

Fig. 42. Changes in the density of landscape boundaries network in 63 catchment basins over 1952 – 1992 [Chmielewski 2003].

54 5555 Fig. 43. The network of landscape boundaries in the Bikcze – Uściwierz – Nadrybie Lakes Cluster in 1952 [Chmielewski 2001] Fig. 44. The network of landscape boundaries in the Bikcze – Uściwierz – Nadrybie lakes cluster in 1992 [Chmielewski 2001]

56 56 57 Fig. 43. The network of landscape boundaries in the Bikcze – Uściwierz – Nadrybie lakes cluster in 1952 [Chmielewski 2001] Fig. 44. The network of landscape boundaries in the Bikcze – Uściwierz – Nadrybie Lakes Cluster in 1992 [Chmielewski 2001]

56 5757 The analog map of land cover structure in 1952, was based on stereo-pair of black- and-white aerial photos 1: 25000 [Zakrzewski et al. in. 1993]. In 2015 map this was transposed into a GIS, while reducing its legend to 7 main forms of land cover: (1) – lakes and ponds, (2) - wetlands, (3) – coniferous forests, (4) – deciduous forests, (5) –meadows, (6) – arable lands, (7) – build-up areas (Fig. 45). In the same year (2015), for the same area, based on the digital orthophotomap from 2012 (real colour, with the addition of infrared channel) the map of the same forms of land cover was developed (Fig. 46).

Fig. 46. Analysis of land cover structure the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR in 2012. A. Location of the study area: 1 – border of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR, 2 – border of the 63 elementary catchment basins cluster, B. Land cover structure: 3 – lakes and ponds, 4 – wetlands, 5 – coniferous forest 6 – deciduous forest, 7 – meadows, 8 – arable lands, 9 – built-up areas (elaborated by A. Kułak 2015).

Both maps were subjected to cartometric comparative analysis. It was found that in the analyzed period (60 years), in the study area the following changes occurred (Fig. 47): - the surface of lakes and ponds increased near about 530 ha, mainly as a result of extending the area of existing and creation of new ponds, as well as a result of transformation a few lakes into retention reservoirs (among others: Mytycze, Fig. 45. Analysis of land cover structure the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR in 1952. A. Krzczeń, Tomaszne, Skomielno, Wytyckie); but in the same time 7 small natural Location of the study area: 1 – border of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR, 2 – border lakes have disappeared (Orzechówek, Lejno {KahiŜa}, Ciesacin, Karaśne by the of the 63 elementary catchment basins cluster, B. Land cover structure: 3 – lakes and ponds, 4 – wetlands, 5 – coniferous forest 6 – deciduous forest, 7 – meadows, 8 – arable lands, 9 – Urszulin, Wąskie, Myczółki, Laskie); built-up areas (elaborated by A. Kułak 2015). - the surface of wetlands increased near three times: from 17565,5 ha in 1952 year to hardly 6092,4 ha in 2012 year, as a result of drastic drying the area and transformation the peat-bog communities to the meadows;

58 58 59 The analog map of land cover structure in 1952, was based on stereo-pair of black- and-white aerial photos 1: 25000 [Zakrzewski i in. 1993]. In 2015 map this was transposed into a GIS, while reducing its legend to 7 main forms of land cover: (1) – lakes and ponds, (2) – wetlands, (3) – coniferous forests, (4) – deciduous forests, (5) – meadows, (6) – arable lands, (7) – build-up areas (Fig. 45). In the same year (2015), for the same area, based on the digital othophotomap from 2012 (real colour, with the addition of infrared channel) the map of the same forms of land cover was developed (Fig. 46).

Both maps were subjected to cartometric comparative analysis. It was found that in the analyzed period (60 years), in the study area the following changes occurred (Fig. 47): - the surface of lakes and ponds increased near about 530 ha, mainly as a result of extending the area of existing and creation of new ponds, as well as a result of transformation a few lakes into retention reservoirs (among others: Mytycze, Fig. 45. Analysis of land cover structure the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR in 1952. A. Krzczeń, Tomaszne, Skomielno, Wytyckie); but in the same time 7 small natural Location of the study area: 1 – border of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR, 2 – border lakes have disappeared (Orzechówek, Lejno {KahiŜa}, Ciesacin, Karaśne by the of the 63 elementary catchment basins cluster, B. Land cover structure: 3 – lakes and ponds, 4 – wetlands, 5 – coniferous forest 6 – deciduous forest, 7 – meadows, 8 – arable lands, 9 – Urszulin, Wąskie, Myczółki, Laskie); built-up areas (elaborated by A. Kułak 2015). - the surface of wetlands decreased near three times: from 17565,5 ha in 1952 year to hardly 6092,4 ha in 2012 year, as a result of drastic drying the area and transformation the peat-bog communities to the meadows;

58 5959 - the surface of coniferous and deciduous forests increased respectively by 5492 ha To investigate the trends and dynamics of these changes on a local scale, detailed and 4110 ha, mainly as a result of natural succession on drained peatbogs and photo-interpretative analysis were subjected to 3 selected catchment basins of lakes, in 4 afforestation of agricultural areas; time cuts: 1952, 1992, 2007 and 2012 (see section 4.2.5). - in 1952 meadows and fallows covered 15,3% of the total research area, in 2012 – already 21,9%; this process was caused mainly by the transformation a part of drained peatbogs on the meadows and former farmlands on the fallows; 4.2.4. Changes in land use structure and landscape diversity of the ‘West Polesie’ - the surface of arable lands decreased by 16,5% as a result of transformation to the Biosphere Reserve in the years 1989 – 2014, based on Landsat imagery built-up areas and forests; - the surface of built-up areas increased from 995,5 ha in 1952 to 2461,2 ha in 2012. Generating a series of land cover maps for the whole area of the West Polesie BR located in Poland was enable thanks to the analysis of a Landsat’s satellite imagery from the years: 1989 – 2002 – 2014. This task was carried out in 2015, according to the method described in section 4.1. For example, Fig. 48 presents the land cover structure in 2002.

Fig. 48. The main land cover forms in the Polish part of the ‘Wesr Polesie’ TBR in 2002 (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015). Legend: 1 – lakes and ponds, 2 – wetlands, 3 – coniferous forests, 4 – deciduous forests, 5 – meadows, 6 – arable lands, 7 – build-up areas. Fig. 47. The main changes in the land cover structure the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR in the period 1952 – 2012 (elaborated A. Kułak 2015).

60 60 61 - the surface of coniferous and deciduous forests increased respectively by 5492 ha To investigate the trends and dynamics of these changes on a local scale, detailed and 4110 ha, mainly as a result of natural succession on drained peatbogs and photo-interpretative analysis were subjected to 3 selected catchment basins of lakes, in 4 afforestation of agricultural areas; time cuts: 1952, 1992, 2007 and 2012 (see section 4.2.5). - in 1952 meadows and fallows covered 15,3% of the total research area, in 2012 – already 21,9%; this process was caused mainly by the transformation a part of drained peatbogs on the meadows and former farmlands on the fallows; 4.2.4. Changes in land use structure and landscape diversity of the ‘West Polesie’ - the surface of arable lands decreased by 16,5% as a result of transformatoin to the Biosphere Reserve in the years 1989 – 2014, based on Landsat imagery built-up areas and forests; - the surface of built-up areas increased from 995,5 ha in 1952 to 2461,2 ha in 2012. Generating a series of land cover maps for the whole area of the West Polesie BR located in Poland was enable thanks to the analysis of a Landsat’s satellite imagery from the years: 1989 – 2002 – 2014. This task was carried out in 2015, according to the method described in section 4.1. For example, Fig. 48 presents the land cover structure in 2002.

60 6161 Structure and surface share of delimited 7 main land cover classes changed significantly through the analyzed time cuts. In global study area, the biggest changes taking place form 1989 to 2014 concerned the increase in built-up areas (48%) and arable lands (37%), whilst the decrease in the area of meadows (-49%) and wetlands (-25%). Distinct is also increase in coniferous forests (14%). Built-up areas developed mainly on the former arable lands; arable lands – mainly on the territory of drained meadows, forests – mainly on the place of wetlands, meadows and poor arable lands (in this, coniferous forests – mainly on the area of drained peatbogs).

State and changes of the landscape diversity was assessed by means of selected landscape metrics. Using moving window approach, a two landscape metrics: Shannon Diversity Index (SHDI) and Edge Density metric (ED) were calculated and mapped (Fig 49 and 50). ED is a measurement of the complexity of the shapes of patches and expression of the spatial heterogeneity of a landscape mosaic, SHDI is the measure of landscape patches diversity. The monitoring of those two basics parameters can answer the question about the direction and the scale of landscape pattern changes. The example of Figs 49 and 50 reveals significant correlation between those two Fig. 49. ED index values on the study area in 2002 (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015). indexes, both ED and SHDI reaches the highest values almost in the same areas. In this way the most diverse landscapes of the study area were detected by proposed metrics.

In scale of whole study area, the monitoring of landscape diversity changes in subsequent time sections has particular importance. Landscape metric changes can provide information about both positive and negative (for man and for nature) landscape transformations. Increase of the used landscape metrics usually is associated with natural ecological process (like natural plant succession), but also with dispersion of anthropogenic forms of land development and landscape fragmentation. The reduction of this indexes can be a signal of land-use unification. An example of landscape diversity metrics changes is presented on a Fig. 51.

Fig. 50. SHDI values on the study area in 2002 (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015).

62 62 63 Structure and surface share of delimited 7 main land cover classes changed significantly through the analyzed time cuts. In global study area, the biggest changes taking place form 1989 to 2014 concerned the increase in built-up areas (48%) and arable lands (37%), whilst the decrease in the area of meadows (-49%) and wetlands (-25%). Distinct is also increase in coniferous forests (14%). Built-up areas developed mainly on the former arable lands; arable lands – mainly on the territory of drained meadows, forests – mainly on the place of wetlands, meadows and poor arable lands (in this, coniferous forests – mainly on the area of drained peatbogs).

Fig. 50. SHDI values on the study area in 2002 (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015).

62 6363 decrease of ED index value are not automatically related with processes beneficial or unfavourable for the natural environment and the values of landscape physiognomy. Similar trends in this metrics changes may indicate diverse processes. Analogous relations were also observed in the variation of values of SHDI index. SHDI metrics reached a maximum value 1,84 and happened in 2014, at several sites with intensive recreational development of valuable natural areas (Fig. 50). The diversified scale (from low to high) of increase and decrease of SHDI between 1989 – 2014 occurred respectively on 19% and 42% of the study area, while 39% of the area showed a very low level of change, not greater than +/- 0.1 value of SHDI. Thus the same directions of changes in the values of indices ED and/or SHDI may indicate totally different processes taking place in the landscape. Therefore, their values should carefully confronted every time with the character of key components of the natural environment and of changes taking place in the land use structure.

Detailed analyses of landscape diversity changes on the ‘West Polesie’ BR are the subject of elaboration a separate scientific publication (in preparation). Fig. 51. Changes of ED index on the study area over 1998 – 2014 (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015). 4.2.5. Changes in land use structure in selected lake catchment basins in the years 1952 – 2012, based on black & white and true colour aerial photos

It was demonstrated that, among others, the values of index ED (density of the According to the methods described in the section 4.1., detailed data on changes in landscape boundaries network) decreases in areas of intensive agricultural land use, which land use structure in 24 lake and peatbogs catchment basins were collected for the period should be attributed to the increasing appearance of large-area monoculture cultivations. That 1952 (1971) – 2007 and additionally in 3 catchment basins also for the period 2007 – 2012. index decreases also is certain forest areas, where felling sites and young stands are replaced The research areas were selected so that: (1) they were situated in various parts (zones) by mature tree stands. Whereas, ED index values increase where agriculture is extensive and of the Biosphere Reserve, (2) included lakes with various trophy types: mesotrophic, – through natural succession – irregular patches of forest and scrub communities develop and eutrophic and dystrophic (mesohumus), each of the trophy types being represented by a tree lines and groups are formed (e.g. along non-maintained drainage ditches). ED index minimum of 2 objects, (3) contained diverse types of peatbog and forest habitats, and (4) values increase also in the area of forests that attained the felling age and in their represented various stages of anthropogenic transformation of ecosystems and landscape (Fig. homogeneous and hitherto compact structure there appear perforations – felling site areas. 52) [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009, Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2010]. In the whole study area scale, the ED metrics reached a maximum value 137,77 and In this section of results, only data relating to 3 lakes investigated under the happened in 2014 in very different types of mosaic landscapes. The diversified scale (from Environmental History Project are presented (Fig. 53 – 61). low to high) of increase and decrease of ED between 1989 – 2014 occurred respectively on 27% and 29 % of the study area, while 44 % of the area showed a very low level of change changes, not greater than +/- 10 value of ED (Fig. 49). We noticed that an increase or a

64 64 65 decrease of ED index value are not automatically related with processes beneficial or unfavourable for the natural environment and the values of landscape physiognomy. Similar trends in this metrics changes may indicate diverse processes. Analogous relations were also observed in the variation of values of SHDI index. SHDI metrics reached a maximum value 1,84 and happened in 2014, at several sites with intensive recreational development of valuable natural areas (Fig. 50). The diversified scale (from low to high) of increase and decrease of SHDI between 1989 – 2014 occurred respectively on 19% and 42% of the study area, while 39% of the area showed a very low level of change, not greater than +/- 0.1 value of SHDI. Thus the same directions of changes in the values of indices ED and/or SHDI may indicate totally different processes taking place in the landscape. Therefore, their values should carefully confronted every time with the character of key components of the natural environment and of changes taking place in the land use structure.

64 6565 4.2.5.1. Changes taking place in the catchment basin of mesotrophic Lake Pisaeczno

Mesotrophic lakes are among the most attractive in terms of recreational use in the entire Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland. Pure waters and easily accessible, often sandy banks caused that the lakes were the first to become an object of interest for tourists, and around them various forms of recreational infrastructure began to appear gradually. In this category of objects the lakes chosen for the study were Lake Piaseczno. Lake Piaseczno is situated in the south-western part of the Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 52), investigated under the research on the area of the Łęczna Lakeland Landscape Park. In the 50. XX ct. it was surrounded asins mainly by arable lands (Fig. 53); since the 70. XX ct. around this lake began to increase forest cover and develop ever more intense recreational buildings (Fig. 54). b catchment ake 2 – l – 2 oland; in P eserve R

project realized in 2006 – 2009; Names of the lakes investigate d under Environmental History Project: Pi Piaseczno; Łk – Łukie; Mo Moszne. Legend: 1 – boundary of the Biosphere Fig. 52. Location of studied lake catchment basins in the area of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015).

Fig. 53. Land cover structure in the catchment basin of Lake Piaseczno in 1952: 1. catchment boundary; 2. open water table of the lake; 3. bog pools; 4. peat pits; 5. rush communities; 6. peat bogs with sphagna, moss-grown sites and cyperaceous meadows; 7. soddy low moors; 8. high moor; 9. scrub communities; 10. forests; 11. meadows; 12. fields; 13. sandy beach (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski, published in: Chmielewski Sz. Chmielewski T. J. 2009).

66 66 67 4.2.5.1. Changes taking place in the catchment basin of mesotrophic Lake Pisaeczno

Mesotrophic lakes are among the most attractive in terms of recreational use in the entire Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland. Pure waters and easily accessible, often sandy banks caused that the lakes were the first to become an object of interest for tourists, and around them various forms of recreational infrastructure began to appear gradually. In this category of objects the lakes chosen for the study were Lake Piaseczno. Lake Piaseczno is situated in the south-western part of the Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 52), on the area of the Łęczna Lakeland Landscape Park. In the 50. XX ct. it was surrounded mainly by arable lands (Fig. 53); since the 70. XX ct. around this lake began to increase forest cover and develop ever more intense recreational buildings (Fig. 54).

Fig. 52. Location of studied lake catchment basins in the area of the Polish part of the ‘West Fig. 53. Land cover structure in the catchment basin of Lake Piaseczno in 1952: 1. catchment Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015). boundary; 2. open water table of the lake; 3. bog pools; 4. peat pits; 5. rush communities; 6. peat bogs Legend: 1 – boundary of the Biosphere Reserve in Poland; 2 – lake catchment basins with sphagna, moss-grown sites and cyperaceous meadows; 7. soddy low moors; 8. high moor; 9. investigated under the research project realized in 2006 – 2009; Names of the lakes scrub communities; 10. forests; 11. meadows; 12. fields; 13. sandy beach (elaborated by Sz. investigated under the Environmental History Project: Pi – Piaseczno; Łk – Łukie; Mo – Chmielewski, published in: Chmielewski Sz. Chmielewski T. J. 2009). Moszne.

66 6767 of recreational sites and summer houses, occupying an area of 46.29 ha in 1992, 71.19 in 2007 [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009], and 75,58 ha in 2012 (Fig. 53 – 55). Fig. 55 indicate that in general the biggest scale of land cover changes occurred here in the period 1952 – 1992. However the period 1992 – 2012 was the time of the most intensive summer houses development around the lake and a quick decreasing the surface of arable lands.

Fig. 54. Land cover structure in the catchment basin of Lake Piaseczno in 2012: 1. catchment boundary; 2. open water table of the lake; 3. nympheides; 4. rush communities; 5. peat bogs with sphagna, moss-grown sites and cyperaceous meadows; 6. scrub communities; 7. coniferous forest; 8. deciduous forest; 9. meadows; 10. fields; 11. sandy beach; 12. built-up area (elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek 2015).

In the period of 1952 – 2012 the surface area of lake Piaseczno shrank by 3.4 ha, but Fig. 55. Changes in land cover of the Lake Piaseczno catchment basin from 1952 to 2012 its open water surface area by as much as 6 ha, i.e. by 7,64%. In 1952 rush communities in the (elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek, Sz. Chmielewski and T. J. Chmielewski 2015). lake basin occupied only 0.72 ha. By 2012 their area increased by 9,52 ha, i.e. over 13-fold, which, in the case of a mesotrophic lake, is a very high index, indicating a significant increase in the trophy of the waters. After 1992 also the appearance of nympheides was observed in the lake waters. Degradation of peat bogs and strong development of summer housing without due care Over the 60-year period covered by the study, in the catchment area of the lake there for the sanitary status of the settlements, have led to a considerable deterioration of the disappeared all bog pools and peat pits, and all low and high moor communities, and only at ecological status and recreational values of the lake [Radwan, Chmielewski 1997; Radwan et the north-western edge of the lake there remained residual degraded moss-grown patches and al. 2002] (see also Section 7.2.). cyperaceous meadows. Whereas, the forest area in the catchment basin increased during that time by as much as 139,5 ha. In the immediate surroundings of the lake there appeared a zone

68 68 69 of recreational sites and summer houses, occupying an area of 46.29 ha in 1992, 71.19 in 2007 [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009], and 75,58 ha in 2012 (Fig. 53 – 55). Fig. 55 indicate that in general the biggest scale of land cover changes occurred here in the period 1952 – 1992. However the period 1992 – 2012 was the time of the most intensive summer houses development around the lake and a quick decreasing the surface of arable lands.

68 6969 4.2.5.2. Changes taking place in the catchment basin of eutrophic Lake Łukie In the period of 1952 – 2012 a rapid shrinking of open water table was observed in The catchment basin of Lake Łukie is situated in the central part of the Biosphere lake Łukie (especially in the years 1952 – 1992), to the benefit of growing rush communities Reserve, in the Polesie National Park (Fig. 52). Its hydrological supply is strongly affected by and nympheides. Very large areas of the lake surface were covered by a community of water the river Piwonia which starts its course near the southern border of the Biosphere Reserve, at pineapple (Stratiotes aloides) which, however, displayed notable variation in area in various a distance of ca. 5 km from a coal mine. In the nineteen sixties, in the catchment basin of lake time intervals, with maximum reach in the 1990’s. Overall, from 1952 to 2007 the total area Łukie there was a change in the course of the bed of river Piwonia. The river which in the of lake Łukie shrank by 15.08 ha, i.e. by 10.61%, but the area of its open water table by as 1950’s crossed the lake now passes it by. What is more, photointerpretative studies and field much as 33.31 ha, i.e. by 68.79% [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2010]. However over observations demonstrated that, in certain years, in summer periods the water in the channel last analyzed 5 years (2007 – 2012), a significant part of the water pineapple community of the initial section of the river disappears almost completely. disappeared. At the same time big changes have occurred also in the area of nympheides The change in the supply system of the lake and the surrounding peatbogs has a very (strong increase) and rushes (moderate decrease). In the effect, over this 5 years the surface of strong effect on the functioning of that ecosystem (Fig. 56, 57). the open water table of the Łukie lake increased from 15,11 ha to 29,17 ha. (Fig. 56 – 58). These changes indicates that ecological conditions of this lake are very unstable.

Fig. 56. Land cover structure in the catchment basin of Lake Łukie in 1952: 1 – boundary of Fig. 57. Land cover structure in the catchment basin of Lake Łukie in 2012: 1 – boundary of the catchment area, 2 – river Piwonia, 3 – drainage ditches, 4 – water table of the lake, 5 - the catchment area, 2 – river Piwonia, 3 – drainage ditches, 4 – water table of the lake, 5 - communities with Stratiotes aloides, 6 – bog pools, 7 – peat pits, 8 – rush communities, 9 – communities with Stratiotes aloides, 6 – newly dug water reservoirs, 7 – nympheides, 8 – transitional and low moors, 10 – moor communities under shrubs, 11 – scrub communities, 12 – rush communities, 9 – transitional and low moors, 10 –moor communities under shrub, 11 – forests, 13 – meadows, 14 – fields, 15 – plots with buildings, 16 – surfaced roads (elaborated by Sz. scrub communities, 12 – coniferous forest, 13 – deciduous forest, 14 – waterlogged meadows, Chmielewski, published in: Chmielewski Sz. 2009). 15 – grasslands and follow lands, 16 – fields, 17 – build-up areas, 18 – surfaced roads . (elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek 2015).

70 70 71 4.2.5.2. Changes taking place in the catchment basin of eutrophic Lake Łukie In the period of 1952 – 2012 a rapid shrinking of open water table was observed in The catchment basin of Lake Łukie is situated in the central part of the Biosphere lake Łukie (especially in the years 1952 – 1992), to the benefit of growing rush communities Reserve, in the Polesie National Park (Fig. 52). Its hydrological supply is strongly affected by and nympheides. Very large areas of the lake surface were covered by a community of water the river Piwonia which starts its course near the southern border of the Biosphere Reserve, at pineapple (Stratiotes aloides) which, however, displayed notable variation in area in various a distance of ca. 5 km from a coal mine. In the nineteen sixties, in the catchment basin of lake time intervals, with maximum reach in the 1990’s. Overall, from 1952 to 2007 the total area Łukie there was a change in the course of the bed of river Piwonia. The river which in the of lake Łukie shrank by 15.08 ha, i.e. by 10.61%, but the area of its open water table by as 1950’s crossed the lake now passes it by. What is more, photointerpretative studies and field much as 33.31 ha, i.e. by 68.79% [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2010]. However over observations demonstrated that, in certain years, in summer periods the water in the channel last analyzed 5 years (2007 – 2012), a significant part of the water pineapple community of the initial section of the river disappears almost completely. disappeared. At the same time big changes have occurred also in the area of nympheides The change in the supply system of the lake and the surrounding peatbogs has a very (strong increase) and rushes (moderate decrease). In the effect, over this 5 years the surface of strong effect on the functioning of that ecosystem (Fig. 56, 57). the open water table of the Łukie lake increased from 15,11 ha to 29,17 ha. (Fig. 56 – 58). These changes indicates that ecological conditions of this lake are very unstable.

70 7171 During the 60-year period under analysis, the total built-up area within the catchment During analyzed period 1952 – 2012 in the catchment basin of the lake there took basin of lake Łukie increased by 27,13 ha (i.e. by 358,86%). That process has been place complete disappearance of bog pools, very large in the nineteen fifties (nearly 95 ha). intensifying over the recent years. In a vast majority of cases the houses built are of a summer We indicated also disappearance of open water table in all of the old (formed before 1952) character, and the construction develops mainly on the southern outskirts of the catchment peat pits, as well as total disappearance of moor communities under shrubs (because they basin, already outside of the boundary of the Polesie National Park (Fig. 56 - 58). transformed into forests), and 86,2 % of the area of open transitional and low moors. There After conversion of changes in individual intervals on the annual change index (AChI) also disappeared 65,1% of the area of semi-natural meadows, strongly waterlogged and rich in of land use structure, it turned out that the greatest changes have occurred in the period 2007- terms of nature values and 53,8 % of fields. In the area of the drained peatbogs and semi- 2012. For example AChI of forest areas in the period 1952-1992 amounted 9,92, whereas in natural meadows, a hay meadows are appeared, whereas more than half of the fields turned the period 2007-2012 it is 12,16. AChI of fields in the period 1952-1992 amounted 0,17, into follow lands (Fig. 56 – 58). whereas in the period 2007-2012 it is – 17,69. In the period of 1952 – 2012 the area of forests increased here by as much as 604,5 ha, Analysis of changes in land cover structure in the catchment basin of the lake Łukie i.e. nearly 14-fold. Those are mainly wet deciduous forests, significantly increasing the conducted in tree time intervals: 1952-1992, 1992-2017, 2007-2012 showed that: evapotranspiration from the catchment, already characterised by notable water deficits. The 1. the highest disappearance rate of peatlands took place in the period 1952-1992; considerable expansion of deciduous forests is also conducive to the eutrophication of aquatic 2. since the 90' begins the process of accelerated disappearance of arable fields and peatbog habitats due to the decay of large biomass of fallen leaves on the wetlands. 3. the last period (2007-2012) has the highest multidirectional dynamics of changes in ecosystems of the catchment area of lake Łukie 4. in the last five years the highest disappearance rate of waterlogged meadows, arable fields, and rush communities have occurred, simultaneously growth rates of nympheides communities, forests, follow lands and build-up areas have increased.

4.2.5.3. Changes taking place in catchment basin of mesohumic (formerly – dystrophic) Lake Moszne

The catchment basin of Lake Moszne is situated in the central part of the Biosphere Reserve, on the area of the Polesie National Park (Fig. 52). In 1952 the dominant share had here the soddy low moors, with a very characteristic labyrinth system of mid-peatbog pools. Another specific element of the ecological structure of that area were large patches of shrubby birch (Betula humilis), characteristic of peatlands of Northern Europe. Forests (mainly marshy coniferous forests) constituted barely 9.26% of the catchment basin area (Fig. 59). That was the landscape which Dominik Fijałkowski, in 1960, defined as ‘a miniature of tundra and forest-tundra, situated the farthest to the south-west in Europe’ [Fijałkowski 1960]. Fig. 58. Changes in land cover of the Lake Łukie catchment basin from 1952 to 2012 (elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek, Sz. Chmielewski and T. J. Chmielewski 2015).

72 72 73 During the 60-year period under analysis, the total built-up area within the catchment During analyzed period 1952 – 2012 in the catchment basin of the lake there took basin of lake Łukie increased by 27,13 ha (i.e. by 358,86%). That process has been place complete disappearance of bog pools, very large in the nineteen fifties (nearly 95 ha). intensifying over the recent years. In a vast majority of cases the houses built are of a summer We indicated also disappearance of open water table in all of the old (formed before 1952) character, and the construction develops mainly on the southern outskirts of the catchment peat pits, as well as total disappearance of moor communities under shrubs (because they basin, already outside of the boundary of the Polesie National Park (Fig. 56 - 58). transformed into forests), and 86,2 % of the area of open transitional and low moors. There After conversion of changes in individual intervals on the annual change index (AChI) also disappeared 65,1% of the area of semi-natural meadows, strongly waterlogged and rich in of land use structure, it turned out that the greatest changes have occurred in the period 2007- terms of nature values and 53,8 % of fields. In the area of the drained peatbogs and semi- 2012. For example AChI of forest areas in the period 1952-1992 amounted 9,92, whereas in natural meadows, a hay meadows are appeared, whereas more than half of the fields turned the period 2007-2012 it is 12,16. AChI of fields in the period 1952-1992 amounted 0,17, into follow lands (Fig. 56 – 58). whereas in the period 2007-2012 it is – 17,69. In the period of 1952 – 2012 the area of forests increased here by as much as 604,5 ha, Analysis of changes in land cover structure in the catchment basin of the lake Łukie i.e. nearly 14-fold. Those are mainly wet deciduous forests, significantly increasing the conducted in tree time intervals: 1952-1992, 1992-2017, 2007-2012 showed that: evapotranspiration from the catchment, already characterised by notable water deficits. The 1. the highest disappearance rate of peatlands took place in the period 1952-1992; considerable expansion of deciduous forests is also conducive to the eutrophication of aquatic 2. since the 90' begins the process of accelerated disappearance of arable fields and peatbog habitats due to the decay of large biomass of fallen leaves on the wetlands. 3. the last period (2007-2012) has the highest multidirectional dynamics of changes in ecosystems of the catchment area of lake Łukie 4. in the last five years the highest disappearance rate of waterlogged meadows, arable fields, and rush communities have occurred, simultaneously growth rates of nympheides communities, forests, follow lands and build-up areas have increased.

4.2.5.3. Changes taking place in catchment basin of mesohumic (formerly – dystrophic) Lake Moszne

72 7373 Fig. 59. Land cover structure in catchment basin of Lake Moszne in 1952. 1 – catchment boundary, 2 – open water table, 3 – bog pools, 4 – peat pits, 5 – nympheides, 6 – rush communities, 7 – peat bogs Fig. 60. Land cover structure in catchment basin of lake Moszne in 2012. 1 – catchment boundary, 2 with sphagna and transitional moors with dwarf pine and birch succession, 8 – soddy low moors, 9 – – open water table, 3 – bog pools, 4 – peat pits, 5 – nympheides, 6 – rush communities, 7 – peat bogs patches of shrubby birch (Betula humilis), 10 – scrub communities, 11 – forests, 12 – meadows, 13 – with sphagna and transitional moors with dwarf pine and birch succession, 8 – soddy low moors, 9 – fields, 14 – buildings, 15 – built-up areas (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski, published in: Chmielewski patches of shrubby birch (Betula humilis), 10 – scrub communities, 11 – forests, 12 – meadows, 13 – T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2010). fields, 14 – buildings, 15 – built-up areas (elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek 2015).

In 1992 in the catchment basin of Lake Moszne there were no longer any bog pools nor open patches of peatbog-dwarf shrub vegetation, while the area of the former soddy low During analyzed 60 years (1952 – 2012), the area of forests in the Lake Moszne moors shrank by over 72%. The drained peatbogs were rapidly colonised by forest catchment basin increased by 444,74 ha, i.e. nearly 6-fold. The area of meadows increased by assemblages [Chmielewski T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2010]. 20,71 ha while that of arable fields shrank by 85,25 ha. The built-up area decreased in the In the period of 1992 – 2012, thanks to the protective measures undertaken by the period of 1952 – 1992 by 0.3 ha, due to the outflow of the village population. Whereas, in the Polesie National Park, consisting in the damming of peatbog drainage ditches, combined with years 1992 – 2007, in spite of the protests of the Polesie National Park, immediately next to cutting down of trees, shrubs and over-peat reeds, it was possible to recreate in the catchment its boundary summer houses were built on an area of 0.81 ha [Chmielewski T. J., basin of Lake Moszne 6.73 ha of assemblages characteristic of open peat bogs. Chmielewski Sz. 2010]. During the next 5 years: 2007 – 2012 the surface of build-up areas In total, in the period of 1952 – 2012 in the catchment basin of Lake Moszne there increased to 2,23 ha (Fig. 60, 61). disappeared 53,36 ha of mosses and sedges communities, 190,87 ha of low moors and 17,55 ha of scrub communities. In addition, in the floating transitional moor surrounding the lake there disappeared, rich in the 1950’s, system of bog pools (123,86 ha). All of those habitats were classified among those with outstanding nature values and unique landscape values.

74 74 75 Fig. 59. Land cover structure in catchment basin of Lake Moszne in 1952. 1 – catchment boundary, 2 – open water table, 3 – bog pools, 4 – peat pits, 5 – nympheides, 6 – rush communities, 7 – peat bogs Fig. 60. Land cover structure in catchment basin of lake Moszne in 2012. 1 – catchment boundary, 2 with sphagna and transitional moors with dwarf pine and birch succession, 8 – soddy low moors, 9 – – open water table, 3 – bog pools, 4 – peat pits, 5 – nympheides, 6 – rush communities, 7 – peat bogs patches of shrubby birch (Betula humilis), 10 – scrub communities, 11 – forests, 12 – meadows, 13 – with sphagna and transitional moors with dwarf pine and birch succession, 8 – soddy low moors, 9 – fields, 14 – buildings, 15 – built-up areas (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski, published in: Chmielewski patches of shrubby birch (Betula humilis), 10 – scrub communities, 11 – forests, 12 – meadows, 13 – T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2010). fields, 14 – buildings, 15 – built-up areas (elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek 2015).

74 7575 - total disappearance of the labyrinth system of mid-peatbog flood and stagnant water bodies, so characteristic of the former landscape of Polesie; - large-scale decrease of the area of moss-grown sites, cyperaceous communities, peatbog-dwarf shrub communities and soddy low moors; - very large increase of woodiness; - intense development of recreational use of mesotrophic lakes and certain eutrophic lakes; - fast growth of built-up areas, especially after 1992. Direction and pace of environmental changes, differed in individual time intervals. Period 1952 – 1992 was dominated by large-scale transformation of water conditions, drainage over 70% of wetlands, the conversion of unique natural peat-bog communities in monoculture hay meadows, afforestation of poor agricultural grounds and – from the 70. – fast growth of recreational development around the lakes of the highest tourist values. After the 1992, the rate of disappearance of different types of hydrogenic habitats was

Fig. 61. Changes in land cover structure in catchment basin of Lake Moszne in the period of 1952 – slowed down. In the catchment basin of Lake Moszne the process of disappearance of peatbog 2012 (elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek, Sz. Chmielewski and T. J. Chmielewski vegetation communities was even partially reversed, thanks to the active conservation projects 2015). realized by the services of the Polesie National Park. However, on most of the analysed areas the processes of disappearance of lakes, moss-grown sites and cyperaceous communities was

4.3. Conclusions continued, at a particularly fast rate in the catchment basin of lakes situated in the south-west sector of the Biosphere Reserve (Brzeziczno, Piaseczno, Nadrybie, Bikcze, Uściwierz,

In chapter 4 we presented only the selected results of our more than 20 years research Rotcze, Sumin). That is a zone exposed to the combines effects of the impact of: (1) the focused on changes in land cover structure and hydrogenic habitats condition taking place in nearby (4 km to the south) coal mine, (2) the melioration system of the Wieprz-Krzna Canal the West Polesie region. Among presented data a special place occupy unpublished earlier built in the nineteen fifties and sixties of the XX ct., (3) the intensive recreational results of the studies carried out in 2014-2015, under the Environmental History Project. development. The photointerpretative analyses revealed a great scale of changes taking place in the The last analysed time interval (2007 – 2012) is characterized by: (1) the great almost all studied catchment basins, in spite of the fact that most of these areas was subjected dynamics of changes in the structure of aquatic macrophyte communities in some lakes to different forms of nature conservation and landscape protection. The main directions of (especially shallow eutrophic ones, eg Lake Łukie); (2) slowdown of the rate of disappearance changes taking place in land cover structure of the studied part of the Łęczna–Włodawa of peatbogs and swamps; (3) significant loss of arable lands; (4) the dissemination of Lakeland over the past 6 decades include the following: monoculture crops in some areas, but in others – the simultaneous increase in the surface of - loss of 6 from among the 68 lakes, shrinkage of open water table and overgrowing of fallow land; (5) slightly smaller than in the previous years the rate of growth the forest area; most of the remaining lakes with marcophyte communities; (6) especially intensive development of the built-up areas. Wider presentation of these - transformation of several lakes in the retention reservoirs and increase in the surface processes will take place in several being prepared new scientific articles. of ponds;

76 76 77 - total disappearance of the labyrinth system of mid-peatbog flood and stagnant water bodies, so characteristic of the former landscape of Polesie; - large-scale decrease of the area of moss-grown sites, cyperaceous communities, peatbog-dwarf shrub communities and soddy low moors; - very large increase of woodiness; - intense development of recreational use of mesotrophic lakes and certain eutrophic lakes; - fast growth of built-up areas, especially after 1992. Direction and pace of environmental changes, differed in individual time intervals. Period 1952 – 1992 was dominated by large-scale transformation of water conditions, drainage over 70% of wetlands, the conversion of unique natural peat-bog communities in monoculture hay meadows, afforestation of poor agricultural grounds and – from the 70. – fast growth of recreational development around the lakes of the highest tourist values. After the 1992, the rate of disappearance of different types of hydrogenic habitats was

76 7777 5. A model of landscape ecological structure in the central part of the Biosphere Reserve

5.1. The concept of landscape ecological structure

The concept of landscape ecological structure comprises the sum of the following features: – character and composition of geomorphological forms – character and spatial arrangement of watercourses and water reservoirs and their catchment basins – habitat conditions with trophic diversity of waters and with gradients of terrain slope, soil acidity, moisture and fertility, solar exposition, etc. – spatial arrangement of patches of various types of land cover and use, and in particular the character and composition of water bodies, patches of vegetation communities and urbanised areas – density and character of contact zones between patches and of linear structures dissecting the patch structure – character, number, spatial distribution and degree of mutual relations of structures with the character of ecological nodes and corridors, and especially rich clusters of species and individuals in particular – character and spatial distribution of settlement systems, system of their connection by technical infrastructure lines and reach of their effect on the ecological system [Chmielewski 2012]. Depending of the greater or lesser emphasis on a specific set of features of landscape ecological structure, various models of the structure are developed. The most frequently used ones include the following: 1. – hierarchical system of spatial nature units 2. – model of trophic diversity of landscape 3. – zone-stripe-node model 4. – models of relation: catchment basin – water ecosystem 5. – model of contact zone network in the landscape [Chmielewski 2012].

79 5. A model of landscape ecological structure in the central part of the Biosphere Reserve

5.1. The concept of landscape ecological structure

7979 5.2. The role of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland in the ecological structure of the Upland, Podlasie and Mazowsze [Liro ed. 1995, Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1997]. The region borderland zone of Eastern and Western Europe where the two corridors cross – including the Shatsk National Park in the Ukraine and the The Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland has a specific physiographic situation. It is the south- Sobibór Landscape Park in Poland – is considered to be a European significance nodal nature westernmost mesoregion of Polesie – one of the five great structural units of Eastern Europe, area [Chmielewski T. J. 1988, Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1997, 2005]. Across the extensive referred to as physiographic sub-provinces [Kondracki 1981]. complex of Krowie Marsh it neighbours another outstandingly valuable node area which is The western border of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is based on the 1st order the lake-peatbog-forest complex of the Polesie National Park constituting the central part of physiographic boundary separating Eastern Europe from Western Europe. The biome of the Lakeland. The third nature node area with European significance covers the north-western moderate zone broadleaf forests extends here. From the south-west and west the Lakeland part of the region under analysis [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. adjoins the expansive Belt of Uplands and Old Mountains of Europe, in its part classified in Each of these ecological nodes functioning in the route of the European ecological the forest-steppe biome. corridors has a specific – generally fine mosaic – internal structure that is subject to more or The entire mesoregion of the Lakeland is included in the macroregion of Polesie less dynamic transformations in time and space, both under the effect of natural processes and Lubelskie. From the north it is delimited by mesoregions: Włodawski Hummock and as a result of various forms of land use and management. Sosnowicka Declivity, from the south –Chełmskie Hills and Dorohusk Depression, from the east – Shatsk Lakeland situated already in the Ukrainian territory [Kondracki 1981]. 5.3. General model of ecological structure of landscape of the Polish part of the “West The fact of being surrounded from 3 sides by more elevated terrains causes that the Polesie” Biosphere Reserve – pilot study from 2001 Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is situated in a characteristic waterlogged morphological depression. Analysis of the ecological structure of landscape conducted in accordance with the The hydrographic situation of the Lakeland is also very specific. That outstandingly method described by Chmielewski [Chmielewski T. J. 1988, 2001] permitted the flat area is an important watershed zone. The central part of the Lakeland is crossed north to identification of 11 ecological zones within the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland, constituting local south by the 2nd order watershed between the catchment basins of rivers Vistula and Bug. complexes of physiocenoses (LCP) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001] (Fig. 62). Those are the River Bug is the eastern boundary of the mesoregion. The western boundary of the Lakeland following: runs in the zone of the 3rd order watershed between rivers Wieprz and Tyśmienica [Wilgat et 1. In the north-west – the extensive complex of Parczewskie Forests, with mid-forest al. 1991]. and near-forest lakes and peatbogs and large complexes of ponds on the edges; The situation at the point of contact of such contrasting physiographic and ecological 2. In the west – a mosaic lake–meadow–field complex, with small patches of forests macrostructures, with simultaneous abundance of stagnating and flowing surface waters of the and village settlement system the most developed in the Lakland area, framed by watershed zone, contributes to the particular nature richness of the region and to its the valleys of rivers Tyśmienica and Bobrówka (so-called “West Łęczyńskie exceptional role in the ecological structure of Europe. Lakeland”); The Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is situated in the route of one of the most important 3. In the north, in the central-western part – the water–peatbog–forest declivity of the parallel ecological corridors of Europe which joins the river valleys of Dniepr and Vistula, valley of river Piwonia in the region of the town Sosnowica; through the marshy Polesie valleys of rivers Pripyat, Włodawka, Piwonia, Tyśmienica, and 4. In the central-western part – a mosaic lake-peatbog-forest complex situated in the the proglacial stream valley of river Wieprz with its abundance of meanders and oxbow lakes. watershed zone of rivers Vistula and Bug, with a dry chalk rock knob (called the In the contact zone of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland and the Shatsk Lakeland that corridor “Wola Wereszczyńska” Rock Knob) and an esker in the centre, and with the crosses another – this time meridional – European ecological corridor running along the valleys of rivers Piwonia, Mietiułka and Włodawka on the edges (so-called “East valley of river Bug and constituting a link between the Bug Region (PobuŜe), Wołyń

80 80 81 5.2. The role of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland in the ecological structure of the Upland, Podlasie and Mazowsze [Liro ed. 1995, Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1997]. The region borderland zone of Eastern and Western Europe where the two corridors cross – including the Shatsk National Park in the Ukraine and the The Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland has a specific physiographic situation. It is the south- Sobibór Landscape Park in Poland – is considered to be a European significance nodal nature westernmost mesoregion of Polesie – one of the five great structural units of Eastern Europe, area [Chmielewski T. J. 1988, Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1997, 2005]. Across the extensive referred to as physiographic sub-provinces [Kondracki 1981]. complex of Krowie Marsh it neighbours another outstandingly valuable node area which is The western border of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is based on the 1st order the lake-peatbog-forest complex of the Polesie National Park constituting the central part of physiographic boundary separating Eastern Europe from Western Europe. The biome of the Lakeland. The third nature node area with European significance covers the north-western moderate zone broadleaf forests extends here. From the south-west and west the Lakeland part of the region under analysis [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]. adjoins the expansive Belt of Uplands and Old Mountains of Europe, in its part classified in Each of these ecological nodes functioning in the route of the European ecological the forest-steppe biome. corridors has a specific – generally fine mosaic – internal structure that is subject to more or The entire mesoregion of the Lakeland is included in the macroregion of Polesie less dynamic transformations in time and space, both under the effect of natural processes and Lubelskie. From the north it is delimited by mesoregions: Włodawski Hummock and as a result of various forms of land use and management. Sosnowicka Declivity, from the south –Chełmskie Hills and Dorohusk Depression, from the east – Shatsk Lakeland situated already in the Ukrainian territory [Kondracki 1981]. 5.3. General model of ecological structure of landscape of the Polish part of the “West The fact of being surrounded from 3 sides by more elevated terrains causes that the Polesie” Biosphere Reserve – pilot study from 2001 Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is situated in a characteristic waterlogged morphological depression. Analysis of the ecological structure of landscape conducted in accordance with the The hydrographic situation of the Lakeland is also very specific. That outstandingly method described by Chmielewski [Chmielewski T. J. 1988, 2001] permitted the flat area is an important watershed zone. The central part of the Lakeland is crossed north to identification of 11 ecological zones within the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland, constituting local south by the 2nd order watershed between the catchment basins of rivers Vistula and Bug. complexes of physiocenoses (LCP) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001] (Fig. 62). Those are the River Bug is the eastern boundary of the mesoregion. The western boundary of the Lakeland following: runs in the zone of the 3rd order watershed between rivers Wieprz and Tyśmienica [Wilgat et 1. In the north-west – the extensive complex of Parczewskie Forests, with mid-forest al. 1991]. and near-forest lakes and peatbogs and large complexes of ponds on the edges; The situation at the point of contact of such contrasting physiographic and ecological 2. In the west – a mosaic lake–meadow–field complex, with small patches of forests macrostructures, with simultaneous abundance of stagnating and flowing surface waters of the and village settlement system the most developed in the Lakland area, framed by watershed zone, contributes to the particular nature richness of the region and to its the valleys of rivers Tyśmienica and Bobrówka (so-called “West Łęczyńskie exceptional role in the ecological structure of Europe. Lakeland”); The Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is situated in the route of one of the most important 3. In the north, in the central-western part – the water–peatbog–forest declivity of the parallel ecological corridors of Europe which joins the river valleys of Dniepr and Vistula, valley of river Piwonia in the region of the town Sosnowica; through the marshy Polesie valleys of rivers Pripyat, Włodawka, Piwonia, Tyśmienica, and 4. In the central-western part – a mosaic lake-peatbog-forest complex situated in the the proglacial stream valley of river Wieprz with its abundance of meanders and ox-bow watershed zone of rivers Vistula and Bug, with a dry chalk rock knob (called the lakes. In the contact zone of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland and the Shatsk Lakeland that “Wola Wereszczyńska” Rock Knob) and an esker in the centre, and with the corridor crosses another – this time meridional – European ecological corridor running along valleys of rivers Piwonia, Mietiułka and Włodawka on the edges (so-called “East the valley of river Bug and constituting a link between the Bug Region (PobuŜe), Wołyń

80 8181 Łęczyńskie Lakeland”). It is here that the main complex of the Polesie National – one meridional supra-regional (European) ecological corridor of the valley of river Park is situated; Bug 5. In the south-west – a compact lake-peatbog complex situated in the upper part of – 4 regional ecological corridors and lines with a system of over a dozen mutual the catchment basin of river Piwonia, known as the “Complex of Uściwierske internal links Lakes”; – 6 main centres of anthropopressure, including 3 situated in a collision-free manner 6. In the north of the central part – the forest-meadow-field valley of centre section of on the edges of the region (the towns of Łęczna, Parczew and Włodawa), 2 located river Włodawka; in contact with systems of very high nature value (the Coal Mine “Bogdanka” and 7. In the central part of the Lakeland – the group of 3 extensive, nearly forestless the region of mass recreation around lake Białe – Glinki), and 1 situated in the marsh complexes: Krowie March, Bubnów Marsh and Staw Marsh, separated from route of the transregional ecological corridor (mass recreation region around lake each other with dry gentle moraine belts; Piaseczno). 8. In the central-eastern part – the mosaic forest-meadow-field valley of river Krzemionka; 9. In the north-east – the forest-covered valley of lower liver Włodawka; 10. In the east – the Complex of Włodawskie Lakes, surrounded with Sobibór Forests (so-called “Włodawskie Lakeland”); 11. On the eastern edge – the “transit” valley of river Bug, with extensive meadows with patches of bushes and trees and numerous ex-lakes and stagnant water bodies. Each of those ecological zones is characterised by somewhat different leading ecological-landscape features, has a specific internal structure (composed of a set of units of lower order) and plays a specific role in the functioning of the nature system of the entire region. The application of the method of spatial analysis of ecological relations (SAER, Polish abbreviation PASE) [Chmielewski 1990, 1992, 2001] permitted the determination of which of the links of the zones are of key importance in this respect. The following were identified within the study area [Chmielewski T. J. 2001] (Fig. 62): – 3 nature node areas of European significance

– 6 supra-regional ecological nodes Fig. 62. Zone-stripe-node model of ecological structure of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland – – 14 regional ecological nodes synthesis: 1 – National border; 2 – physiographic boundary of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland; 3 – boundaries of local complexes of physiocenoses /LCP/ (1 – 11: numbers of the – two parallel supra-regional ecological corridors and lines (European significance – particular LCP; numbering of the LKF according to the list given in the text) 4 – transient from north-west to south-east, and national significance – from west to east), zones joining the ecological-landscape features of the Lakeland with neighbouring regions; 5 – lakes; 6 – main watercourses; 7 –Wieprz–Krzna Canal; 8 – forests; 9 – main localities and gradually convergent with each other, in the central part of the Lakeland connected major roads; 10 – natural node areas of European significance; 11 – ecological nodes with with a network of several strong mutual links and finally converging in the supra- supra-regional significance; 12 – ecological nodes with regional significance; 13 – ecological corridors and lines with supra-regional significance (European); 14 – ecological corridors and regional ecological node in the centre of the Sobibór Forests lines with regional significance; 15 – boundary of zone C of the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve; 16 – main centres of anthropopressure [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].

82 82 83 Łęczyńskie Lakeland”). It is here that the main complex of the Polesie National – one meridional supra-regional (European) ecological corridor of the valley of river Park is situated; Bug 5. In the south-west – a compact lake-peatbog complex situated in the upper part of – 4 regional ecological corridors and lines with a system of over a dozen mutual the catchment basin of river Piwonia, known as the “Complex of Uściwierske internal links Lakes”; – 6 main centres of anthropopressure, including 3 situated in a collision-free manner 6. In the north of the central part – the forest-meadow-field valley of centre section of on the edges of the region (the towns of Łęczna, Parczew and Włodawa), 2 located river Włodawka; in contact with systems of very high nature value (the Coal Mine “Bogdanka” and 7. In the central part of the Lakeland – the group of 3 extensive, nearly forestless the region of mass recreation around lake Białe – Glinki), and 1 situated in the marsh complexes: Krowie March, Bubnów Marsh and Staw Marsh, separated from route of the transregional ecological corridor (mass recreation region around lake each other with dry gentle moraine belts; Piaseczno). 8. In the central-eastern part – the mosaic forest-meadow-field valley of river Krzemionka; 9. In the north-east – the forest-covered valley of lower liver Włodawka; 10. In the east – the Complex of Włodawskie Lakes, surrounded with Sobibór Rorests (so-called “Włodawskie Lakeland”); 11. On the eastern edge – the “transit” valley of river Bug, with extensive meadows with patches of bushes and trees and numerous ex-lakes and stagnant water bodies. Each of those ecological zones is characterised by somewhat different leading ecological-landscape features, has a specific internal structure (composed of a set of units of lower order) and plays a specific role in the functioning of the nature system of the entire region. The application of the method of spatial analysis of ecological relations (SAER, Polish abbreviation PASE) [Chmielewski 1990, 1992, 2001] permitted the determination of which of the links of the zones are of key importance in this respect. The following were identified within the study area [Chmielewski T. J. 2001] (Fig. 62): – 3 nature node areas of European significance

82 8383 Next, neighbouring units were aggregated into 65 physiocenoses, taking into account the neighbourhood similarity of natural features and land use types, and the occurrence of The valley of river Bug, on the section adjacent to the Sobibór Forests, is an area of distinct hydrographic, geochemical and biocenotic relationships among them [Chmielewski extremely important parallel nature relationships of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland with the 2006]. Ukrainian Shatsk Lakeland. The fragmentation of the spatial basic nature units of the Lakeland is accompanied by The preliminary version of the model of the ecological structure of the region (Fig. 62) a very strong diversification of their habitat conditions that can be defined as a trophic mosaic presents the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland as a region with a complex and diversified internal; character of landscape. In spite of the general flatness of the terrain, there appear next to one structure, saturated with numerous centres with unique nature values, and with strategic another such forms as e.g.: importance for the functioning of the ecological system of that part of Europe. a) autonomic ecotopes, acidic, dry and poor in biogens (e.g. dune belts) b) accumulation ecotopes, acidic, strongly moist and poor in biogens (e.g. high moors 5.4. Model of ecological structure of landscape of the Polesie National Park – study and transitional moors) from 2005–2006 c) accumulation ecotopes with pH close to neutral and low fertility (e.g. mesotrophic and distrophic-eutrophic lakes) To investigate the further internal diversification of the ecological structure of landscape d) accumulation ecotopes with pH close to neutral and moderate fertility (e.g. weakly of the central part of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland, in the period of 2001–2006, in the eutrohicated lakes, low moors) region of the Polesie National Park a study was conducted on the delimitation of the system of e) accumulation and accumulation-transitional ecotopes with pH close to neutral and Basic landscape units, on the analysis of functional relationships among them, and on their considerable fertility (e.g. eutrophic lakes, marshy bottoms of river valleys) aggregation into regional territorial complexes – physiocenoses, in accordance with the f) accumulation ecotopes, alkaline, with high moisture and moderate fertility (e.g method developed by T. J. Chmielewski and J. Solon [1996], with subsequent modifications carbonate moors) by T. J. Chmielewski [2006, 2012]. g) autonomic and transitional ecotopes, alkaline, with low moisture and considerable The study included LCP No. 4, 5 and 7 and the adjacent sub-zones: the eastern part of fertility (e.g. chalk rock knobs with rendzinas) LCP 2 and the western part of LCP 6, with a total areas of ca. 498 km2. That region is referred h) whole array of transitional ecotpes, with more or less gentle gradients of features to in other publications as the functional area of the “Polesie National Park” [Radwan, ed. [Chmielewski 2006]. 1999, Chmielewski 2000]. The superimposition of the map of trophic landscape diversification with the results of Cartographic (scale of 1:25,000) superimposition of spatial reaches of: nature inventory of the region [Radwan ed. 1999] revealed that approx. 85% of the resources – geomorphological forms of the most nature valuable habitats and species is related with accumulation ecotopes and – surface elementary catchment basins accumulation-transitional ecotopes. At the same time those ecotopes are usually sites of – complexes of agricultural suitability of soils convergence of major routes of migration of chemical compounds and species in the – plant communities (patches of actual vegetation) landscape, and thus play the role of important nature refuges. – land use types Such basic landscape units, with particular nature richness, concentrating the routes of permitted the delimitation of a set of 234 basic landscape units (BLU) within the study area. migration of matter and energy and with a supply effect on the surrounding areas, have been Among those, 18 units were classified as structures with a transient character between the given the name of ecological nodes. Their situation in the study area is illustrated in Fig. 63 neighbouring units, i.e. as a kind of “landscape ecotones”. In several dozen other cases strong [Chmielewski ed. 2005, Chmielewski 2012]. functional-spatial relationships between units were indicated (Fig. 63).

84 84 85 Next, neighbouring units were aggregated into 65 physiocenoses, taking into account the neighbourhood similarity of natural features and land use types, and the occurrence of The valley of river Bug, on the section adjacent to the Sobibór Forests, is an area of distinct hydrographic, geochemical and biocenotic relationships among them [Chmielewski extremely important parallel nature relationships of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland with the 2006]. Ukrainian Shatsk Lakeland. The fragmentation of the spatial basic nature units of the Lakeland is accompanied by The preliminary version of the model of the ecological structure of the region (Fig. 62) a very strong diversification of their habitat conditions that can be defined as a trophic mosaic presents the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland as a region with a complex and diversified internal; character of landscape. In spite of the general flatness of the terrain, there appear next to one structure, saturated with numerous centres with unique nature values, and with strategic another such forms as e.g.: importance for the functioning of the ecological system of that part of Europe. a) autonomic ecotopes, acidic, dry and poor in biogens (e.g. dune belts) b) accumulation ecotopes, acidic, strongly moist and poor in biogens (e.g. high moors 5.4. Model of ecological structure of landscape of the Polesie National Park – study and transitional moors) from 2005–2006 c) accumulation ecotopes with pH close to neutral and low fertility (e.g. mesotrophic and distrophic-eutrophic lakes) To investigate the further internal diversification of the ecological structure of landscape d) accumulation ecotopes with pH close to neutral and moderate fertility (e.g. weakly of the central part of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland, in the period of 2001–2006, in the eutrohicated lakes, low moors) region of the Polesie National Park a study was conducted on the delimitation of the system of e) accumulation and accumulation-transitional ecotopes with pH close to neutral and Basic landscape units, on the analysis of functional relationships among them, and on their considerable fertility (e.g. eutrophic lakes, marshy bottoms of river valleys) aggregation into regional territorial complexes – physiocenoses, in accordance with the f) accumulation ecotopes, alkaline, with high moisture and moderate fertility (e.g method developed by T. J. Chmielewski and J. Solon [1996], with subsequent modifications carbonate moors) by T. J. Chmielewski [2006, 2012]. g) autonomic and transitional ecotopes, alkaline, with low moisture and considerable The study included LCP No. 4, 5 and 7 and the adjacent sub-zones: the eastern part of fertility (e.g. chalk rock knobs with rendzinas) LCP 2 and the western part of LCP 6, with a total areas of ca. 498 km2. That region is referred h) whole array of transitional ecotopes, with more or less gentle gradients of to in other publications as the functional area of the “Polesie National Park” [Radwan, ed. features [Chmielewski 2006]. 1999, Chmielewski 2000]. The superimposition of the map of trophic landscape diversification with the results of Cartographic (scale of 1:25,000) superimposition of spatial reaches of: nature inventory of the region [Radwan ed. 1999] revealed that approx. 85% of the resources – geomorphological forms of the most nature valuable habitats and species is related with accumulation ecotopes and – surface elementary catchment basins accumulation-transitional ecotopes. At the same time those ecotopes are usually sites of – complexes of agricultural suitability of soils convergence of major routes of migration of chemical compounds and species in the – plant communities (patches of actual vegetation) landscape, and thus play the role of important nature refuges. – land use types Such basic landscape units, with particular nature richness, concentrating the routes of permitted the delimitation of a set of 234 basic landscape units (BLU) within the study area. migration of matter and energy and with a supply effect on the surrounding areas, have been Among those, 18 units were classified as structures with a transient character between the given the name of ecological nodes. Their situation in the study area is illustrated in Fig. 63 neighbouring units, i.e. as a kind of “landscape ecotones”. In several dozen other cases strong [Chmielewski ed. 2005, Chmielewski 2012]. functional-spatial relationships between units were indicated (Fig. 63).

84 8585 Ensuring an effective and lasting conservation of the ecological nodes of the Łęczna- 5.5. Model of ecological structure of landscape of the “West Polesie” Trasboundary Włodawa Lakeland is of particular importance for the preservation of the natural richness and Biosphere Reserve – study from 2015 stability of the ecological structure of the entire Biosphere Reserve. In 2012, three neighbouring and adjoining on the borders of three countries biosphere reserves – “West Polesie” in Poland, “Shatsk” in the Ukraine and “Pribuzhskoie Polesie” in Belarus, were granted by UNESCO the status of Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (TBR) with the joint name of “West Polesie” (see Chapter 2). In 2015, within the framework of the project Changes in landscape diversity, landscape connectivity and land use structure of hydrogenic ecosystems in the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over last half century, a model of ecological structure of landscape was developed for the entire TBR. The process of developing the model involved the utilisation of both the experience acquired in the course of construction of the two previous models for the Polish part of the Reserve and the nature documentation of the Belarus and Ukrainian parts of the Reserve, as well as the UNESCO Nomination Form for the whole TBR. Especially valuable for the creation of the model were the results of remote sensing studies on the main moose (Alces alces) refuges and migration corridors within the area of West Polesie [Chmielewski T. J., Maślanko 2014, Maślanko, Chmielewski T. J. 2015]. In addition, the model of the ecological structure of TBR involved the use of new methodological experiments and the results of studies on landscape spatial structure diagnosing and design [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014]. The main elements of ecological structure of landscape of the “West Polesie” TBR are

Fig. 63. Model of ecological structure of landscape of the functional area of the Polesie the following: (A) 5 main types of ecological zones (local groups of ecosystems): water-peat- National Park. Legend: 1 – boundary of the National Park; 2 – boundary of buffer zone of the meadow; water-peat-forest; forest with enclaves of agrocenoses; agrocenoses and settlements; National Park; 3 – boundary of Basic landscape units (BLU); 4 – boundary of local complexes of BLU (physiocenoses); 5 – strong functional relationships between BLU; 6 – BLU of urbanized areas; (B) main ecological corridors: two corridors of international significance and transitional (“ecotone”) character; 7 – BLU with domination of water-peatbog ecosystems; 8 a network of about 20 ecological corridors of regional significance; (C) main ecological – BLU with domination of water-sedge moor ecosystems; 9 – BLU with domination of forest ecosystems; 10 – BLU with domination of grassland ecosystems; 11 – BLU with domination barriers (busy roads) (D) almost 50 ecological nodes, divided into 3 types: (1) water and of agrocenoses; 12 – BLU with mosaic structure; 13 – ecological nodes (with character water-peat; (2) water-peat-forest; (3) forest; (E) 11 main anthropopressure centres, divided corresponding to a given unit or physiocenose); 14 – ecological corridors and lines; 15 – main nature relationships with surrounding areas [Chmielewski T. J. 2006]. into 4 types: (1) urban; (2) rural; (3) complexes of holiday cottages; (4) industrial (Fig. 64). Special attention should be paid to two corridors of international significance: (a) north – south, running along the Bug river valley and (b) east – west, running along the Pripyat river valley; across lakes, peatlands and forests of the Shatsk National Park; farther across lakes, peatlands and forests of the Sobibór Lanscape Park, Polesie National Park and Łęczna Lakeland Landscape Park; up to Tyśmienica and Wieprz river valleys. Both of these

86 86 87 Ensuring an effective and lasting conservation of the ecological nodes of the Łęczna- 5.5. Model of ecological structure of landscape of the “West Polesie” Trasboundary Włodawa Lakeland is of particular importance for the preservation of the natural richness and Biosphere Reserve – study from 2015 stability of the ecological structure of the entire Biosphere Reserve. In 2012, three neighbouring and adjoining on the borders of three countries biosphere reserves – “West Polesie” in Poland, “Shatsk” in the Ukraine and “Pribuzhskoie Polesie” in Belarus, were granted by UNESCO the status of Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (TBR) with the joint name of “West Polesie” (see Chapter 2). In 2015, within the framework of the project Changes in landscape diversity, landscape connectivity and land use structure of hydrogenic ecosystems in the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over last half century, a model of ecological structure of landscape was developed for the entire TBR. The process of developing the model involved the utilisation of both the experience acquired in the course of construction of the two previous models for the Polish part of the Reserve and the nature documentation of the Belarus and Ukrainian parts of the Reserve, as well as the UNESCO Nomination Form for the whole TBR. Especially valuable for the creation of the model were the results of remote sensing studies on the main moose (Alces alces) refuges and migration corridors within the area of West Polesie [Chmielewski T. J., Maślanko 2014, Maślanko, Chmielewski T. J. 2015]. In addition, the model of the ecological structure of TBR involved the use of new methodological experiments and the results of studies on landscape spatial structure diagnosing and design [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014a]. The main elements of ecological structure of landscape of the “West Polesie” TBR are

86 8787 international significance corridors cross each other near the Sobibór village, creating a The model developed indicates that the area of the “West Polesie” TBR is a region particularly important ecological node (Fig. 64). with high ecological\landscape diversity and strong connectivity. It is characterised by a mosaic structure, with a large number of diverse zones and ecological nodes, linked by a dense network of ecological corridors. The scale of anthropogenic pressure in the area is relatively low. Only the towns of Włodawa and Shatsk are situated in the vicinity of zones and ecological nodes of high nature value. In those regions special attention should be paid to harmonisation of economic development with the requirements of nature and landscape conservation. The fact that two ecological corridors of international significance cross in the centre of the biosphere reserve further enhances the importance of the region in the ecological structure of landscape of the whole of Europe.

Fig. 64. A. Location map: 1) Baltic Sea; 2) TBR; 3) Central and Eastern European countries; B. Ecological structure of TBR landscape: I. Main elements of topography: 1) Lakes; 2) Rivers; 3) Major cities; 4) Roads; 5) TBR border; II. Main ecological zones (local groups of ecosystems): 6) Water-peat-meadow; 7) Water-peat-forest; 8) Forest with enclaves of agrocenoses; 9) Agrocenoses and settlements; 10) Urbanised areas; III. Main ecological corridors and barriers: 11) Ecological corridors of regional significance; 12) Ecological corridors of international significance; 13) Wieprz-Krzna canal; 14) Ecological barriers of regional significance; 15) Ecological barriers of national significance; IV. Main ecological nodes: 16) Water and water-peat; 17) Water-peat-forest; 18) forest; V. Main anthropopressure centres: 19) Urban; 20) Rural; 21) Complexes of holiday cottages; 22) Industrial (elaborated by: T. J. Chmielewski, A. Kułak & W. Maślanko 2015).

88 88 89 international significance corridors cross each other near the Sobibór village, creating a The model developed indicates that the area of the “West Polesie” TBR is a region particularly important ecological node (Fig. 64). with high ecological\landscape diversity and strong connectivity. It is characterised by a mosaic structure, with a large number of diverse zones and ecological nodes, linked by a dense network of ecological corridors. The scale of anthropogenic pressure in the area is relatively low. Only the towns of Włodawa and Shatsk are situated in the vicinity of zones and ecological nodes of high nature value. In those regions special attention should be paid to harmonisation of economic development with the requirements of nature and landscape conservation. The fact that two ecological corridors of international significance cross in the centre of the biosphere reserve further enhances the importance of the region in the ecological structure of landscape of the whole of Europe.

88 8989 6. A preliminary assessment of landscape physiognomy changes of the West Polesie from the half of the XIX century to the beginning of the XXI century

6.1. Introduction

Changes occurred in land use structure, have also an enormous impact on landscape physiognomy. So far a variety of methods have been developed, more or less subjective, for the assessment of the values of landscape physiognomy. Those methods can be classified in 3 main groups: (1) methods based on the description of the state of landscape (evaluation of characteristic features of the area); (2) methods based on the study of public preferences; (3) methods based on quantitative holistic techniques [Buhyoff, Riesenman 1979]. In Poland, a great contribution to the development of methods of landscape physiognomy composition analysis was brought by the works of J. Bogdanowski and his team, relating – in terms of territory – to the scale of landscape interiors, landscape units and zones, and in terms of methodology comprising the sequence of: inventory – valorisation – design guidelines – landscape conservation and management plan [Bogdanowski 1976, Bogdanowski et al. 1981]. That team developed also a method for the estimation of changes taking place in landscape physiognomy on the basis of “series of time transects” [Bogdanowski 1998]. In the seventies of the 20th century, J. Janecki pointed out that in natural landscape systems, in which there are no traces of human activity, straight lines are practically nonexistent. It was Man that introduced geometric figures into the landscape. Therefore, the degree of anthropogenic transformation of a given fragment of landscape can be determined by estimating the share of straight lines with relation to other lines observable in a view or vista [Janecki 1978]. Interesting methods of evaluation of the values of landscape through analysis of its perception were developed, among others, by K. Wejchert and K. H. Wojciechowski. The studies by Wejchert were focused on the urban landscape, and his method, called the method of the “curve of impressions”, consisted in the presentation of the scale of tension and emotional impressions that appear in the observer when travelling through a given time-space sequence [Wejchert 1984]. In turn, the studies by Wojciechowski were concerned with the aesthetics of the out-of-town landscape. According to the assumptions of that author, evaluation of landscape aesthetics is a resultant of such variables as the total of the features of the observer that may have an effect on his evaluations, the sum of the circumstances of the

90 91 6. A preliminary assessment of landscape physiognomy changes of the West Polesie from the half of the XIX century to the beginning of the XXI century

6.1. Introduction

90 9191 evaluation, and the visual attractiveness of the landscape as such. That last variable includes, The assessment of changes in landscape physiognomy still poses numerous among other things, such aspects as the harmony of forms, diversity of forms, composition, methodological problems. They primarily result from the criteria of evaluation of the aesthetic uniqueness of features of the terrain, sense of security [Wojciechowski 1986]. Both the value of areas and objects changing with the development of civilisation [Eco 2004], but also methods of Wejchert and of Wojciechowski are based on subjective assessments, and do not from the common scarcity of data on the appearance of particular regions and places in provide strictly replicable results. Nevertheless, the perception-based analyses of landscape previous decades (particularly in periods before the common use of photographic are extremely important in planning work, as they permit making correct decisions concerning documentation). This calls for the development of new methods and determination of the the preservation, correction and change of the perceived elements of the landscape [Skalski scope of recording changes in the physiognomy of landscape with features deserving 2007]. protection as unique heritage of nature and culture. Such methods should also be applicable in The theory of landscape interiors and methods of analysis of landscape composition the reconstruction of valuable landscapes that should be recreated or constitute an important were developed, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, by P. Patoczka who focused system of reference for contemporary shaping of regional identity. especially on the role of landscape gates and walls and on “en suite” arrangement of interiors, connected with roads [Patoczka 2000]. 6.2. Evaluation of changes in the landscape physiognomy of the West Polesie from the In turn, J. Rylke and M. Gąsowska applied, for the analysis of landscape composition, middle of 19th century till the beginning of 21st century the approach known from the analysis of works of art, evaluating separately such aspects as the artistic, the aesthetic, and the “supra-aesthetic”. The artistic aspect comprises, among This study was conducted in 2010, with the method of comparative analysis of other things, the evaluation of the composition, the dominants, subdominants, accents, and selected paintings, photographs, novels and books describing the land, created in the 19th and other elements of landscape units. The aesthetic values are assessed on the basis of 20th centuries and concerning the area of the West Polesie [Kułak, Chmielewski 2010]. The questionnaire of evaluations of photographs of characteristic views recorded within the results of those analyses were juxtaposed with effests of retrospective photointerpretative landscape unit under study. Whereas, the “supra-aesthetic” aspect consists in the evaluation of analysis based on aerial photographs of the area of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve from meanings of historical, religious, monumental nature, and other special emotional values of the period of 1952 – 2007 with the application of the GIS techniques [Chmielewski Sz. 2009, the landscape heritage of the unit under analysis [Rylke, Gąsowska 2009]. Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009]. The acquired data were confronted with the Pursuant to the recommendations of the European Commission regarding the results of our own current field observations. implementation of the European Landscape Convention [2000], studies on landscape From mid-19th till mid-20th century the landscape of West Polesie continued almost physiognomy concerning historically remote periods with no reliable scientific elaborations unchanged. What is more – it strongly resembled the appearance of the area of 2-3 centuries and photographic documentation available should make use of works of art – paintings and earlier „A multitude of rivers, brooks and streams crisscross the land (...). Who sees the poetry drawings, literary descriptions, and other iconographic sources. Comparative studies covering of the region in those osiers, in that water meandering through the immeasurable bogs relatively recent periods of the history of a given area with abundant documentation should littered with haystacks (...), who will feel it, boating on a spring night across the flooded bogs, use and compare the same methods of representation and landscape physiognomy analysis as vast as a sea? Satrowolski’s old description, made 200 years ago, still physically and morally much as possible [Landscape... 2006]. applies to that land, so little changed since those times” [Kraszewski 1985; description The same approach was applied by A. Kułak and T. J. Chmielewski in their attempt to relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. evaluate the scale of changes in the features typical of the landscape physiognomy of West The character of the landscape and nature diversity of 19th century Polesie are very Polesie recorded in the 19th century art, literature, and songs [Kułak, Chmielewski T. J. well depicted in paintings by Józef Chełmoński (Fig. 65 and 66) who painted also in Pińsk 2010]. Polesie and in neighbouring regions [Masłowski 1973].

92 92 93 evaluation, and the visual attractiveness of the landscape as such. That last variable includes, The assessment of changes in landscape physiognomy still poses numerous among other things, such aspects as the harmony of forms, diversity of forms, composition, methodological problems. They primarily result from the criteria of evaluation of the aesthetic uniqueness of features of the terrain, sense of security [Wojciechowski 1986]. Both the value of areas and objects changing with the development of civilisation [Eco 2004], but also methods of Wejchert and of Wojciechowski are based on subjective assessments, and do not from the common scarcity of data on the appearance of particular regions and places in provide strictly replicable results. Nevertheless, the perception-based analyses of landscape previous decades (particularly in periods before the common use of photographic are extremely important in planning work, as they permit making correct decisions concerning documentation). This calls for the development of new methods and determination of the the preservation, correction and change of the perceived elements of the landscape [Skalski scope of recording changes in the physiognomy of landscape with features deserving 2007]. protection as unique heritage of nature and culture. Such methods should also be applicable in The theory of landscape interiors and methods of analysis of landscape composition the reconstruction of valuable landscapes that should be recreated or constitute an important were developed, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, by P. Patoczka who focused system of reference for contemporary shaping of regional identity. especially on the role of landscape gates and walls and on “en suite” arrangement of interiors, connected with roads [Patoczka 2000]. 6.2. Evaluation of changes in the landscape physiognomy of the West Polesie from the In turn, J. Rylke and M. Gąsowska applied, for the analysis of landscape composition, middle of 19th century till the beginning of 21st century the approach known from the analysis of works of art, evaluating separately such aspects as the artistic, the aesthetic, and the “supra-aesthetic”. The artistic aspect comprises, among This study was conducted in 2010, with the method of comparative analysis of other things, the evaluation of the composition, the dominants, subdominants, accents, and selected paintings, photographs, novels and books describing the land, created in the 19th and other elements of landscape units. The aesthetic values are assessed on the basis of 20th centuries and concerning the area of the West Polesie [Kułak, Chmielewski 2010]. The questionnaire of evaluations of photographs of characteristic views recorded within the results of those analyses were juxtaposed with effects of retrospective photointerpretative landscape unit under study. Whereas, the “supra-aesthetic” aspect consists in the evaluation of analysis based on aerial photographs of the area of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve from meanings of historical, religious, monumental nature, and other special emotional values of the period of 1952 – 2007 with the application of the GIS techniques [Chmielewski Sz. 2009, the landscape heritage of the unit under analysis [Rylke, Gąsowska 2009]. Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009]. The acquired data were confronted with the Pursuant to the recommendations of the European Commission regarding the results of our own current field observations. implementation of the European Landscape Convention [2000], studies on landscape From mid-19th till mid-20th century the landscape of West Polesie continued almost physiognomy concerning historically remote periods with no reliable scientific elaborations unchanged. What is more – it strongly resembled the appearance of the area of 2-3 centuries and photographic documentation available should make use of works of art – paintings and earlier „A multitude of rivers, brooks and streams crisscross the land (...). Who sees the poetry drawings, literary descriptions, and other iconographic sources. Comparative studies covering of the region in those osiers, in that water meandering through the immeasurable bogs relatively recent periods of the history of a given area with abundant documentation should littered with haystacks (...), who will feel it, boating on a spring night across the flooded bogs, use and compare the same methods of representation and landscape physiognomy analysis as vast as a sea? Satrowolski’s old description, made 200 years ago, still physically and morally much as possible [Landscape... 2006]. applies to that land, so little changed since those times” [Kraszewski 1985; description The same approach was applied by A. Kułak and T. J. Chmielewski in their attempt to relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. evaluate the scale of changes in the features typical of the landscape physiognomy of West The character of the landscape and nature diversity of 19th century Polesie are very Polesie recorded in the 19th century art, literature, and songs [Kułak, Chmielewski T. J. well depicted in paintings by Józef Chełmoński (Fig. 65 and 66) who painted also in Pińsk 2010]. Polesie and in neighbouring regions [Masłowski 1973].

92 9393 In the 19th century Polesie was an inaccessible land of mud, pine trees, mists and melancholy, that could not be mistaken for any other: „Strange Polesie! Sad Polesie! (…) that picture is made up of only the fundamental elements of mud and pine trees. With this material no genius in the world will create anything but a desolation (...) [Kraszewski 1985; description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. An excellent description of the nature and landscape of Polesie from the beginning of the 20th century is given by Stanisław Kulczyński (cit. after M. Marczak): „Broadly spreading waters, expansive moors and bogs, and on drier, sand-covered areas forests, mainly pine-forest, are the main elements of the Polesie landscape. The extremely sparse and low relief of the land causes that the rhythm of occurrence of both these elementary components of the landscape – the bog and the forest – assumes the character of a phenomenon infinitely extended in space. Therefore, in Polesie one encounters impassable bogs on one hand and impenetrable forests on the other. This creates landscape effects of Fig. 65. Polesie in paintings of Józef Chełmoński. Marsh marigolds; 1908 extraordinary kind. One gets lost and sinks in that extending rhythm of nature, taking in only http://www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl/Chelmonski/Index.htm a small part of the space and the phenomena in it. The nature of Polesie speaks not through a diversity, but through monotony and continuity of forms, it imposes the impression of something as limitless and monotonous as the steppe or the sea (…). The landscape of Polesie, that flattest land in Poland, has something of the features of alpine landscapes. The difficulty with which the eye, running across monotonous spaces, catches points of rest, like when looking into a rocky abyss, and the severity of the Polesie wilderness evokes a feeling of helplessness like that felt when looking at the vista of the Tatras” [Marczak 1935/2008]. Today it is hard to imagine the richness of nature resources of the region in those times: Next to turtles and thunder-fish, it is also a realm of crayfish: formerly a whole pot of them used to cost but a penny (...) [Kraszewski 1985; description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. “In the times of my childhood our forests abounded in bears (...) I myself took part in ten or a dozen bear hunts (…) on both sides of the river there were immense virgin forests. On the left bank of the Prypeć there dominated pine forests (…) while on the right bank of the river there grew deciduous forests with a predominance of oak (…) The land was then very sparsely populated. The sparse villages were usually grouped on the banks of the Prypeć (…) Fig. 66. Polesie in paintings of Józef Chełmoński. The Kingdom of Birds; 1894 while the forests were virgin and beautiful, the arable soil was poor, mainly sandy and with http://www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl/Chelmonski/Index.htm shallow ground water” [Kieniewicz 1989; description relating to the first two decades of the 20th century].

94 94 95 In the 19th century Polesie was an inaccessible land of mud, pine trees, mists and melancholy, that could not be mistaken for any other: „Strange Polesie! Sad Polesie! (…) that picture is made up of only the fundamental elements of mud and pine trees. With this material no genius in the world will create anything but a desolation (...) [Kraszewski 1985; description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. An excellent description of the nature and landscape of Polesie from the beginning of the 20th century is given by Stanisław Kulczyński (cit. after M. Marczak): „Broadly spreading waters, expansive moors and bogs, and on drier, sand-covered areas forests, mainly pine-forest, are the main elements of the Polesie landscape. The extremely sparse and low relief of the land causes that the rhythm of occurrence of both these elementary components of the landscape – the bog and the forest – assumes the character of a phenomenon infinitely extended in space. Therefore, in Polesie one encounters impassable bogs on one hand and impenetrable forests on the other. This creates landscape effects of Fig. 65. Polesie in paintings of Józef Chełmoński. Marsh marigolds; 1908 extraordinary kind. One gets lost and sinks in that extending rhythm of nature, taking in only http://www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl/Chelmonski/Index.htm a small part of the space and the phenomena in it. The nature of Polesie speaks not through a diversity, but through monotony and continuity of forms, it imposes the impression of something as limitless and monotonous as the steppe or the sea (…). The landscape of Polesie, that flattest land in Poland, has something of the features of alpine landscapes. The difficulty with which the eye, running across monotonous spaces, catches points of rest, like when looking into a rocky abyss, and the severity of the Polesie wilderness evokes a feeling of helplessness like that felt when looking at the vista of the Tatras” [Marczak 1935/2008]. Today it is hard to imagine the richness of nature resources of the region in those times: Next to turtles and thunder-fish, it is also a realm of crayfish: formerly a whole pot of them used to cost but a penny (...) [Kraszewski 1985; description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. “In the times of my childhood our forests abounded in bears (...) I myself took part in ten or a dozen bear hunts (…) on both sides of the river there were immense virgin forests. On the left bank of the Prypeć there dominated pine forests (…) while on the right bank of the river there grew deciduous forests with a predominance of oak (…) The land was then very sparsely populated. The sparse villages were usually grouped on the banks of the Prypeć (…) Fig. 66. Polesie in paintings of Józef Chełmoński. The Kingdom of Birds; 1894 while the forests were virgin and beautiful, the arable soil was poor, mainly sandy and with http://www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl/Chelmonski/Index.htm shallow ground water” [Kieniewicz 1989; description relating to the first two decades of the 20th century].

94 9595 Apart from the forests, one of the main poetically described elements of the Polesie landscape are the rivers, “girding from everywhere and crossing among endless bogs and vegetation (...). Horyń, squeezed in, flows down in the valley, and above it hang entwined trees: pines, oaks, birches and thick hazel; its waters surround a green island down at the feet of the onlooker, covered with old oaks, on which cattle still graze – a veritable idyll!” [Kraszewski 1985, description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. An equally interesting description of a Polesie river valley was given by Antoni Kieniewicz: “…beautiful Prypeć, at any time of year, day and night. On sunny days its water changed its colour from blue to dark navy blue. On stormy days it could be ominous, dark and black, yet always clean and clear. The opposite river bank was low, covered with beautiful meadows with a multitude of diverse flowers and single beautiful oak trees. Especially in spring, when the Prypeć river valley carried enormous amounts of water to the Dniepr and the whole opposite bank was flooded miles wide – the panorama was incomparably Fig. 67. Józef Chełmoński The village; 1910 http://www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl/Chelmonski/Index.htm beautiful” [Kieniewicz 1989; description relating to the first 2 decades of the 20th century]. Apart from their unquestionable landscape values, the rivers were also important routes connecting the main Polesie towns - Pińsk, Brześć or Horyń – with the rest of the world. They were navigated by steam boats, barges, and a variety of small craft that seemingly for ever became an element of landscape in that land of forests and water. “And when the sun rose, the market opened up and a multitude of boats lined along the bank began trading in hay, wood, and other goods; I looked at that movement, that life, with admiration” [Kraszewski 1985, description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. The villages of Polesie also had their characteristic features: “A village stretches far to the right, on to the mill and the pond, and in the midst of it an old Orthodox church can just be seen, overshadowed with trees. All this rests against the far background of forests (…) hills, woods, fields, and finally the forests girding every Polesie landscape.” [Kraszewski 1985, description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860] (Fig. 67). Traditional Polesie cottages were low, built of wood, with log cabin structure, thatched, with a large stove erected in the centre of the cabin. In the Polish part of Polesie such cabins remained until mid-nineteen eighties, while in the Belarusian and Ukrainian parts st Fig. 68. Rural cottages in the Lejno village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski 1986 they could still be encountered in the first decade of the 21 century (Fig. 68).

House gardens were an inseparable element of the landscape of Polesie villages: from the road side that had a decorative character (so-called “front-garden” – Fig. 69), while behind the cottage – a utility character (vegetable or kitchen garden).

96 96 97 Apart from the forests, one of the main poetically described elements of the Polesie landscape are the rivers, “girding from everywhere and crossing among endless bogs and vegetation (...). Horyń, squeezed in, flows down in the valley, and above it hang entwined trees: pines, oaks, birches and thick hazel; its waters surround a green island down at the feet of the onlooker, covered with old oaks, on which cattle still graze – a veritable idyll!” [Kraszewski 1985, description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. An equally interesting description of a Polesie river valley was given by Antoni Kieniewicz: “…beautiful Prypeć, at any time of year, day and night. On sunny days its water changed its colour from blue to dark navy blue. On stormy days it could be ominous, dark and black, yet always clean and clear. The opposite river bank was low, covered with beautiful meadows with a multitude of diverse flowers and single beautiful oak trees. Especially in spring, when the Prypeć river valley carried enormous amounts of water to the Dniepr and the whole opposite bank was flooded miles wide – the panorama was incomparably Fig. 67. Józef Chełmoński The village; 1910 http://www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl/Chelmonski/Index.htm beautiful” [Kieniewicz 1989; description relating to the first 2 decades of the 20th century]. Apart from their unquestionable landscape values, the rivers were also important routes connecting the main Polesie towns - Pińsk, Brześć or Horyń – with the rest of the world. They were navigated by steam boats, barges, and a variety of small craft that seemingly for ever became an element of landscape in that land of forests and water. “And when the sun rose, the market opened up and a multitude of boats lined along the bank began trading in hay, wood, and other goods; I looked at that movement, that life, with admiration” [Kraszewski 1985, description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860]. The villages of Polesie also had their characteristic features: “A village stretches far to the right, on to the mill and the pond, and in the midst of it an old Orthodox church can just be seen, overshadowed with trees. All this rests against the far background of forests (…) hills, woods, fields, and finally the forests girding every Polesie landscape.” [Kraszewski 1985, description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860] (Fig. 67). Traditional Polesie cottages were low, built of wood, with log cabin structure, thatched, with a large stove erected in the centre of the cabin. In the Polish part of Polesie such cabins remained until mid-nineteen eighties, while in the Belarusian and Ukrainian parts st Fig. 68. Rural cottages in the Lejno village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski 1986 they could still be encountered in the first decade of the 21 century (Fig. 68).

96 9797 Also vast moors remained „That great area is characterised by unheard-of monotony, the locals call it the great wet grassland, covered with sour grasses among which, here and there, one can find a “window” – a small deep lake in the middle of the bog, with reed- covered banks (Fig. 11). SThere are areas where – as far as the eye can see – there is no tree or bush on the horizon, for on the bottomless bog neither man, nor moor oak, dwarf pine, birch or alder can survive” [Marczak 1935/2008, description relating to the situation after WW I]. Since the end of WW II the character of the landscape of the Polish part of Polesie has undergone a fundamental change: the limitless, nearly unpopulated, mysterious land of moors and wetlands described in literature and presented in paintings has turned into a mosaic multi- functional region in which agriculture, forestry and fisheries coexist with intense recreational traffic and an expanding network of services, and with various forms of nature conservation at the same time [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009] (Fig.70).

Fig. 69. Traditional flower garden in front of a Polesie cottage. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski 1987

In spite of the extensive devastation and transformations caused by WW I, in the inter- war period Polesie, over a vast majority of its territory, still retained its almost natural character: “There remained areas that were little known, mysterious in many respects, hardly accessible and largely unpopulated! (…). Among the forests and bogs, here and there rounded forest-covered hillocks rise above the boggy Polesie plain (…). Those are battle fields, and the hillocks are burrows piled above the bodies of the fallen (…). Nothing has changed here since times immemorial! Water from melting snow flows to the rivers and lakes and overflows their banks as it always did (…). Remnants of the old forest stand flooded to mid-trunk; dire alder groves blacken (…). At that time, extraordinarily grown grasses, reeds and bushes struggle with water, stagnant or flowing lazily. Water-lilies, calla, nuphars, Fig. 70. West Polesie landscape in the beginning of XXI ct. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2007. bulrushes, lobelias and bindweed cast green patches on the water, trying to join the banks, to dam the flow of the slow stream (…). Lakes and bays disappeared and still disappear, leaving behind a quaggy bed of peat with scattered “windows” glittering in the sun, like eyes, still not coated with the mist of death, those treacherous depths cast the final looks at the world” [Ossendowski 1934/2008, description relating to the situation after WW I].

98 98 99 Also vast moors remained „That great area is characterised by unheard-of monotony, the locals call it the great wet grassland, covered with sour grasses among which, here and there, one can find a “window” – a small deep lake in the middle of the bog, with reed-covered banks (Fig. 11). There are areas where – as far as the eye can see – there is no tree or bush on the horizon, for on the bottomless bog neither man, nor moor oak, dwarf pine, birch or alder can survive” [Marczak 1935/2008, description relating to the situation after WW I]. Since the end of WW II the character of the landscape of the Polish part of Polesie has undergone a fundamental change: the limitless, nearly unpopulated, mysterious land of moors and wetlands described in literature and presented in paintings has turned into a mosaic multi- functional region in which agriculture, forestry and fisheries coexist with intense recreational traffic and an expanding network of services, and with various forms of nature conservation at the same time [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009] (Fig.70).

Fig. 69. Traditional flower garden in front of a Polesie cottage. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski 1987

98 9999 6.3. Proposal of a new method of assessment of landscape physiognomy changes It is recommended to conduct the evaluation 4 times a year (in the spring, summer, autumn and winter periods), and the results obtained should be used to calculate the mean 6.3.1. Introduction rating. The inspiration for the development of a method of evaluation of changes taking place Table 4. Model table for landscape physiognomy values evaluationon on selected sections of the route studied [Chmielewski T. J. et al 2014] in landscape physiognomy was the method of the “curve of impressions” of K. Wejchert Section Section Section Section [1984], modified by T. J. Chmielewski for the purposes of integrated assessment of aesthetic Item Criteria of evaluation .... TOTAL 1 2 3 n values and degree of anthropogenic transformation of landscape [Chmielewski T. J. 2012], as Extent o viewing vistas 1 (richness of landscape resources) well as the recommendations contained in the EC Report concerning the implementation of Naturalness and distinctness of nature 2 the European Landscape Convention [Landscape... 2006]. components (values of landscape, nature) Regional identity and distinctness of cultural 3 The method developed, named the method of retrospective evaluation of landscape components (values of cultural landscape) physiognomy changes, consists of five stages [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014]: 4 Harmony of nature and culture Emotional content of landscape Stage one includes: (a) selection of the area to be studied, (b) collection of materials 5 (picturesqueness, photogenic values, creative inspiration) and source documents on the area studied, (c) determination of dates (periods) for which the TOTAL assessments of landscape physiognomy changes will be elaborated, (d) plotting on a map of

the study area the route of march, and on the route several 1-kiolometre sections on which the Stage three consists in conducting several interviews with old inhabitants of localities current landscape values of the study area will be evaluated. The map scale should adapted to situated along the route studied, or in its immediate vicinity, on the appearance of the area the size of the study area and to the length of the chose marching route. Preferred scales: from studied in the preceding or several preceding time transects. The number of such interviews 1: 50 000 to 1: 5 000. should be adapted to the length and diversity of the route, and to the density of population of Stage two includes the field work. Following the route selected in Stage 1, on foot or the study area. This stage may not be necessary if the author of the study being conducted on a bicycle, the current landscape values within the fields of view on both sides of the tested remembers well the study area from the preceding time transect (his is the case in this study). 1-km section are evaluated taking into account five criteria: Stage four comprises the chamber works. Based on analysis of archival maps, aerial 1. The extent o viewing vistas (richness of landscape resources). photographs, ground photographs, scientific and technical documentation, results of 2. The naturalness and distinctness of nature components (values of nature landscape). interviews, as well as on the basis of analysis of literary works and paintings – an attempt is 3. The regional identity and distinctness of physiognomy of cultural components made at the retrospective evaluation of the same sections of the route, according to the same (values of cultural landscape). set of criteria, for several historical time transects (e.g. from before 50 and 25 years). The 4. The harmony of nature and culture. results of the evaluations for the particular ears are entered in Tables analogous to those used 5. The emotional content of the landscape (picturesqueness, photogenic values, in Stage 1 (Tab. 4). creative inspiration). Stage five includes the finishing work. Comparing the results obtained, estimation is The value of the area, based on the above criteria, is evaluated in the scale of 1-10 made of the character and scale of changes that have taken place in the landscape points, and the points are summed both in relation to the values of a specific section of the physiognomy of the study area, and conclusions are formulated on the directions of route and in relation to the particular criteria evaluated on the whole route studied. The results conservation, revalorisation, restoration or revitalisation of the area under analysis are entered in a Table 4. [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014].

100 100 101 6.3. Proposal of a new method of assessment of landscape physiognomy changes It is recommended to conduct the evaluation 4 times a year (in the spring, summer, autumn and winter periods), and the results obtained should be used to calculate the mean 6.3.1. Introduction rating. The inspiration for the development of a method of evaluation of changes taking place Table 4. Model table for landscape physiognomy values evaluation on selected sections of the route studied [Chmielewski T. J. et al 2014b] in landscape physiognomy was the method of the “curve of impressions” of K. Wejchert Section Section Section Section [1984], modified by T. J. Chmielewski for the purposes of integrated assessment of aesthetic Item Criteria of evaluation .... TOTAL 1 2 3 n values and degree of anthropogenic transformation of landscape [Chmielewski T. J. 2012], as Extent o viewing vistas 1 (richness of landscape resources) well as the recommendations contained in the EC Report concerning the implementation of Naturalness and distinctness of nature 2 the European Landscape Convention [Landscape... 2006]. components (values of landscape, nature) Regional identity and distinctness of cultural 3 The method developed, named the method of retrospective evaluation of landscape components (values of cultural landscape) physiognomy changes, consists of five stages [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014]: 4 Harmony of nature and culture Emotional content of landscape Stage one includes: (a) selection of the area to be studied, (b) collection of materials 5 (picturesqueness, photogenic values, creative inspiration) and source documents on the area studied, (c) determination of dates (periods) for which the TOTAL assessments of landscape physiognomy changes will be elaborated, (d) plotting on a map of the study area the route of march, and on the route several 1-kiolometre sections on which the Stage three consists in conducting several interviews with old inhabitants of localities current landscape values of the study area will be evaluated. The map scale should adapted to situated along the route studied, or in its immediate vicinity, on the appearance of the area the size of the study area and to the length of the chose marching route. Preferred scales: from studied in the preceding or several preceding time transects. The number of such interviews 1: 50 000 to 1: 5 000. should be adapted to the length and diversity of the route, and to the density of population of Stage two includes the field work. Following the route selected in Stage 1, on foot or the study area. This stage may not be necessary if the author of the study being conducted on a bicycle, the current landscape values within the fields of view on both sides of the tested remembers well the study area from the preceding time transect (his is the case in this study). 1-km section are evaluated taking into account five criteria: Stage four comprises the chamber works. Based on analysis of archival maps, aerial 1. The extent o viewing vistas (richness of landscape resources). photographs, ground photographs, scientific and technical documentation, results of 2. The naturalness and distinctness of nature components (values of nature landscape). interviews, as well as on the basis of analysis of literary works and paintings – an attempt is 3. The regional identity and distinctness of physiognomy of cultural components made at the retrospective evaluation of the same sections of the route, according to the same (values of cultural landscape). set of criteria, for several historical time transects (e.g. from before 50 and 25 years). The 4. The harmony of nature and culture. results of the evaluations for the particular ears are entered in Tables analogous to those used 5. The emotional content of the landscape (picturesqueness, photogenic values, in Stage 1 (Tab. 4). creative inspiration). Stage five includes the finishing work. Comparing the results obtained, estimation is The value of the area, based on the above criteria, is evaluated in the scale of 1-10 made of the character and scale of changes that have taken place in the landscape points, and the points are summed both in relation to the values of a specific section of the physiognomy of the study area, and conclusions are formulated on the directions of route and in relation to the particular criteria evaluated on the whole route studied. The results conservation, revalorisation, restoration or revitalisation of the area under analysis are entered in a Table 4. [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014b].

100 101101 6.3.2. Area of method testing and time transects analysed The area selected for testing the method is situated in the north-west part of the Polesie National Park and in its buffer zone, between the villages of Orzechów Nowy to the west, Komarówka and Zienki to the north, Wola Wereszczyńska to the east, and Jagodno and Zawadówka to the south. The boundaries of the study area defined in this way included the lakes Zagłębocze, Gumienko, Moszne and Karaśne, the peatbog complex “Lejno”, and fragments of two watercourses: Piwonia and Bobryk. Within that area – like in most of the territories of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland – from the beginning of the XX. century, significant changes have taken place in the water relations, in the land use structure and in the character of landscape physiognomy [Chmielewski T. J. 2006, Kułak, Chmielewski T. J. 2010]. The choice of that particular area for the study resulted from, among other things, the most spectacular change – the elimination (drainage), in the first half of the XX. century, of Lake Lejno – previously one of the largest (ca. 133 ha) natural reservoirs in the region. The time sections adopted for the study of the landscape physiognomy changes were as follows: Fig. 71. Quartermaster’s map published in 1838. Study area and the route of march a) 1838 (the year of creation of a “quartermaster’s map”); b) 1986 – 1990 (works on the documentation for the creation of the Polesie National Park); c) year 2007 – 2011 (2007: elaboration of colour orthophotmap; 2011: conducting the field studies) (Fig. 71 – 73). Within the test area a walking route was plotted, with length of ca. 12 km, that led from the village of Orzechów Nowy, along the edge of the basin of the former lake Lejno to the village of Lejno, then through the valley of the watercourse Bobryk to the villages Zienki and Jamniki, to and along the didactic path on lake Moszne. Along that route five 1-km sections were designated, on which the aesthetic values of the landscape were evaluated (Fig. 71 - 73).

and forest. The results of the evaluations were presented in separate article [Chmielewski T. J. Fig. 72. Topographic map published in 1990. Study area and the route of march. et al. 2014b]; Table 5, 6; Fig. 74.

102 102 103 6.3.2. Area of method testing and time transects analysed The area selected for testing the method is situated in the north-west part of the Polesie National Park and in its buffer zone, between the villages of Orzechów Nowy to the west, Komarówka and Zienki to the north, Wola Wereszczyńska to the east, and Jagodno and Zawadówka to the south. The boundaries of the study area defined in this way included the lakes Zagłębocze, Gumienko, Moszne and Karaśne, the peatbog complex “Lejno”, and fragments of two watercourses: Piwonia and Bobryk. Within that area – like in most of the territories of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland – from the beginning of the XX. century, significant changes have taken place in the water relations, in the land use structure and in the character of landscape physiognomy [Chmielewski T. J. 2006, Kułak, Chmielewski T. J. 2010]. The choice of that particular area for the study resulted from, among other things, the most spectacular change – the elimination (drainage), in the first half of the XX. century, of Lake Lejno – previously one of the largest (ca. 133 ha) natural reservoirs in the region. The time sections adopted for the study of the landscape physiognomy changes were as foolows: Fig. 71. Quartermaster’s map published in 1838. Study area and the route of march a) 1838 (the year of creation of a “quartermaster’s map”); b) 1986 – 1990 (works on the documentation for the creation of the Polesie National Park); c) year 2007 – 2011 (2007: elaboration of colour orthophotmap; 2011: conducting the field studies) (Fig. 71 – 73). Within the test area a walking route was plotted, with length of ca. 12 km, that led from the village of Orzechów Nowy, along the edge of the basin of the former lake Lejno to the village of Lejno, then through the valley of the watercourse Bobryk to the villages Zienki and Jamniki, to and along the didactic path on lake Moszne. Along that route five 1-km sections were designated, on which the aesthetic values of the landscape were evaluated (Fig. 71 - 73).

6.3.3. Results The evaluation of the current landscape values of the study area was conducted in 2011, on five 1-kilometr sections situated along the chosen route. The sections covered: (1) village Orzechów Nowy; (2) basin of the former lake Lejno; (3) village Lejno; (4) village Zienki with buildings remaining from the former ate Farm (PGR); (5) lake Moszne with adjacent peatbog and forest. The results of the evaluations were presented in separate article [Chmielewski T. J. Fig. 72. Topographic map published in 1990. Study area and the route of march. et al. 2014]; Table 5, 6; Fig. 74.

102 103103 Table 5. Retrospective evaluation of landscape physiognomy values from Orzechów Nowy village to lake Moszne in 1838 [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014]

Orzechów Lake Village Village Lake Item Criteria of evaluation TOTAL Nowy Lejno Lejno Zienki Moszne Extent o viewing vistas 1 3 10 4 4 10 31 (richness of landscape resources) Naturalness and distinctness of nature 2 3 10 4 4 10 31 components (values of landscape, nature) Regional identity and distinctness of cultural 3 8 10 10 7 10 45 components (values of cultural landscape) 4 Harmony of nature and culture 10 10 10 10 10 50 Emotional content of landscape 5 (picturesqueness, photogenic values, 9 10 10 9 10 48 creative inspiration) TOTAL 33 50 38 34 50 205

Table 6. Evaluation of landscape physiognomy values from Orzechów Nowy village to lake Moszne in 2011[Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014] . Orzechów Lake Village Village Lake Item Criteria of evaluation TOTAL Nowy Lejno Lejno Zienki Moszne Fig. 73. Orthophotmap (2007). Study area and the route of march Extent o viewing vistas 1 1 9 3 2 5 20 (richness of landscape resources) Naturalness and distinctness of nature 2 2 6 2 1 7 18 components (values of landscape, nature)

Regional identity and distinctness of cultural The study shows that – in general – the landscape values of the study area have 3 5 6 6 1 2 20 components (values of cultural landscape) undergone considerable deterioration. This is the most observable in the case of village 4 Harmony of nature and culture 3 8 6 1 7 25 Zienki, with abandoned and run-down post-socialist buildings of a large State Farm (PGR). Emotional content of landscape 5 (picturesqueness, photogenic values, creative 4 8 5 1 5 23 The smallest scale of degradation of the aesthetic values of the landscape was observed inspiration) for the surroundings of the basin of the former lake Lejno. Following the disappearance of the TOTAL 15 37 22 6 26 106 lake itself, within its basin there appeared fairly attractive in terms of landscape value peatbogs, waterlogged grasslands and alder carr. As before, it is surrounded by picturesque fallows and dry pasture lands, intersected by a gently undulating sandy road. In this case the drastic changes in the ecosystems of the lake basin did not produce the effect of significant degradation of the aesthetic values of the surrounding landscape, as the system of ecosystems related with the lake has been successively replaced by other, but also visually attractive ecosystems: peatbog, meadow and forest. Whereas, the terrain surrounding the lake basin retained its previous character and regional identity [Chmielewski et al. 2014b].

104 104 105 Table 5. Retrospective evaluation of landscape physiognomy values from Orzechów Nowy village to lake Moszne in 1838 [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014b]

Table 6. Evaluation of landscape physiognomy values from Orzechów Nowy village to lake Moszne in 2011[Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014b] . Orzechów Lake Village Village Lake Item Criteria of evaluation TOTAL Nowy Lejno Lejno Zienki Moszne Fig. 73. Orthophotmap (2007). Study area and the route of march Extent o viewing vistas 1 1 9 3 2 5 20 (richness of landscape resources) Naturalness and distinctness of nature 2 2 6 2 1 7 18 components (values of landscape, nature)

104 105105 to the past – to the natural and cultural models of identity of the particular regions [Chmielewski T. J. 2012, Myczkowski 2012]. Frequently, however, the archival data on the characteristic features of the area studied (and especially on its physiognomy) are very general, imprecise and fragmentary. Moreover, they have been often acquired with methods that today can hardly be considered as scientific. Hence the need of developing a modern method permitting the retrospective evaluation of characteristic features of the landscape of the area studied, in several time transects, on the basis of a set of specific source materials. This paper presents a proposal of such a method, and the results of its preliminary testing on a fragment of the area of the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve. Almost from the beginning of undertaking attempts at quantitative evaluation of landscape quality there has been an ongoing discussion among the researchers as to whether landscapes possess an inherent, objective beauty that could be, somehow, measurable or comparable, or whether scenic beauty is a value that can only be subjectively ascribed to a given area or a specific landscape [Shuttleworth 1980]. Wojciechowski [1986], and then Orland et al. [1995] as well as numerous other researchers described qualitative methods of Fig. 74. Summary assessment of scenic values of the test sections in the particular evaluation of landscape physiognomy, focused on the evaluation of landscape composition on years [Chmielewski et al. 2014b]. the basis of opinions of interviewed persons, as well as quantitative methods consisting in measurement of selected physical parameters within the immediate field of view. Most of Highly surprising is the notable deterioration of the landscape values of the those methods are based on the assumption that there exists a broad social consensus surroundings of lake Moszne, situated in the Polesie National Park. Large-scale drainage of concerning the evaluation as to which areas are considered to be landscapes with high th peatbogs, conducted in the area in the 60s and 70s of the 20 century (i.e. before the national aesthetic values and which as ones little attractive. This assumption is related with another, park was created), as well as the deficit of hydrological supply continuing over successive namely that “visual quality” is a property inseperably connected with landscape, which can be decades, resulted first in the disappearance of – so characteristic for the Polesie landscape – objectively ascertained [Jacques 1980]. However, specific evaluations of landscape quality, mid-peatbog stagnant waters and small water bodies, and then fast overgrowing of both the made by various people, will always be more or less biased due to their individual, personal lake itself (with reed communities), and the peatbog (with reed rushes and swamp-forest preferences. communities). The landscape of vast water-peatbog plains has been replaced by a forest The subjectivism of assessments is even greater in the case of attempts at analysis of landscape, with patches of peat and reed vegetation. changes in landscape in successive time transects. The credibility of such assessments is fundamentally dependent on the following: 6.4. Discussion • The amount and quality of accumulated source materials (maps, aerial photographs, land photographs, descriptions etc.); The large-scale dynamic changes currently taking place in land use structure, land use • The knowledge and experience of the author (authors) of the assessments, and technology, and in landscape physiognomy provide a stimulus for undertaking work on the especially personal long-term knowledge of the area studied. systematic recording and evaluation of the successive phases of those transformations. At the The consideration and analysis of what and how has changed in the landscape is of great same time, however, there is an increasing need of relating the results of contemporary studies importance for the frame of mind of a person, for building his/hers bond with the region,

106 106 107 to the past – to the natural and cultural models of identity of the particular regions [Chmielewski T. J. 2012, Myczkowski 2012]. Frequently, however, the archival data on the characteristic features of the area studied (and especially on its physiognomy) are very general, imprecise and fragmentary. Moreover, they have been often acquired with methods that today can hardly be considered as scientific. Hence the need of developing a modern method permitting the retrospective evaluation of characteristic features of the landscape of the area studied, in several time transects, on the basis of a set of specific source materials. This paper presents a proposal of such a method, and the results of its preliminary testing on a fragment of the area of the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve. Almost from the beginning of undertaking attempts at quantitative evaluation of landscape quality there has been an ongoing discussion among the researchers as to whether landscapes possess an inherent, objective beauty that could be, somehow, measurable or comparable, or whether scenic beauty is a value that can only be subjectively ascribed to a given area or a specific landscape [Shuttleworth 1980]. Wojciechowski [1986], and then Orland et al. [1995] as well as numerous other researchers described qualitative methods of Fig. 74. Summary assessment of scenic values of the test sections in the particular years evaluation of landscape physiognomy, focused on the evaluation of landscape composition on [Chmielewski et al. 2014]. the basis of opinions of interviewed persons, as well as quantitative methods consisting in measurement of selected physical parameters within the immediate field of view. Most of Highly surprising is the notable deterioration of the landscape values of the those methods are based on the assumption that there exists a broad social consensus surroundings of lake Moszne, situated in the Polesie National Park. Large-scale drainage of concerning the evaluation as to which areas are considered to be landscapes with high th peatbogs, conducted in the area in the 60s and 70s of the 20 century (i.e. before the national aesthetic values and which as ones little attractive. This assumption is related with another, park was created), as well as the deficit of hydrological supply continuing over successive namely that “visual quality” is a property inseperably connected with landscape, which can be decades, resulted first in the disappearance of – so characteristic for the Polesie landscape – objectively ascertained [Jacques 1980]. However, specific evaluations of landscape quality, mid-peatbog stagnant waters and small water bodies, and then fast overgrowing of both the made by various people, will always be more or less biased due to their individual, personal lake itself (with reed communities), and the peatbog (with reed rushes and swamp-forest preferences. communities). The landscape of vast water-peatbog plains has been replaced by a forest The subjectivism of assessments is even greater in the case of attempts at analysis of landscape, with patches of peat and reed vegetation. changes in landscape in successive time transects. The credibility of such assessments is fundamentally dependent on the following: 6.4. Discussion • The amount and quality of accumulated source materials (maps, aerial photographs, land photographs, descriptions etc.); The large-scale dynamic changes currently taking place in land use structure, land use • The knowledge and experience of the author (authors) of the assessments, and technology, and in landscape physiognomy provide a stimulus for undertaking work on the especially personal long-term knowledge of the area studied. systematic recording and evaluation of the successive phases of those transformations. At the The consideration and analysis of what and how has changed in the landscape is of great same time, however, there is an increasing need of relating the results of contemporary studies importance for the frame of mind of a person, for building his/hers bond with the region,

106 107107 sense of security, or the opposite – the sense of threat and frustration. Analysis of the 7. A preliminary evaluation of changes in landscape services potential character of changes taking place in the landscape is also of great importance for the creation of visions of future development of this earth: augmenting of positive trends, elimination of 7.1 Ecosystem / landscape services classification mistakes, protection of areas and objects of special value for the natural and cultural heritage. The well-being of practically every human population is inseparably related with properly functioning natural ecosystems which provide numerous benefits, from food, clean water and flood protection to cultural heritage, sense of place, and others. However, many of those are under strong human pressure that often leads to a reduction of biodiversity and thus to their – frequently irreversible – degradation [MEA 2005]. The objective of introducing the concept of ecosystem services was to increase the awareness and responsibility of societies in the area of sustainable use of natural resources and to draw attention to the need for actions aimed at the preservation of the natural environment in as stable a condition as possible. Ecosystem services are defined in various ways [Costanza et al. 1997; Daily 1997; MEA 2005; Boyd and Banzhaf, 2007; Fischer et al. 2009], but generally it is assumed that they constitute “direct and indirect contribution of ecosystems to human well-being” [TEEB 2010]. In the member states of the EU, for the assessment, mapping and valuation of ecosystem services it is recommended to use the classification Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services and the habitat typology developed by EUNIS (European Nature Information System). CICES classifies ecological services in 3 sections: provisioning, regulation and maintenance, and cultural. Those sections are then categorised by the main types of output or process, and by the biological, physical or cultural type or process. Ultimately the sections of ecosystem services have been classified into 8 divisions, 20 groups and 48 classes [MAES 2014]. Provisioning services are products obtained from ecosystems, regulation and maintenance services include “habitat services” introduced by TEEB [2010] and relate to the regulation and maintenance of ‘biotic’ conditions in ecosystems (e.g. pest and disease control, pollination, gene-pool protection etc.) and are equivalent to other biophysical factors that regulate the ambient conditions, such as climate regulation [Maes et al., 2013], while cultural services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experiences [MEA 2005, TEEB 2010, MAES 2014]. Landscape ecologists try to transpose the experience acquired in the field of ecosystem services classification and valuation onto the level of landscape [Chan et al. 2006; Bennett et

108 108 109 sense of security, or the opposite – the sense of threat and frustration. Analysis of the 7. A preliminary evaluation of changes in landscape services potential character of changes taking place in the landscape is also of great importance for the creation of visions of future development of this earth: augmenting of positive trends, elimination of 7.1 Ecosystem / landscape services classification mistakes, protection of areas and objects of special value for the natural and cultural heritage. The well-being of practically every human population is inseparably related with properly functioning natural ecosystems which provide numerous benefits, from food, clean water and flood protection to cultural heritage, sense of place, and others. However, many of those are under strong human pressure that often leads to a reduction of biodiversity and thus to their – frequently irreversible – degradation [MEA 2005]. The objective of introducing the concept of ecosystem services was to increase the awareness and responsibility of societies in the area of sustainable use of natural resources and to draw attention to the need for actions aimed at the preservation of the natural environment in as stable a condition as possible. Ecosystem services are defined in various ways [Costanza et al. 1997; Daily 1997; MEA 2005; Boyd and Banzhaf, 2007; Fischer et al. 2009], but generally it is assumed that they constitute “direct and indirect contribution of ecosystems to human well-being” [TEEB 2010]. In the member states of the EU, for the assessment, mapping and valuation of ecosystem services it is recommended to use the classification Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services and the habitat typology developed by EUNIS (European Nature Information System). CICES classifies ecological services in 3 sections: provisioning, regulation and maintenance, and cultural. Those sections are then categorised by the main types of output or process, and by the biological, physical or cultural type or process. Ultimately the sections of ecosystem services have been classified into 8 divisions, 20 groups and 48 classes [MAES 2014]. Provisioning services are products obtained from ecosystems, regulation and maintenance services include “habitat services” introduced by TEEB [2010] and relate to the regulation and maintenance of ‘biotic’ conditions in ecosystems (e.g. pest and disease control, pollination, gene-pool protection etc.) and are equivalent to other biophysical factors that regulate the ambient conditions, such as climate regulation [Maes et al., 2013], while cultural services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experiences [MEA 2005, TEEB 2010, MAES 2014]. Landscape ecologists try to transpose the experience acquired in the field of ecosystem services classification and valuation onto the level of landscape [Chan et al. 2006; Bennett et

108 109109 al. 2009]. In that way the concept of landscape services has been created, covering an array of of lakes and their adjacent areas. Making use of the method developed by Chmielewski and services offered by landscape complexes of natural and semi-natural ecosystems, agrocenoses Michalak [1989], the natural tourist capacity of 5 lakes of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland and settlement systems [Richling, Solon 2011, Chmielewski 2012]. most popular among tourists was calculated [Pawłowski, Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1990]. The natural tourist capacity index of a lake (NTCIL) reflects the maximum number of people who 7.2 Assessment of changes that took place in the landscape of the Łęczna-Włodawa can take their rest there (i.e. on the lake itself and within the surrounding shore belt 100 m Lakeland since the 50. of the XX. century and their effect in the potential of selected wide) at the height of the recreational season (in the area of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland ecosystem (landscape) services such season lasts from mid-June until mid-September), without causing processes of ecological and physiognomic degradation of the ecosystem. Therefore, NTCIL can be According to the authors of this report, the estimation of the potential of ecosystem / accepted as one of the indices of natural potential of cultural ecosystem services. landscape services of a given area should be conducted in 2 aspects: (1) as a summary The results obtained were juxtaposed with measurements of the value of structure of evaluation of the landscape potential of groups of ecosystems and of patches of anthropogenic tourist traffic concentration on those lakes. It transpired that in 2008 the NTCIL of lake forms of land cover; (2) as the actual scope of utilisation of that potential by humans. Piaseczno was exceeded 4.3-fold, that of lake Łukcze – 3.9-fold, while that of lake Rotcze – That approach is similar to the method of estimation, in use for years, of the degree of 3.1-fold. From among the 5 lakes studied, in 2008 only on lake Uściwierz the tourist traffic utilisation of the natural tourist capacity of recreational regions [Regel ed. 1978; Baranowska- did not exceed the value of the NTCL but attained the maximum permissible safe level (Table Janota, Kozłowski 1984; Chmielewski T. J., Michalak L. 1989]. 7). One of the most obvious and the easiest to measure (determine the value) indices of ecosystem services relating to a specific type of ecosystem is the area occupied by that type of Table 7. Natural tourist capacity index of selected lakes and scale of its exceeding in 2008 ecosystem. As demonstrated in chapter 4, in the last half-century the area of various types of Name of lake Natural tourist capacity index Multiplier of exceeding the of the lake, together with natural tourist capacity in ecosystems of West Polesie has undergone fundamental changes. The greatest changes were 100 m wide belt* 2008** those relating to the shrinkage of the area of water and wetland ecosystems, and Łukcze 800 3.9 simultaneously – an increase of the area of forest ecosystems. However, the index of the area Piaseczno 1700 4.3 of ecosystems of a given type alone is not sufficient for the estimation of their potential with Rotcze 400 3.1 regard to the provisioning, regulation & maintenance and/or cultural services. Many other, Sumin 800 1.3 much more difficult to measure, parameters of ecosystems should also be taken into account, Uściwierz 600 1.0 such as the spatial dimension (3D) of an ecosystem; biomass; biodiversity; water retention * after L. Pawłowski & T. J. Chmielewski ed. 1990 capacity; water purification ability; air purification ability; aesthetic values etc. At the present * after T. J. Chmielewski & P. Jankowska 2009 stage of analyses we can only state that West Polesie significantly changes the character and potential of its ecosystem services. However, we cannot make positive statements as to which Exceeding the value of NTCIL several-fold results in rapid degradation of the section of the services increases and which decreases its share in the total pool of ecosystem ecological, physiognomic and recreational values of lakes. This is particularly observable in services. the case of lake Piaseczno, the most severely loaded with tourist traffic. Until the beginning of Whereas, we can say a little more about the potential of certain groups and classes of the nineteen nineties lake Piaseczno had the features of a mesotrophic lake, with very clean cultural landscape services. water, sandy shores and bottom and sparse vegetation of the littoral zone. It was classified Since the nineteen eighties of the XX century, the team of authors of this project has among the most valuable, in terms of nature values, of all the lakes of the Łęczna-Włodawa been dealing with, among other things, the problems of estimation of natural tourist capacity

110 110 111 al. 2009]. In that way the concept of landscape services has been created, covering an array of of lakes and their adjacent areas. Making use of the method developed by Chmielewski and services offered by landscape complexes of natural and semi-natural ecosystems, agrocenoses Michalak [1989], the natural tourist capacity of 5 lakes of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland and settlement systems [Richling, Solon 2011, Chmielewski 2012]. most popular among tourists was calculated [Pawłowski, Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1990]. The natural tourist capacity index of a lake (NTCIL) reflects the maximum number of people who 7.2 Assessment of changes that took place in the landscape of the Łęczna-Włodawa can take their rest there (i.e. on the lake itself and within the surrounding shore belt 100 m Lakeland since the 50. of the XX. century and their effect in the potential of selected wide) at the height of the recreational season (in the area of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland ecosystem (landscape) services such season lasts from mid-June until mid-September), without causing processes of ecological and physiognomic degradation of the ecosystem. Therefore, NTCIL can be According to the authors of this report, the estimation of the potential of ecosystem / accepted as one of the indices of natural potential of cultural ecosystem services. landscape services of a given area should be conducted in 2 aspects: (1) as a summary The results obtained were juxtaposed with measurements of the value of structure of evaluation of the landscape potential of groups of ecosystems and of patches of anthropogenic tourist traffic concentration on those lakes. It transpired that in 2008 the NTCIL of lake forms of land cover; (2) as the actual scope of utilisation of that potential by humans. Piaseczno was exceeded 4.3-fold, that of lake Łukcze – 3.9-fold, while that of lake Rotcze – That approach is similar to the method of estimation, in use for years, of the degree of 3.1-fold. From among the 5 lakes studied, in 2008 only on lake Uściwierz the tourist traffic utilisation of the natural tourist capacity of recreational regions [Regel ed. 1978; Baranowska- did not exceed the value of the NTCL but attained the maximum permissible safe level (Table Janota, Kozłowski 1984; Chmielewski T. J., Michalak L. 1989]. 7). One of the most obvious and the easiest to measure (determine the value) indices of ecosystem services relating to a specific type of ecosystem is the area occupied by that type of Table 7. Natural tourist capacity index of selected lakes and scale of its exceeding in 2008 ecosystem. As demonstrated in chapter 4, in the last half-century the area of various types of Name of lake Natural tourist capacity index Multiplier of exceeding the of the lake, together with natural tourist capacity in ecosystems of West Polesie has undergone fundamental changes. The greatest changes were 100 m wide belt* 2008** those relating to the shrinkage of the area of water and wetland ecosystems, and Łukcze 800 3.9 simultaneously – an increase of the area of forest ecosystems. However, the index of the area Piaseczno 1700 4.3 of ecosystems of a given type alone is not sufficient for the estimation of their potential with Rotcze 400 3.1 regard to the provisioning, regulation & maintenance and/or cultural services. Many other, Sumin 800 1.3 much more difficult to measure, parameters of ecosystems should also be taken into account, Uściwierz 600 1.0 such as the spatial dimension (3D) of an ecosystem; biomass; biodiversity; water retention * after L. Pawłowski & T. J. Chmielewski ed. 1990 capacity; water purification ability; air purification ability; aesthetic values etc. At the present * after T. J. Chmielewski & P. Jankowska 2009 stage of analyses we can only state that West Polesie significantly changes the character and potential of its ecosystem services. However, we cannot make positive statements as to which Exceeding the value of NTCIL several-fold results in rapid degradation of the section of the services increases and which decreases its share in the total pool of ecosystem ecological, physiognomic and recreational values of lakes. This is particularly observable in services. the case of lake Piaseczno, the most severely loaded with tourist traffic. Until the beginning of Whereas, we can say a little more about the potential of certain groups and classes of the nineteen nineties lake Piaseczno had the features of a mesotrophic lake, with very clean cultural landscape services. water, sandy shores and bottom and sparse vegetation of the littoral zone. It was classified Since the nineteen eighties of the XX century, the team of authors of this project has among the most valuable, in terms of nature values, of all the lakes of the Łęczna-Włodawa been dealing with, among other things, the problems of estimation of natural tourist capacity

110 111111 Lakeland [Radwan, Chmielewski 1997]. Already 10 years later its waters underwent strong eutrophication, organic sediments accumulated on its shores and bottom, and in the littoral zone macrophyte communities developed, characteristic for eutrophic lakes. The following 10-year period was a continuation of that trend (Fig. 75 – 77). Since the middle of the nineteen seventies, summer and recreational housing is being developed on many lakes. In the period of 1992–2007, around lake Piaseczno such construction appeared on an area of 24.9 ha; on lake Uściwierz – on the area of 11.8 ha; on lake Białe Włodawskie – on the area of 7.7 ha, etc. [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009]. The development of that form of land use causes that the capacity of the tourism base, constituting an element of the overall potential of cultural services, increases. Once the natural tourist capacity index of a lake (NTCIL) is exceeded, that process becomes harmful to the potential of the regulation & maintenance services.

Fig. 75. East sector of Lake Piaseczno in 1993. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski

Fig. 76. East sector of Lake Piaseczno in 2003. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski

112 112 113 Lakeland [Radwan, Chmielewski 1997]. Already 10 years later its waters underwent strong eutrophication, organic sediments accumulated on its shores and bottom, and in the littoral zone macrophyte communities developed, characteristic for eutrophic lakes. The following 10-year period was a continuation of that trend (Fig. 75 – 77). Since the middle of the nineteen seventies, summer and recreational housing is being developed on many lakes. In the period of 1992–2007, around lake Piaseczno such construction appeared on an area of 24.9 ha; on lake Uściwierz – on the area of 11.8 ha; on lake Białe Włodawskie – on the area of 7.7 ha, etc. [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009]. The development of that form of land use causes that the capacity of the tourism base, constituting an element of the overall potential of cultural services, increases. Once the natural tourist capacity index of a lake (NTCIL) is exceeded, that process becomes harmful to the potential of the regulation & maintenance services.

Fig. 75. East sector of Lake Piaseczno in 1993. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski

Fig. 76. East sector of Lake Piaseczno in 2003. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski

112 113113 Fig. 78. Summer houses at the Lake Piaseczno. Photo: T. J. Chmierlewski, 2012

Fig. 77. East sector of Lake Piaseczno in 2013. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski

We’re still not scientifically documented answer to the question: to what extend the way of land development for recreation (spatial pattern, intensity, style etc.) influence on the level of cultural services in the lake catchment ? When a better solution would be to build a new small summer houses (Fig. 78), when it would be better an adaptation of the traditional rural cottage for holiday home (Fig. 79), or in what circumstances to allow for the construction of summer mansions at the lake ? (Fig. 80). On the most catchments of lakes in the West Polesie region, the practice of rest management is for many years ahead of scientific research. In described above and in many similar cases, elaboration the scientific basis for sustainable landscape services management is yet to come.

Fig. 79. Adaptation of the traditional rural cottage for holiday home; village Orzechów Nowy. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2004

114 114 115 Fig. 78. Summer houses at the Lake Piaseczno. Photo: T. J. Chmierlewski, 2012

Fig. 77. East sector of Lake Piaseczno in 2013. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski

Fig. 79. Adaptation of the traditional rural cottage for holiday home; village Orzechów Nowy. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2004

114 115115 To acquire a more complete image of the mutual relationships among the potentials of the various types (sections, divisions, groups and classes) of ecosystem services in the landscape of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland, however, we need more monitoring measurmants and continuation studies. Nearly every month of our work brings new observations and suggestions in this respect.

Fig. 80. Summer mansion at the Lake Piaseczno. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2012

The general conclusions that follow from our work conducted so far, concerning the general theory and practice of ecosystem and landscape services management, are the following: 1. The natural potential of ecosystem services that can be exploit of in a given area, should be distinguish from the extent of its actual utilisation in that area; it is necessary to estimate the differences between those indices and to analyse their consequences; 2. The potential of cultural services is often developed at the expense of other ecosystem/landscape services; 3. The potentials of the particular sections of ecosystem/landscape services can change their character and value in time and space, therefore the regulation and maintenance services should be considered taking into account their assignment to specific ecosystem types; whereas, the cultural services should be analysed against the background of the regulation and maintenance services.

116 116 117 To acquire a more complete image of the mutual relationships among the potentials of the various types (sections, divisions, groups and classes) of ecosystem services in the landscape of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland, however, we need more monitoring measurements and continuation studies. Nearly every month of our work brings new observations and suggestions in this respect.

Fig. 80. Summer mansion at the Lake Piaseczno. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2012

116 117117 8. Conclusions

The project: Changes in landscape diversity, landscape connectivity and land use structure in the ’West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over the last half century allowed to review, assess and recapitulation of several lines of our over 20 years long research, concerning the West Polesie landscapes transformations over the last century, especially over the last 5-6 decades. This aspect of the research project allowed to conduct of interdisciplinary meta- analyzes and landscape syntheses, so important for a good understanding of the whole complex of processes occurring in the course of landscape evolution. At the same time, the realization of that project opened up and initiated implementation a several new directions of investigating and modelling of landscape systems of that extremely interesting region. The main new directions are the following: • identification the set of natural and cultural landmarks (distinguishing, outstanding features) of landscape identity of the West Polesie region; • estimation of spatial differentiation of the West Polesie BR landscape diversity and its changes in space and time, using two landscape metrics: ED and SHDI; preliminary analysis of relationships among them and indication of the need for the search for new, more adequate indicators of that phenomenon; • analysis of changes in land cover structure occurring in the western and central section of the West Polesie from 1952 to 2012, with particular emphasis on catchment basins of lakes: Piaseczno, Łukie and Moszne; • evaluation of differences in direction and pace of land cover changes in the western and central section of the West Polesie in 3 time intervals: 1952 – 1992, 1992 – 2007, 2007 – 2012; • development of a zone–stripe–node model of landscape ecological structure of the whole “West Polesie” TBR and indication of elements of key importance for its role in the functioning of the ecological system of Europe; • analysis of selected aspects of the potential of cultural landscape services of the region and indication of the need for their analysis to be conducted on 2 levels: the potential and the actual.

This monograph is therefore both a summary of some previous stages, as well as the opening of a new stage of research of the West Polesie landscape systems.

119 8. Conclusions

This monograph is therefore both a summary of some previous stages, as well as the opening of a new stage of research of the West Polesie landscape systems.

119119 References

121 References

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PBZ-059-01, t. 15. struktury ekologicznej krajobrazu, jako naukowa podstawa zintegrowanego planowania Politechnika Lubelska, Norbertinum, Lublin: 1 – 342. ochrony parków narodowych). Szczeliniec nr 4: 169 – 192. 31. Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2002. Sobibór Landscape Park. Nature Conservation Plan (in Polish: Sobiborski Park Krajobrazowy – plan ochrony). Zarząd Chełmskich Parków Krajobrazowych, NAVIP Lublin; Chełm - Lublin; unpublished material: 1 – 402; 10 122 maps 1:25000. 123123 32. Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005. The ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve: values, functioning ekologiczna krajobrazu, a przestrzenne rozmieszczenie i warunki migracji łosia and perspectives for development. The monograph; (in Polish: Rezerwat Biosfery europejskiego na Polesiu Zachodnim). Sylwan 158, 1: 49 – 60. „Polesie Zachodnie”: walory, funkcjonowanie, perspektywy rozwoju. Monografia). Wyd. 39. Chmielewski T. J., Michalak L. 1989. The proposal of the metod of calculating natura Poleski Park Narodowy; Wojewoda Lubelski. Lublin – Urszulin: 1 – 206. tourist capacity of protected areas located in the lakeland landscape; (in Polish: 33. Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009. Ecology of hydrogenic landscapes of the ‘West Polesie’ Propozycja metody obliczania naturalnej chłonności turystycznej obszarów chronionych Biosphere Reserve (in Polish: Ekologia krajobrazów hydrogenicznych Rezerwatu połoŜonych w krajobrazie pojeziernym). IGPiK, Lublin, WBPP Chełm (unpublished Biosfery „Polesie Zachodnie”). Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Lublinie, Lublin: 1 – 344. material): 1 – 78. 34. Chmielewski T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2008. The influence of changes in landscape 40. Chmielewski T. J. Olenderek H., Sielewicz B. 1996. Photointerpretative retrospective ecological structure on biodiversity (The West Polesie Biosphere Reserve) [In:] Kędziora analysis of changes in the ecological structure of the Kampinos National Park in the past A. ed.: Papers on Global Change. IGBP Warsaw, vol. 15: 121 – 140. 40-year period [in:] Kistowski M. (ed.): Ecological-landscape studies in protected areas 35. Chmielewski T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2010. The processes of disappearance of lake and (in Polish: Fotointerpretacyjna analiza retrospektywna zmian struktury ekologicznej peatbog ecosystems in the region of the Polesie National Park from the second half of Kampinoskiego Parku Narodowego w okresie ostatnich 40 lat [w:] Badania ekologiczno- XX-th century and perspectives of its conservation; (in Polish: Procesy zanikania krajobrazowe na obszarach chronionych). Problemy Ekologii Krajobrazu, Vol. 2; ekosystemów jeziornych i torfowiskowych w rejonie Poleskiego Parku Narodowego od II Uniwersytet Gdański, Polska Asocjacja Ekologii Krajobrazu, Gdańsk: 125 – 129. połowy XX w. oraz perspektywy ich ochrony). Problemy Ekologii Krajobrazu, T. XXVI. 41. Chmielewski T. J., Solon J. 1996. Basic natural landscape units of the Kampinos National 121 – 134. Park: the rules of delimitation and ways of conservation [in:] Kistowski M. (ed.): 36. Chmielewski T. J., Fijałkowski D., Radwan S., Wilgat T. 1990. Nature values of the Ecological-landscape studies in protected areas (in Polish: Podstawowe przyrodnicze Polesie National Park and problems of their conservation; (in Polish: Walory jednostki przestrzenne Kampinoskiego Parku Narodowego: zasady wyróŜniania i przyrodnicze Poleskiego Parku Narodowego i problemy ich ochrony). Chrońmy Przyrodę kierunki ochrony [w:] Badania ekologiczno-krajobrazowe na obszarach chronionych). Ojczystą, PAN Kraków; 47, 4: 17 – 31. Problemy ekologii krajobrazu, Vol. 2; Uniwersytet Gdański, Polska Asocjacja Ekologii 37. Chmielewski T. J., Jankowska P. 2009. Changes in largeness and structure of tourism on Krajobrazu, Gdańsk: 130 – 142. chosen lakes on Łęczna – Włodawa Lakeland from 1985 to 2008 Park [w:] Chmielewski 42. Chmielewski T. J., Sowińska B., Kozak ś. 2012. Social expectations of landscape T. J. red.: Nature and Landscape Monitoring System in the West Polesie Biosphere conservation in the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve. TEKA Commission of Protection Reserve. University of Life Sciences of Lublin, Lublin: 243 – 256. and Formation of Natural Environment PAS Lublin; Vol. IX: 28 – 37. 38. Chmielewski T. J., Kułak A., Michalik-ŚnieŜek M. 2014a. Landscape management frame. 43. Chmielewski T. J., Sowińska-Świerkosz B., Kułak A., Chmielewski Sz. 2014. Weigle A. ed.: Nature conservation plan for the Polesie National Park; (in Polish: [In:] Landscapes of the Roztocze region: natural and cultural heritage. The scientific Operat ochrony krajobrazu [w:] Plan ochrony Poleskiego Parku Narodowego). Narodowa monograph; (in Polish: Krajobrazy Roztocza: dziedzictwo natury i kultury). Monografia Fundacja Ochrony Środowiska, Warszawa; (unpublished material): 1 – 154. Chmielewski naukowa. Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Lublinie; Lublin: 1 – 194. 39. T. J., Kułak A., Michalik-ŚnieŜek M. 2014b. Method of retrospective evaluation of 44. Chmielewski T. J., Radwan S. 1993. Changes in ecological conditions in the region of the physiognomic landscape changes and its application in the West Polesie region (CE Polesie National Park in the past 75 years [in:] Radwan S., Karbowski Z., Sołtys M., Poland). Regional Environmental Change 14:1627–1639; (ed.): Aquatic and peatbog ecosystems in protected areas (in Polish: Zmiany stosunków 40. Chmielewski T. J., Maślanko W. 2014. Ecological structure of the landscape, versus to ekologicznych w rejonie Poleskiego Parku Narodowego w okresie ostatnich 75 lat [w:] spatial distribution and migration of the moose in western Polesie (in Polish: Struktura Ekosystemy wodne i torfowiskowe w obszarach chronionych). Polskie Towarzystwo

124 124 125 30. Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005. The ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve: values, functioning ekologiczna krajobrazu, a przestrzenne rozmieszczenie i warunki migracji łosia and perspectives for development. The monograph; (in Polish: Rezerwat Biosfery europejskiego na Polesiu Zachodnim). Sylwan 158, 1: 49 – 60. „Polesie Zachodnie”: walory, funkcjonowanie, perspektywy rozwoju. Monografia). Wyd. 41. Chmielewski T. J., Michalak L. 1989. The proposal of the metod of calculating natura Poleski Park Narodowy; Wojewoda Lubelski. Lublin – Urszulin: 1 – 206. tourist capacity of protected areas located in the lakeland landscape; (in Polish: 31. Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009. Ecology of hydrogenic landscapes of the ‘West Polesie’ Propozycja metody obliczania naturalnej chłonności turystycznej obszarów chronionych Biosphere Reserve (in Polish: Ekologia krajobrazów hydrogenicznych Rezerwatu połoŜonych w krajobrazie pojeziernym). IGPiK, Lublin, WBPP Chełm (unpublished Biosfery „Polesie Zachodnie”). Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Lublinie, Lublin: 1 – 344. material): 1 – 78. 32. Chmielewski T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2008. The influence of changes in landscape 42. Chmielewski T. J. Olenderek H., Sielewicz B. 1996. Photointerpretative retrospective ecological structure on biodiversity (The West Polesie Biosphere Reserve) [In:] Kędziora analysis of changes in the ecological structure of the Kampinos National Park in the past A. ed.: Papers on Global Change. IGBP Warsaw, vol. 15: 121 – 140. 40-year period [in:] Kistowski M. (ed.): Ecological-landscape studies in protected areas 33. Chmielewski T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2010. The processes of disappearance of lake and (in Polish: Fotointerpretacyjna analiza retrospektywna zmian struktury ekologicznej peatbog ecosystems in the region of the Polesie National Park from the second half of Kampinoskiego Parku Narodowego w okresie ostatnich 40 lat [w:] Badania ekologiczno- XX-th century and perspectives of its conservation; (in Polish: Procesy zanikania krajobrazowe na obszarach chronionych). Problemy Ekologii Krajobrazu, Vol. 2; ekosystemów jeziornych i torfowiskowych w rejonie Poleskiego Parku Narodowego od II Uniwersytet Gdański, Polska Asocjacja Ekologii Krajobrazu, Gdańsk: 125 – 129. połowy XX w. oraz perspektywy ich ochrony). Problemy Ekologii Krajobrazu, T. XXVI. 43. Chmielewski T. J., Radwan S. 1993. Changes in ecological conditions in the region of the 121 – 134. Polesie National Park in the past 75 years [in:] Radwan S., Karbowski Z., Sołtys M., 34. Chmielewski T. J., Fijałkowski D., Radwan S., Wilgat T. 1990. Nature values of the (ed.): Aquatic and peatbog ecosystems in protected areas (in Polish: Zmiany stosunków Polesie National Park and problems of their conservation; (in Polish: Walory ekologicznych w rejonie Poleskiego Parku Narodowego w okresie ostatnich 75 lat [w:] przyrodnicze Poleskiego Parku Narodowego i problemy ich ochrony). Chrońmy Przyrodę Ekosystemy wodne i torfowiskowe w obszarach chronionych). Polskie Ojczystą, PAN Kraków; 47, 4: 17 – 31. TowarzystwoHydrolobiologiczne, Akademia Rolnicza, Towarzystwo Wolnej Wszechnicy 35. Chmielewski T. J., Jankowska P. 2009. Changes in largeness and structure of tourism on Polskiej, Poleski Park Narodowy; Lublin: 13 – 25. chosen lakes on Łęczna – Włodawa Lakeland from 1985 to 2008 Park [w:] Chmielewski 44. Chmielewski T. J., Radwan S., Sielewicz B. 1997. Changes in ecological relationships in T. 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