Inhaltsverzeichnis

Acknowledgements ...... 11

List of Figures ...... 12

List of Tables ...... 14

1 Introduction ...... 15 1.1 The relevance of Quebec for language planning and policy research 16 1.2 French and English in Quebec ...... 17 1.2.1 Quebec French ...... 18 1.2.2 Quebec English ...... 22 1.3 Aims, methods, and structure of the study ...... 25

2 French and English in Canada and Quebec: historical background and language political context ...... 26 2.1 Historical context ...... 26 2.2 Canada: an officially bilingual country ...... 34 2.2.1 Bilingualism at the federal level ...... 36 2.2.2 English Canada: official monolingualism, French language provisions, allophone presence ...... 40 2.2.3 Aboriginal languages and their limited role in official settings 47 2.3 Quebec: an officially monolingual province ...... 50 2.3.1 Bill 101: the promotion of the French language ...... 53 2.3.2 The effects of the Charter of the French language ...... 57 2.3.3 The English language in Quebec: use, form, regulation ...... 61 2.4 New Brunswick: a bilingual province ...... 66 2.5 Conclusion ...... 68

3 Language planning and policy: theoretical background ...... 70 3.1 Theoretical approaches to language planning and policy ...... 70 3.1.1 Language planning and policy models ...... 74 3.1.2 Current trends in language planning and policy research ...... 79 3.2 English language policy in multilingual settings ...... 82 3.2.1 English as the world’s lingua franca ...... 82 8 Inhaltsverzeichnis

3.2.2 The role of English in multilingual polities ...... 88 3.2.3 Advocacy vs. pragmatism in English language policy ...... 93 3.3 Conclusion ...... 97

4 Data and methodology ...... 99 4.1 Data ...... 99 4.1.1 Questionnaire survey ...... 99 4.1.2 Linguistic landscape survey ...... 108 4.1.3 Ethnographic fieldwork ...... 116 4.1.4 Psycholinguistic experiments ...... 117 4.2 Methodology ...... 119 4.3 Research design ...... 120

5 Language planning and policy in Quebec: analysis ...... 121 5.1 Questionnaire survey ...... 121 5.1.1 Demolinguistics and linguistic repertoires ...... 122 5.1.2 Attitudinal responses ...... 130 5.2 Visual language in public space: Quebec’s linguistic landscape .... 136 5.2.1 Geographical distribution of language ...... 139 5.2.2 Languages, ‘marked predominance’, and linguistic creativity 146 5.3 Audible language: linguistic soundscape ...... 149 5.4 Language use in service encounters ...... 163 5.5 Psycholinguistic processes ...... 170 5.5.1 Semi-matched signs ...... 171 5.5.2 Naturalistic signs ...... 171 5.5.3 Discussion ...... 172 5.6 Conclusions ...... 174

6 Quebec's LPP in a comparative perspective ...... 178 6.1 The rationale for a comparative approach ...... 179 6.2 Wales ...... 183 6.2.1 Demolinguistics: English, Welsh, and other languages ...... 185 6.2.2 The promotion of Welsh ...... 190 6.2.3 Wales: inspiration for/from Quebec? ...... 199 6.3 Singapore ...... 202 6.3.1 Demolinguistics: four official languages, many other varieties 203 6.3.2 LPP in Singapore: far-reaching governmental intervention for language promotion and demotion ...... 206 6.3.3 Singapore: Quebec’s antithesis? ...... 220 6.4 Conclusion ...... 224 Inhaltsverzeichnis 9

7 Conclusion ...... 234 7.1 Language policy in the era of globalisation ...... 234 7.2 New ways of analysing LPP ...... 240

References ...... 247

Appendix ...... 277 A Linguistic landscape photos ...... 277 B Questionnaire ...... 287 C Public transit station names and their pronunciation ...... 293 C.l Montreal metro ...... 293 C.2 Suburban railway ...... 295