Ethnobotanical Identification of Pachanoi in Himachal Pradesh. A New Candidate for the Soma ?

Abstract Ethnobotanical fieldwork identifies for the first time in literature the existence of the in Himachal Pradesh, India. Given similarties to references to the soma plant found in vedic scriptures, the hypothesis is formulated that the plant could be a candidate for the Soma.

Introduction Fieldwork carried out in Himachal Pradesh in 2013 [Di Maio] identifies a cactus plant producing a large white flower, which shares morphological traits and traditional usage with Echinopsis Pachanoi, a plant not identified by local botanical surveys carried out in the region and not recorded in scientific literature to grow in Asia. This paper reports preliminary findings and forumlates an hypotesis that if true, could mean that the identification of Echinopsis Pachanoi in this locality, or a very closely related plant would be documented for the first time. Given that Echinopsis Pachanoi is well known in the for being used in divination and other shamanic rituals, and if the findings are confirmed, could this be the plant from which the Soma drink referenced in the vedic literature is extracted?

Motivation

Kamand Valley, Mandi District, Himachal Pradesh - India

A survey was carried out om the Kamand, in Mandi District to assess the environmetal impact of a new IIT Mandi campus [Sawhey]. Among other species, the survey identified a plant with potential properties of value, Euphorbia Royleana. In comparing the survey results with notes from related fieldwork, it was noted that Euphorbia Royeleana produces small yellow flower, however visual inspections of the field had revealed sporadic presence of large white flowers on top of some of the cacti looking . These were not identified by the survey to the best of my knowledge.

The white flower observed sporadically in the fields around Kamand grows on top of tall cactus- like plants, upon subsequent closer observation, and after comparison with data and images from online botanical databases, these have the same appearance of the flowers of Echinopsis Pachanoi, a cactus not recorded in botanical literature as present in this region. Taxonomic Gap and Ethnobotany The Latin name of a cactus characterized by a large white fragrant flower blooming after sunset, and well know in South and Central America as San Pedro cactus, has been 'Trichocereus pachanoi' for decades, but due to a recent taxonomical reclassification, the cactus is currently considered a subordinate to the much larger cacti family Echinopsis. The current and correct Latin name for the San Pedro is therefore ‘Echinopsis pachanoi'. 1 The taxonomic reclassification of the Trichocerus to Echinopsis has been objected to by some cactus experts, such as K. Trout, as generating possible confusion, and the old Trichocereus classification is still in use, especially in ethnobotanical research. The limitations of scientific literature and documentation, causing uncertainties in plant identification and classification are referred to as taxonomic gap (Dubois, 2010) and ascribed at least in part to the incompleteness of current scientific knowledge "Our knowledge of the living species of the earth is still dramatically incomplete. Actually, few domains of scientific knowledge are in such an unsatisfying situation. Taxonomists have so far described less than 2 million species, whereas, using various methods, the total number of species was estimated to at least 7–8 million, but perhaps 10, 50, 100 million or even more "(Groombridge; Heywood & Watson,; Reaka-Kudla et al., in Dubois, 2010). Ethnobotanical methods are a necessary complementary approach to knowledge acquisition which can help bridge taxonomic gaps, especially in regions where biodiversity knowledge is held verbally by local folks who speak only local dialects, and who have typically transmitted traditional knowledge orally.

Method The outcomes of an ethnobotanical survey presented internally at a faculty meeting (Sawhaney), showed that an indigenous plant resembling a cactus is identified as Euphorbia Royleana, which produces tiny yellow flowers. Independent ethnobotanical observations carried out during fieldwork in preceding months, identified a tall cactus in the same locality which however sporadically presents a large white flower growing either on the top, or on the sides of the upper portion of the plant. Initially, two informants, natives of the region and with some degree of ethnobotanical knowledge, but no formal training in botanics, confirmed the existence of a cactus bearing a large white flower, and although they could not identify it conclusively, they described some of the characterics for the plant under observation:

 The cactus flowers sporadically but the flower only lasts a few days  Blooms around full moon and is very fragrant in smell  Is used ornamentally  The latex it produces when cut is used topically to heal skin wounds  The plant has medicinal properties and is traditionally given to cattle to cure some diseases

An additional informant who speaks the local language as well as very good English and became involved in the research while assisting with translations, confirmed from their own experience that the white flower is commonly used as ornamental, and has been visually identified not only in the Kamand Valley, where the study is taking place, but also in the broader Mandi District, as well as in other regions of northern India, such as Uttar Pradesh. An larger pool of informants has been identified and is currently being interviewed independently both in the Kamand valley, as well a in adjacent localities to cross reference and validate the finding. Among the challenges for the research are: a) identifying reliable and knowledgeable informants, and b) communicating with them in English c) defining an research protocol which is broad enough to capture the unstructured, often anecdotal ethnobotanical knowledge of the plant.d) disambiguate information when its characteristics are shared by more than one plant under study. The assistance of bilingual representatives from local communities is required to act as translators. Given that the flower is

1http://www.zamnesia.com/mescaline-cactus/2315-san-pedro-echinopsis-pachanoi.html seasonal (it only appears once or twice a year) and the study started place after the flowering season, initial identification at this stage is taking place via the use of photographs. Photographs representing large white flowers from different cacti are shown to the informants, who are asked to identify among the set which is the flower they recognize as the one identified in the valley, among a group of similar ones. At least three informants so far have recognized visually from the set of images provided, the flower of plant known in literature as Echinopsis Pachanoi, as a plant growing wild in the habitat of Himachal Pradesh gardens. However there is currently ambiguity and some possible overlap between different plants possibly having similar medicinal properties and traditional applications.

Illustration 1: One of the photographs Illustration 2: Woman in Kehnwal Village used in visual identification Near Mandi HP - Identifies \ photo Flower under investigation

The Soma Plant in Vedic Literature A plant known as Soma, Somalata in Sanskrit is documented in hindu scriptures as associated with spiritual vedic traditions, however its morphology, habitat and distribution are not clearly established; although four plants in the Himalayas are associated with Soma the identity of the original Soma plant is still uncertain(Karayil et al). Some characteeristics of the soma plant excerpted from botanical and vedic literature, which match the characteristics of Echinopsis, and to some extent, also some Euphorbias:  The Soma plant was a leafless creeper came from the mountains (RigVeda 9th Mandalam).  The juice was extracted from the shoots or stalks, never from the fruits.  A very important characteristic feauture of the Soma plant is that it was sweet-scented, (RV 9.97.19; 9.107.2 RV 9.61.9, RV 9.62.7, RV9.62.20, RV 9.67.8, 9.66.25, 26).  The plant is a creeper semi shrub, leafless or reduced leaves with milky secretions (c.f. Hillebrant, 1891). In Rigveda it was clearly stated that the plant is green in colour (Haritha varnam) (RV 9.38.2, 6, RV9.37.2, RV 9.7.6) and Aruna Varnam (Red Colour) (RV9.40.2)  The plant was Xerophyte as it grows in hills and mountain ranges (RV 9.62.4). (Karayil et al)

The word is derived from an Indo-Iranian root *sav-(Sanskrit sav-/su) "to press", i.e.*sau-ma-is the drink prepared by pressing the stalks of a plant.described as "green-tinted" and "bright-shining" in the RigVeda. (R.V., 9.42.1 and 9.61.17)[Gelner]. In history, knowledge of the ingredient was lost altogether, and Indian ritual reflects this, in expiatory prayers apologizing to the gods for the use of a substitute plant (somalataa, e.g. the pūtīka) because Soma had become unavailable. In Hinduism, the god Soma evolved into a lunar deity. Full moon is the time to collect and press the divine drink. The moon is also the cup from which the gods drink Soma, thus identifying Soma with the moon god Chandra. A waxing moon meant Soma was recreating himself, ready to be drunk again. [Gelner] Some of the variations in the description of the soma drink in vedic literature can be ascribed to fact that throghout history, the original soma plant became unavailable or near extinct in some regions (possibly due to demand exceeding the supply) and different plants with similar and related properties were used to produce the soma drink at different times in history, with possible local variations due to the differences in local flora of different regions where the soma rituals were practiced.

Soma Candidates in literature Possible Candidates for the Soma plant identified in scientific literature are Amanita muscaria [Oldenberg, Wasson] Ephedra [Falk ,Houben]. Psilocybe cubenis [McKenna] described as "easily identified and gathered, and are effective", Stropharia cubensis [McDonald, Nyberg]

The San Pedro cactus Cacti are members of cactacee family (division magnoliophyta class magnoliopsida order ) enumerating approximately 130 genera 1500 species, It is claimed that Cacti are almost exclusively ‘new world’ plants. This means that they are native only to North America, , and the West Indies. However, there is lack of conclusive scientific evidence that cacti are not native of Asia. A plant used in divinatory practices, as well as medicinal properties mostly from its stem commonly known in central ameerica as San Pedro, Echinopsis Pachanoi is documented as having the following uses [Dobking; Ogunbodede]

 popular ornamental and medicinal plant  employed in divination rites.  treatment of addictions, high blood pressure, nervous conditions and cardiac disease.  has antimicrobial and antifungal properties such as tinea in cattle  a cactus stem makes patch skin wounds  liquid from the echinopsis pachanoi’s stem is fed to animals suffering from foot and mouth infections  as a dandruff treatment laundry soap and household detergents  extract of the plant used as woold detergent

A plant with common name Sea Urchin Cactus, Easter lily cactus and classified as Echinopsis spp. Family: Cactaceae (cactus family) has been observed in India 2

Euphorbia Royleana The other plant resembling a cactus identified in the ethnobotanical survey, Euphorbia Royleana, is commonly known in northern India s Danda Thor, a large cactus-like shrub, up to 5 m tall, with stout strunk and many thick fleshy branches found in the Himalayas, from The latex of the plant is a valuable source of fitocomponents used in Ayurvedic and Yunani medicine. Several compounds isolated from Euphorbia and extracts perform many different biological activities, including antiproliferative, cytotoxic, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antioxidant activities etc (Ozbilgin 2012) The family is estimated to comprise 300 genera and more than 7500 species of herbs, shrubs and trees There are around 850succulent Euphorbia species

2 http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/cactus.html (also termed 'euphorbs' or 'spurges'), mostly originating from East and Southern Africa. Unlike cacti, which usually have a watery sap, euphorbs have a toxic milky-coloured sap (this too is convergent: see latex), and they also possess unique floral structures called cyathia (made up of one female and several male flowers) as distinct from the cactus's typically large, single flowers. However, in the nature of their succulent and CAM-photosynthetic stems, several Euphorbia species bear an incredible resemblance to cacti, and present classic examples of convergence. (Map of Life)

Hypotheses Based on the aforementioned observations, the main hypothsis presented in this paper is that Echinopsis Pachanoi, known as San Pedro in central and south america, or a very closely related plant of the same family, is native also in north India, as per the findings of the ethnobotanical observations presented here (H1). A further hypothesis is that the specie is familiar to local folks thanks to the unique morphology of the flower, it has never been formally identified in scientific literature due to a 'taxonomic gap', and to the state of flux and uncertainty that surrounds certain cacti(H2) .Based on comparative analysis of literature and ethnobotanical observations, Echinopsis Pachanoi, as identified in this paper, and Euphorbia Royleana, well known to grow in the Himachal Pradesh region could be possible new candidates for the soma plant referenced in vedic scriptures, but which still lacks conclusive identification in botanical and scientific literature (H3).

Conclusions and Further research This paper provides an account of ethnobotanical identification of a cactus in Himachal Pradesh, the existence of which is not previously recorded in this region, and puts forward the hypothesis that it may be Echinopsis Pachanoi, it also notes issues with taxonomical classification of the same, and formulates the hypothesis of this plant, together with Euphorbias, are possile new candidate for the soma plant identified in vedic literature. Currently a more targeted ethnobotanical investigation is taking place, consisting of a structured research protocol aimed at capturing a broader range of data about the plant (naming conventions, morphology, behaviours) as well as a more in depth understanding traditional uses for the plant. Further research aims to establish also if there is any knowledge of the plant and its juice could be related to the soma drink.The pool of informants will include a wider range of backgrounds and locations, to include local traditional healers as well as botanists who may be familiar with local plant classification and naming conventions. ANNEX 1

Questionnaire used in ethnobotanical study to identify/disambiguate cacus like plants found in Himachal Pradesh. The Questionnaire is used in conjuction with a set of photographs as per Illustration 2 in this paper. ------

ETHNOBOTANICAL RESEARCH //QUESTIONNAIRE Prof Dr Paola Di Maio - Institute of Socio Technical Complex Systems/IIT Mandi

NAME OF THE INTERVIEWER

DATE

ABOUT THE LOCATION Name of village where the interview is taking place, geolocation

ABOUT THE INFORMANT NAME OF PERSON INTERVIEWED……………………………………... JOB ………………………………………………………………………….. EDUCATION (what study they complete) ……………………………………. KNOWLEDGE OF LOCAL PLANTS AND TRADITIONAL MEDICINE? (zero/little/very knowledgeable/expert)...... CONTACT DETAILS (address, phone email or other) …………………………………………………………………………………….

ABOUT THE PLANT Do you know about a cactus plant which grows locally and which makes a large flower on top? yes/no if no, stop interview and show them the photos, ask them if they have ever seen this flower in this district ……. if yes, ask the following questions

1. please describe the plant briefly

2. show where the plant lives 3. what is the local name given to this plant and it meaning, if any

4. describe the flower

color appearance when does it bloom (season /time of the month) how long does the flower live? describe the smell of the flower any knowledge of what is the usage of the plant in tradition (describe usage, preparation process etc)

any other knowledge.info about this plant if available

after completing the interview, show them the photos and ask them to identify the flower on the photo sheet REFERENCES

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