LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS IN THE BALE MOUNTAINS ECOREGION
Fiona Flintan, Worku Chibsa, Dida Wako and Andrew Ridgewell
A report for the Bale EcoRegion Sustainable Management Project, SOS Sahel Ethiopia and FARM Africa
June 2008 Addis Ababa
Photo: A respondent mapping grazing routes in Bale Mountains EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Livestock has been an integral part of the Bale landscape for many centuries. Until relatively recently the livestock system was extensive with small numbers of people and livestock moving in a free and mobile manner. However since the time of Haile Selassie there have been numerous influencing factors that have changed the face of livestock production in Bale. This began with the introduction of land measurement and taxes which encouraged settled agricultural expansion, aggravated by the declaration of grazing lands as ‘no-man’s lands’. At the same time large scale mechanised farms were established in the lower areas, forcing livestock producers into the higher altitude regions. More recently villagisation and resettlement programmes have promoted settlement and an increased population. However, the largest single ‘loss’ of pastoral resources occurred with the establishment of the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) in 1970 encompassing an area of 2400km2. This was created without the consent or even the knowledge of local resource users.
The historical development of BMNP has been aimed principally, albeit intermittently, at preserving the environment as a ‘wilderness’ area by excluding habitation and customary natural resource management practices. During the former Dergue regime (1974-1991) state authority over the Park was at its strongest resulting in the forced removal of settlements and the effective colonisation of the mountain landscape. Recent legislation allowing the Federal Government to regain control over protected areas from regional authorities and the gazetting of the Park suggest that the current EPRDF government will attempt to regain some of the control lost in the years following 1991. Further the establishment of a new management plan in 2006 and current undertakings to delineate the boundary all suggest that interactions between local peoples and natural resources encompassed by the Park will again be curtailed over the coming years. Further in Ethiopia there is a general bias against pastoralism and its nomadic nature. Sedentarisation of the majority of pastoralists remains an overarching goal of policy makers.
Unquestionably people and livestock numbers have increased dramatically within the BMNP since its establishment. However some figures given remain questionable and there is doubt over exact population numbers. Further the impact of livestock on vegetation and wildlife remains unproven, though both negative and positive relationships have been suggested. Additionally there is no information concerning how important livestock is as a livelihood option today, what resources are being used and how, and whether customary practices of livestock management such as the godantu system still exist.
As a result the BERSMP (Bale Ecoregion Sustainable Management Project) commissioned this research to develop a clear understanding of where livestock movements occur and the degree to which local communities still relied on livestock and livestock systems as part of their livelihoods and how. A further element of this research would be to highlight what changes have occurred in relation to these aspects and what impact these changes have had. It was believed that as a result of this research the BERSMP with its
i partners could identify areas for support and intervention that would contribute to the Project’s objectives.
Field work was carried out in the Bale Mountains area. This current study focussed on seven PAs (kebele) in four districts (woreda) – Delo Mena, Goba, Nensebo and Harena Buluk. The sample kebele were selected for the study by the government partners and BERSMP in order to have a selection of PA near to and far from the forest areas that reflected ‘highland’ and ‘lowland’ areas and their differing weather patterns. Participatory techniques of data collection were used including mapping of resources and grazing routes, trend analyses, and proportional piling allowing open discussions with community members together with consideration of problems and challenges. A feedback workshop was held at the end of the research for input from government and NGO partners.
Extensive qualitative and quantitative data was collected on each PA (three in Goba woreda, and two in each of Nensebo, Harena Buluk and Delo Mena). This information has been documented in the report by each PA including detailed information on socio- economics of communities; use of grazing, water and mineral sources (hora in the highlands and haya in the lowlands); use of fodder; and access to livestock markets.
The research showed that there are wide differences between the different PAs in terms of livelihood systems, wealth and access to assets and resources. However in most cases livestock remained a central pillar of livelihoods and household economies. It would appear that the ‘richer’ PAs were those that had held relatively larger livestock holdings but also diversified their livelihoods to include coffee and crop production, and those that had introduced more intensive livestock systems such as in Nensebo woreda. The main systems of land use and livestock systems found in the different PAs are summarised in Table 8.5 copied overleaf.
It was stressed by community members that the value of livestock and livestock products has decreased overtime. In those PAs where livestock was produced more intensively livestock was sold when the price was said to be good, in others livestock only tended to be sold if there was a household problem and cash was needed. Often this would be during the dry season when prices were low.
Men and women divide livestock-related tasks between them, with certain periods of the year busier than others particularly for those taking undertaking migrations with livestock. Polygamy is common with wives and their households spread over ecological zones (i.e. lowland and highland) in order to utilise the environment and its productivity to the full. Today livestock herds tend to be more mixed than previously with inclusion of more sheep, goats and camels, and proportionately the number of cattle has decreased. Livestock numbers found in each PA have been calculated through wealth ranking exercises with communities, though these figures may have been underestimated. In all PAs livestock numbers owned by an individual have reduced as a result of human population increase, shrinkage in pasture land and crop encroachment: fewer healthy animals are held by a greater population of people.
ii Table 8.5 Summary of Land Use and Livestock Systems in Study PAs
PA System of Land Use and Livestock Systems Godantu system. Relatively high numbers of livestock. Livestock grazed around homestead during wet season as land is bare (no crops). Fasil Angeso Move up to plateau and other dry season grazing areas in dry season up until June. Also graze in forest areas. Land considered not good for Goba agriculture but small patches of crops being established. Travel four hours to nearest hora in dry season. Natural fodder fed to animals. Godantu system. Great reduction in open grassland from time of Haile Selassie. May have to travel long distances to dry season grazing and Hilassa PA, water sources. Some livestock owners have established integrated crop and livestock systems feeding livestock crop residues. Diversified Goba livelihoods: mixed livestock, plus land and some have house in town. No access to hora. Natural fodder fed in ‘bad times’ and crop residues. Godantu system. In past known for rich pastures but lack of grazing now, aggravated by redistribution of land to landless youth. Try to graze Ashuta PA, livestock around homestead in wet season avoiding crops, and travel to riverine areas in dry season. Here can graze on state farms for 5 Goba months. Additional feed needed including crop residues. Small number of beehives. No access to hora – has been cultivated. No resources for livestock left in PA – all/most land is cultivated. Settlement of Amharas in 1960s started clearing of forest and Solana PA, establishment of subsistence agriculture. Rely on coffee grown in remaining forest, enset and other crops. Those who have livestock keep Nensebo them in private kalo and feed with supplementary feed and crop residues. No use of hora. Half of PA remains under forest while remainder is owned ‘privately’ with individual kalo for intensive livestock rearing. Land certificates Gerambamo have been provided. In 2006 a redistribution of any remaining land was made providing land for landless youth. Small amount of subsistence Nensebo agriculture. Some rent out surplus land to other livestock holders. Crop residues, banana, oats and enset fed. No hora visited. Godantu system. Large numbers of livestock mainly grazed outside PA in wet and dry seasons in a large number of sites due to high Erba PA population and large numbers of livestock. Some enclosures being established. Also access to forest for coffee growing in relatively large Delo Mena quantities. Some beehives. Relatively successful crop growing. Wide range of natural vegetation provided as fodder. Regular visits to hora. Godantu system. Grazing good in PA, but visited by large numbers of livestock from other PAs during wet season. Increased number of Berak PA camels. Some land being given to investors for large scale agriculture e.g. biofuels. Access to water becoming challenging. Hora and 8 haya Delo Mena found in PA. Wide range of natural vegetation provided as fodder. Godantu system. Close to Harenna forest. Quality/quantity grazing in past, but today little grazing left due to small scale agricultural Sodu Welmal expansion, population increase and resettlement (settlers from Haraghe). Livestock moves up to forest areas in dry season. Those who live Harena Buluk in forest areas or close by move down to lowlands in wet season. Use both hora (in forest areas) and haya in lowlands. Fodder used/purchased in dry season. Godantu system. Close to Harenna forest. Vast PA with large lowlands where livestock moves to in wet season and may stay for 9 months. Melka Arba Move to forest areas in dry season but migration routes blocked by agriculture. Settlers growing coffee in forest preventing access. Harena Buluk Agricultural expansion. Use hora and haya found in PA. Both natural vegetation and crop residues given as fodder.
iii
Traditionally, grazing throughout the study area has been good in quality and in quantity. However this (and in many cases browse too) has declined greatly over the last 60 years or so. This has meant that the time to access grazing has increased by up to 7-fold. The availability and/or collection of grazing and other resources including water, minerals and fodder differ throughout the seasons. Though water and grass may be available in most PAs throughout the year, the quantity and quality of it reduces dramatically. Particularly during the dry season bona, there is inadequate grazing and water in all the PAs and movement and/or feeding of fodder is necessary. The history of access to grazing differs throughout the study area.
Today, community members view the current regime, the EPRDF, with suspicion and highlighted the fact that there is severe land shortage. They did not hesitate in commenting that the current government highly supports agriculture and gives little if not no attention to livestock and livestock extension. Those in the lowland areas in particular complained about the lack of attention for livestock services and the only extension input provided was on agriculture, promoting cultivation.
In many PAs the traditional godantu system is still used by livestock keepers to utilise resources on a seasonal basis. Livestock keepers are still making rational decisions about optimal use of resources as part of a natural resource management strategy and despite challenges, for the time being, are able to utilise the landscape in an effective manner. However poor land use planning is threatening this system, together with a lack of knowledge and support for effective livestock based systems.
Individuals travel far and wide to reach mineral springs (hora) and mineral licks (haya). Herders use of the springs and licks differ during the wet and dry seasons, their different grazing routes and their distance from the minerals. The hora are found in the highland areas (used both in the wet and dry seasons) and the haya in the lowlands (used more in the wet seasons). However access to both is being severely curtailed through access routes being blocked by settlement or agriculture (with some haya themselves being cultivated) and poor management. Now some livestock members are not able to move to the mineral sources at all and are providing purchased alternatives to their livestock.
Fodder collection only started after the Dergue period as access to grass became more problematic. Mainly it is the duty of women and children to collect the fodder or make hay. Where agriculture is a greater part of the livelihood system, crop residues and hay is fed to livestock on a regular basis. However where this is not the case people rely more on wild species (shrubs, grasses and trees) to supplement grazing/browsing and a large number of species (locally named) were identified by respondents.
A number of factors have influenced land, land distribution and use within the study PAs. These include the increase of enclosures; settlement, land certification and re- distribution of land; resettlement of settlers from outside the area; and subsistence and commercial agriculture. Further political restructuring has had an impact on geographical distribution of PAs. In some PAs mobility of livestock has been completely restricted
iv and all non-forested land has been parcelled up into private enclosures or kalo. This is having a fundamental impact on the livestock systems in the area. Though it would appear that enclosures are benefiting those who have access to them, their establishment is curtailing the mobility and grazing of others for example blocking corridors to grazing areas.
Settlement has increased in all the study PAs due to increased population, redistribution of land to landless youth, and reduced mobility with an increase in subsistence agriculture. Certification of land has occurred in all the lowland PAs, however in the highlands and particularly in the forested areas it is yet to be carried out. Further several of the PAs had received settlers in the early 2000s from Haraghe as part of the government’s resettlement programme. These proved to be highly sensitive ‘hot’ issues and respondents were wary of discussing them. It was clear that settlement was also having a great impact on mobility of livestock and access to dry and wet season grazing areas for example along the Magida River.
Subsistence agriculture was blamed as a cause of reduced grazing in all of the PAs that took part in this study. In Solana PA it was stated that there were no natural resources left for livestock: all the land has been occupied by fruit trees, enset, coffee and crops. Commercial agriculture has expanded dramatically in the area including coffee plantations in forest areas in Erba PA and land allocated for biofuels in Delo Mena.
Major challenges and problems for community members where highlighted as livestock diseases (a large list of which were identified by respondents); restriction of mobility of people and livestock due to the factors mentioned above; lack of support from government for livestock and pastoralism; and conflicts with wild animals. There were few negative feelings towards the BMNP itself and indeed some suggested that access to the Park had improved over time. However several community members, particularly those who used the forest areas of the Park for dry season grazing (for example Harena Buluk woreda) showed concern and fear that the National Park would increase its enforcement and protection measures and limit the grazing there. Further management practices and protection of natural resources have had an impact – for example the ban on Erica spp. (heather).
Though the impact of the livestock systems in the Bale Ecoregion are not fully understood, what is clear however is that ploughing up the Park and its surrounding areas for agriculture is going to have a much more detrimental impact than a livestock- based livelihood system. As such from a conservation perspective it seems likely that taking a more positive approach to livestock and livelihoods based on them is likely to have benefits for the Park and its wildlife.
Recommendations are as follows:
1. A system of land use planning that incorporates the needs of the transhumant, agro- pastoralists and livestock keepers described in this report must be developed. BERSMP needs to work closely with government at all levels to highlight the positive aspects of
v the livestock systems found in the Bale Ecoregion and work with them to develop more appropriate and supportive land use and development policies for the area. In order to facilitate this, a landscape (watershed) approach to planning needs to be advocated.
2. A more indepth study of the use of fodder should be carried out, particularly that taken from ‘wild’ trees, plants and shrubs to ensure sustainable use and establish control and management systems if necessary with local communities.
3. As part of the landscape approach to planning advocated above, discussions should be raised on the need for mobility and livestock corridors to facilitate ongoing transhumance for those who wish to continue utilising the godantu system. Local governments should be provided with more information on the benefits of pastoral and livestock systems and how best they can support them. A study should be carried out on the linkages of livestock production in the Bale area with markets elsewhere in the country – how has the increase in demand in the rest of the country impacted on livestock production systems in Bale.
4. Further ways to ‘give back’ control and/or increase the control of communities over decisions related to their land and resources need to be identified and promoted. It is up to communities to take responsibility for much of the land use change that has occurred: a participatory inclusive discussion should be facilitated with community members to discuss a vision (an agreed negotiated vision) for the area in the future and how to move towards such a vision. One process that could be explored in this respect is that of Holistic Management (see Box 12.2).
5. BERSMP should advocate for a halt in biofuel production until the issues have been given open discussion and a more knowledgeable and rational bases for decision making established.
6. It is recommended that there be a more educated and positive debate about the positive nature of livestock, how it can contribute to overall conservation objectives, and how best it can be managed to optimise its benefits including an emphasis on maintaining traditional management systems (godantu) and mobility.
7. BERSMP needs to work together with conservation and research bodies to ensure that a fair and true picture of the relations between livestock, wildlife and natural resources is identified. This may include commissioning key studies to fill the gaps in information and/or ensuring that BERSMP has knowledge of and participates in studies being carried out by other organisations.
8. Once ‘carrying capacities’ of different ecological zones has been identified as clearly as possible, the BERSMP should work with communities and other interested parties to work out how livestock numbers can be reduced (assuming that numbers may be too high in some places). This is likely to involve a process of negotiation and some trade- offs will be necessary.
vi 9. It is recommended that the tenure and other insecurities amongst communities are addressed as much as possible. Clear land use policies and strategies for the area need to be defined that take into account community needs and perceptions and work to negotiate a solution to the different land interests in the region. Though this may not be possible within the lifetime of the project, at the very least processes should be started that include more open discussions between the different interest parties including community groups, government and conservation bodies. Conflicts that have arisen between different parties need to be addressed and resolved: the right forum for these (e.g. traditional or local government) needs to be identified and developed.
10. To enable a more level ‘playing field’ or ‘negotiating table’ communities’ capacities will need to be built including provision of information on rights and opportunities, with skills required to negotiate and defend these improved. Further key personnel within communities and/or local government bodies need to be identified as conflict mediators, and provided with appropriate training.
11. Once access and ‘ownership’ over resources for livestock keepers has been negotiated, formal recognition for these should be determined and established.
12. Better communication links between conservation, government and community bodies should also be facilitated so that information on such as BMNP and/or government strategies reaches community members and community members have the possibility of taking action and/or influencing decisions being made.
13. BERSMP should open up discussion and move towards a suitable solution for management and access of forested areas that takes into account the needs of the varied interested parties including conservationists, forest dwellers and occasional/regular users such as livestock herders or honey producers. FARM Africa and SOS Sahel have a wealth of experience in participatory forest management and this should be utilised to resolve the problems of reconciling positions, interests and needs of varied parties.
14. The BERSMP should focus on ensuring access to these for livestock keepers and work with them to develop responsible management systems and necessary maintenance. This may include negotiating special access rights to hora found within the Park as well as negotiating with agriculturalists/settlers to allow livestock keepers to camp near the hora and haya on a temporary basis.
15. It is recommended that communities are included as knowledgeable and rational resource users within the planning of the eco-region and its resources. Participatory tools should be further developed and used to assist them in making decisions about resource use and protection.
16. More information is needed on the integrated livestock systems that exist in such as Nensebo Woreda and how and why people moved to such systems. Further how best
vii these can be supported. Depending on the results of this study the appropriateness of replicating these systems in other parts of the Bale Ecoregion should be identified.
17. Further an indepth economic valuation of the godantu system should be carried out as there is not enough detailed information available to assess its viability, efficiency and contribution to the local and national economy. Often an economic argument is the only one that will win support – if it can be proved that the godantu system is an effective economic and productive one for the area and the available resources it is likely that the government will better support it.
18. It is recommended that the project works with government partners to develop better support for livestock extension services including providing information on improved livestock management systems, disease and veterinary services. The project should also consider introducing a system of Community Animal Health Workers that has been proved to work well in the lowland pastoral areas. Further some suggest that community animal health services can offer potential for promoting CBNRM as well as conflict management.
18. The BERSMP should fully develop the idea of ‘Bale Mountain products’ exploring potential markets, marketing, labelling, customer information, publicity opportunities etc.
19. The BERSMP is in an excellent position to educate others about the ‘pastoral’ or ‘transhumant’ peoples of the Bale Mountains, their traditions and their rational use of the landscape. The BERSMP should also advocate for their proper consideration and support, if they are not going to be further ignored or marginalised and their rights to resources and their traditional way of life overridden by an agricultural bias.
viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research would not have been possible without the assistance of a number of people for whom we gratefully thank.
This includes Zeleke Kebebew of the BERSMP who spent many hours digitising some of the large number of resource and grazing route maps that were produced by community members.
We also thank Adrian Cullis and Did Boru of Save the Children US for sparing their colleague Dida Wako to join the research team, as well as the local government administration offices who allowed staff members to join the research and assist with fieldwork.
A number of people were instrumental in providing key background documents, these include: - Graham Hemson and other staff of EWCP - Ayele Gebre Mariam, Eco-Consult - Solomon Bogale of the Sinana Agricultural Research Centre
We should also like to thank Yoseph Assefa of the Department of Biology, AAU who not only assisted us by providing documents, but also in the identification of some of the fodder species named by communities.
Further we show our appreciation to those who attended the feedback workshop and provided important input to the report including members of BMNP staff, FZS, EWCP and local government representatives. In particular we thank the government representative who presented a summary of local government policy on livestock. Additionally we thank those who commented on the draft versions of this report.
Finally we should like to thank the staff of BERSMP for facilitating and assisting us in the field work, together with the communities who gave up their precious time to answer questions and contribute to discussions.
We hope that this report will contribute to the improved sustainable management of the beautiful and spectacular Bale Mountains and a better understanding of the role that local communities have played, continue to play and can play in the future, within them.
ix INDEX
1.0 HISTORY OF LAND USE IN THE BALE ECOREGION...... 1 1.1 Introduction...... 1 1.2 Bale Mountains National Park...... 2 1.3 Shifting Boundaries of Pastoralism...... 4 1.4 Livestock and BMNP...... 6 1.5 Use of Hora (mineral springs)...... 10 1.6 Customary Livestock Management Systems ...... 13 1.7 Changing Livelihoods ...... 14 2.0 THE RESEARCH PROCESS...... 16 2.1 Background to the Research...... 16 2.2 The Research Team and Tools...... 17 2.3 Challenges of the Research...... 19 2.4 Structure of the Report ...... 20 3.0 GEOGRAPHIC NATURE OF THE STUDY AREA ...... 21 3.1 Climate of the Bale Mountains ...... 21 3.2 Seasonal Variations...... 21 4.0 GOBA WOREDA...... 25 4.1 Background Information ...... 25 4.2 Fasil Angeso PA...... 25 4.2.1 Introduction ...... 25 4.2.2 Socio Economics of Communities ...... 26 4.2.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals...... 27 4.2.4 Fodder...... 31 4.2.5 Markets...... 31 4.3 Hilassa PA...... 31 4.3.1 Introduction ...... 31 4.3.2 Socio Economics of Communities ...... 32 4.3.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals...... 32 4.3.4 Fodder...... 38 4.3.5 Markets...... 38 4.4 Ashuta PA...... 38 4.4.1 Introduction ...... 38 4.4.2 Socio Economics of Communities ...... 39 4.4.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals...... 39 4.4.4 Fodder...... 40 4.4.5 Markets...... 40 5.0 NENSEBO WOREDA ...... 44 5.1 Introduction...... 44 5.2 Solana PA...... 44 5.2.1 Introduction ...... 44 5.2.2 Socio Economics of Communities ...... 48 5.2.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals...... 48 5.2.4 Fodder...... 51 5.2.5 Markets...... 51
x 5.3 Gerambamo PA ...... 51 5.3.1 Introduction ...... 51 5.3.2 Socio Economics of Communities ...... 51 5.3.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals...... 52 5.3.4 Fodder...... 57 5.3.5 Markets...... 59 6.0 DELO MENA WOREDA...... 60 6.1 Introduction...... 60 6.2 Erba PA ...... 61 6.2.1 Introduction ...... 61 6.2.2 Socio Economics of Communities ...... 61 6.2.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals...... 61 6.2.4 Fodder...... 72 6.2.5 Markets...... 73 6.3 Berak PA...... 73 6.3.1 Introduction ...... 73 6.3.2 Socio Economics of Communities ...... 75 6.3.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals...... 76 6.3.4 Fodder...... 83 6.3.5 Markets...... 83 7.0 HARENA BULUK WOREDA...... 84 7.1 Introduction...... 84 7.2 Sodu Welmal PA...... 84 7.2.1 Introduction ...... 84 7.2.2 Socio Economics of Communities ...... 85 7.2.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals...... 85 7.2.4 Fodder...... 95 7.2.5 Markets...... 95 7.3 Melka Arba PA ...... 95 7.3.1 Introduction ...... 95 7.3.2 Socio Economics of Communities ...... 96 7.3.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals...... 96 7.3.4 Fodder...... 102 7.3.5 Markets...... 102 8.0 CHANGING LIVELIHOODS AND SOCIAL SYSTEMS...... 105 8.1 Livelihood Systems...... 105 8.1.2 Comparison of Wealth Ranking...... 105 8.2 Livelihoods and Income...... 110 8.3 Labour...... 113 8.3.1 Livestock Related Activities...... 113 8.3.2 Non-livestock Related Activities...... 119 8.3.3 Changes in Labour Demand ...... 122 8.3.4 Polygamy ...... 122 9.0 LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK RESOURCES...... 124 9.1 Types of Livestock...... 124 9.2 Numbers of Livestock ...... 140
xi 9.3 Grazing...... 131 9.4 Minerals...... 134 9.4.1 Hora – Mineral Springs...... 135 9.4.2 Haya – Mineral Licks...... 138 9.4.3 Alternatives to Natural Mineral Sources...... 139 9.5 Fodder...... 139 10.0 MOBILITY, LAND & CHANGING LAND USE PATTERNS .... 145 10.1 Land...... 145 10.1.1 Enclosures ...... 145 10.1.2 Settlement, Certification and Re-Distribution of Land ...... 145 10.1.3 Resettlement...... 146 10.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture ...... 146 10.1.5 Commercial Agriculture ...... 147 10.2 Political Restructuring...... 147 11.0 MAIN CHALLENGES AND PROBLEMS...... 148 11.1 Livestock Disease...... 148 11.2 Restriction of Mobility and Loss of Grazing ...... 148 11.3 Lack of Support from Government for Livestock and Pastoralism...... 148 11.4 Conflicts with Wild Animals...... 156 11.5 National Park ...... 157 12.0 CONCLUSIONS ...... 160 12.1 Livestock as a Central Pillar of Livelihood Systems ...... 160 12.2 Challenges to Livestock-based Livelihoods...... 162 12.3 Livestock, Wildlife and the Ecosystem...... 164 12.4 Opportunities for Supporting Local Communities ...... 166 12.4.1 Addressing Access Insecurities...... 166 12.4.2 Community Management of Forest Areas...... 167 12.4.3 Improving Protection and Management of Hora and Haya...... 167 12.4.4 Community Knowledge and Rationalities...... 167 12.4.5 Provision of Support for Livestock-based Livelihood Systems...... 168 12.4.6 Niche Markets ...... 168 12.4.7Advocacy Work ...... 169 REFERENCES...... 170 APPENDIX 1...... 174 APPENDIX 2...... 175 APPENDIX 3...... 176 APPENDIX 4...... 184 APPENDIX 5...... 186
xii ACRONYMS
AAU Addis Ababa University BERSMP Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme BMNP Bale Mountains National Park CBNRM Community based natural resource management DA District advisor EC Ethiopian calendar EPRDF Ethiopian Peoples Republic Democratic Front ETB Ethiopian Birr EWCO Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation EWCP Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Project FZS Frankfurt Zoological Society GIS Geographical information systems GMP General management plan HA Hectare IUCN World Conservation Union NGO Non-governmental organisation NP National Park NRM Natural resource management OSG Oromiya State Government PA Peasant Association TOR Terms of reference WISP World Initiative on Sustainable Pastoralism
xiii 1.0 HISTORY OF LAND USE IN THE BALE ECOREGION
1.1 Introduction
Livestock has been an integral part of the Bale landscape for many centuries (Hillman 1986; Solomon et al ND; Watson 2007). Until recently the livestock system was extensive with small numbers of people and livestock moving in a free and mobile manner. Land measurement (qalad) began in Bale in the 1950s in order to facilitate the collection of monetary taxes in a systematised way, which has been interpreted as “…an attempt to generate taxable resources by converting collective owners into individual holders” (Mindaye 2005). In part this led to the first Bale Uprising of 1963 to 1970, which in itself significantly reduced the regional livestock population as animals were stolen by combatants and even bombed from the air (Ayele 1975). Another notable early impact on livestock numbers was a rinderpest outbreak in the late 1800s, which significantly reduced cattle numbers in areas such as Rira.
These events appear to have begun the process of settled agricultural expansion at the expense of pastoral movements in Bale. Further, under Haile Selassie pastoralism was dealt a further blow when grazing lands were effectively declared as belonging to the state (ye mengist merit) as they were seen as no-man’s lands. This established the legal basis from which pastoral rangelands could be alienated for other purposes. After the 1974 Revolution the state further strengthened its grip over productive resources speeding up the process of land conversion towards settled agriculture (Helland 2006). This is despite the fact that the area and in particular the more mountainous area, is not good for agriculture. For example it can take nine months for barley to grow and ripen (personal observation 2005-7).
As a result, research in Kokossa (a phase two intervention woreda) suggests that today there are far more local disputes over the use of grazing land than cultivated agricultural land (Mamo 2005). Customary ownership rights, particularly over communal grazing land (lafa dheeda), continue to be observed locally and are acting in conflict with state policies of Peasant Association (PA) organisation and land redistribution. These disputes can be settled either following the formal route (via the PA or woreda administration) or the informal route (via councils of elders known as jaarsa biyyaa or a ritual expert known as wayyuu) (ibid). However, it seems that in either case a farmer who has ploughed, sown and fertilised a plot of land can demonstrate more successfully that he ‘owns’ it, over and above livestock producers who previously used it for grazing (ibid).
At the same time that smallholder agriculture was expanding, large scale mechanised farms began to be established to produce cereal crops, which are today grown up to a height of 3000m (Guilio 2003; Hillman 1986). It has been suggested that these developments in particular have compelled livestock producers to shift their migration routes into the higher altitude regions (WAAS 2005). The expansion of agricultural land has been further intensified as Bale has long been seen as a suitable location to resettle households from food deficit areas.
1 A villagisation programme was started in Bale in 1978 to establish ‘security villages’ as a direct response to the Ethio-Somali war. This severely restricted the movements of the new villagers resulting in significant losses of livestock. Later a Wabe village programme was begun as a response to problems arising from the establishment of state farms in the Wabe Shebele Valley (Cohen 1987). Further resettlements were made following the 1984 famine and more recently large numbers of families from Hararghe have been moved into the area. It is reported that in Delo Mena woreda land conflicts between the settlers and the local population are common and there is generally poor integration (OSG 2000). Many of the newcomers are agriculturalists, which has sped up the cultivation of land at the further expense of pasture.
1.2 Bale Mountains National Park
However, the largest single ‘loss’ of pastoral resources occurred with the establishment of the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) in 1970 encompassing an area of 2400km2. This was created without the consent or even the knowledge of local resource users (B & M Consultants 2004). Prior to this a small sheep farming concession had been granted to a Belgian national in 1963, leading to the eviction of 43 households of local tenant farmers. Four years later his own eviction for failure to pay taxes led to the government taking over control of the land and the decision to protect it for conservation purposes (Flintan 2000; Malcolm & Evangelista 2005).
Leslie Brown (who played a role in the establishment of the Park) visited the area in the early 1960s. He noted that : The Galla1 are a largely pastoral people, unlike the Amhara, who are cultivators. No pastoralist is quite as destructive as a cultivator, so this noble plain retained much of its pristine beauty (Brown 1965: 100). Describing the area around Adaba and Dadola: This whole country, on a fine day, would have been like the proverbial Garden of Eden (ibid:120)…..They were an almost perfect example of a community of primitive people whom it seems better not to disturb or try to change, because they have enough for their own needs and a little more and are not, in the satisfaction of these needs, doing any real harm to their habitat. Here no one had yet learned the destructive use of the plough on steep slopes. They had enough land to enable them to pursue the more leisured and gentlemanly pastoral way of life without starving and the forests were open enough and provided with rich enough herbage to let them live without having to hack down the cover….Although it was not my responsibility, I could not help cogitating on ways and means of preventing the destruction of the forest cover which will, with increase in population, be inevitable some day unless this favourable situation is stabilized while the chance exists (ibid: 121). He continued: We saw very few human beings upon these mountains. Horsemen were sometimes seen crossing trails, but there were no herds of stock. We gathered that herds only came up here when the country was nearly dry; it was never quite dry. There was only
1 Galla is considered to be a derogatory term used for the Oromos in the past.
2 one month in the year when the heath would burn, and then not every year. Heath fires were generally started by people along trails and, given the right conditions, they would go on and on till stopped by some obstacle, such as another track, a river valley, or a continuous sill of rock (ibid:134).
Indeed in these early years the area that would become the BMNP was “…largely uninhabited but under the socialist-military government of 1974-1991, increasing investment in mechanised state farms in the lowlands left little room for pastoralists, except at higher altitudes. Since then the BMNP has, like so many of Africa’s other protected areas, been under increasing pressure from an ever-growing human population” (Stephens et al 2001: 308).
The historical development of BMNP has been aimed principally, albeit intermittently, at preserving the environment as a ‘wilderness’ area by excluding habitation and customary natural resource management practices (B & M Consultants 2004; WAAS Consultants 2005). During the former Dergue regime (1974-1991) state authority over the Park was at its strongest resulting in the forced removal of settlements and the effective colonisation of the mountain landscape. As feelings towards the Park were not favourable, “the local people destroyed all the outposts during government changeover in 1991…[a]fter demolishing the outpost, Tamsa’a area was converted into farmland by the local people” (B & M Consultants 2004: 28). Many people returned to the Park following the fall of the Dergue and the disintegration of controls although removal was attempted again in 1999 (Flintan 2000; Malcolm & Evangelista 2005). At present delineating of the boundary is underway albeit with little and inconsistent consultation of the community.
Recent legislation allowing the Federal Government to regain control over protected areas from regional authorities and the gazetting of the Park suggest that the current EPRDF government will attempt to regain some of the control lost in the years following 1991 (Proclamation 541/2007 Article 4(1)). This will most likely include closer enforcement of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) – World Commission on Protected Areas requirements for a Category Two National Park under which the BMNP is currently listed. According to the IUCN this should include the exclusion of all human exploitation and habitation that is deemed detrimental to the objectives of ecological conservation (IUCN 1994).
The current management plan, facilitated by FZS, interprets these guidelines as allowing for sustainable use by local people as long as this does not affect the primary management objectives of conservation. This could be achieved through the division of the Park into zones for use by local peoples, visitors and ‘completely protected areas’. However, the conservation of the Exceptional Resource Values of the Park is given precedence over any other kind of use (BMNP 2006). Thus it should be assumed that interactions between local peoples and natural resources encompassed by the Park will again be curtailed over the coming years.
As this process is currently underway and as it may well result in profound impacts on livelihoods this study is of relevance in identifying the importance of natural resources found within the BMNP and elsewhere to the local livestock based economy. With the
3 exception of Nensebo all of the intervention woreda are encompassed partly by BMNP and thus stand to see their livestock based incomes, not to mention agricultural incomes, profoundly affected. Experience from elsewhere shows that if the resources found within a park are alienated without the consent of the community and no significant benefits are gained to offset the loss (through revenue sharing, jobs within the tourist industry etc.) then livelihoods will become more insecure. Local subsistence economies will not only be undermined however, but a disenfranchised population will be unsupportive (maybe even hostile) towards conversationalist goals bringing the viability of a park or reserve into question (West, Igoe & Brockington 2006).
Generally there has been poor communication with the local community throughout the BMNP’s development. Many local people have no clear idea of where the Park boundary is (B & M Consultants 2004). The designation of the Park has been seen as yet another imposition that limits access to customarily held resources.
1.3 Shifting Boundaries of Pastoralism
Lack of land tenure security in pastoral areas coupled with agricultural bias on the part of planners has long caused contention in Ethiopia’s rangelands. Even today with the wealth of knowledge available on the benefits of pastoral systems (see Box 1.1), the Ethiopian government still believes that sedentarisation is the way forward for the majority of pastoralists in the country (see Box 1.2).
Box 1.1 Benefits of Pastoralism
Pastoralists make an effective use of rangelands and their resources. Often these can not be used by conventional agriculture, although as technical advances spread cultivation into remoter regions, pastoralists are forced into increasingly inhospitable terrain. National governments are often hostile to pastoralists. Many countries have policies of sedentarisation that derive as much from political considerations as a concern for the welfare of those they wish to settle. However, compelling pastoral nomads to settle has had a very unsatisfactory history and is unlikely to meet with long-term success. Pastoralists make substantial contributions to the economy of developing countries, both in terms of supporting their own households and in supplying protein, both meat and milk, to villages and towns. The governments of these countries rarely recognise these contributions by a corresponding investment in the pastoral sector.
The pastoral economic system is under increasing threat from the globalisation of trade in livestock products and unpredictable import policies in many countries. The marginal lands that have previously been the province of pastoralists are increasingly coming into focus as reserves of biodiversity. Their very inaccessibility has permitted the survival of species eliminated in high-density agricultural areas. Consequently, there is pressure on governments to declare large regions protected areas, both because of pressure from the conservation lobby and the potential income from tourism. Uncertainties about pastoral tenure have made it difficult for pastoralists to lodge effective land claims.
4 Work with pastoralists, and a more sympathetic understanding of their production systems, could act to protect their lifeways and enhance their capacity to produce protein on otherwise marginal land. Experience to date suggests that technical inputs will only have a very limited impact on overall output. Only a major policy re- orientation will protect and support pastoralism during this millennium. Elements likely to become important are: 1. Production of niche products, such as unusual species or breeds and milk and meat free from contaminants. 2. Crop-livestock integration, the effective use of pastoral outputs in mixed farming particularly the extension of work animals. 3. Co-conservation, the development of interlocking strategies to link conservation of wild fauna and flora with pastoral production. 4. The expansion of ecologically-sensitive low-volume tourism, using pastoralists to provide services, particularly in the area of indigenous knowledge.
Source: Blench 2001.
Box 1.2 Pastoral Policy in Ethiopia
The most recent pastoral policy developed by the government is that of 2002 (Ministry of Federal Affairs 2002). The vision of this policy is as follows: - Phased voluntary sedentarisation along the banks of the major rivers as the main direction of transforming pastoral societies into agro-pastoral systems, from mobility to sedentary life, from a scattered population to small pastoral towns and urbanisation. - Complementing sedentarisation by micro- and small-scale enterprises development in the urban centres and off-farm activities in the rural areas. - Undertaking integrated development based on irrigation and focused on livestock production, complemented by static and mobile education and health services as well as rural roads, energy and water supply, telephone services etc. - Co-ordinated and concerted federal support for programme ownership by the Regional states and communities, with capacity building to enable them to lead development at all levels. - Allowing, enabling and coordinating the private sector and NGOs to play a positive role in line with the policy direction and within the framework of the broad programme and strategy, after mobilising their own resources. - Tapping indigenous knowledge and skills on animal husbandry and rangeland management. Accordingly an initial period of ‘pilot sedentarisation and support for agro-pastoralists’ is envisaged. Additionally in the short and medium term, the focus should be on improving the living standard of pastoralists, through improving traditional livestock breeding practices and livestock marketing, improving water and pasture, provision of veterinary services and introduction of modern techniques such as artificial insemination and commercial fattening. In terms of local administration in pastoral areas, “more space will
5 be given to clan leaders, elders, women and the youth by creating elected councils and/or recognising traditional structures”. The pastoral policies and strategies of the government indicate that there is an aim to settle all pastoralists in the country. “However these policies and strategies have not recognised the fact that it is not possible to settle all pastoralists given all the different circumstances, for instance the size of cultivable land by the river banks, the ownership and clan issues etc. The policy lacks clarity on the number of pastoralists that will be settled and the support to mobile pastoralists that will still be needed to improve the productivity of pastoralism…” (Mussa 2004:11).
1.4 Livestock and BMNP
Unquestionably people and livestock numbers have increased dramatically within the BMNP since its establishment. Tightening of controls during the Dergue period saw this exploitation drop although since 1991 it has increased greatly, despite attempts at resettlement in 1999 (Malcolm & Evangelista 2005). Human populations within the BMNP have been said to stand at 2,500 in 1984 rising to 7,000 in 1992 and 20,000 in 2004 although it is unclear how these figures were reached (B & M Consultants 2004).
The Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Project (EWCP) has been carrying out ongoing livestock and people counts along fixed line-transects in the Web Valley and on the Sanetti Plateau. This work commenced in 1996 and added to similar work carried out by the Bale Mountains Research Project from 1983 to the mid-1990s (Hillman 1986). This work identified that in the Web Valley numbers of livestock and people increased from a minimum in the dry season to a maximum in the wet season. There was no evidence of seasonality found in the time series counts elsewhere with the exception of people counts in Eastern Sanetti which were lowest in the dry season and again at the peak of the rainy season (Marino et al., 2006).
Further it was found that livestock densities increased consistently along the monitoring period in all study areas with the exception of sheep/goats in the Web Valley. In 2000 densities of cattle in the Web valley were five time higher than anywhere else. At the peak of pastoralist activity here (mid wet season) densities of cows were as low as 25/km-2 and as high as 65/km-2 in 1999; mid wet season sheep/goats varied between 4 and 17km-2 in Web (not present in Sanetti) and that of horses/donkeys between 1- 8km- 2. No significant correlations were detected between livestock types and wolf abundances, both in Web and Central Sanetti. In Western and Eastern Sanetti livestock abundance was intermediate; cattle counts increased at similar rates and sheep/goat abundances grew faster on Eastern Sanetti (absent in the area until 1995) (ibid: 54). Further analysis of the more current data is being carried out at this time.
In 2004 the BMNP staff also surveyed the livestock population within the Park and arrived at a figure of 168,000, which is broken down in Table 1.1 and Map 1.1. It is unclear how this was carried out and whether it is based on estimates or a physical census.
6 Table 1.1 – 2004 Livestock Populations within the BMNP Livestock Sanetti Web North West of Harena Forest Total Type Plateau Valley Eastern Park Web Rira Western Hawo Area Valley Edge Cattle 2,053 7,750 10,684 2,514 2,205 83,340 10,837 119,383 Sheep/Goat 3,393 11,954 7,100 2,727 1,577 9,806 2,847 39,404 Transport 176 1,000 2,758 193 964 2,821 1,610 9,522 Animals Total 5,622 20,704 20,542 5,434 4,764 95,967 15,294 168,327
Increasing settlements and livestock numbers in the afroalpine of BMNP are said to be major concerns for four main reasons (see Vial et al in press, 2008): 1) The major rivers originating in the Bale massif are the only source of perennial water for agricultural production and people occupying the arid lowlands of East and Southeast Ethiopia. Overgrazing in the uplands is likely to impact on the hydrology of these areas, threatening the livelihoods and food security of the people in the lowland areas. 2) The erosive effects of livestock are visible in many areas. The occurrence of the denuded mima mounds around the lower-altitude horas, or mineral springs, seem to indicate that heavy livestock grazing pressure and soil poaching has also acted to reduce natural vegetation cover (Tallents, 2007). Moreover, although livestock numbers in the Harenna forest are thought to be lower than on the afroalpine zone, grazing in the forest removes understorey vegetation while patches of forest are said to be burned down regularly to increase the area of grazing land. 3) High levels of livestock have a negative impact on tourism. 4) Increased settlement and numbers of livestock are linked to a variety of threats to wildlife, especially the mountain nyala and Ethiopian wolf. Nyala and other antelopes compete directly with livestock for food and nyala are absent from areas where livestock numbers are high (Brown, 1969). Further it is suggested that livestock compete for vegetation with the rodents that form the primary part of the wolves’ diet (Delany, 1972). And herders dogs can transmit rabies which can decimate wolf populations (Hillman personal communication 2008).
Further the impact of livestock on vegetation, and in particular the ericaceous species, has been explored by Yoseph Assefa and colleagues of AAU. They stress that the ericaceous belt of the Bale Mountains is the zone most seriously affected by progressively increasing human activities. Cattle and horses exert heavy pressure on the vegetation, especially at the lower altitudes. The ericaceous shrubs are cut for fuel wood and are frequently burnt by the local people for various reasons (Yoseph Assefa et al undated). This leads to destruction of the vegetation, disappearance of the fauna and flora, and hence reduction in the biodiversity of the region: though vegetation regenerates quickly after a fire it can be dominated with pioneer species that differ from unburned stands (Getachew Tesfaye et al 2004). Moreover, the Bale Mountains are the water catchment area for eight major rivers and the source of a large number of smaller streams; so possible consequences of changes in the water retention capacity might have far-reaching consequences (Yoseph Assefa et al undated).
7
Map 1.1 – Number of Livestock in Settlements in BMNP Afroalpine Area (BMNP 2006: 59)
8 Such thinking tends to be informed by an equilibrium model of ecology and management of rangelands. As described in Box 1.3 this model stresses the importance of biotic feedbacks such as density-dependent regulation of livestock populations and the feedback of livestock density on vegetation composition, cover and productivity. Range management under this model centres on carrying capacity, stocking rates and range condition assessment and believes that a level is reached whereby livestock are too populous in number for the available resources (vegetation) and inevitably a process of livestock productive decline and rangeland degradation sets in.
Box 1.3 Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium Models of Ecology
Rangeland management tends to be divided between two schools of thought. Either that which is based on an ‘equilibrium’ model of ecology, or alternatively that based upon a ‘non-equilibrium’ model. The equilibrium model stresses the importance of biotic feedbacks between herbivores and their resource. In a rangeland with relatively predictable rainfall and hence forage production, livestock populations are regulated in a density-dependent manner via competition for food resources. As population size nears carrying capacity, increased competition for resources leads to reduced herd productivity. A sign of density dependence is that population growth rates decrease with increasing population size. Alternatively, the non-equilibrium model sees stochastic abiotic factors (including available plant moisture/nutrients, fire and anthropogenic factors) as the primary drivers of vegetation and livestock dynamics. In grazing systems with very high climatic variability, forage availability varies to such a degree with rainfall that herbivore dynamics are driven by rainfall via its direct effect on forage availability in any given year. In such non-equilibrium systems, density-dependent interactions such as competition for resources play a minor role in regulating populations. The debate has stimulated much new research and many researchers now agree that both equilibrium and non-equilibrium dynamics are found in rangelands, often at different times or in different parts of the resource. The challenge is to understand under what circumstances different dynamics apply, since the two models can have fundamentally different consequences for policy and management. Interventions based on the equilibrium model focus on reducing stocking rates and increasing stability. The non-equilibrium paradigm advocates opportunistic stocking strategies and promotes mobility.
Source: Vetter 2004
However, though much of the literature dwells on the negative impacts of livestock grazing/browsing in and around the BMNP there are also positive impacts and in fact a certain amount of livestock are necessary to maintain particular ecosystems. For example cattle keep the grass short on the plateau area which allows the Ethiopian wolves to catch the field rats (Tesfaye Hundessa, EWCO, personal communication 2002; Sillero-Zubiri and Gotelli, 1995). Further wolves use cattle as a ‘mobile hide’ whilst foraging and thereby increase their hunting success (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli, 1995).
9 Others believe that there are more positive impacts that are not fully understood and/or documented. As a result it is concluded that the full interactions between livestock and wildlife is not clear, nor is the impact of livestock on wildlife. As such “more detailed studies are required to assess interactions between livestock, small mammals and Ethiopian wolves” (Stephens et al, 2001:320).
1.5 Use of Horas (mineral springs)
It appears that one of the main reasons for livestock entering the BMNP, alongside access to graze, browse and shade, is natural mineral springs known as hora. These are found within the northern end of the BMNP and just outside the boundary around Dinsho (see Map 1.2), representing an important resource that the local population regard as crucial to livestock production (Ayele 1975; Guilio 2003; Hillman 1986; Kemp- McCartney 1990). Hillman (1986) identifies nine hora but sees them largely as an excuse used by herders to graze within the BMNP noting also that, “[i]t is a small step for temporary-use housing and caves to become permanent use” (Map 1.3 shows the same author’s interpretation of livestock routes to hora). The only substantial study on the use of hora (Kemp-McCarthy 1990) nonetheless has a more sympathetic approach2.
Kemp-McCarthy (ibid) and the BMNP itself (2006) confirm the importance of the hora to livestock nutrition in terms of their chemical properties (sodium, potassium, calcium, manganese, zinc). In 1990 it was found that the hora within the BMNP were not regulated while those outside the boundary were administered by the local PA. Despite the heavy exploitation by users the PA administration was seen as being highly effective in regulating use and conserving the resources. As these are close to settlements closer controls were maintained and elders made the importance of annual cleaning clear to all users. Boulders have been placed around the springs to stop livestock entering the water while animals are grazed elsewhere and then brought to drink to reduce soil erosion. Also only cattle are brought to the hora with shoats left elsewhere (Kemp- McCarthy 1990).
Also it was observed that the higher altitude hora within the Park only seem to be used during the dry season while the lower altitude springs around Dinsho are used year round. One spring (Hora Sombruri) was no longer in use. The BMNP has never restricted the use of hora to date and seem to recognise their importance (Malcolm & Evangelista 2005). However, no alternatives have been proposed or even identified if closer restrictions are placed over resources within the Park. If this occurs the three hora outside the Park boundary may well become overwhelmed if mineral supplements are not sourced from elsewhere. Although the data collected by Kemp-McCarthy for hora users is extremely limited the following description of migration routes has been pieced together: “The traditional access routes to the horas are along river valleys. No herdsmen were recorded travelling from the south and south-east of the Park to the high level horas at
2 A subsequent study on the distribution and use of mineral springs in the Harenna Forest was identified too late to be included in this report – please see Chiodi and Pinard (In Prep.).
10
Map 1.2 – Northern Extent of Bale Mountains National Park showing Location of Hora (Kemp-McCarthy 1990: 3)
11
Map 1.3 Livestock Migration Routes into Bale Mountains National Park (Hillman 1986)
12 Wasama and Worgona, although well worn paths exist from this area, crossing the Sanetti Plateau (Hillman 1986). Paths to Horas Worgona, Salitti and Cave Hora follow the Danka River from the south- east. The Web and Sodota River valleys provide the main route to Hora Wasama from the north, whilst the Keyrensa River links the Haricho region of the Park with the area around Wasama. The Garemba and Rira Rivers provide a passage-way to Wasama from the south. The Sodata River links Hora Kotera with the south-east and the Web River provides a passage from the north. Horas Soba and Tayanta are both located just south of the main road, providing the most obvious routeway to these springs from the north-east and south-west” (ibid: 48).
Despite attempts to control livestock numbers through such as impoundment and fining, this has had little effect. For example in the year 2000, around the Park headquarters in Dinsho it was common to arrest livestock owners with livestock who were trespassing in the Park. The cattle and owner were impounded in the local jail/camp and kept there until a fine of ETB10 per cow was paid (personal observation 2000). However today there is little effective control at all. The BMNP concur with the view that local livestock owners have been effectively forced into the Park due to land use policies outside of its own borders (BMNP 2006).
1.6 Customary Livestock Management Systems
Little is known about customary livestock management in the area as few sociological studies have been carried out. It appears that a system of seasonal movements known as godantu were the predominant method of livestock management prior to the significant land use changes of the last 50 years (BMNP 2006). Livestock were split into a fora herd of dry cows, bulls as well as camels (where kept) and a warra herd of milking cows, as continues to be the practice in the Borana rangelands (Ayele 1976). This often relied upon reciprocal kinship relations known as godanna (B & M Consultants 2004). The fora herd was trekked to distant pastures and water points by the household head and the boys of the household, while the warra herd remained behind and was tended by the women of the household (Ayele 1976).
These livestock movements appear to have been dictated by the lack of water and grazing in low lying areas (gammojji) and also the presence of livestock diseases that proliferate in the dry seasons (Ayele 1976). Therefore while the lower altitudes provided grazing during the wet season, during the dry season livestock are trekked to the higher altitudes (badda and badda dare) and in particular to high altitude forests. Forests provided a rich source of fodder, browse and also shade (Girma 2005). BMNP (2006: 58) states that: Under the Godantu system, peak livestock numbers occur in the Afroalpine in the wetter months, from April to August, when livestock are moved from lower pastures where agricultural crops are being grown. In the Harenna forest, influxes of pastoralists from the surrounding lowland areas are reported for 3-4 months (December-March) in the dry season.
13 Although livestock movements of this kind still persist to this day it has been suggested by the BMNP that this is no longer part of a natural resource management (NRM) strategy but is rather the result of poor land use planning (2006). It has been suggested further that the godantu system has collapsed largely due to the alienation of pastoral livestock producers from customary land access and use rights. Grazing lands have been ploughed up with the expansion of agriculture and restrictions have been imposed on the use of resources following the establishment of BMNP.
1.7 Changing Livelihoods
As a result of these pressures it is said that livelihoods in Bale today now follow a more mixed economy of animal husbandry and crop cultivation. While livestock continue to play a predominant role in the local economy a distinction is often drawn with areas that have a greater agricultural focus. Ayele (1975) firsts notes this with a division between ‘livestock’ and ‘cultivation’ zones. More recently areas that have maintained semi-transhumant pastoralism and areas that have integrated livestock holdings into the expanding agricultural economy have been identified (see for example Solomon et al undated). Settled agriculture has also introduced the use of supplementary fodder and some improved breeds (ibid). It is recognised by local communities that some areas produce better quality livestock than others providing better grazing and more amenable environment. For example the area around Dinsho is known to produce better quality animals, whereas around Rira in the Harenna Forest, the quality of livestock is said to be poor.
Despite the shift to more settled agricultural lifestyles others comment that livestock remains of great importance. Indeed, livestock particularly cattle are considered more than an economic asset and are treated with respect. For example on New Year the local people not only celebrate themselves by eating a big meal, but they also take cattle to the best grass available so they too can eat their fill (personal communication, 2000).
However, the relative importance of livestock to a household is said to vary greatly from one location to the other. In the mid 1990s around Mena Angetu Forest Priority Area livestock accounted for 43 per cent of annual income representing slightly less than crop production (47 per cent) (B & M Consultants 2004). More recently Watson (2007) found that agriculture was the primary work activity for 84% of households in Mena, Goba and Dinsho. Livestock was regarded as the secondary livelihood activity for 64 per cent of households. However, she also found that 99 per cent of households kept some livestock “…for both non-consumable (transport, ploughing and reproduction), and consumable purposes (milk, skins, selling and eating). No respondents reported social status, savings or insurance, as a reason to keep livestock” (ibid: 38).
In some woreda it has been reported that cattle are kept primarily for draught power and secondly for milk production. Further, shoats are seen as being ‘highly significant’ to food security and self-sufficiency and are kept within the mixed crop-livestock farming system (Solomon et al 2005). In these areas animal husbandry and crop farming can be
14 highly integrated. Draught power is relied upon for cultivation while agricultural inputs are often financed from livestock sales (Solomon et al undated).
It is said that more sedentary lifestyles brought about by the expansion of crop farming has led to the need for the supplementation of livestock feed with fodder and in particular crop residues. Residues from cereals (wheat and barley), pulses (field pea and faba bean), linseed as well as maize are available in some locations (Solomon et al 2005). In some woreda crop residues represented the main source of animal feed during the dry season (81.4 per cent of respondents in Dinsho and Sinana) (Solomon et al 2005). During the long dry season barley straw and maize stock are the main sources of fodder with priority given to oxen as ploughing is also undertaken at this time (Agarfa, Dinsho, Gasera and Sinana) (Paulos & Tesfaye 2001; Solomon et al 2005). It is also reported that improved forage crops including vetch and Rhodes grass have been introduced into Gassera woreda although they have restricted use (Bekele et al 1997). Although its use remains limited in many areas crop residues can represent the major external input to the livestock sector (81 per cent of informants) (Watson 2007).
However, this is reported to be highly dependent of location, altitude and herd composition with some areas yet to introduce the practice. For example it is said that fodder remains insignificant or not used at all in other woreda (Berebere, Delo Mena, Harena Buluk and Meda Walebu) (Bekele 2005). This may reflect the limited integration of the livestock and crop production systems in these areas. It is likely that areas that have seen livestock integrated into crop production systems rely more heavily on crop residues to supply animal feed as more sedentary livelihoods have been adopted and livestock are no longer herded in search of pasture. There was no information available on the use of natural fodder (grasses, shrubs, trees) in supplementary feeding.
15 2.0 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
2.1 Background to the Research
As the above literature highlights there are gaps in our understanding of livestock dynamics, livestock based livelihoods and their impacts within the Bale Mountains eco- region. As a result the BERSMP commissioned research that would develop a clear understanding of where livestock movements are occurring through the seasons within the Bale EcoRegion today and indicate to what degree local communities still relied on livestock and livestock systems as part of their livelihoods and how. A further element of this research would be to highlight what changes have occurred in relation to these aspects and what impact these changes have had.
It was believed that as a result of this research the BERSMP with its partners could identify areas for support and intervention that would contribute to the Programme’s objectives.
The Terms of Reference for this study were to:
Review the grey literature, reports and published studies that has looked and studied livestock and livestock issues in the Bale EcoRegion area. Analyse the work to identify and produce a report that notes the changes in livestock management, numbers and movement over the last 50 year period.
Investigate trends in livestock management systems through historical timelines of livestock management, and semi structured interviews (working in four time periods; Haile Selassie, Dergue, EPRDF (at the beginning 1990, EPRDF now 2007)
For the whole EcoRegion – identify and map livestock location and mobility on a seasonal basis with recognition of the different weather patterns on the west side (Highland – belg – krempt wet seasons) and the east side (Ganna – hagaya wet seasons) of the Bale massive.
For the four focus woredas – identify and map livestock location and mobility on a seasonal basis with recognition of the different weather patterns.
For the whole EcoRegion - map grazing land location and any land use change trends, particularly the conversion of grassland to crop agriculture.
For the four focus woredas - map grazing land location and any land use change trends, particularly the conversion of grassland to crop agriculture.
Investigate grassland management systems in terms of the management of common property grazing areas, water sources, and mobility routes (focusing on past systems, current trends and change).
16
Using mapped livestock data, identify livestock ownership with the aim to identify locally owned livestock and externally owned livestock.
Estimate the number of livestock with in the EcoRegion through focus groups discussion, semi structured interviews, secondary data, wealth ranking based on livestock ownership, and average household holding multiplied by local population.
Conduct a problem / solution analysis focused upon the current escalating problem of the reduction (shrinkage / conversion) of grazing resources and the increase in livestock population
2.2 The Research Team and Tools
The research was carried out by a team of national and non-national staff. Different methodologies were used to collect the data. These include: - Consultation with community focus groups using participatory/diagrammatic tools; - Interviews with individual livestock owners/herders; - Satellite imagery and GIS; and - Review of existing literature.
Field work was carried out in the Bale Mountains area. This current study focussed on seven PAs (kebele) in four districts (woreda) – Delo Mena, Goba, Nensebo and Harena Buluk (See Figure 2.1). The sample kebele were selected for the study by the government partners and BERSMP in order to have a selection of: • PAs near the forest • PAs far from the forest • PAs in the middle.
Due to time constraints it was not possible to take this selection of PAs in all woreda. It was only in Goba districts that the ‘middle’ PA was considered. In all the remaining three woredas only two PAs – one near to and one far from the forest were selected.
Table 2.1 Criteria for Selection of PAs PAs Districts Adjacent to Away from forest In the middle forest Goba Fasil Angeso Ashuta Hillasa Delo Mena Erba Berak Harena Buluk Sodu Welmal Melka Arba Nensebo Gerambamo Solana
17
Figure 1: Map of Woreda and Relationship to Bale Mountains National Park
18 Between 1-2 weeks was spent in each woreda, with the research team camping over night when necessary. This allowed the team to work in the evenings when community members requested meetings at this time, as well as build up a better rapport and understanding with the community as a whole. Where possible a representative from the woreda development office joined the team to introduce the team to the woreda/kebele heads and present the research, its objectives and plans. Further the research proved a capacity building process for these government personnel.
A range of participatory tools were used to initiate discussion and improve understandings. These included: - Wealth ranking; - Trend analysis; - Seasonal calendar; - Mapping of rangeland resources and grazing routes; - Proportional piling of preferred fodder; types of livestock; grazing areas etc; and - Observation.
These tools are described in more detail in Appendix 3.
A system of coding was used to reference all interviews and group discussions. This has preserved the anonymity of the respondents, whose names are held with the researchers in case any follow up is needed. The system of coding used reflects the PA from where the information is collected so the reader can identify this with ease, for example if a reference is described as FA1/2007 – this means the individual was No. 1 interviewee from Fasil Angeso. Information collected from groups is referenced by woreda first so a reference from a group in Delo Mena, Berak PA would be DMBE1/2007.
The team attempted to include a representative group of respondents including men and women; old and young; rich and poor. However though women were able to join the group work, it proved difficult to talk to women on their own, and therefore most of the individual interviews were carried out with men.
A dissemination workshop was held in Goba on 11th and 12th April 2008, to present the results to key stakeholders, receive feedback and clarify results. A report of the workshop is presented in Appendix 4.
2.3 Challenges of the Research
There were several challenges to the research. These can be grouped into the following areas. 1. Logistics and research team - Many parts of the research area were difficult to access due to lack of roads, long distances from the nearest town, the terrain and weather conditions. To overcome this, the team camped in the settlement areas when necessary.
19 - Though it was anticipated that a representative from the local government office would join the team, this was not always possible due to prior commitments. - Where possible the team included a female member of staff from the local government office however this was not always the case. Therefore at times it proved difficult for the researchers to speak to women, particularly alone. 2. Organising community focus groups - Though a certain number of community members were requested to gather together at a time and place and notice given for at least 24 hours, often the required number of members did not turn up. - Men sometimes tried to discourage talking to women as they said that females have poor knowledge of the wealth status of the community and livestock. Though in reality this did not prove to be the case and women in particular had good knowledge of grazing routes. 3. Accessing of information and its trueness - The participants were fearful and suspicious of giving information on different issues. It was said that it is bad luck to count livestock (personal communication, 2000). - True livestock numbers were difficult to obtain as recently government has been asking about numbers for taxation purposes. - It has also been difficult in the timeframe to verify all names of places, fodder species etc. This has been completed as much as possible however there may be some discrepancies and gaps. 4. Wealth of information - As you will see from the following Chapters, a wealth of information was available and collected by the research team. Therefore it was decided to concentrate on certain aspects of the TOR in detail rather than attempt to complete all aspects in a broad manner, and for example the work on satellite imagery and livestock numbers would be continued by the Programme team after the research had been completed. This research and report therefore focuses on a better understanding of how livestock fits into community livelihood processes, livestock movement and distribution of natural resources, and the challenges that people are facing in relation to livestock and their livelihoods. The dynamics and impacts of seasonal changes are also taken into account, including the following and investigation of migratory routes.
2.4 Structure of the Report
The next chapter will provide a summary of the climatic conditions found in the area, both from scientific data and information produced by community members. This chapter will be followed by four chapters describing the four study woreda and the PAs within them. This will include the socio-economics, land use and grazing, water and mineral systems including movements of people and livestock. Chapter 8.0 will then analyse and discuss the changing livelihoods and social systems found through the research, comparing the different study areas. Chapter 9.0 will compare the different livestock and livestock systems and Chapter 10.0 the mobility, land and changing land use patterns. Chapter 11.0 will look at the main challenges and problems facing
20 communities today, and this will be followed by the Conclusion in Chapter 12.0 including recommendations.
21 3.0 GEOGRAPHIC NATURE OF THE STUDY AREA
3.1 Climate of the Bale Mountains
Southern Ethiopia is within the East African climatic domain, influenced during the larger part of the year by south-easterlies originating over the Indian Ocean. Further the inter- tropical convergence zone, plus altitudinal and topographic influences also affect the distribution of the precipitation in the Bale Mountains. Annual rainfall ranges between 600-1500 (2000) mm depending on relief (Yoseph Assefa et al, undated) (discussed in more detail in Miehe and Miehe 2004).
The diurnal variability in temperature is higher than its seasonal variation. A minimum temperature of -15˚c has been recorded on the Plateau (3850m) while a night-time minimum temperature of -3˚c was found in the sparsely vegetated areas of the ericaceous belt (ibid).
3.2 Seasonal Variations
Those interviewed divided the year up into two or four seasons (see Table 3.1). In the lowlands the year was divided up into two main seasons: - Bona – the dry season (roughly October to March) - Gana – the rainy season (roughly April – October)
Table 3.1 Distribution of months in lowland and highland areas
PA Hagayya Bona Gana Adolessa Ref. Lowland Areas DMER1/2007; Erba Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May Jun-Aug DMER2/2007;
Melka Arba Nov-Dec Jan-Apr May-Jly Aug-Oct HBMA3/2007 Sodu Welmal Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May Jun-Aug HBSW1/2007
Berak Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May Jun-Aug DMBE2/2007 Highland Areas
PA Birra Bona Furmata Afrasa Gana Fasil Angeso Nov-Jan Mar-June July-Oct GFA2/2007
Hilassa Oct-Feb Mar-Sept GH3/2007 Months Months Ashuta not stated not stated GA5/2007 NS1/2007; Solana Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May June-Aug NS6/2007; NG3/2007; Gerambamo Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May June-Aug NG5/2007
22 Two additional seasons were added by some respondents dividing the year up into four seasons, rather than two. - Hagayya – ‘Spring’ with some rain (roughly September to December) - Bona – the dry season (roughly December to – March) - Gana – ‘Summer’ (roughly March – May) - Adolessa – ‘Winter’ (roughly June – August)
Though there were some variations due to location, and in Fasil Angeso the group included a season called Furmata that ran from March – June (GFA2/2007) Although Furmata was not mentioned as a season elsewhere, it means ‘solution’ in the sense that after the long dry seasons the first batch of sporadic rain heralds the coming of major rain. So it is like a praising. In general the community does not differentiate Furmata from Gana.
In the more highland PAs of Solana and Gerambamo, the year was divided up differently into: - Birra (September – November) - Bona (December – February) - Afrasa (March – May) - Gana (June – August).
As can be seen in Table 3.2 rain in the lowland areas fell during two periods – during Hagayya (September – November) and Gana (March – June). In the highland areas it can rain all year round, though in Fasil Angeso, Ashuta and Hilassa PAs rain was said to fall from March/April through to September with the majority falling in August. The distribution of rainfall depends partly on the altitude of the PA and where the PA sits in relation to the mountain range i.e. south or north.
What is clear is that all PAs experience little or no rainfall fall between December and February, when highest temperatures are experienced and often strong winds.
It was suggested that rainfall and water resources have reduced over time due to climate change (HBSW2/2007; DMB31/2007; GH7/2007) and temperatures are said to have increased (DMER4/2007). Further several respondents commented that they are now experiencing drought on a regular basis particularly in the lowland areas (GH7/2007).
23 Table 3.2 Weather conditions in the study PAs
No/little Highest Strong PA Rainfall rainfall temperature winds Ref.
Lowland Areas Sep-Nov and Nov-Mar and Nov-Dec or DMER1/2007; Erba Mar-May Jun-Sep Dec-Jan Jan-Feb DMER2/2007; Oct-Nov and Dec-Apr and HBMA1/2007; Melka Arba May-Jly Aug-Sep HBMA3/2007; Sep-Dec and Jan-Feb HBSW1/2007; Sodu Welmal Mar-June July-Aug N/A N/A Sep-Nov Dec-Feb and May-June and DMBE2/2007 Berak Mar-June July-Aug Jan-Feb
Highland Areas Apr-Oct Fasil Angeso (Aug) Dec-Feb N/A N/A GFA2/2007 Medium Hilassa Mar-Sept Oct -Feb Oct-Feb winds – Oct- GH3/2007 Feb Ganna Ashuta (June-Aug) Bona N/A N/A GA5/2007 All year NS1/2007; Solana (June-Aug) Dec-Feb Dec-Feb June-Aug NS6/2007; Dec-Feb, but NG3/2007; Gerambamo Most of year Bona not high N/A NG5/2007; temperature
24 4.0 GOBA WOREDA
4.1 Background Information
Goba woreda is a predominantly temperate (78%) area followed by alpine (10%), sub- tropical (10%) and tropical (2%) agro-ecological zones. Vegetation cover consists of mountain savanna and coniferous forest that predominate with podocarpus and juniperus trees. BMNP along with adjacent forests and bushland covers a large part of the woreda (54.6%). Pasture (27.6%) and arable land (13%) are the other significant land use types (OSG 2000).
Ayele (1975) provides figures of livestock numbers in the woreda based on the estimates of balabbats dating from 1971. These were: cattle 80,000; shoats 100,000; and equines 10,000 although these need to be treated with caution. In 2000 the populations were said to stand at: cattle 74,397; shoats 6,624; and equines 17,711, which equate to 64,252 TLU (see Appendix 2). By 2007 it was said that these had risen to: cattle 88,038; shoats 39,129; and equines 26, 806, which is equivalent to 82,963 TLU, showing a 29 per cent increase (see Appendix 1). However, there is a huge discrepancy in the number of shoats, which have risen by a factor of six in the space of seven years and therefore should be questioned.
In 1975 it was reported that livestock were driven from Goba to Harena during the dry season where they would normally stay between November and April. Most returned to Goba when the bedessa rains came (Ayele 1975). More recently it was reported that many stockowners from Goba regularly occupy the Web Valley and Sanetti Plateau within the boundary of the BMNP (B & M Consultants 2004).
4.2 Fasil Angeso PA
4.2.1 Introduction
Fasil Angeso is near Goba Town just below the foothills of the Sanetti Mountains chain. Previously, Fasil Angeso was Fasil PA and Angeso PA, but due to new government structures they have been combined. This is because kebeles are starting to be chaired by literate, salaried chairmen, and because of a lack of funds for the salaries the government has reduced the numbers of PAs by combining them. This has meant two very different PAs with different characteristics being combined. This is not only the case with this PA but many others too.
Taken separately, Fasil lies south-east of Goba town and is relatively flat compared to the mountainous Angeso bordered by the chilly Sanetti high plateau. The area is characterised by woodland, valleys and rocks. The weather and the landscape at Angeso is not favourable for agriculture but due to the trends elsewhere in the Bale Mountains together with poverty, small patches of land on hillsides have been cultivated and wheat grown, which takes more than seven months to ripe. The woodland grazing which is at a rising elevation is considered to be poor and low quality. During this current season
25 (October-November) the livestock do not stand the cold and the vegetation on the hillside is soft and steep causing livestock to fall.
4.2.2 Socio Economics of Communities
Communities were ‘ranked’ into rich, medium, poor and destitute – ‘destitute’ meaning those who live by selling their labour and by support given to them from others (e.g. zeka). However they were few in number.
A group of community members were asked to identify criteria for measuring wealth (in order of importance) and then households (based on a list from the PA administration office) were divided into the different economically ranked groups. A variety of criteria were identified for the wealth rankings in the different areas (see section 8.1.2).
Table 4.1 Group 1 Fasil Angeso PA: Wealth Ranking
Rich Medium Poor Destitute 50+ cattle 20-40 cattle 4 cattle No cattle 30+ sheep 15-20 sheep 4 sheep 2 sheep 6+ equines 4 equines 1-2 equines 1 donkey 2-3 ha. land 1.5 – 2 ha. land 1 ha. land 0.25 ha. land 5% 10% 35% 50%
Total: 253 households in Fasil Angeso PA
Note: It was not possible to get a list of the households in the PA for this particular exercise therefore the community groups was asked to show approximate percentages of households in each rank.
However a second wealth ranking using a list of households from the PA was carried out and shows somewhat different results.
Table 4.2 Group 2 Fasil Angeso PA: Wealth Ranking (Five male and five female participants)
Rich ‘sorresa’ Medium ‘giduresa’ Poor ‘harkgadesse’ Desitute ‘hiyyeese’ 30 + cattle 10-15 cattle Up to 4 cattle 0 30-40 shoats 15-20 shoats 5 shoats 0 7-10 equines 4-5 equines 2 equines 1 donkey 4-8 ha. land 2-3 ha. land 2 ha. land 1 ha. land 4 28 154 67 2% 11% 61% 26% Note: - The community stressed that the wealth gap between rich, medium, poor and destitute should be determined by possessions other than just livestock, for example a household that owns 25 cattle with no other essential assets can be categorised as ‘medium’.
26 - Further the above criteria was said to be quite general – when it comes to more detailed categorisation the community would include the quality of the land (production potential) for example.
4.2.3 Grazing, Minerals and Water
Grazing
In Fasil Angeso PA the concept of wet and dry season grazing is not so relevant as in other parts of the Bale Massif, as it can rain all year round, though in drier years there will not be rain between December and February (see Seasonal Calendar GFA1/2007 overleaf). During the wetter season, gana (July – October) livestock are usually grazed around the homestead as the land is bare and there are no crops being grown. Crops are then planted so livestock will move to dry season grazing areas including up on to the Sanetti Plateau. They may use this area up until June, also grazing on the Erica (‘sato’) around Asta (GFA2/2007). Sato (Erica spp.) is found on the Sanetti Plateau, Goba. It is considered to be a special pasture said to give strength to livestock (DMER03/2007).
It was stressed that the amount of grazing in the PA has reduced and the amount of crop cultivation has increased (see Trend Analysis GFA1/2007 below).
Wet season grazing: - Adule Abowesha far from Fasil Angeso (but good wet and dry season grazing) (FA1/2007);
Dry season grazing: - Adule Abowesha far from Fasil Angeso (1-2 hours) but good wet and dry season grazing (FA1/2007). - Sanetti Plateau, Tullu Dimtu and around Asta ‘sato’ or Erica grazing (GFA2/2007). - Ititu far from Fasil Angeso (1-2 hours) but good pasture (FA1/2007) - Oboro (forest areas) (1-2 hours from Fasil Angeso) (good grass and water) (FA1/2007) - Shedom in adjacent kebele – was a favourite site and herders with families would stay there for six months, but now only a few visit (see Box 4.1) (FA1/2007)
Box 4.1 Changes in Grazing Usman Shalfa Hawasi used to move to Shedom which is the adjacent kebele before EC 1978 to graze on the wide and best pasture that exists there. He (with his wife and some children) would go to this place and stay there for over six months every year with all his stock, and only return back during the cultivation time. After EC 1978 settlement and agriculture expanded and the area became more crowded. From then on they stopped going there. But there are still a few people who have friends there and can go with their stock.
Access to some of the browsing areas of the forest is not possible. Government forest guards do not allow the herders but they sometimes graze in the forest areas without
27 consent since it is adjacent to their home (FA2/2007). Though the protected area is close, some respondents said that they did not use it for grazing (FA1/2007), however sometimes graze on private plots and farmland. Others in the PA however said that they use the Sanetti Plateau for dry season grazing (GFA2/2007).
Figure 4.1 Example of Grazing Routes Within and Outside Fasil Angeso PA (FA3/2007)
28
SEASONAL CALENDAR: Group GFA1/2007 – Elders – Fasil Angeso PA
Bonna Ganna
Furmaja Badhessa Adolesa Waxaba Hagayya Trans. Hadji Ashura Safara Mawulida Awala Akira Zara Rajaba Heexo Sooma Fishe Kefishe Dec Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov
Rainfall Water supply for Hangeso, micha & dima found at the upper livestock mountain – good during bonna Tagona found at the lower mountain (not cold at this time of year)
Grass & shrubs Sato is special pasture which is good for giving strength to livestock. Grass is normally and readily available. Same all year round.
Use of hora Supplementary minerals provided from hora by Aba Warra – visited every 2 months on average. Lambing and calving – managed by women Animal husbandry and children Income related to O O O O O livestock incl. O O O O O O O O O products O Including fattened livestock, dairy products, and high quantity of milk Labour demand for livestock activities O O O O O O O O O O O O O O for male, female & O O O O O O O O child Labour demand for non-livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O activities O O O O ‘Raso’ affects cattle Disease incidence due to high rain
Note: The darker the shading the more intense the activity
29 TREND ANALYSIS Group GFA/1 – Elders – Fasil Angeso
Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF O O O O O O O O O O Grass quantity O O O O O O O O O O O O
Amount of crop land O O O O O O O O O O O O Time taken to access grazing O O O O O O O O O O O Browse quantity O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Access rights O O O O
Types of livestock owned No change Rich = 80 Rich = 25 – 30 Quantity of cattle owned by Highest (rich) = 310 Medium = 45 Medium = 10 individuals Lowest (poor) = 50 Poor = 20 Poor = 0 Conflicts with wild animals grazing O O O O Conflicts with wild animals 3 incidences. Hyena ate 3 donkeys attacking in one day. O O O O O O O O O O Time to access hora O O O O O O O O O O O O O Income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Food from livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O
30 Several respondents mentioned ‘Balee’3 as a type/species of grass/plant which can quickly cause severe illness to livestock even when eating only a small piece, causing liver disease and diarrhoea (FA1/2007; FA2/2007).
Water
There are various water sources close by and used at different times of the year. They can use the River Magida all year round (journey of 30 minutes), though access is being curtailed due to farming along the banks.
Minerals
From Fasil Angeso it takes four hours to the nearest ‘hora’ (GFA1/2007; GFA2/2007). One group of Elders stated that the time to access the nearest hora had increased significantly since the time of Haile Selassie (GFA1/2007).
Herders in the PA stated they only need to use the hora during the bona (November – January) and furmata (March – June) when the livestock get thin due to lack of grass and nutrients.
4.2.4 Fodder
Natural vegetation (shrubs, bushes, trees, grass) is used in times of need as fodder for livestock (see Table 9.9, Section 9.5).
4.2.5 Markets
Cattle are sold in Robe where the market is held on Thursdays (only local cattle market) however normally sheep would be sold first (FA1/2007; FA2/2007;).
It is usually the husband who sells the livestock, though sometimes the wife will too (FA2/2007). Both may sell milk, butter and chickens at Goba market (FA1/2007; FA2/2007).
4.3 Goba Woreda: Hilassa PA
4.3.1 Introduction
Hillasa PA is found in Goba woreda. Across the PA grazing has greatly reduced and community members have been forced to diversify their livelihoods. The PA is relatively close to Goba town and some community members have a house in town as well as in the PA.
3 Balee could be the fennel (Ferrula communis).
31 4.3.2 Socio-Economics of Communities
Table 4.3 Hilassa PA: Wealth Ranking
Rich Medium Poor Destitute 8 ha. land 5-6 ha. land 4 ha. land 0-0.5 ha. House in town No house in town No house in town No house in town 10-15 cattle 5-10 cattle 2-4 cattle Up to 1 cattle 10 shoats 5-6 shoats 2-5 shoats Up to 3 shoats 5-8 equines 2-5 equines 2 equines Up to 1 equine 5-10 chickens 10-15 chickens 5-7 chickens 1-2 chickens 50-100 quintals of grain 25-50 quintals of grain 10-15 quintals of grain 4-6 quintals of grain 13 60 177 47 4% 20% 60% 16%
Total number of households: 297
Note: - The participants were fearful and suspicious of giving information on different issues. - They said that females have poor knowledge of the wealth status of the community.
This wealth ranking reflects the diversified livelihood system that has developed for the majority of those living in Hilassa PA. The mix of livestock and cropping has provided the basis for an integrated system that utilises resources to their best advantage (discussed in more detail below).
4.3.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals
Grazing
In Hilassa PA there has been a great reduction of open grassland from the time of Haile Selassie due to increased cultivation in the area by private farmers: as one group said “Even the hillside is cultivated now” (see Trend Analysis GH7/2007). Further there is said to be erosion in the woodland wet season grazing; and a reduction in dry season grazing due to proliferation of farming along the Magida River limiting access to it after harvest. Grazing has to be negotiated with some landowners through providing the service of ploughing for 4-5 days. Otherwise herders may have to purchase the pasture when grass is limited (H1/2007).
Respondents complained that the time to access grazing has increased in both the wet season and dry seasons. As per Trend Analysis GH7/2007 overleaf, during Haile Selassie to access wet and dry season grazing both men and women walked 3 hours morning and afternoon, but now it takes more than 12 hours. This means that it is more often the men who will take the livestock now and the women will water, protect, stand by and care for the calves (GH7/2007; see also GH6/2007).
32 TREND ANALYSIS – Group GH7/2007 – Men – Hilassa PA
Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF O O O O O O O O O O - Quantity of open grassland O O O O O O Even the hillside is cultivated O O O O O Quantity of land under crops O O O O O O O O O O O Time for accessing grazing Men walked 3 hrs morning & Now it takes both men and during wet season afternoon. Women walked 3 hrs Men walked 8 hrs; and women 3 women 12 hrs+. Women water, with milking/calving cows. hrs. protect, stand by, care for calves. Time for accessing grazing Men walked 10 hrs; and women 3 Now it takes 12 hrs+ for both during dry season Men and women walked 3 hrs. hrs. men and women.
Quantity of browse available - - - Changes in access rights to O O O O O O O grazing No access to land under O O O O O Land under cultivation by private landlords. Forest area prevented Land made available to landless farmers. by govt. Quantity of livestock in the 2-3 million. 1 million. woreda Shedom still has many. There were 3 continuous 0.25 million droughts, & first experience of aid/relief Quantity of livestock owned Cattle = 500 Cattle = 25-30 Cattle = 4 by individual Equines = 20 Equines = 5 Equines = 1 Shoats = 40 Shoats = 20 Shoats = 5 No. of conflicts over grazing with wild animals - - - Conflicts with animals that O O O O O kill livestock O O O O O Hyena attack severely. They are appealing to govt about issue Time needed for accessing O O O water for livestock O O Included in time taken grazing but
33 this is separate
Time needed for accessing - - - hora Value of income from O O O O O O O O O O livestock and products O O O O O O O O O O O O High value of money Actual income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O and products O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Quantity of food from O O O O O O O O O O - livestock Depended on livestock not agr. All shifted to agr. We live from agr. Time needed for fodder O O O O O collection - - O O O O Changes in amount paid for fodder (if purchased) - - -
Notes:
The group stressed that during the time of Haile Selassie and the Dergue people had more cattle and less shoats and equines. Now proportionately, people have more equines and shoats than cattle.
The time taken to access grazing for livestock in both seasons (wet and dry) has changed quite dramatically since Haile Selassie period. The women mostly spend their time collecting fodder, making hay etc. while men either take herds to the grazing area or collect hay from distant places to feed weak cows and oxen at home, when needed. People only started using fodder after Dergue period.
The community had no access to hora – they have been using salt with crop residues to feed the animals when necessary.
34 Changes in access rights have also occurred: during Haile Selassie land was protected under landlords and access to the forest was prevented by the government. During the Dergue land was opened up and made available to all – the landless. However today access is completely restricted within the PA due to the increase in cultivation. As a result it is said that the numbers of livestock in the PA have dramatically reduced – from 2-3 million during the time of Haile Selassie to 250,000 today (GH7/2007) (see above Trend Analysis).
Wet season grazing: - Gara Wade (woodland) (however erosion) (H1/2007) - Gara Ejerso (however erosion) (H1/2007)
Box 4.2: Utilisation of Different Grazing Resources
I have to take my livestock to Ejerso and Wade for on average one month and 15 days, but I use the Magida areas between [Sept 1- Jan 30] and Hinshawee areas from [Jan 30 – July 15]. Melaku Urge, Hilassa PA
Dry season grazing: - Along Magida River (however access limited due to farming and can only access after harvesting (H1/2007) - Hinshawee areas (H1/2007)
Husband and wife interchangeably take the livestock until the boys have returned from school (H1/2007).
Further some areas that used to be grazed 3 years ago have seen an increased incidence of disease including Cimiso, since the change of area to crop production (H1/2007).
Due to a lack of grazing people have developed strongly integrated livestock and cropping systems that make the best use of available resources (see Box 4.3).
Box 4.3 Integrated Livestock and Crop Systems
Ibrahim Abda is a ‘rich’ inhabitant of Hilassa PA, Goba woreda. He has diversified his livelihood to an extent that he has become more resilient to times of stress than others. He has ten ‘hybrid’ cows rather than ‘local’ which provide larger quantities of milk and a good income, whilst being easily fed on fodder ‘at home’. Ibrahim also keeps ten shoats and ten equines. His livestock are integrated with the growing of grain, of which he produces on average 110 quintals per year. His livestock graze on his own land. Further he employs labour to collect fodder when needed including barley crop residues. He sells a small amount of milk and butter together with chicken and shoats at Goba market; shoats at Wacho market; and cattle at Robe. Cattle are only sold to attend to some problems like finding funds for a marriage ceremony or veterinary treatment of livestock (H2/2007).
35
Figure 4.2 Example of Marketing Routes Within and From Hilassa PA (H2/2007) (there are few movements within and outside the PA for grazing as discussed above)
36 CALENDAR Group GH3/2007 – Youth – Hilassa PA
Ganna (Mar-Sept) Bonna (Oct-Feb) O O O O O Rainfall O O O O O O O O O O Temperature O O
Wind strength O O O O O O O O O O O O O Water for livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O Food supply for livestock – Crop residue O O O O O O O O O
Grass O O O O O O O
Fodder (oats) O O (green stage) (few people use) O Usage of hora (only some people use)
Calving Carried out by women
Availability of income from livestock O O O O O O O Labour demand for male and females O O O O O related to livestock O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand for male and females O O O O O related to non-livestock O O O O O O O O Labour for harvest, crushing, collection of residue
37 Water
During the dry season water would be accessed from the Magida River however as described above the access to the River has been severely curtailed. During the dry season the water supply is severely reduced (see Seasonal Calendar GH3/2007). Time to access water has increased, however it tends to be the grazing that is the limiting factor and/or reason for movement (GH7/2007).
Minerals
The community has no access to hora – instead they add salt to crop residues to feed the animals when needed.
4.3.3 Fodder
In areas where there is more agriculture such as Hilassa PA it is common for crop residues to be fed to the livestock. Hay is also made (GH7/2007). ‘Oats’[?]were also mentioned and said to be fed in their green stage (GH3/2007). Further livestock can be taken to the agricultural land after harvesting to feed on the residues left behind. For summary of fodder use see Table 9.9, Section 9.5.
4.3.4 Markets
Cattle are sold in Robe where the market is held on Thursdays (only local cattle market) however normally sheep would be sold first (H1/2007; H2/2007). It takes four hours each way to travel there from Hilassa PA (see Figure 4.2).
Shoats, milk, butter and chickens may be sold at Goba market (H2/1007). Some inhabitants may also travel to Wacho market to sell shoats (H2/2007).
4.4 Goba Woreda: Ashuta PA
4.4.1 Introduction
Ashuta PA is found on the eastern side of the woreda, at a distance from the National Park. Known in the past for its rich pastures, today grazing has become difficult and extremely scarce during the dry season. Many people are dependent on access to the state farms to feed on crop residues. Further movement in and from the PA has been curtailed, including access the rivers.
38 4.4.2 Socio-Economics of Communities
Total number of households: 482
Table 4.3 Ashuta PA: Wealth Ranking
Rich Medium Poor Destitute 5+ ha. land 3-5 ha. land 0.5-3 ha. land >0.5 ha. land 20+ cattle 5-20 cattle 2-3 cattle 0 5-6 equines 2 equines 1 donkey 0 30-40 shoats 5-10 shoats 3-5 shoats 0 60 quintals grain 30-50 quintals grain 15-30 quintals grain 5-10 quintals grain produced 3+ beehives 1 beehive 0 0 10-20 chickens 5-10 chickens 3-6 chickens 2-3 chickens 55 276 132 19 11% 57% 27% 4%
4.4.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals
Grazing
In past times Ashuta PA was known for its rich pastures. For example in marriage ceremonies a blessing is given “Ganga magida ta’ee” (“horse eats the Chaffa grass and breeds”) to the couple, particularly the wife. It means ‘be in good condition and have many children as the horses that graze the marshes of Magida’ (A5/2007). This illustrates the abundance of quality grassland that was found during Haile Selassie’s, particularly the Chaffa (or marshland) grass found along the Magida River.
In the past access to grazing tended to be controlled by landlords, the ‘Aba lafa/landlord’ particularly where the area was suitable for agriculture. The system at the time put ‘good’ agricultural land under a private landlord and charged the users for any access. During the Dergue this system was abolished and land was opened up for all. Community members praised the Dergue for returning their common grazing land. However since this time pasture has decreased in quality and quantity with access curtailed by crop production, and as a result livestock has also reduced in quality and quantity with reduced production and income derived from livestock (A5/2007; GA6/2007).
There is a lack of grazing now reduced further by recent redistribution of land to the landless youth (see below Trend Analysis GA6/2007). During the wet season livestock owners used to graze animals on or around the homestead avoiding crops being grown, however increasingly this is becoming more difficult and one group described how several villagers now have to take the livestock once a week for an all day trip to find better grazing (GA6/2007). Dry season grazing has always been more problematic and since Haile Selassie’s time herders have had to travel to remaining riverine areas to find grazing. Today, daily trips are made that take all day to nearby state farms that allow herders to graze the cropland after the harvest in January for at least five months
39 (A5/2007). Livestock numbers per individual have reduced dramatically (see Trend Analysis GA2/2006).
Minerals
The herders and livestock of the PA used to use a hora that was situated 5-6 hours trek away. However today the hora has been occupied by agriculture and there is no close replacement. As a result the majority of occupants no longer use hora.
Water
In the past it was said that water was “readily available” all year round. However today, access to the local rivers has been curtailed due to agriculture along the river banks. Livestock owners in Ashuta PA still rely on the Tagona and Magida Rivers during the wet season, though during the dry season only the Tagona is used as the Magida reduces in volume (see Seasonal Calendar below GA5/2007). As a result it now takes 2-3 hours per day to access water for livestock especially during bona (GA6/2007).
4.4.4 Fodder
Crop residues are regularly fed to livestock and/or livestock grazed on farming land (including commercial land) after harvest (A5/2007). Indeed, crop residues can be stored for a whole year. A mazge is a cart load drawn by oxen – equivalent to 15 quintals. One respondent said he used 3 mazge (or 45 quintals) per year (A5/2007). In those areas where crop residues are given to livestock it seems that the husband and children are responsible for feeding the livestock in the morning and afternoon, whilst they are allowed to graze at will during the day.
Additional feed is needed during bona including wheat, maize and crop residues. Some farmers also provide supplementary feed such as fugalo (GA5/2007). Some fodder was needed during the Dergue regime as grazing became more restricted, however the time taken to collect fodder (particularly during bona) has increased 3-fold from this time (GA6/2007).
4.4.5 Markets
Robe market is the major market for all livestock. And Goba market is where cereals are sold.
40 Figure 4.3 Example of Grazing Routes in Ashuta PA (GA1/2007)
41 TREND ANALYSIS Group GA/6 Women - Ashuta PA
Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF O O O Availability of open grassland O O O O O O O O O O Currently the govt is rationing O O O O O O O O our grazing land, land given to No cultivation Not much cultivation jobless youth O O O O O Land under crop production O O O O O O O O O O O Time taken to access grazing No labour needed. Grazing 9 hours (9am – 6pm) during wet season available near homestead. Just As before Those involved go in a group leave them to graze. once weekly. HH or eldest son goes. Time taken to access grazing Morning taken to go to some Three times a day like Morning until lunchtime, then during dry season destinations. Afternoon taken to reconnaissance from 3-6pm. return back Needed consensus from landlord No access right – all land More land has been taken for Access rights to grazing then no problem. communal. crop production. Rich: 160 cattle, 35 equines. Rich: 80 cattle, 20 equines. Rich: 40 cattle, 8 equines. Quantity of livestock owned Med: 80 cattle, 12 equines. Med: 50 cattle, 5 equines. Med: 15 cattle, 6 equines. Poor: 20 cattle, 3 equines. Poor: 10 cattle, 2 equines. Poor: 5 cattle, 2 equines. Conflict with animals - - - Reduction in water availability. Time taken for accessing Readily available Readily available Now takes 2-3 hrs especially water during Bonna The place has been occupied by Time taken for accessing hora 5-6 hrs 5-6 hrs agriculture O O O O O Income derived from O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock O O O O O O O O O O Quantity of food from O O O O O O O O O O O
42 livestock O O O O O Time taken to collect fodder - O O O O O O During Bonna
SEASONAL CALENDAR Group GA/5 – Women – Ashuta PA
Ganna Bonna O O O O O Rainfall O O O O O O O O O O Quality of water supply for livestock O O O O O Have to travel long distances to Magida & O O O O O Togona for watering livestock O O O O O O O Supply of food for livestock O O O Additional feed is needed like wheat/maize & crop residues. Some farmers also supplementary feed with e.g. fagulo Use communal grazing land particularly the Grazing oxen. More relaxed grazing pattern – everywhere. O O O O O Breeding time O O O O O O O O O O O O O Income related to livestock incl. O O O O O More is spent on livestock products O O O O O O O Labour related to livestock activities O O O O O Crop harvested Needs special and continuous attention O O O O O Labour related to other activities O O O O O O O O O O There has been an increase in agr. activities Harvesting, crushing. Plant called gonde sprouts out of rivers & very ‘Dika’ (acute) disease can kill within 2-3 days. Disease incidence swampy areas – if eaten can kill immediatedly. Abba Sanga. ‘Malula’ on livestock is a killer.
43 Chapter 5.0 Nensebo Woreda
5.1 Introduction
Nensebo woreda is predominantly sub-tropical (52%) and temperate (45%) with small tropical zones (3%). Natural vegetation coverage continues to predominate (58%) followed by arable land (22%) and pasture (18.5%). The only data obtained for livestock populations of the woreda date to 2000 and stand at 100,617 cattle; 17,252 shoats; and 6,210 equines, which equals 76,194 TLU (see Appendix 2). No contemporary data was obtained. It is regarded as ‘highly suitable for crop production’ and in particular coffee by the regional government (OSG 2000). Ayele (1975: 56) reported that: “In Nensebo Woreda, Livestock Zone, livestock owners graze their animals in the broad leafed areas from November – January, and on the open plains from March to November. The stockowners take their animals to the forest areas because of lack of grazing. They move to the plains when the grasses, herbs and plants in the forest areas are harmful to their animals, and also because of the abundance of biting flies in the rainy season in the forests.”
Satellite data compared by the BERSMP suggests a 9% reduction in forest cover between 2000 and 2006. Though the area of grazing land stayed pretty much the same during this period, the amount of agricultural land increased by the same amount – 9%. Therefore it can be assumed that forest was cleared for agricultural purposes (See Figure 5.1 and 5.2).
5.2 Solana PA
5.2.1 Introduction
People interviewed (NS05/2007) stated that there were no resources left for livestock in the PA therefore they could not map them, nor grazing routes. Therefore no maps have been completed.
In Haile Selassie’s time there was hardly any open grassland – the land was covered by forest and there were few livestock and little growing of enset and some maize. However Haile Selassie saw potential for agriculture in the area and from around 1966 the regime gathered landless people from the northern and central parts of Ethiopia, particularly from Amhara and Shoa, provided them with firearms and a site in the forest and told them to build themselves a settlement and clear and ‘develop’ the forest. Despite conflicts with the landlords of the area (local chiefs and ‘shifta’ as they were called) the settlers cleared the forest and have been living there ever since: the people around Worka (the main town in Nensebo) are almost all settlers. This period was called “Ye limaat zemen” or “Bara limaati” meaning “development camping”. Originally having no livestock a few were introduced but faced challenges of disease and “dangerous forest insects”. Today only a few continue to rear them and livestock is not considered to be a large component of their livelihood system (see Trend Analysis NS6/2007).
44 Figure 5.1 Satellite Imagery suggests a reduction of forest cover by 9% and conversion into agriculture between 2000 and 2006.
Figure 5.2 The amount of grazing land remained the same between 2000 and 2006
45 TREND ANALYSIS Group NS6/2007 – Elders and Youth Male – Solana PA
Hailie Selassie Dergue EPRDF O O O O O O Quantity of open grassland There was hardly any open O O O O O O grassland – the land was covered Forest cleared and changed to Almost all open land taken up by by forest and no livestock grassland and agricultural land for agriculture settlers Quantity of land under O O O O O O O O cultivation Some enset, some maize. O O O O O O O O No commonland at all from the beginning and there is no movement of livestock. Stay at homesteads Access rights to grazing during all periods. O O O O O O O O O O Browse availability O O O O O O O O O Only some cattle – about 3 Cattle, horse, mule, donkey, Cattle, horse, mule, donkey, Types of livestock owned by an individual sheep, goat sheep, goat Income related to livestock: Nominal value 100 cattle 10 cattle 1 cattle Income related to livestock: Actual value 1 cattle 2 cattle 4 cattle O O O O O Fodder collection - - O O O High expenditure especially those Purchase of fodder - - with large numbers of livestock and small landholdings O O O O O O O O O O Food availability from O O O O O O O livestock
Notes: - The people around Werka (the main town in Nensebo) are almost settlers during the Haile Selassie regime. The people in the kebele and adjacent ones arrived in1966 when the Haile Selassie regime gathered landless people from the north and central Ethiopia. The
46 regime provided them with guns and a site in the forest in Nensebo so that they could ‘develop’ the area by clearing the forest. Haile Selassie told them that the period was ‘Ye limaat zemen’ or ‘Bara Limaati’ meaning “development camping” related to the clearing of the forest. They cleared parts of the forest and have been living there since. Originally they had no livestock but later they introduced some, but faced challenges of disease and dangerous forest insects. They do not consider livestock within their livelihood system as only few rear them. - Water is no problem in their locality. Private is what was before and continues now. Only parts of the land that is difficult to access is left uncultivated. - When those settlers from Amhara and other parts of Oromiya region arrived the landlords of the area (local chiefs and ‘shiftas’ as they were called) created problems for them.
47 5.2.2 Socio-Economics of Communities
Total number of households: 154
Table 5.1 Solana PA: Wealth Ranking (Group NS01/2007)
‘Rich’ ‘Medium’ ‘Lower’ ‘Very low’ Olaana Jidugalessa Gadaana Bayee Gadaana 40 quintals coffee 25 quintals coffee per 10 quintals coffee 5 quintals coffee per year year per year per year 1 ha. enset 0.5 ha. enset 0.25 ha. enset 0.125 ha. enset 30 quintals other 20 quintals other 10 quintals other 5 quintals other crops crops crops crops 16 43 63 32 10% 28% 41% 21% Note: - Livestock were not mentioned at all during the wealth ranking. Rather coffee and crops provide the basis of livelihood systems in Solana today.
5.2.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals
Grazing
Today nearly all the open land has been taken up by agriculture and been occupied by fruit trees, enset, coffee and crops: an individual owns an average of 2 ha. on which to grow these. Due to overcrowding this land is intensively cultivated (see Trend Analysis NS6/2007). Any remaining land has been redistributed to the landless by the government. As a result the significance of livestock has decreased and there is little/no movement from the homestead (NS6/2007) and as such no map of grazing routes was drawn. Most if not all of the communal grazing areas have disappeared within the PA and people are reliant on private enclosures or kalo in an attempt to ensure grazing all year round. The few livestock owned by some communities are kept tied up and/or graze only on the owner’s land, where they are fattened for sale in the markets.
However increasingly there is a shortage of grass during the dry season and respondents said that they relied on a mixture of fodder and feed supplements for the livestock, some of which had to be paid for and expenditure can be high especially those with larger numbers of livestock and small landholdings (see Trend Analysis NS6/2007).
Water
Though access to communal water points has been curtailed, it tends to rain most of the year so there is surface water available for most of the time. During the particularly dry months (December to February) there may be some problems.
48
SEASONAL CALENDAR – Group NS6/2007 – Elders and Youth – Solana PA
Bona Afrasa Gana Birra Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jly Aug Sep Oct Nov
Rainfall
Temperature
Availability of pasture
Availability of fodder
Insemination Labour demand in relation to livestock 1. Male 2. Female
Labour demand in relation to non livestock 1. Male 2. Female Income from livestock sale Livestock product availability
Notes: - There is no common land. Land is redistributed by government. One individual owns an average of 2 ha. on which enset, coffee and other crops are cultivated. Only uncultivable land remains for livestock. The significance of livestock now is small. Due to overcrowding of land the available land is intensively cultivated. Further there is no movement from the homestead.
49 - Crop residue (teff) is used as fodder, with banana stems and leaves, and enset (the whole part). In addition residues from local alcohol brewing is also highly used especially for lactating cows and draught animals. - Salt is added to fodder and also buy baji (soda) from Langano. - Afrasa is a good time for insemination. Bulls during this period and have more energy for mating.
50 Minerals
In Solana PA the community has no access to hora – instead they add salt to crop residues to the feed the animals when needed and also add soda (baji) that is purchased from the Rift Valley Lakes (NS6/2007).
5.2.4 Fodder
In Solana PA, Nensebo where mobility is highly restricted and increasingly there is a shortage of grass during the dry season, respondents said that they relied on a mixture of fodder and feed supplements for the livestock. It is only in recent years that they have had to pay for fodder and feed supplements (NS1/2007; NS4/2007; NS6/2007). The expenditure can be high especially for those with large numbers of livestock and small landholdings (see Trend Analysis NS6/2007). These include: - Crop residues (teff); - Banana stems and leaves; - Enset (the root); and - Residues from local alcohol brewing especially for lactating cows and draught animals (i.e. the most valuable livestock) (NS6/2007). See Table 9.9, Section 9.5.
5.2.5 Markets
The use of markets was not mentioned but it is likely that they would be the same as Gerambamo PA described below.
5.3 Gerambamo PA 5.3.1 Introduction
Gerambamo PA is set adjacent to forest. During Haile Selassie’s time the quality and quantity of grass was very high but productive land was under the ownership of the nobilities and feudal landlords where access was granted upon the payment of access feeds. When the Dergue regime took over land was nationalised and designated as common property for the people, and so access to grazing land was open and “100% free” (NG5/2007)
5.3.2 Socio-Economics of Communities Table 5.2 Gerambamo PA: Wealth Ranking (NGR1/2007) Rich Medium Poor Duressa Jidugalessa Hiyessa 50+ cattle 25 cattle 2-5 cattle 50+ sheep 15 sheep 4-5 sheep 20+ horses 3 horses 0-1 horse 1 ha. enset 0.5 ha. enset 0.125 ha. enset 12 46 33 13% 51% 36% Total number of households: 91
51
5.3.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals
Grazing
Today, more than half of Gerambamo PA remains under forest while the remaining is grassland owned ‘privately’ with increased division of previously communal grazing areas into kalo (NG3/2007). Under the EPRDF land has been measured and assigned to the holder with a legal certificate with most grazing land privately enclosed. In 2006 a redistribution of land was initiated and currently ‘marginal’ common land and what were livestock movement corridors are being distributed to the landless/jobless youth in plots of approximately 1 ha. (GR1/2007; GR2/2007; GR3/2007; NGR4/2007; NGR5/2007). There is a small amount of subsistence agriculture.
Though the quality and quantity of grazing remains relatively high in the PA, the ‘privatisation’ of the grazing, plus the additional pressures on it mean that there is now scarcity of both grass and grazing (see Figure 5.1 and 5.2). Soil erosion from livestock and high rainfall has also led to grass degradation. During bona and afrasa the kalo do not provide enough grass for all the livestock owned by an individual (see for example seasonal calendar – NG5/2007). The introduction of donkeys into the PA has been met with suspicion and resistance (see Box 5.1).
Box 5.1: Donkey Dilemma
During a discussion community members recounted how one individual had tried to introduce donkeys into the PA, a valuable pack animal that requires lesser quality grazing. The individual brought a single donkey and had it grazing near his homestead. Not only did the donkey not do well in relation to the local climatic conditions (it was said that its hooves grew abnormally and its physical condition deteriorated) but also it was shunned by other community members. Women and young children who had never seen a donkey before (despite them being found in the neighbouring PA) were afraid to come near it. Even the cattle and shoats ran away from it!
There is no movement of livestock in both wet and dry seasons. The relative dry season for the PA is about 3 months while the remaining 9 months or more are wet (rainy). The people live on livestock rearing/fattening. Those who have relatively large tracts of enclosed land but few livestock rent out their land to the livestock-rich on a seasonal basis (NG5/2007). This has been a traditional practice in Gerambamo for some time.
The numbers of livestock owned by individuals are said to have decreased from 500 livestock in the time of Haile Selassie, to 400 per individual during the Dergue, to 300 today (NG2/2007). These figures would appear to be rather inflated (as compared to the wealth ranking exercise etc.) and indeed another group suggested that rather, the figures should be 200 cattle (as apposed to livestock) during the time of Haile Selassie, 100 per individual during the time of the Dergue and 50 cattle per individual today (see
52 Figure 5.1 Resource Map of Gerambamo PA
53 Figure 5.2 Example of Resource Map of Gerambamo PA
54 SEASONAL CALENDAR – Group NG5/2007 – Elders (and Youth) – Gerambamo PA
Bona Afrasa Gana Birra Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jly Aug Sep Oct Nov
Rainfall
Temperature ooooo ooooo ooooo Grass quality ooo oo ooo oooo oooo oooo ooo ooo oooo ooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Grass quantity ooo oo ooo ooo oo oo ooo ooooo o ooooo ooooo ooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Insemination ooo o o Labour demand in ooooo ooooo relation to livestock 1. o oo Male 2. Female ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Labour demand in ooooo ooooo relation to non ooo ooo livestock 1. Male 2. ooooo Female oo ooooo Income from livestock ooooo ooooo ooooo sale o o oo Income from livestock ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo product sale oo ooo ooooo ooo oo oo ooo ooo oooo ooooo Livestock product ooooo ooooo ooooo availability ooo oo oo oo ooo ooo ooooo ooo oooo o ooooo
55 Notes: - The Elders stated that their livestock do not drink water at all except in the months of December, January and February as a result of high humidity in the area and the grass carries enough water for the other 9 months. This is related to the rainfall pattern. Therefore water for livestock is not an issue in the area. - Horses get pregnant only in the months of March, April, May. - The flowering of grass type called ‘Qunni’ is highly related to the quantity and quality of livestock products produced. This plant (grass type) flowers at the end of the rainy season. - The temperature is relatively high during December, January and February but this is according to PA and should not be taken as high temperature. - There is some rain in all months except December, January and February.
56 Trend Analysis NG5/2007). Those who have excess land for their own livestock rent it out to others (see Box 5.2).
Box 5.2 Renting out of Surplus Land Ato Dorsa Gelgalo Wako stated that as with all members of the PA, his land is enclosed. His land is divided between grazing area and ‘weesi’ (enset) plantation. Having only 2 cattle himself he rents out his grazing/crop land to those who have a larger amount of livestock. He keeps his two cattle with the others in the enclosure. This condition (renting out of grazing land) is usual in the PA. He is paid ETB 25 per head of livestock per year. He uses the dung left from the livestock for fuel and fertiliser, though increasingly it is used for fuel as fuelwood has become scarcer.
On the other hand, those who reside in the forest just graze their livestock locally. There is no ‘private’ land there at the moment being left out of the land redistribution and certification process. Their ‘case’ has not been decided yet but as informants commented “forest land is not just going to be given to anyone”. There is no new movement or settlement in the forest.
Water
In Gerambamo PA there is no problem of water in the area as generally it is wet throughout the year with enough water within the pasture. As reported by elders, livestock do not drink water for 9 months during which time the moisture in the grass is more than enough (NG5/2007).
Minerals
Communities did not mention using hora.
5.3.4 Fodder
In Gerambamo PA there was said to be less need for fodder, though very occasionally crop residues are collected after harvest (GR3/2007). However one respondent explained his use of various feed and fodder for fattening animals (see Box 5.3) and Table9.9, Section9.5.
Box 5.3 Intensive Cattle Rearing
Kefyalew Zewde of Gerambamo PA has a small enclosure. He uses this for fattening weak animals that he purchases and feeds up for three months before selling them. The income he obtains from the sale he uses to support his family. To supplement the grazing in his enclosure he feeds the cattle a by product from the manufacture of the local araki (local beer); together with enset stem, leaves and root; banana stem, leaves and root; crop residue; and hay. Some of these may need to be purchased. The cattle are sold in the market in nearby Wanga Town, and any remaining money will be used to purchase further animals for fattening.
57 TREND ANALYSIS Group NG5/2007 – Elders and Youth Male – Gerambamo PA
Hailie Selassie Dergue EPRDF O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Quantity of open grassland O O O O O O O O O Quantity of land under cultivation - O O O O O O Time taken to access grazing 1 hr due to villagisation slightly area - changing location of village - No right at all to freely graze – Full right to grazing – land was No right at all since there is no Access rights to grazing land belongs to landlords. confiscated from the landlords common land – all have enclosure and given to the people(common) and not allowed to out of them. O O O O O O O O O O Browse availability O O O O O O O O O O No. of livestock owned by individuals (average) 200 cattle 100 cattle 50 cattle Incidence of attacks by wild Minor incidence since all animals Minor incidence since the people Higher incidence since no. of animals of livestock could get what they wanted from can kill wild animals that attacked hyenas increased and not possible the wild their livestock to kill or poision (govt. policy) O O O O O O O O O O Food from livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O Notes: - During Haile Selassie regime the grass quantity and quality was very high but productive land was under the ownership of the nobilities and feudal landlords where you only get access upon payment of fees. When the Dergue came land was nationalised and put under public control. Access was 100% free. Currently there is no common land. Land was measured and given to the holder. Every individual got the amount held by him/her before the redistribution. The redistribution was started in 2006. Currently marginal land and corridors are being distributed to landless youth at approximately 1 ha. each. The redistribution did not include those who reside in the forest areas – they have been left out. - In Gerambamo the people predominantly rear livestock where you can not observe agriculture as such with the exception of enset around their homestead. Those who have large enclosures but few livestock rent out to the rich and get paid. Such a system is accustomed to Gerambamo. The PA is adjacent to the forest, even the town is divided by the road where the other side of the road is the forest boundary.
58
5.3.5 Markets
Livestock is sold in Gerambamo market. Previously they had to travel a much greater distance to Negelle Metema (GR2/2007). One respondent stated that he sells his livestock at Wanga Town market.
59 Chapter 6.0 Delo Mena Woreda
6.1 Introduction
Delo Mena and Harena Buluk woredas have only recently been formed through the division of Mena Angetu woreda. As such much of the literature relates to the latter. Mena Angetu was a predominantly lowland, temperate (63.6 per cent) area with a rich cover of woodland and forest. Over half (56.5 per cent) the woreda was covered by ‘natural vegetation’ followed by pasture (29.34 per cent) and arable land (9.8 per cent) (OSG 2000). The division of the woreda saw around 90,000 hectares of forest demarcated into each of the two woreda. The forest represents an important grazing resource although conflict has been reported with shade-grown coffee producers (Delo Mena Agricultural Development Office).
Livestock production is of central economic importance. Pasture is now reported to represent 18.73 per cent in Delo Mena (Delo Mena and Harena Buluk Agricultural Development Offices undated). However, the same data also shows a reduction in cultivated arable land, which would appear to be incongruous as pasture has also decreased.
According to the two available data sets (2000 and 2007) there has been a marked increase in the livestock holding. As the data from 2000 relates to Mena Angetu, the 2007 figures for Delo Mena and Harena Buluk have been aggregated to offer a comparison. In 2000 the livestock population was reported to be: cattle 145,850; shoats 33,939; equines 5,906; and camels 11,953, which equates to 121,281 TLU (see Appendix 2). By 2007 this had risen to: cattle 161,993; shoats 49,770; equines 14,275; and camels 23,690, which is equal to 151,341 TLU (see Appendix 1). This represents a 25 per cent increase in the overall livestock holding of the area.
The only detailed description of livestock movements date to the mid-1970s (Ayele 1976: 23), which are worth quoting in full:
“…stockowners move with their livestock to Haro Dibe in Gura Domole and forests of Arena during the bona months and during genna and hagaya to Berak situated between Welmal and Dumal Rivers. Stockowners migrate with their animals to look for water and to escape from livestock diseases which occur in the dry season. The furthest points stockowners go from the forests of Arena are as far as Sigoba, Wereba and Hanta. All of these areas are north of Hermecha in Berak. Stockowners from Berak do not come to the forests of Arena because it is too cold for livestock. Of the stockowners surveyed, 73.3% (11 stockowners) have migrated to grazing areas during bona and genna seasons.”
Ayele (ibid) also describes a system of herd splitting, which is employed by stockowners with large herds who need to search for grazing land and earth salt (haya): “The type of cattle that go to fora include steers, dry cows, immature and mature bulls. Werra livestock
60 consists of milking cows, and at least one bull that goes with the herd. Fora cattle and camels go to Ida, Soma, and Sole (Genale), Golol, Bilal, Borena, Jirmu (Welmal), Oda (Oborso) and Dumal River in the dry [season] and to Gura Dumal Woreda, and Welabu in the rainy season.” According to a recent seasonal calendar produced by Girma Ayele (FARM Development Facilitator for Delo Mena) ‘lowland grazing’ occurs in May and June while ‘forest grazing’ takes place between December and February although no further details are given.
6.2 Erba PA
6.2.1 Introduction
Erba PA is set next to the forest areas. As a result many of the community rely on growing of wild coffee as a main part of their livelihoods. Erba PA has few grazing resources left in the PA and for most of the year livestock is taken elsewhere.
6.2.2 Socio-Economics of Communities
Table 6.1 Erba PA: Wealth Ranking
Medium - Jidugalessa Rich - Duressa Poor - Hiyeesaa Destitute - Dhaba 100+ Quintals coffee 30-50 Quintals coffee 1-3 Quintals coffee per 1 Quintal coffee per per year per year year year 30+ cattle 15-20 cattle - - 2+ mules 1 mule - - 2+ donkeys 1 donkey - - 50 – 100 goats 10-20 goats 1-4 goats 2 goats 10-20 chickens 10-15 chickens 5-10 chickens 1-5 chickens 10-20 beehives 5-10 beehives 1-5 beehives - 55+ Quintals crops 10-25 Quintals crops 6 Quintals crops 2 Quintals crops 11 67 211 - 4% 23% 73% 0
Total number of households: 547
Note: - Destitute households were not included in the PA’s household tax list as they are landless and therefore have not been included in the wealth ranking. - The total number of households in the kebele are 547, however this ranking used only 289 households (roughly half) based on random sampling method.
6.2.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals
Grazing
In Erba PA, Delo Mena livestock tends to be grazed for most of the year outside the PA. Once a year herders must travel up to 20 hours to take the livestock to wet
61 season grazing. This is in contrast to the old days described as the following by one group: During the old days there was not much movement in search of grass since the forest coverage as well as the natural resources was healthy, but now there is accelerating degradation in pasture land and forest resources (DMER4/2007).
Further it was said that the weather condition is highly changed and they are experiencing recurrent droughts. Access rights were poor during Haile Selassie, improved during the Dergue but now it is difficult to access free grazing. During Haile Selassie there was no shortage of pastureland and therefore individuals had over 100 cattle per head. But now due to high population increase and crowding of pastures, the possession of cattle per individual is very low compared to the past (see below Trend Analysis DMER4/2007).
At the beginning of the wet season livestock is taken to areas in the lowlands between 9-20 hours trek away. The herders will then stay in these areas for the period passing through the long rains (March – May and beyond – see Seasonal Calendar DMER2/2007). Some may move back to the PA to graze there for the Adolesa or cold dry season (see Figure 6.1). All of these are found outside the PA and include: - Odo Bilawa (Haya Odo PA) – found in Berak PA is critical wet season grazing, takes one day to reach from Erba PA; can be short of water but rich grazing (DMER02/2007; ER01/2007; ER02/2007; ERObs1/2007; ERObs2/2007; ERObs3/2007; ER01/2008;). To get there travel through Haya Oda and will stop to graze there on the way. An alternative route is through Gogee and Hermecha (ER03/2007). - Haya Oda (ER04/2007; ERObs2/2007;) - Basaqu/Basakuu (Deyu PA) (DMER02/2007; ER02/2007; ER01/2008); - Hunduko (Haya Oda PA) – critical wet season grazing found in Haya Odo PA – takes one day to reach; can be short of water but rich grazing (DMER02/2007; ERObs1/2007; ER01/2008); and - Qute (Haya Oda PA) – however increased settlement there so makes grazing difficult now (ER01/2008). - Ciire (Haya Oda PA) (ER01/2008). - Sadeta (Berak PA) (ER01/2008). - Libe (Berak PA) (ER01/2008) - Waqdabar (Berak PA) (ER01/2008) - Hora Gobana (Berak PA) (ER01/2008) - Hora Qarsa (Berak PA) (ER01/2008) - Dhogicha (Berak PA) (ER01/2008) - Hagala Sire (Berak PA) (ER01/2008) - Barfata (Berak PA) (ER01/2008) - Qeransa (Berak PA) (ER01/2008) - Dima Sole (Berak PA) (ER01/2008) - Gogowe (Nanega Dheera PA) (ER01/2008) - Hurufa (Nanega Dheera PA) (ER01/2008)
62
The main reasons for this move is that there tends to be cultivation across the PA during this time making grazing difficult, plus there is increased incidence of disease due to the dampness and cold. Further wet season grazing gives high milk production and is preferred by the cattle (ERObs4/2007). The herders will stay in these areas for up 4 months twice per year (ER01/2001; DMER02/2007; ER02/2007). After late Adolesa (July to August) all will return back to the clusters/villages to browse crop residue and some reserved kalo.
To escape the sun/heat herders will move to dry season grazing sites (ERObs4/2007) for between 3-6 months – these are mainly woodland areas. For the dry season herders will take the livestock to one of several favourite sites including: - Arda Jaldessa/Aalge (forest area) (DMER02/2007; ERObs1/2007; ERObs4/2007); - Qarssa Kurkuru (considered by some to be the best dry season grazing) (DMER02/2007; ER01/2008); - Qarssa Harre (good quality)(ERObs4/2007) (GPS: 37 N0594229/UTM0716607); - Qarssa Hidi (ER01/2008). - Gargara (ER01/2008). - Xilo (ER01/2008) - Chafa Dheera (ER01/2008) - Dara’oo/Daro (DMER02/2007; ERObs3/2007; ER01/2008) - Gora Qalo (ER01/2008) - Tarba Raafu (ER01/2008) - Dala Baru (ER01/2008) - O’Etu (ER01/2008) - Awajiro/Jirru (forest area in southern part of BMNP) (ER01/2007; ER02/2007; ERObs1/2007; ERObs2/2007; ERObs3/2007; ERObs4/2007; ER03/2007;) - Boyi Elema Arda tarre (45 minutes from Dirra, bordering Haya Oda PA) (ERObs1/2007), some restriction due to avocado farm. - Lemman (but steep and difficult to access) (ER01/2007) - Qanqicho (good quality, good quantity) (ERObs3/2007) (ER01/2008); - Sisa (ER01/2008). - Sabichu (ER01/2008). - Wadesa (good quality, good quantity, protection from sun) (forest area, increasingly seeing commercial plantations restricting access) (ERObs3/2007; ERObs4/2007); - Erba Goga (onward from Wadesa) (ERObs4/2007); - Abuubb/Habubi (onward from Wadesa and Erba Goga) (ERObs4/2007; ER01/2008) (approx. 4 hours from Erba PA) - Borte (forest area) (ERObs3/2007; ERObs4/2007; ER01/2008); - Melka Qarsa (ERObs2/2007; ERObs3/2007) - Adami (poor grazing but close to home – Erba PA) (ERObs3/2007; ER01/2008); - Qundhii (less preferred due to parasite called ulaanul) (ERObs4/2007); - Arda Jaldesa (ER01/2008).
Dry season grazing is limited due to the steep terrain of the area.
63 Figure 6.1 Example of Grazing Routes in Erba PA (ER04/2007)
64 Figure 6.2 Grazing Map drawn by Erba Women’s Group
65 TREND ANALYSIS: Group DMER4/2007
Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF O O O O O Quantity of open grassland O O O O O
Quantity of land under crops O O O O O O O O O O Time taken to access grazing in wet season O O O O O O O O O O Time taken to access grazing in dry season O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Quantity of browse available O O O O O Controls over access rights to O O O O O grazing O O No controls over access rights O O O O O O O O Type of livestock kept O O O O O Quantity of livestock owned O O O O O by individual O O O O O Quantity of livestock in the O O O O O woreda O O O O O Number of conflicts with wild animals for grazing O O O O O O O O O O Number of conflicts with wild O O O O O animals that kill livestock O O O O O Time needed for accessing O O O O O water for livestock O O O O O Time needed for accessing O O O O O mineral springs O O O O O Changes in income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O
66 Changes in food from O O O O O O O O O O livestock Changes in time needed to O O O O O collect fodder - O O O O O
Disease prevalence O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Temperature increased O O O O O
Notes: - The group said that during Haile Selassie’s time there was no problem of grazing land. The number of livestock as well as that of the population was low compared to current times. Then pasture was abundant. - During the old days there was not much movement in search of grass since the forest coverage as well as the natural resources was healthy, but now there is accelerating degradation in pasture land and forest resources. - In addition the weather condition is highly changed and they are experiencing recurrent droughts. - Access rights were poor during Haile Selassie, improved during the Dergue but now it is difficult to access free grazing. During Haile Selassie there was no shortage of pastureland and therefore individuals had over 100 cattle per head. But now due to high population increase and crowding of pastures, the possession of cattle per individual is very low compared to the past. - Although the number of wild animals was high during Haile Selassie the conflicts with livestock were low since there was enough pastureland for all and no need to move with livestock. Now due to shortage of grazing land conflicts with wild animals has increased. Previously in the area people had weapons and were praised for killing animals such as lions but not now. It is impossible to kill them. In addition the community doesn’t own weapons. Therefore the incidence of livestock killed by wild animals is on the rise. - Access to water for livestock has improved as a result of wells and ponds developed by the government. - We use livestock and its products as before. Livestock management was much less during Haile Selassie’s time and has increased now. - Although individuals possessed high numbers of livestock in the past, in monetary terms it was low. For example a bull would be sold for ETB60. Today bulls can be sold for ETB3000. Price wise, livestock are sold at a good price now. - It was easy to find browse in the past, but it is difficult now. There are a number of browse species that have disappeared which used to be eaten by the livestock. These include rermoo, jajatta, luchee etc.
67 SEASONAL CALENDAR: Group DMER2/2007 – Males – Erba PA
Hagayya – Spring Bona - Winter Gana - Summer Adolessa - Autumn Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jly Aug
Rainfall
Temperature
Wind
Quantity of water
Quantity of fodder
Fodder collection Insemination Mating period
Lambing and Calving High income from livestock Quantity of animal products Livestock related Labour demand – m Livestock related Labour demand – f Livestock related
68 Labour demand – c
Land preparation
Sowing
Weeding
Harvesting
Beekeeping activities
Livestock disease
Notes: - During the windy months/season different diseases occur in the livestock; water points are polluted; and both livestock and human find it very uncomfortable. - Insemination/mating occurs when livestock drink mineral water during dry season grazing in the forest. - Males are needed to take cattle to find grazing when there is severe shortage locally, and to protect livestock against attacks from wild animals. - The burden is high on the women and children when the livestock stay around the home or before they move to distant grazing areas. - Mostly men collect fodder during dry season. - Different diseases include gorba, aba sanga, dhahicha, qirixi buss and dhukuba alatti Local coping mechanisms for above mentioned diseases include: - Burying the livestock that die - Burn the dead animals - Surrender/leave the area immediately
69 Other sites that were mentioned though it was not clear whether wet or dry season grazing: - Denda (dry?) (ERObs2/2007) (Preferred grazing) - Ada Huka (dry?) (ERObs2/2007) - Helgol Quoji (dry?) ERObs2/2007)
Box 6.1 Seasonal Movements Sustained
Kedir Bonaya Jilo has 30 cattle, 10 goats, 1 mule and 1 donkey. At the beginning of the dry season he takes all the livestock to Awajiro – a woodland grazing area in southern part of BMNP – for 3 months to escape the heat. Permission to graze here is given by the PA and Kedir is held responsible for whatever happens as a result of the movement. They will then move onto Berak and Bilama grazing sites for 1-2 months. The movement takes them from Erba – Gogee – Hermicha – Berak. One of his wives will accompany him with his children, the other remains in Delo Mena Town where she lives.
There is no need to take the goats to the forest area as there is enough browse in the woodlands. However most people graze cattle and goats together and for the sake of the cattle and need for grass, people will take the goats to the forest.
Herders tend to have a base in the forest in a cluster and move from there (45 minutes, 3 hours) (ERobs1/2007; ERobs2/2007;) They will stay here for 2-3 months before once again returning back to their villages for ‘spring’ (gurrandhal).
Box 6.2 Case Study1/ErbaPA: Joining a Herder with Goats from Dirra Cluster, Erba PA
Dirra is one of the Erba cluster situated in the East and borders Haya Oda PA. The cluster is characterised by woodland of scattered combrutum (rukessa) dominated trees with thorn bushes. Most of the residents have goats and cattle with small crop production (mainly maize, sorghum and teff). The journey started at 10am in the morning from Ade Fatume sh/Tahir resident with her flock of 40 goats, taken to grazing by her child nine year old Husen. The journey took 45 minutes to reach Boyi Elema tarre (grazing place). Here there were four different flocks of goats numbering 13, 24, 35 and 9, browsing separately and looked after by boys aged between 9 and 13. The herders described how they use Boyi Elema tarre, Arda Alge and Jirru most of the time for bona (December to February), because of their proximity to Dirra villages. However during the rainy season (hagaya and ganna) they take their flocks to the lowland areas outside their kebele, particularly Odo Bilawa and Hunduko, due to crop cultivation and disease incidence due to dampness and cold. After late adolesa (July to August all return back to Dirra to browse crop residue and some reserved kalo.
70
Box 6.3 Case Study2/ErbaPA: Joining a Herder with Cattle from Erba PA
[GPS reading at start: 37N 0596523/UTM 0714250 Elevation: 1325m ] 72 heads of cattle were taken by 2 boys aged 12 and 13, and the cattle owner – Obo Kadir Bonaya. Leaving at 8.45am, the journey took 5 hours to reach the best grazing and watering areas (i.e. Qarsa Harre). The cattle moved by grazing under unique forest with wild coffee trees and some mixed broad leaves. The quality and quantity of the grass/browse became better and better as one went deeper into the forest. Along the route one fora camp locally called ‘urane’ was observed near the Tatessa cluster however the researcher could not find anyone there, only new born calves tied under the shade of big tree and nearby 20 heads of cattle. At 1.40pm the cattle drunk water at Barcuma River close to Qarsa Harre and then moved slowly intensively grazing. [The GPS reading here was: 37 N0594229/UTM0716607]
As Obo Kadir and herders confirmed if the existing grass is finished from this particular area, there will be two options. The first option is to change direction of grazing to Wadessa, Qundhii, Erba Goga and Abuubbi – the same distance as Qarsa Harree and the second and last option is to move and camp with the cattle in the forest areas of Awajiro, Arda Jaldessa and Borte.
It is said that it is mainly the youth (aged between 8 - 14) that take the livestock to different grazing sites (ER02/2007; ERObs3/2007). Herders tend to move in groups following their neighbour or relative, in order to share potential risks and problems. Both livestock and herders prefer those sites closer to home (ERObs4/2007)
Respondents commented that access to all these grazing areas was open to everyone (DMER02/2007) excluding access to plantation areas (avocado, mango, banana, coffee) in parts of Abbubbi and Wadessa (ERObs4/2007). However others suggested that when wanting to graze in the forest areas they must inform and get permission from the kebele/PA administration. The PA encourages some control over the temporary settlements that take place in the forest during grazing periods by encouraging clusters (urane or godantu) of the shelters. It is also seen to minimise risks of damage to the forest and resources (fire, cutting, illegal hunting etc.). The grazers are expected to be responsible for the area where they settle with their livestock.
Minerals
In Erba PA some respondents said that minerals were only needed in the dry season. Others said that they visited hora every 2 months (DM03/2007). However others not only used the mineral springs in bona but also visited the mineral soil areas in the wet season. The following are visited.
Dry season: - Hora Egana mineral area which is found between Wabero and Burqitu PAs (DMER02/2007);
71 - Hora Awajiro (ER01/2007); - Hora Aba Warra (DM03/2007);
When visiting the mineral springs the herders will stay for one week with the livestock (ER02/2007).
Wet season: - Haya Qereenssaa (DMER02/2007; ER01/2007); - Haya Adaaddoo (ER01/2007); - Haya Gurratti (ER01/2007);
Water
Access to water for livestock has improved as a result of wells and ponds developed by the government (DMER4/2007).
During the dry season (bona) and adolesa use the following for water: - Erba Qala River (DMER02/2007; ER04/2007); - Erba Guda River (DMER02/2007; ER04/2007); - Denda River (DMER02/2007); - Irba Tuma River (ER01/2007); - O’tu River (ER04/2007); - Barcuma River (ERObs4/2007); - Hangeso, Micha and Dima – found on the upper mountain and good during bona (DM03/2007.
During the wet season use the following for water: - Dayu/Deyyu River (DMER02/2007; ER01/2007); - Yadoti River (DMER02/2007) (though said to have many irrigated farms restricting access) (ER04/2007); - Gannna River (ER01/2007); - Awajiro River (ER01/2007); - Tagona found on the lower mountain (not cold during the rainy season) (DM03/2007); - Haya Sayida (DMER02/2007); - Haya Qereensaa (DMER02/2007; ER01/2007); - Haya Adaaddoo (ER01/2007); - Haya Gurratti (ER01/2007);
Only short periods of time are spent at the rivers.
6.2.4 Fodder
In Erba PA, Delo Mena, fodder was only fed to calves staying around the homestead whilst the cattle were out grazing. Here women collected on average one to two backloads of fodder per day when needed. It was stated that there was no need to get
72 permission to collect fodder as everybody only collected the leaves and there was no need to cut the branches/trees. Alternatively one respondent said that they only collect the branches and not the trunk/root (ER01/2007; ER02/2007; ER03/2007). A wide range of natural vegetation is collected – see Table 9.9, Section 9.5.
It was said that fodder itself particularly that collected from natural sources, is becoming scarcer. As one respondent from Erba PA said: It was easy to find browse in the past, but it is difficult now. There are a number of browse species that have disappeared which used to be eaten by the livestock. These include rermoo, jajatta, luchee etc (DMER4/2007).
6.2.5 Markets
Livestock owners from Erba PA use the following markets: - Harodumal (47 kms away) - Mana (7 kms away) for livestock products which is held every two days in a week, though one respondent in Erba PA commented that “there is no culture to take milk to market, only eggs” (ER02/2007).
6.3 Berak PA
6.3.1 Introduction
As with all PAs, the quantity of grassland has reduced over time. In Berak this is due to the increased level of crop production in the PA, which in the time of Haile Selassie was minimal if not non-existent (DMB1/2007; DMB3/2007). Until recently the livestock was allowed to graze around the homestead openly as grass was plentiful, however now it takes up to 1 hour in the wet season and 3 hours in the dry season to access grazing. Further the resources in the PA are under pressure from visiting groups, as Berak is a critical wet season grazing area for livestock in many of the neighbouring PAs. The quantity of browse has also reduced and the use of fodder has increased. As a result of reduced grazing, people have invested in more camels and the number of livestock owned by an individual has reduced (see attached Trend Analysis DMB1/2007). It was also suggested that there has been an increased shortage of rain in recent years (DMB3/2007).
Recently there has been a conflict between grazers and the local government. Last year the local government tried to give ‘open land’ or ’underutilized land’ within the PA to investors for large scale agriculture including biofuel production (see Box 6.4). However this ‘open land’ was in fact prime wet season grazing areas and several pastoralists tried to resist the move by clashing with officers. The issue was taken to the court and those local people involved in claiming their land were imprisoned for acting against government interests. The issue is still not settled.
73 TREND ANALYSIS: Group DMB1/2007 – Women – Berak PA
Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF Quantity of open grassland available for grazing O O O O O O O O O O
Quantity of land under crop - - O O O production
Time to access grazing in wet season No time No time 1 hour
Time to access grazing in dry season 1 hour 1 hour 3 hours
Quantity of browse available - - - O O O O O O O O O O - Access rights for grazing O O O O O O O O O O No access rights due to crop Full access rights Full access rights expansion
Type of livestock kept More cattle and few camels Increase in no. of camels Same no. with camels
Quantity of livestock owned by 100 50 5 individual Number of conflicts with wild animals that attack livestock O O O O O O O O O Time needed for accessing water for livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Changes in income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O (Low value of money) O O O O O Changes in time to collect fodder O O O O O O O O O O
74
Box 6.4 Biofuels
Biofuels are fuels derived from biomass. This can include corn, rapeseed or firewood or such as cow manure. The energy comes from the stored solar energy in plants. Contrary to fossil fuels, biofuels are renewable. Crops for the production of biofuels can be grown on land which can at least in theory, be used indefinitely. Apart from being renewable, biofuels are potentially carbon-neutral meaning during their life they have absorbed the same amount of CO2 as will be released by the plant when burnt as biofuel. However in practice production and transport of most biofuels requires energy, reducing efficiency and often causing CO2 emission. The most important examples are bioethanol, biodiesel, pure oil, and biogas.
Biofuels are increasingly being grown in developing countries where land and labour is cheap. A favourite crop is Jatropha curcas. The oil can be extracted from its seed and used as straight vegetable oil or converted into biodiesel. Jatropha is a perennial drought resistant shrub originally from Latin America. It is best adapted to temperatures around 20-28˚C but also grows under lower temperatures and can even withstand light frost. It is well adapted to growing on nutrient poor or ‘low potential’ soils. It grows relatively quickly and can produce fruits after 2-5 years. Fruit yields vary from 200g to 9kg of seeds harvested per shrub: available nutrients and water will affect yield. The fruits are toxic to man and livestock (Asselbergs et al 2006).
Increasingly land is being provided to investors to grow biofuels in Ethiopia. This land is supposedly ‘wasteland’ or ‘vacant’ land. However questions can be raised as to whether such land is really ‘wasteland’ or ‘vacant’ or rather it is indeed being used by small livestock keepers and/or pastoralists, marginal farmers or landless people. Further though some locals may employed on the farms, the benefits for local communities are minimal.
Examples of community-based projects growing Jatropha can be found in Asselbergs et al 2006.
6.3.2 Socio-Economics of Communities
Total number of households: 560 Table 6.2 Berak PA: Wealth Ranking
Rich ‘Duressa’ Medium ‘Wayyoo Gabessa’ Poor ‘Deegaa’ 40+ Camel 10 – 30 Camel - 30+ Cattle 20-25 Cattle 3 Cattle 50+ Goat 25-45 Goat 15 Goat 1 Mule - - 3-5 Donkey 2-3 - 24 287 249 4% 51% 45%
75 Note: Though the ranking states that the rich own 30+ cattle, herds of 100 cattle were disclosed by some individuals in interviews (BE3/2007).
6.3.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals
Grazing
The wet season grazing in Berak PA tends to be good and during the wet season – hagaya (2-3 months) and ganna (2-3 months) community members said that they stayed around their settlements (BE2/2007) for at least 3 months of the year (BE3/2007) and/or up to 9 months (DMBE3/2007; see Seasonal Calendar below DMB2/2007). Further many visitors will come to graze from the neighbouring PAs (see above) however routes through the PA are becoming more difficult due to agriculture. Other wet season grazing areas mentioned include: - Balade (BE1/2007; BE4/2007; DMBE2/2007) - Hallo Laku (DMBE2/2007) - Hora Gobana (BE1/2007) - Waf-Dabar (BE1/2007) - Hara Feransa (BE1/2007) - Nurwalo (BE1/2007) - Garo Fallo (BE1/2007) - Sodeta/Sadetta (mineral spring?) (BE3/2007; BE4/2007; DMBE2/2007) through to - Bite Wagdabari (BE3/2007; DMBE2/2007)(though there is a problem here and in Sodeta due to hyena attack and prevalence of diseases (kirite, awara, abba sanga, joge) - Jage (BE4/2007) - Dimasale (BE4/2007) - Barfatee (livestock wells) (DMBE1/2007) - Hamayaa (DMBE1/2007) Also the following used to be used by the Berak community, but no longer as they are reserved for other communities and also within the National Park boundaries: - Hora Sora (mineral spring) (however reserved for Mena and Barbare communities) (BE3/2007) - Qerensa (meaning ‘leopard’) (however reserved for Mena and Barbare communities) (BE3/2007) - Hora Sogida (however reserved for Mena and Barbare communities) (BE3/2007) - Hode (however reserved for Medda Walabu community) (BE3/2007) - Hora Manebo (however reserved for Medda Walabu community) (BE3/2007)
76 Figure 6.3 Grazing Map Example from Berak PA (DMBE2/2007)
77 Figure 6.4 Resource Map Example from Berak PA Showing Different Ponds and Mineral Licks (DMBE3/2007)
78 SEASONAL CALENDAR: Group DMB2/2007 – Youth – Berak PA
Ganna Adolessa Hagayaa Bona Mar April May June July August Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb ooooo ooooo Rainfall ooooo o oooo ooooo oooo ooo High weather ooooo ooooo ooooo condition oo o oo ooooo oo oo o ooooo ooooo High wind ooooo ooooo ooo ooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Water supply ooo ooooo ooooo oo ooooo oo
Fodder collection ooooo High quality ooooo ooooo ooooo grass/pasture ooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooo oo ooo ooooo ooo oo Need to ooooo ooooo ooooo supplement ooooo ooo ooooo oooo ooo ooooo oooo minerals ooooo ooooo Breeding ooooo ooooo oo ooooo Calving ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Men [labour ooooo ooooo ooooo ooo ooooo ooooo related livestock] ooooo ooooo ooooo Women/children ooo ooooo oo ooooo ooo ooooo Income related ooooo ooooo with livestock ooooo ooo Labour related ooooo ooooo with non ooo ooooo livestock
79 ooooo ooooo Disease incidence ooooo ooooo ooooo
Notes: - During adolessa and bona they migrate with the livestock to water areas (Welmar River) - In hexoo there is a high fodder collection. Due to shortage of pasture livestock lose their ability/strength to go to the rivers so they have to go and collect water and give near the household. - Types of fodder collected include odda (tree), galee (climber), grass. - For minerals they go to the hayyaa. When livestock feed here they become fat and milk increases. - In Soma animals contract the diseases: biraa, jongii, tumea and in Haji and Maulidi3 they contract: aware and qirixi busii.
80 Table 6.3 Wet season grazing areas (as mentioned by camel/cattle grazer BE1/2007)
Hora Hara Balade Gobana Waq-dabar Feransa Nurwalo Garo Fallo Good O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O quality O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Good O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O quantity O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Close to O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O home O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O No control O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O over O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O access Preferred by O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
TOTAL 49 32 45 39 50 43
For the dry season (bona and adolessa) the following were mentioned: - Temporary settlement (camp) on banks of Welmal River (BE2/2007; BE3/2007; BE4/2007) e.g. around Arar (DMBE1/2007), and towards its source (DMBE2/2007) however there can be a problem due to wild animal attack, starvation due to insufficient grazing (BE2/2007; DMBE1/2007), and accidents where cattle fall off steep slopes into valleys (DMBE1/2007); - Can move further to Hora Koree (Mada Walbuu) (DMBE1/2007); - Jage (mineral spring?) (BE1/2007) (listed as wet season grazing for BE4/2007) - Libe (BE1/2007) - Barfatu (BE1/2007) Also the following however there can be a shortage of water here: - Dima (BE3/2007) (same as Dimasale? BE4/2007) - Sole (BE3/2007) - Gorro Zallo (BE3/2007) - Haragissa (BE3/2007)
Though Berak PA does have reasonable dry season grazing, he prefers Welmal because: 1. Water availability for livestock 2. To reduce risk of anthrax which is high in Berak during dry season said to be caused when livestock eat the dead bones of the tortoise, of which there are many in Berak PA. All dry season grazing areas in the PA are woodland (BE4/2007).
Community members said that they would normally burn the grass in the dry season in the PA to encourage regrowth, but this is not allowed anymore (DMBE1/2007).
81 Table 6.4: Dry season grazing areas (as mentioned by camel/cattle herder BE1/2007)
Jage Libe Barfata Good quality grazing O O O O O O O O O O Good quantity grazing O O O O O O O O O O
Close to home O O O O O O O O O O No control over O O O O O access O O O O O Critical dry season grazing O O O O O O O O O O
TOTAL 19 16 15 Note: The camels graze in interesting woodand with plenty of grasses and different browse species. The grazing area is not far from the village. The only challenge observed was shortage of water. As the respondent indicated it takes 6 hours (single journey) to get water (Wemal River). It was observed that the browse leaves were very dry, though the camel’s condition was very good.
Water
It was said that access to water for livestock has decreased (DMB3/2007). During the wet season there are a number of water sources, and the PA itself is surrounded by three rivers: the Welmal, the Dumal, and the Deyu. Also there are a number of ponds and springs in the area (see resource map DMBE3/2007 above).
Other wet season water sources for livestock: - Hora Guratti (Guratti Spring/Well) (BE2/2007) - Qabaa Dima (BE2/2007) same as Dimasale? (BE4/2007) - Qabaaa Kadir (BE2/2007) - Kokessa (BE2/2007) - Dimituu (wet season ponds in PA) (DMBE1/2007) - Jage (water well) (BE4/2007) - Balade (BE4/2007) - Sadetta (BE4/2007) - Dumal River but not convenient because surrounded by gorse (?) bushes (BE4/2007)
Accessing water in the dry season can be challenging and most will travel up to 6 hours each way to access the River Welmal (BE1/2007). Dry season water sources mentioned include: - Welmal River (BE1/2007; BE2/2007; BE3/2007) - Haya Dima (mineral licks?) (BE2/2007)
82 - Bururii (dry season ponds) )DMBE1/2007 By the end of the dry season the cattle can be too weak to go to the rivers for water and so it can be collected and given to the livestock near the homestead. As no/little grass is available at this time it is necessary to also collect fodder (DMBE2/2007).
Minerals
Mineral springs found within in the PA used include: - Hora Sodeta (BE3/2007; BE4/2007) - Jage Hora (BE3/2007; BE4/2007)
During the dry season herders will use mineral licks instead. Not only are the animals taken to feed directly from the soil but also the soil is mixed with water and given to the animals (BE4/2007). There are 8 mineral licks in the PA (see Map DMBE3/2007 above).
6.3.4 Fodder
By the end of the dry season in Berak PA it is said that the cattle are too weak to walk to the rivers so water and fodder will have to be collected for them (DMBE2/2007). A range of natural vegetation that is collected as fodder was mentioned by respondents (see Table 9.9, Section 9.5).
6.3.5 Markets
Markets used by members of the PA include: - Delo Mena – will usually go there from their PA (DMBE1/2007) - Didre (in Meda Welabu District) – most of the time they go here when they are visiting the Welmal River (DMBE1/2007) They have been going to these markets for some time and there have been no changes (DMBE1/2007).
83 Chapter 7.0 Harena Buluk Woreda
7.1 Background
As described in Chapter 6 Harena Buluk woreda has only recently been formed through the division of Mena Angetu. Livestock is an important component of livelihoods systems, utilising the 90,000 hectares of forest areas found in the woreda. In Harena Buluk it was reported that 75 per cent of the population undertook both crop production and cattle rearing, 12 per cent grew only crops and 8 per cent keep only livestock. Pasture is reported to be 11.5 per cent in Harena Buluk (Delo Mena and Harena Buluk Agricultural Development Offices undated).
Further background information on Mena Angetu has been provided in Chapter 6 – as until recently Harena Buluk was part of the woreda, the information is also relevant here.
7.2 Sodu Welmal PA
7.2.1 Introduction
Sodu Welmal lies to the south of the BMNP. It is an area that has experienced much political tension. The respondents talked about the civil war that had taken place in the area between 1962-1969 called Dhombira (Wero Wifa). During this time the ‘shifta’ led by Wako Guto refused to give his land to the hebasha administration (Haile Selassie). A period followed called Janadde (1970-1973). During both of these periods respondents stated that there was no government administration at this time, and it proved to be a time of tension, cruelty and starvation for the pastoralist communities. The current period was described by the community as Yadig meaning ‘freedom of the youth’, illustrated by a cigarette packet – “they can smoke as they feel like” (see Trend Analysis HBSW1/2007).
During Haile Selassie’s time the major livelihood of the area was honey and pastoralism. Agriculture was hardly practised and whoever cultivated was called ‘fatfultu’ (meaning someone who brings bad luck) so not socially acceptable. There was said to be a low human population at gomoji (lowland dry areas) and in the forest areas. Grass and open grazing land was abundant, there was high livestock production and high honey production. To access grazing during godantu a tax of ETB4 per year was required from each household irrespective of the number of livestock. After payment one could settle anywhere.
During the Dergue the area began to experience drought, population increased (though not unusually), agriculture started and honey production began to decline. The kebele structure was introduced and sometimes communities were asked to settle according to their PA (HBSW2/2007).
84 TREND ANALYSIS Group HBSW1/2007 Women – Sodu Welmer PA Dhombira Janadde Dergue Yadig (Wera Waqo) 1970-1973 1974-1990 EPRDF 1962-1969 1991 onwards Quantity of The land used for grazing includes forest grassland O O O O O O O O O O O area, woodland & open grasslands Quantity of land O O O O O Farm expansion greatly increased after under cropland O O O O O O 20 years due to population increase Time taken to O O O O O In wet season the max distance taken to access grazing - - O O O O O access grazing is 2-3 hrs by EPRDF (wet season) Time taken to O O O O O access grazing (dry O O O O O season) Quantity of The browse quantity and quality has browse available O O O O O O O O O O O very much reduced by EPRDF for grazing Security of access No land for grazing due to farm rights to grazing O O O O O O O O O O O - expansion and villigisation in EPRDF Types of livestock Before Dergue people mainly had cattle kept O O O O O O O O O O O however production of goats, sheep, camel & equines is more common. Quantity of One who has 10 heads of cattle is now livestock owned by O O O O O O O O O O O ‘rich’ but before Dergue he was individual considered ‘poor’ No. of conflicts There were high conflicts/attacks with with wild animals O O O O O O O O O O O wild animals but currently it can be said that kill/attack no wild animals at all (migrated from the livestock area) Time needed for Water is not a problem but water and accessing water for O O O O O O O O O O O pasture needed at the same time. livestock Time needed for O O O O O Some hora have diminished volume due
85 accessing hora O O O O O O O to increase no. of livestock. Income from “People used to rely on livestock O O O O O O O O O O O livestock/products before Dergue but now it is unbelievable the reverse” Time taken to O O O O O collect fodder O O O O O O It takes 3 hours to collect the fodder now No vaccination/treatments during Disease O O O O O O O O O O Dhombira & Janadde occurrence Notes: The participants/women had good knowledge of past events.
- Dhombira was the time of Waqo Gutu or Wera Waqo Gutu or civil war. It was estimated that this continued for seven years between Haile Selassie or hebasha and the ‘shifta’ led by Wako Guto who refused to give his land to hebasha administration. - Janadde was the period between Dhombira and Dergue or the transitional period from Haile Selassie and Dergue (for four years). - There was no real administration (government) in times of Dhombira and Janadde in this area (beyond the Bale mountain). It was a time of tension for the pastoralist communities as they were living without government administration. The group identified the periods by different objects with meanings:
Period Symbol Meaning
Dhombira Old burnt tree stump Time of war and tension
Janadde Stone Time of cruelty, starvation Relatively better administration but with Dergue Iron sheet with different colours some tension “war”. Attempts to send children to war from “berawii”. Freedom of youth – smoke as they feel Yadig (EPRDF) Cigarette packet like.
86 TREND ANALYSIS Group HBSW2/2007 Male Elders – Sodu Welmal PA
Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF The major livelihood of area was honey Status decreased: High population, due to: Quantity of open and pastoralism. - drought - Resettlement from grassland Agriculture was hardly practised and - agriculture started Haraghe whoever cultivated was called ‘fatfaltu’ so - honey production still OK - Population increase not socially acceptable. but trend indicated - Drought Low human pop. at Gomoji & in wood reduction - Intensive agriculture Grass and open grazing land abundant. - Population increased but High livestock production. not unusual (normal pop. High honey production. growth) Quantity of grassland O O O O O O O O O O O O O - Quantity of land under Cereals were not eaten – only milk, meat O O O O O crop cultivation and honey. - O O O O O O O O O O 5 hrs – taken early in the morning due to 9 hrs – agriculture started to have 15 hrs – due to shortage of Time taken to access weather impact grazing land & need to stay until grazing in dry season O O O O O 9pm O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 3 hrs – just take to grazing site and no 6 hrs – distance to pasture 12 hrs – takes whole day, strictly Time taken to access one stayed with them increased cared for as agr has taken land grazing in wet season O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Availability of browse O O O O O O - Open access rights to During Godantu tax of 4 Birr [per yr?] Kebele structure began. No problem of accessing the grazing was collected from each HH irrespective Sometimes the communities were grazing available. Some fear about of no. of livestock. After payment one asked to settle according to their the limitation of grazing in forest could settle anywhere. PA. No other problems. area due to Park enforcement. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
87 Cattle, horse, mule, donkey, camel, goat, Types of livestock kept sheep No change No change Quantity of livestock owned by individual 120 70 20 High incidence of attack from hyena Human population increased and Livestock kept at homestead. Conflicts with animals since livestock stayed in field no. of wild animals reduced. Only face the animals left in the O O O O O bush. O O O O O O O O O O O O 2.5 hrs 4 hrs (scarcity) Time needed to access 1 hr O O O O O O O O O O water O O O O O O O O 6 hrs Time needed to access 4 hrs O O O O O Most of land under cultivation: haya O O O O O there is no haya 2-12 hrs (depending on seasonal Time needed to access movement) No change No change hora O O O O O Though value of money decreased Income from livestock The value of money was good. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Good milk & butter (pasture), low pop. Lack of grazing land so poor Amount of food from O O O O O O O O O O livestock products livestock O O O O O O O O O Collect grass and browse Time to collect fodder Not needed Not needed especially during dry season as needed additional feeding Tumma – damages teeth so unable to eat grass and die. Gogsa – damages skin, diarrhoea, kills immediately. Disease incidence O O Aba Sanga – kills within 24 hrs O O O O O O O O O O
88 7.2.2 Socio-Economics of Communities
Total number of households: 187
Table 7.1 Sodu Welmal PA: Wealth Ranking (Group HBSW3/2007)
Rich – Duressa Medium – Waya Gabesssa Poor - Hiyyeessa 30-35 Cattle 15-20 cattle 2-5 cattle 10-20 shoats 5-10 shoats - 1 ha. 0.5 ha. 0.25 ha. 100 quintals coffee prod/yr 50 coffee prod/yr 10 coffee prod/yr 14 52 121 7% 28% 65%
7.2.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals
Grazing
Over time the quantity of grazing has reduced with increased small farm expansion due to population increase including people arriving through the government’s resettlement programme from Haraghe. Today there is little land left in the PA for grazing. As a result the time to access grazing has increased greatly over the last sixty years and during the wet season it can now take between 3 – 12 hours (i.e. all day) to reach suitable areas. During the dry season it can take even longer – up to 15 hours meaning the herders must stay out with the livestock until after 9pm (see Trend Analysis HBSW2/2007). Further the quantity of browse has also decreased. Due to increasingly limited resources the number of livestock has reduced from 120 per individual to 20 today (HBSW2/2007). As one Elder said: One who has 10 heads of cattle is now considered ‘rich’ however before the Dergue he would have been thought of as ‘poor’ (HBSW1/2007).
Despite the reduction in grazing the communities said that there was little problem in accessing what there was. However some fear that the National Park will increase its enforcement/protection measures and limit the grazing in the forest (HBSW2/2007).
During the dry season (December to March – below Seasonal Calendar HBSW2/2007) all lowland pastoralists move to the forest areas of Harena Buluk as indicated on the maps (HBSW1/2007). In addition some pastoralists also come from the surrounding districts like Delo Mena, Meda Welabu, etc. Other dry season grazing includes the following: - Dhimpu (HBSW3/2007) - Warsesa mineral spring (HBSW3/2007) - Chalicho (Hora Dhoqe) (good quality, accessible and critical dry season grazing) (see Table 7.3) (SW3/2007; SW3b/2007; HBSW3/2007) - Chaffa (not so good quality by close to home – Melka Arba - and critical dry season grazing) (SW3/2007) (see Table 7.3)
89 - Adeyi (SW3/2007) - Qoorama (SW3/2007) - Kakarsa (SW3/2007) (see Table 7.3) - Bahdu Sodu (close to Sodu Welmal PA and the quality and quantity of grazing is good – see Table 7.2) (SW2/2007) - Dagona forest areas (20-30 minutes from Sodu Welmal town, with some restrictions over access – see Table 7.2) (SW2/2007) - Arabe forest area (10-20 minutes Sodu Welmal town, with no restrictions over access – see Table 7.2 (SW2/2007; SW3b/2007) - Nyore (30 minutes from Sodu Welmal) (SW3/2007) - Lada Dima (10 minutes from Sodu Welmal) (SW3/2007)
Bushoftu was used for dry season grazing but is now occupied by farmlands and as a result there is no access to grazing or mineral water (HBSW3/2007).
It is said that livestock initiates the movement from the lowland being accustomed to the annual/seasonal movement patterns: They just move to the forest by force when bona sets in. All the settlers or those camping leave some household members behind and camp in the forest. They simply scatter but maintain their old campsite where they previously settled. At the settlement (campsite) the pastoralists enclose forest coffee over which they claim ownership. There is no access control but each PA with the help of the DA educates them about fire and usage of the forest. When rain starts the livestock leave the forest and the owners follow them immediately (HBSW1/2007).
Three respondents stated that it was their wife and children who took the livestock to dry and wet season grazing areas where they would temporarily settle and be provided with supplies (SW1/2007; SW2/2007; SW3b/2007).
One person responded that it took 8 hours to reach the grazing areas, though it was not clear where he was talking about (SW3b/2007).
Table 7.2 Respondent’s Preferred Grazing Areas for Dry Season Grazing Badhu Sodu Dagona Arabe ooooo ooooo ooooo Good quality ooooo ooo oooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Good quantity ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Close to home ooooo oo o No control over ooooo ooooo ooooo access oooo o ooooo Critical dry season ooooo ooooo grazing ooooo ooo ooooo
TOTAL 44 39 45 Notes: Part of Dagona is plantation and grazing is prohibited.
90 Figure 7.1 Resource Map of Sodu Welmal PA HBSW3/2007
91 Figure 7.2 Example of Grazing Routes Sodu Welmal PA (SW1/2007)
92 SEASONAL CALENDAR Group HBSW2/2007 – Male Elders – Sodu Welmal PA
Bona Ganna Adolesa Hagaya O O O O O Rainfall - O O O O O O O O O O O Water available for O O O O O livestock - O O O O O O Quantity of grass available O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Fodder collection O O O O O - O O O O O O O Due to loss of grazing land O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Height of grass O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Breeding O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Livestock products O O O O O O O O O Labour demand non- O O O O O livestock related O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1. Male 2. Female O O O O O Coffee, farming O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand O O O O O O O O O O livestock related O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1. Male 2. Female O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Disease incidence O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Note: They informed us that seasonal variations exist due to climate pattern. Rainfall and water resource reduced over time.
93 Table 7.3 Further Preferred Dry Season Grazing, Sodu Welmal PA
Chalicho Chaffa Qoorama Kakarsa ooooo ooooo ooooo Good quality ooooo ooooo o ooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Good quantity ooooo oooo o oo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Close to home ooooo ooooo oo oo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Accessibilty ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Critical dry ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo season grazing ooooo ooooo oo oo
Total 50 39 36 39
Note: Access to grazing is not a problem
During wet season (April to July) ganna and hagaya rain (October, November) those livestock owners at the edge of the forest or in the forest move down to the lowland grassland: - Melka Arba (Kalido) (HBSW1/2007; HBSW3/2007) to use the mineral springs at Haya Urde, Haya Karro, Haya Gurrachi and Jigelcha (HBSW3/2007). - Gara Erba (HBSW1/2007; HBSW3/2007) - Melka Amana PA in Delo Mena (HBSW1/2007; HBSW3/2007) - Berak PA in Delo Mena - Chiri (HBSW1/2007) - Hora Hadji (HBSW1/2007) - Tonga (HBSW3/2007) - Worebu, nr Sodu (SW3/2007; SW3b/2007)
Minerals
The dry season grazing from Sodu Welmal PA takes herders to the forests of Harena Buluk. There are mineral springs at Hora Dhoqe – well known and found near Chalicho in Hawo PA. Some herders take their cattle there every three days (SW3/2007). Accessing other hora can take between 2-12 hours depending on seasonal movement (HBSW2/2007). It was said that some hora have diminished in volume due to an increase in the number of livestock (HBSW1/2007).
In the lowland areas there is one special mineral spring at Mekana Gobela. Also there are mineral licks (haya) including Haya Urde, Haya Karro, Haya Gurrachi, Shilli and Jigelcha (HBSW3/2007; SW3/2007). Haya Urde is particularly well known and favoured – people dig very deep and there can be conflict over access. However one group from the PA said that they were no longer able to access haya as they had been cultivated (HBSW2/2007).
94 Water
Around Sodu Welmal there is no water problem as they are in the middle of several rivers including the Shawee Riber and Ogoda during the wet season, and the Woreba River and Bishan Addii during the dry season. There is also the Manhisa waterfalls which runs for 7 months. It takes 1-2 hours to travel there. However increasingly access to rivers is being curtailed by agriculture along the riverbanks and one group said that whereas it used to take 1 hour to access water for livestock in the past, it now takes 4 hours (HBSW2/2007).
7.2.4 Fodder
Fodder is increasingly becoming necessary to supplement feeding during the dry season and women will be busy with this task (HBSW1/2007). Sugar cane leaves are used to supplement feeding. This has to be purchased but is important as grazing is becoming increasingly limited. One respondent stated that he spends on average ETB 100 per year on purchasing fodder (SW2/2007). Others in the PA mentioned that it takes 3 hours to collect fodder (grass and browse) now whereas in the past it was not needed (HBSW1/2007). Fodder is particularly important during the dry season (HBSW2/2007).
7.2.5 Markets
The following exist (HBSW1/2007): • Angetu (woreda capital) – recent and increasingly expanding (major market for cattle, goats and shoats and animal products) though used to sell their animals in Delo Mena or Melka Arba (HBSW1/2007; SW2/2007; SW3/2007; SW3b/2007) • Melka Arba – major markets for oxen, donkey, mule, cattle – well known market (HBSW1/2007; SW3b/2007; MA1/2007) • Makane Gobelle – goats – people come from Guji zone and Genale (HBSW1/2007) • Hawo – horse and sheep (HBSW1/2007) • Buluk - cattle and sheep – minor (HBSW1/2007)
7.3 Melka Arba PA
7.3.1 Introduction
Melka Arba shares geographical attributes and history to Sodu Welmal, being close to the Harenna Forest: both being found in the Harenna Buluk woreda. Indeed when asked to carry out a Trend Analysis the community divided the past years into the same periods as those in Sodu Welmal (described above): Dhombira (Wero Wifa), Janadde, the Dergue and the EPRDF.
95 7.3.2 Socio-Economics of Communities Total number of households: 286 Table 7.4 Melka Arba PA: Wealth Ranking (Group HBMA1/2007) Poor Rich ‘Duressa’ Medium ‘Judugalessa’ ‘Miskinaor hiyessa’ Cattle 30+ Cattle 10-20 Cattle 1-2 Camel 10+ Camel 3-5 - Shoat 40+ Shoat 10-20 Shoat 1-4 Mule 2+ Mule 1 - 29 70 187 10% 24% 66%
7.3.3 Grazing, Water and Minerals
Grazing
Melka Arba is a vast PA with large lowlands areas where livelihoods were dominated by pastoralism. Agriculture began during the time of the Dergue. Today it has encroached on these areas creating a large challenge for the pastoral way of life. It now takes 4-8 days to reach favourite wet and dry season grazing areas. Access to the dry season grazing areas is particularly difficult now as many routes are cultivated making it difficult to pass. As a result mobility is decreasing and some find it difficult to move and are limited to grazing around their home. However, still many will move to the forest areas during the dry season.
One respondent interviewed had three wives, one of whom managed the business/shop in town and the other two moved with the livestock, whilst he serviced them with necessary supplies. They do not have a permanent residence as such, though stay for a longer period of time in the wet season grazing areas (MA2/2007).
Dry season grazing areas (used December to April depending on weather condition) see below Seasonal Calendar HBMA5/2007) (takes between 4-8 days to reach there) (see Figure 7.3): • Gara Wicho (best grazing area) however the locals fear that a) agriculture is greatly encroaching threatening access; and b) the government may prevent access. It is on the border between Goba and Nensebo woredas and the local administration does not want people moving around there (HBMA2/2007) • Gara Furme (forest area bordering Goba) (MA2/2007) • Alemgena (Qumuko) and Adeyi (next best grazing areas) but the challenge is that the PA residents (many of whom are those who have come to the area due to the resettlement programme from Haraghe) have started to plant coffee in the dry season. Some herders coming to use the area for temporary grazing had a conflict with a resident resulting in a cow getting killed recently (HBMA2/2007). Many grazers will base themselves there and move through the forest areas (MA2/2007) in Hawo PA. There have also been recent incidences where locals have tried to chase out those camping there (MA2/2007).It is feared that these problems will spread to other dry season grazing areas too.
96 • Masagate (Hora gate), Hawo PA (HBMA2/2007). Grazers will use this as a camp site and move through the forest from there (MA2/2007). • Hora Dobo (MA2/2007) • Godubota (MA2/2007) • Hora Agam (HBMA2/2007) • Wana Sidrsa to Meda Welabu District (HBMA2/2007) • Dadme (HBMA2/2007) • Badessa (MA1/2007) • Garicho (MA1/2007) • Borale (MA2/2007) (forest area bordering Goba) • Qumbi (MA2/2007) (forest area bordering Goba) Most of these areas are far from home and mean that the grazers must set up temporary camping sites from which to move locally.
Table 7.5 Proportional Piling of Grazing Sites in Melka Arba (MA2/2007)
Qumuko Masagate (Alemgena) Godubota Hora Dobo O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Good quality O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Good quantity O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Close to home - - - -
TOTAL 18 18 18 20
The community commented critically that the current moves by government to alter the dry season grazing areas in addition to the expansion of agriculture (including land allocated for biofuel growing) is disastrous for those who depend on livestock production. Agriculture has priority over pastoralism and if a farmer accuses them, then the pastoralist is charged. But if the farmer kills livestock then the judgement falls against the pastoralist. Further there have been recent incidences where grazers have been chased out of dry season grazing areas, particularly in Hawo PA (Adeyi, Alemgena and Masagate sites) by locals (MA2/2007). Here settlers from Haraghe and Shoa (coming through the government’s resettlement programme) have started claiming land, settling and planting coffee. This is a ‘hot topic’ at the moment about which the researcher talked with the Buluk district Agriculture Development Office. The office said that they would give special attention to the problem.
They have been forced to change their routes over the last ten years. One elder sadly expressed the following: It used to take me four days to arrive at the dry season grazing site resting on my way at certain destinations as previously. However, now this year I spent eight and a half days just getting there since all the routes are cultivated and it is difficult to pass through. I fear that in the future that all the outlets will be closed and we might be chocked to death.
97 Figure 7.3 Examples of Grazing Routes in Melka Arba PA (HBMA2/2007/ MA2/2007)
98 SEASONAL CALENDAR HBMA5/2007 – Elders & Youth – Melka Arba PA
Gana (April-June) Adolesa (July-Sept) Hagaya (Oct-Dec) Bona (Jan-March) O O O O O Rainfall O O O O O O O O Water availability for O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Availabiity of grass O O O O O O O O O
Fodder collection - - - O O O O O O O O Livestock pregnancy O O (insemination) Ideal time for pregnancy as O O O O O - livestock get good grass & eat haya Income related to O O O O O O O O O O livestock product O O O O O O O O O Income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O sale O O O O O O O O O O Availabiity of livestock products O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand, O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O related to livestock 1. O O O O O O O O O O O Male 2. Female O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand, O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O related to non- O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock 1. Male 2. O O O O O O O O O O ???? O O O O O Female O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Disease incidence O O O O O O O O O O O O
99 Wet season grazing areas (the livestock stays here from April – July/November), though some may use areas around the homestead. The best are: • Berak is the best wet season grazing area (MA2/2007) however already there is heavy agricultural encroachment and some pastoralists have had to move further to Delo Mena (HBMA2/2007). Further it is said that any remaining ‘open’ grazing areas are to be given to investors. Takes 4 days to reach there. • Chamai used for 3 months from April-June (MA1/2007; MA2/2007) though agricultural encroachment has meant that some now go to Meda Walabu District (HBMA2/2007) • Erba Mountain (HBMA2/2007; MA2/2007) • Odda (MA2/2007) • Kalido Mountain (HBMA2/2007) • Tulu Wambelle ⇒ Meda Walabu District (HBMA2/2007) • Gayyo used for 3 months April-June (MA1/2007) • Karro (MA1/2007)
Table 7.6 Preferred Wet Season Grazing Areas in Melka Arba (MA2/2007)
Berak Chamai Erba Odda O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Good quality O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Good quantity O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Close to home O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O No control over O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O access O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
TOTAL 37 31 34 29
The herder, his wife and/or children may settle in the wet season grazing areas with the livestock for up to nine months.
Box 7.1: Spreading Risk in Melka Arba
Hadji Hussein Kedir has three wives and twenty-seven dependents. Ranked as ‘rich’ he said that he has 50 cattle (though others indicated that he had more); 80 goats; 1 mule; and 4 donkeys.
One wife is stationed in Melka Arba town and she manages the business (he has a shop in the town), the other two “are never separated from the feet of the livestock.” He said that they move constantly with the livestock to dry season as well as wet season grazing sites. They do not have permanent residence as such, however they live longer at the wet season grazing areas.
100 His dry season grazing areas are the forest bordering Goba District. These sites are Gara Furme, Borale, Qumbi, but his main camping site is Hawo PA (Adeyi, Alemgena and Masagate sites). This year the people of Hawo tried to drive him out of his camping areas. This is a ‘hot’ topic at the moment.
He has several fears concerning the grazing lands: - In general the pastureland is changing to agricultural land, accelerating quickly. - Agriculture has priority over pastoralism and if a farmer accuses them, the pastoralist is charged; but if the farmer kills livestock the judgement is against the pastoralist. - Settlement (taken up around Alemgena (Hawo PA)…The settlers from Hararghe and Shoa started planting coffee and claiming the land. - Berak (best wet season grazing area) under process to be given to investors.
Water
Community members stated that they use the Didimoo, Welmar, Shawe and Mandhisa Rivers in the dry and wet season. When visiting the lowlands during the wet season they may have a shortage of water unless they reach the main river (MA1/2007). At Berak, for example, local people are preventing the use of the water well as a result of water scarcity. It used to be given for free to anyone, but now the locals want to restrict it to their use only.
Erba Mountain grazing area has no water in the vicinity and it takes them about one full day to access Bidimo River. So if they want to stay there then they have to spend one day every three days accessing water.
Mineral Licks and Springs
Some respondents mentioned that they used mineral springs and licks frequently (HBMA2/2007) and others said that they did not use them at all (SW2/2007).
The ‘haya’ mineral licks and ‘hora’ mineral springs provide similar functions/benefits for livestock. The informants in both the highlands/forest and lowlands confirmed that the hora is for highlanders and the mineral licks are for lowlanders. Accordingly the people of Berak said that they have a lot of mineral lick sites within the grazing area and other localities, though access is being severely curtailed (see Trend Analysis HBMA5/2007 below): • Haya Urde – very well known in Harena Buluk for its quality and people from far away go there and load minerals on a donkey or mule. Previously the livestock herders settled there during rainy season for a month, but these days it is impossible to do that due to agricultural expansion (see below). As a result it is not possible to feed from the haya on site, but it must be taken away on pack animals or through human labour. It used to take 1-2 hours to get to the haya, however now due to agriculture cutting off access routes it can take 5-6 hours. Currently the site is under threat from agriculture. Most of the haya are facing a similar situation.
101 • Haya Karo – also surrounded by agriculture. • Haya Bugitu – Meda Walabu.
Box 7.2 Haya Urde
Haya mineral licks are highly used by the lowland pastoralists as reported by the Melka Arbe community. Hayas are related according to their taste for cattle, abundance and site. In Melka Arbe there a number of hayas but Haya Urde is the favourite, used not only by the people in the woreda, but also from Melka Welabu, Delo Mena and others. Currently this haya is under pressure from agricultural expansion. There is no more temporary camping around it due to lack of space. Rather they dig out the minerals and carry them home on mules and donkeys. The people near the haya however feed them on the spot. The lowlanders equate haya to hora. They also use a hora during the dry season grazing when moved to the forest site.
On visiting the site it was clear that the site is shrinking under pressure from agricultural expansion. Even it is feared that potential haya ground may be cultivated in the near future. People in the area are confused when asked who promotes agriculture, even the kebele structures are not aware of what is going on. Though people are against agriculture they still invest in it and plough up the land. Some people commented that “a 15 year old boy/girl can rise from bed and ask for plot of land to cultivate”. Then the immediate solution is to give them land. Some land has already been enclosed. The question of fencing the land for agriculture is high on the agenda of government – common property resources are being compromised for more private/individualistic ‘ownership’.
Mineral springs are used during the godantu and the highland/forest dry season. They settle around well known hora like: • Hora Agam – near Nensebo • Hora Garmo • Hora Galle (MA1/2007) • Hora Tako (MA1/2007) • Hora Dhoqe (MA1/2007)
7.3.4 Fodder
A range of different types of natural vegetation are collected for fodder when needed – see Table 9.9, Section 9.5.
7.3.5 Markets
No detailed information was given on which markets were used.
102
HBMA5/2007 – Elders and Youth – Melka Arba PA The group classified the periods as Dhombra (Haile Selassie); Janade (beginning of the Dergue); Dergue; and EPRDF
Dhombra Janade Dergue EPRDF O O Quanitity of open O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Agr took all best land; pop grassland O O O O O O O O O O O increased internally & Agr started, pop increased resettlement from Haraghe Quantity of land under O O O O O agriculture - - O O O O O Time taken to access Grazing near to home – Took 4 days to Berak since wet season grazing no need to move. As before land taken by agr and drought Takes 4 days to Berak Took 4-6 days depending on Time taken to access Grazing near to home – No need to move distance of community from Takes 4-8 days (much of dry season grazing no need to move Chalicho, Adeyi, Barza, Rirpiha, routes are cultivated Sire(forest) making it difficult to pass. Quantity of browse O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O available O O O O O O O O Reduced due to agr Cleared due to agr O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Rights of access to O O O O O O O O O O Govt formally prevent use of O O O O grazing forest but difficult to control Social problem; agr them since it is customary to expansion; unplanned graze in forest for long time settlement Quantity livestock owned indivdidual 150 100 65 30 (average) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Conflicts with wild High no. of animals but Forest cover reduced & O O O O O animals fed on other prey. Less no. of animals reduced. Hyena numbers increased. High no. of hyena eating incidence of attacks on But relatively high no. of Some lion started to eat livestock. Not possible to
103 livestock attacks livestock. Attacks increased. kill wild animals. O O O O O Time needed to take O O O O O O O O O O livestock to water Water close to home Water close to home 3 hrs. during wet season 12 hrs during wet season, 6 hrs to take them to Bidimo and 6 hrs to take them back to Mt. Erba (grazing area) Time needed to access 1-2 hrs, open grassland 5-6 hrs. Expansion of haya around hayas. Possible As before 3 hrs. Some settlement around agriculture preventing to temporarily settle hayas appeared. Temporary camping at site. Not around hayas to feed camping became difficult due to possible to feed haya on livestock for atleast 21 fencing and agr encroachment. the spot – have to take days during rainy season away on pack animals or human labour Income from sale of O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock 1. Value of O O O O O O O O O O O O O money O O O O O O O O O O 2. Nominal money O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Food from livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O Time needed for - - O O O fodder collection No need of collection No need of collection Wild leaves collected for calves ‘Oda’ leaves collected for (insignificant) weak & lactating animals
104 8.0 CHANGING LIVELIHOODS AND SOCIAL SYSTEMS
8.1 Livelihood Systems
As described above, wealth rankings were carried out with representatives from each study woreda. The representatives were asked to identify criteria for measuring wealth (in order of importance) and then households (based on a list from the PA administration office) were divided into the different economically ranked groups. A variety of criteria were identified for the wealth rankings in the different areas.
This difference in criteria and their priorities reflect the diversity of livelihood systems found within different PAs in the study woreda. Though in the past the livelihood systems may have been much more similar i.e. livestock based, different pressures on the communities to reduce livestock numbers (discussed above and below) has meant that agriculture and small businesses are increasingly becoming the dominant livelihood base. In Solana PA, Nensebo woreda as shown below (Tables 8.1- 8.4), livestock did not even come into the wealth ranking.
For example: - Land and a house in the town were the most important criteria for those living in Hilassa PA, Goba woreda. - Coffee was considered most important in Erba PA, Delo Mena and Solana PA, Nensebo Woreda. - In Solana PA, Nensebo woreda livestock were not included in the wealth ranking at all, rather coffee, enset and other crops. - Cattle produce and grains were included in the criteria in Hilassa PA and Ashuta PA, Goba woreda. - Beehives were included in those PAs bordering forest areas including Ashuta, Goba and Erba, Delo Mena. - Camels rather than cattle were the most important criteria in Berak PA, Delo Mena and were included in the ranking in Melka Arba PA, Harenna Buluk.
8.1.2 Comparison of Wealth Ranking
Using the wealth ranking it has been possible to compare the relative wealth of the different categories between PAs. For example Erba PA seems to be a comparatively well off PA with the rich having relatively large numbers of livestock (cattle and goats/shoats) as well as beehives, crops and access to a large amount of coffee. Having said that, only 4% of households are classified in this group and rather 73% are classified as “poor” with much fewer resources. Alternatively in Gerambamo PA, 13% of the population are classified as “rich” with good numbers of livestock and only 36% are classified as “poor”. This would suggest that the richer PAs are of two types: a) Those that have diversified their livelihoods (as in Erba PA) and b) Those that have intensified their livestock systems and holdings (as in Gerambamo PA).
105 Comparison of criteria for measuring rich, medium, poor and destitute
Table 8.1 Criteria for “Rich”
%age PA Qtls of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of Ha. Qtls of Ha. of Other of coffee cattle equine goats/ camels chickens hives land crops enset HHs shoats/ sheep Fasil Angeso 30+ 7-10 30-40 4-8 3% House Hilassa 10-15 5-8 10 5-10 8 50-100 in 4% town
Ashuta 20+ 5-6 30-40 10-20 3+ 5+ 60 11%
Solana 40+ 30+ 1 ha. 10%
Gerambamo 50+ 20+ 50+ 1 ha. 13%
Sodu Welmal 30-35 10-20 1 ha. 7%
Melka Arba 30+ 2+ 40+ 10+ 10%
Erba 100+ 30+ 4+ 50-100 10-20 10-20 55+ 4%
Berak 30+ 4-6 50+ 40+ 4%
106 Table 8.2 Criteria for “Medium”
PA Qtls of No. of No. of No. of No of No. of No. Ha. Qtls of Ha. of Other %age coffee cattle equine goats/ camels chickens of land crops enset of shoats/ hives HHs sheep Fasil Angeso 10-15 4-5 15-20 2-3 11% No Hilassa 5-10 2-5 5-6 10-15 5-6 25-50 house in 20% town
Ashuta 5-20 2 5-10 5-10 1 3-5 30-50 57%
Solana 25+ 20 0.5 ha 28%
Geremb. 25 3 15 0.5 ha. 51%
Sodu W. 15-20 5-10 0.5 ha. 28%
M. Arba 10-20 1 10-20 3-5 24%
Erba 30-50 15-20 2 10-20 10-15 5-10 10-25 23%
Berak 20+ 2-3 25 10 51%
107 Table 8.3 Criteria for “Poor”
PA Qtls of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of Ha. Qtls of Ha. of Other %age coffee cattle equine goats/ camels chicken hives land crops enset of shoats/ HHs sheep Fasil Angeso 4 2 5 2 60% No Hilassa 2-4 2 2-5 5-7 4 10-15 house in 60% town 1 Ashuta 2-3 donkey 3-5 3-6 - 0.5 - 3 15-30 27%
Solana 10 10 0.25ha 41%
Geremb. 2-5 0-1 4-5 0.125ha 36%
Sodu W. 2-5 0.25 ha 65%
M. Arba 1-2 1-4 - 66%
Erba 1-3 - - 1-4 5-10 1-5 6 73%
Berak 3 - 15 - 45%
108 Table 8.4 Criteria for “Destitute”
PA Qtls of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of Ha. Qtls of Ha. of Other %age coffee cattle equines goats/ chickens hives land crops enset of shoats HHs Fasil 1 donkey Angeso - 1 26% No Hilassa 0-1 0-1 1-3 1-2 0-0.5 4-6 house in 16% town
Ashuta - - - 2-3 - 0-0.5 5-10 4%
Solana 5 5 0.125ha 21%
Geramb. 0
Sodu W. 0
M. Arba 0
Erba 1 - - 2 1-5 - 2 Few
Berak 0
109 8.2 Livelihoods and Income
In Solana PA, Nensebo woreda, as described in Section 5.2 the area was converted from forest to agricultural land during the times of Haile Selassie and the Dergue. Here the majority of people see agriculture (enset, maize and coffee) rather than livestock to be the most important component of livelihood systems (NS6/2007). Today there is no common grazing land left and nearly all land has been occupied by enset, coffee and other crops. The few livestock owned by some communities are kept tied up and/or graze only on the owner’s land, where they are fattened for market. Indeed, it would seem that the most important factor in influencing a move away from livestock to agriculture is the increasing lack of grazing.
However in most cases livestock is still an intricate part of livelihood systems in the Bale Mountain Massif (see summary of land use and livestock systems in Table 8.5 below). Income from cattle includes milk, butter, selling for draught power, using dung as fuel. Though the amount of money coming into households has increased over time, it was stressed that the monetary value of this money has reduced. A bull in the past would be sold for ET60 and now it can be sold for ETB3000. However the purchasing power of money itself has reduced, so what could be purchased with ETB3000 today is little more than what could be purchased with ETB60 in the past (DMER4/2007). As a result respondents commented that the relative income from livestock has reduced greatly over time (see for example GFA2/2007; GH7/2007; NS6/2007; HBSW1/2007; HBSW2/2007). As one respondent from Sodu Welmel PA said: People used to rely on livestock and livestock products before the Dergue, but now it is unbelievable the reverse.
However though the income from livestock has decreased, the income from crops was said by some respondents to have increased (GH6/2007). Further the food derived from livestock has reduced. Not only has this reduced in quantity but also today there is more pressure to sell livestock products in order to raise cash. As one group described: In the past we used livestock only for own consumption but now everyone sells livestock and products (DMB3/2007).
In Haile Selassie’s time some populations were entirely dependent on livestock, however today grain has increasingly replaced livestock products as agriculture has increased (DM3/2007; GH7/2007). One group from Fasil Angeso suggested that the productivity of livestock has decreased and as a result now “we have to eat oil” (GFA2/2007) and a group of Elders from Hilassa PA said: Now we live from agriculture (GH7/2007).
It was said by some that income related to livestock tends to be greater during the dry season (bona) because at this time communities face food shortages or other problems, so sell their livestock (DMER1/2007; HBSW2/2007; see Seasonal Calendar HBMA4/2007 below). Other reasons for selling livestock can be for funerals, weddings and payment of taxes i.e. when there is a specific need or problem (FA1/2007; FA2/2007;H1/2007;SW3b/2007).
110 Table 8.5 Summary of Land Use and Livestock Systems in Study PAs
PA System of Land Use and Livestock Systems Godantu system. Relatively high numbers of livestock. Livestock grazed around homestead during wet season as land is bare (no crops). Fasil Angeso Move up to plateau and other dry season grazing areas in dry season up until June. Also graze in forest areas. Land considered not good for Goba agriculture but small patches of crops being established. Travel four hours to nearest hora in dry season. Natural fodder fed to animals. Godantu system. Great reduction in open grassland from time of Haile Selassie. May have to travel long distances to dry season grazing and Hilassa PA, water sources. Some livestock owners have established integrated crop and livestock systems feeding livestock crop residues. Diversified Goba livelihoods: mixed livestock, plus land and some have house in town. No access to hora. Natural fodder fed in ‘bad times’ and crop residues. Godantu system. In past known for rich pastures but lack of grazing now, aggravated by redistribution of land to landless youth. Try to graze Ashuta PA, livestock around homestead in wet season avoiding crops, and travel to riverine areas in dry season. Here can graze on state farms for 5 Goba months. Additional feed needed including crop residues. Small number of beehives. No access to hora – have been cultivated. No resources for livestock left in PA – all/most land is cultivated. Settlement of Amharas in 1960s started clearing of forest and move to Solana PA, agriculture. Rely on coffee grown in remaining forest, enset and other crops. Those who have livestock keep them in private kalo and feed Nensebo with supplementary feed and crop residues. No use of hora. Half of PA remains under forest while remainder is owned ‘privately’ with individual kalo for intensive livestock rearing. Land certificates Gerambamo been provided. In 2006 a redistribution of any remaining land was made providing land for landless youth. Small amount of subsistence Nensebo agriculture. Some rent out surplus land to other livestock holders. Crop residues, banana, oats and enset fed. No hora visited. Godantu system. Large numbers of livestock mainly grazed outside PA in wet and dry seasons in a large number of sites due to high Erba PA population and large numbers of livestock. Some enclosures being established. Also access to forest for coffee growing in relatively large Delo Mena quantities. Also beehives and relatively successful crop growing. Wide range of natural vegetation provided as fodder. Hora visited. Godantu system. Grazing good in PA, but visited by large numbers of livestock from other PAs during wet season. Increased number of Berak PA camels. Some land being given to investors for large scale agriculture e.g. biofuels. Access to water becoming challenging. Hora and 8 haya Delo Mena found in PA. Wide range of natural vegetation provided as fodder. Godantu system. Close to Harenna forest. Quality/quantity grazing in past, but today little grazing left due to small scale agricultural Sodu Welmal expansion, population increase and resettlement (settlers from Haraghe). Livestock moves up to forest areas in dry season. Those who live Harena Buluk in forest areas or close by move down to lowlands in wet season. Use both hora (in forest areas) and haya in lowlands. Fodder used/purchased in dry season. Godantu system. Close to Harenna forest. Vast PA with large lowlands where livestock moves to in wet season where may stay for 9 Melka Arba months. Move to forest areas in dry season but migration routes blocked by agriculture. Settlers growing coffee in forest preventing access. Harena Buluk Agricultural expansion. Use hora and haya found in PA. Both natural vegetation and crop residues given as fodder.
111 Table 8.6 : Seasonal Calendar HBMA4/2007 – Female Elders – Melka Arba PA
Bona Ganna Adolessa Hagaya O O O O O O O O O O Rainfall - O O O O O O O O O Water Availability for O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock - O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Food supply for livestock - O O O O O O O O O
Fodder collection - - - - O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Grass height - O O O O O O O O O O Animal products O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O availability O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand for O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock related activities O O O O O O O O O O 1. Male 2. Female O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand for non O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock related activities O O O O O O O O O 1. Male 2. Female O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Disease incidence O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Breeding O O O O O O O O O
Note As we understood from community the disease incidence is very high especially during the dry bona season, due to different changes e.g. absence of feed and water.
112 More often cattle will only be sold when a severe problem arises. People would rather sell goats to pay for regular costs such as taxes, and use for meat (SW3b/2007). It was stressed that there are always reasons/problems to sell livestock and this limits the numbers in the area.
However where fattening and regular marketing of livestock is common, such as in Solana and Gerambamo PAs, and where higher livestock numbers are kept as in Erba PA, respondents said that they sold more livestock during the wet season because the price is good and/or the body condition is better (NS1/2007; NS6/2007; ER01/2007; ER02/2007). Though the sale of animal products (butter and milk) was said to be low in the countryside (ER03/2007) larger amounts are sold during this time when the products are produced in greater quantities due to better grazing, less stress on the animals and their closeness to home (DMER1/2007; NS6/2007; NS4/2007; NG3/2007; NG5/2007; HBSW2/2007; HBMA3/3007; HBMA4/2007; DMB2/2007; and see seasonal calendar – NS1/2007; NG3/2007). This can also be the case in the PAs with lowland dry areas where at this time the livestock is in better condition and tends to be grazed closer to home – during the dry season they will be using pastures further away so it is difficult to access the markets (DMER03/2007; GFA2/2007; GH4/2007; GA5/2007). During the dry season more can be spent on livestock than is raised (GA5/2007).
One group of Elders from Gerambamo PA (where livestock is the mainstay of the economy) stated that the availability and quality of livestock products is highly related to the flowering of a grass type called Qunni which flowers at the end of the rainy season so products are available through the beginning of the dry season (NG5/2007).
It is interesting to note that when comparing the wealth ranking of the different PAs (see Section 8.1.2) it would seem that the “richer” PAs are of two types: a) those that have diversified their livelihoods but still maintain relatively high livestock numbers (as in Erba PA) and b) those that have intensified their livestock systems and holdings (as in Gerambamo PA).
This would suggest that it is still possible to hold relatively large livestock numbers but a) where resources are available and risks of holding large numbers are spread by diversifying livelihoods and/or b) by introducing an intensive livestock system with high inputs (fodder).
8.3 Labour
8.3.1 Livestock Related Activities
Men and women divide livestock-related tasks between them. Most of the women pass their time with the livestock and take care of animal husbandry. For example lambing and calving was said to be their responsibility (DM03/2007; GH3/2007). Further when grazing areas are close by it is often the wife who takes them there (FA1/2007). Calving tends to take place in February (DMB2/2007). It was said that horses only get pregnant
113 between the months of March to May (NG5/2007). In Solana PA afrasa (after the dry season) is said to be a good time for insemination as the bulls have more energy for mating during this period (NS6/2007). In other areas it was said that the rainy season is the time for livestock to get pregnant as they are eating good grass and minerals so more healthy.
These constant responsibilities are reflected in the seasonal calendar for Erba PA below (DMER1/2007) which shows women busy all year round with livestock related activities, though they are particularly busy when most of the livestock is grazing near to home and calving/lambing – during the wet season. During this time it was said that “livestock needs special and continuous attention” (GA5/2007). Further the peak of the dry season can also be a busy time, particularly in those areas where livestock is kept close to the settlement, their movement being restricted (see seasonal calendar for Gerambamo PA – NG5/2007; Sodu Welmal PA – HBSW1/2007; and Solana PA in above section – NS1/2007). At this time, women may be busy with fodder collection and water collection for weakened and milk animals (HBSW1/2007). Children are also expected to help out with livestock – looking after livestock close by and helping out with other activities (DM1/2007; DM2/2007; FA1/2007)
In those areas where movement of livestock is still possible, men are needed to take the livestock on godantu (migration) which tends to occur in the bona (dry or ‘winter’) months to find grazing and water at a further distance – some time between November to May (see seasonal calendar DMER1/2007; also DM2/2007; DMBE1/2007; GFA2/2007; GH2/2007; DMBE1/2007; DMBE3/2007). The non-mobile livestock including milking cows4, cows in calf, young and sick animals, will stay close to the homestead – the warra herd; the mobile livestock including dry and healthy animals – the fora herd – will be taken to find better grazing away from the local area.
During this time the men may be completely occupied with this task. Further males are needed to protect the livestock from wild animals (DM2/2007). In areas such as Sodu Welmal which is situated between the highland and lowland areas, livestock are moved both in the summer (gana) when they move to the lowlands and the winter (bona) when they move through the forest, so the men and women are busy in both these periods.
In the woredas at a higher altitude where there is more plentiful supply of grass all year round and/or movement is becoming more restricted due to agriculture, the labour demand of men for livestock related activities is less as they do not have to make so many extended movements with the animals – rather they are more concerned with non-livestock related activities such as subsistence agriculture. They may still be responsible for taking the livestock for water sometimes supported by children, though in school time a wife may assist (FA1/2007). Alternatively other seasonal calendars for the same woredas (Solana and Gerambamo PAs) showed men and women relatively busy all year round with livestock and non-livestock related activities (NS4/2007; NS6/2007; NG3/2007; also HBMA3/2007).
4 Baku are said to be cows that do not have/give milk. Oticha are cows that give more milk (NG3/2007).
114 Table 8.7 SEASONAL CALENDAR Group: NS/1 – Men – Solana PA
Birra (Sept-Nov) Bona (Dec-Feb) Afrasa (Mar-May) Gana (June-Aug) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Rainfall O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Temperature O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Wind O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Water supply for O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O grass supply for O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Insemination O O O O O O O O O O O O Income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O sale No sale - cheap O O O O O O O O No sale - cheap Animal products (milk O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O & butter sale/income) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand (livestock related) O O O O O O O O O 1. Male 2. Female O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand (non O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O livestock related) O O O O O O O O O O O 1. Male 2. Female O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Disease incidence O O O O O
115 Table 8.8 SEASONAL CALENDAR Group: NG3/3007 Women – Gerambamo PA
Seasons Birra Bona Afrasa Ganna Guda O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Rainfall O O O O O O O O Water availability for O O O O O O O O O O livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Grass availability for O O O O O O O O O O livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Insemination (rimu) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Income from sale of O O O O O livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O Income from sale of animal O O O O O products O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand (in O O O O O O O O O O relation to livestock) O O O O O O O O O O O O 1. Female 2. Male O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Labour demand (non livestock) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1. Female 2. Male O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Disease incidence O O O O O O O O Comments: • Enclosures (kalo) prevent free movement for grazing and hinder accessing of water supply • During bona & ganna guda livestock management needs labour and attention. During ganna guda it is difficult to use kalo for all livestock owned by the individual since erosion and rainfall high leading to grass degradation. During bona & Afrasa the grass gets shorter and scarce. • During bona and Afrasa there is high incidence of disease since there is not sufficient feed and water. • Baku are cows which do not have/give milk. Oticha are cows that give more milk.
116
Table 8.9 SEASONAL CALENDAR: Group DMER1/2007 – Women – Erba PA
Hagayya – Spring Bona - Winter Gana - Summer Adolessa - Autumn Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jly Aug
Rainfall
Temperature
Wind
Quantity of water
Quantity of fodder
Fodder collection
Animal husbandry High income from livestock Quantity of animal products Livestock related Labour demand – m Livestock related Labour demand – f Livestock related Labour demand – c Non livestock
117 related labour demand – f
Livestock disease
Notes: - Income related to livestock and livestock products – during summer (gana) income increases because at this time all the community face food shortages so they sell their livestock. - Milk production is high during the wet season. - As indicated women are involved in animal husbandry throughout the year whereas the need for labour of men and children is seasonal. - Gandi is the main disease of cattle; diarrhoea, swelling of head and gifis are main diseases of goats; and dalacha and salaxa are the killing diseases of equines.
118 8.3.2 Non-livestock Related Activities
Both gana and bona are busy times for agricultural activities in those PAs where agriculture has increased, for example in Ashuta and Hilassa PAs, Goba, part of Fasil Angeso, and Solana PA, Nensebo. In the lowland areas of Delo Mena and parts of Harena Buluk though agriculture is expanding it is not yet that significant.
In general agricultural activities followed this schedule, illustrated in the seasonal calendars from Erba and Ashuta PAs (DM2/2007; GA5/2007), though there is some variation due to slightly different seasons, time of rainfall etc. December – land preparation March – Sowing May – Weeding June/July – Harvesting which can be a particularly busy time. August – Crushing
The growing and harvesting of coffee is an important activity in those more highland PAs that have access to the forest areas including Solana, Gerambamo and Erba where nearly all wealth groups, including the poor and destitute living in Solana and Erba PAs are able to harvest a number of quintals of coffee beans. In Erba PA, those ranked “rich” are able to harvest over 100 quintals of coffee per year.
Beekeeping is also carried out in both highland and lower altitude PAs. It was highlighted as an important activity in both the lower districts of Erba PA, Delo Mena and in Ashuta PA, Goba as criteria in the wealth ranking, however it was not highlighted as a wealth criteria in the PAs of Harenna Buluk which are set in or close to the forest and for certain community members hang hives there. Respondents commented that though honey production has always been highly important to them, recently many of the swarms of bees have left the area and/or been killed by the use of synthetic chemicals on farms. The busiest time of the year for beekeeping is between January and February when the honey is harvested (DM2/2007).
Because the men tend to be away from the homestead with the cattle, it tends to be the women who are responsible for many of these activities (excluding land preparation – ploughing and collection of honey which tends to be farmed in hives placed high up in trees). As such women stressed that bona is a busy time for them (GH4/2007; HBSW2/2007). However in the seasonal calendar for Sodu Welmal (HBSW2/2007; HBSW1/2007 see below) women can be seen to be busy all year round with non- livestock activities including hagaya when men will join the women collecting coffee as well as farming and livestock activities.
119 SEASONAL CALENDAR Group HBSW1/2007 Women – Sodu Welmal PA
Bona Ganna Adolessa Hagayya Haji Zaka Safara Moulida Moulida Moulida Zara Rajaba Heexoo Soma Somfara Sodatala Dec Jan Feb Amala Jidu Akira June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Mar Apr May
Rainfall Water for livestock Availability of grass Fodder collect & haymaking (women) Breeding season Income (milk, butter) Labour for livestock (women) Labour for livestock (men) Labour for non-livestock (women) Labour for non-livestock (men)
Disease
120 incidence
Comments: - Bona consists of December, January and February. There is little rain in January, locally called Baala-Buusa and the other two months are known as dry and sunny. Women are busy in February collecting fodder for weakened and milk animals. The mating period for cattle is high in January. - Ganna consists of four months such as March, April, May and June. Quantity of water supply, quality and quantity of feed for livestock, income related to livestock, labour demand for both men and women in both livestock and non-livestock activities, as well as incidence of disease are all high during this period. However breeding usually takes place in July after the rains. The labour demand for non- livestock activities is high for women, and low/high for men. - Hagaya – the labour demand for both men and women increases in hagaya because all people are busy collecting coffee, farming and livestock activities. - Diseases such as tuma and joqsa (local name) are common in dry season while waan gorba or black leg occurs when the livestock body condition is better, mostly in hagaya and sometimes in late ganna.
121 8.3.3 Changes in Labour Demand
Due to the increased time and distance needed to be travelled to find grazing and water, the labour demand for this activity has increased greatly over time. As the Trend Analysis shows for Ashuta PA (GA6/2007 see Section 4.4) in Haile Selassie’s time little labour was needed to take care of livestock grazing as there was enough grazing around the homestead. However today the livestock is taken in a group to grazing areas by herders. This is similar for most areas as Solana PA, Nensebo woreda (see Trend Analysis below, NS4/2007). As the same Trend Analysis shows more time is also needed for collection of fodder.
8.4 Polygamy
It is relatively common for a man to have several wives. Not only is this a reflection of social traditions but it also shows an optimum use of the ecological environment of the area, where wives are split across different ecological zones, undertaking different livelihood systems. For example in Berak one man had three wives (BE4/2007) who were divided between and lived in the different wet and dry season grazing areas (see Box 8.1). And in Erba PA another had two wives – one wife living in the PA managing the livestock and one in Delo Mena managing the business (ER03/2007). The husbands move between the wives ensuring they have adequate provisions and access to services.
Box 8.1 Polygamy Works
Mohammed Walaabu Birru of Berak PA has 3 wives. The first wife resides in the wet season grazing area where he keeps his camels and goats. During the rainy season for 3 months and hagaya (for 2-3 months) the cattle also come here to graze. The other two wives reside in the dry season grazing area, where they will stay for bona (2-3 months) and adolesa (for 2-3 months) (BE4/2007).
122 TREND ANALYSIS Group NS/4 – Women – Solana PA
Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF O O O O O O O O O O Open grassland O O O O O O O O O O O O Land under crop production O O O O O O O O O O O
Time taken to access grazing N/A 30 minutes 1 hr 30 minutes O O O O O Access rights to grazing land O O O O O O O O O O O O O Quantity of livestock owned by individual 5 10 6
Conflicts with wild animals - - - Time to access water for livestock - 10 minutes 10 minutes O O O O O Income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O Variety of food from livestock O O O O O (milk, butter etc.) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Time to collect fodder O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Amount paid for fodder O O O O O O O O O O O
123 9.0 LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK RESOURCES
9.1 Types of livestock
Though livelihoods are changing livestock is still an important component of most communities living around the Bale Mountains National Park. During Haile Selassie’s time the majority of livestock would be cattle and a few equines and shoats. Today cattle are still valued the most highly: see proportional piling exercise carried out by a group in Erba PA (see Table 9.1).
Table 9.1 Proportional Piling of Livestock Types: Observation group 4, Erba
Cattle Goats Equines Chickens
Milk 14 4 - -
Meat 10 4 - 6
Money 18 4 10 3
Transportation 0 0 18 -
Pulling plough 20 0 0 - Little veterinary care 6 14 6 5 Adequate grass/browse 19 10 4 2 Adequate water 12 6 14 2
TOTAL 99 42 52 18
Respondent used 20 stones to grade advantages
The main reasons for choosing cattle above other livestock include: - As a milk source (including butter) - As a meat source (large) - As a source of money - Some said that cattle were disease resistant - Can be used for pulling plough (maybe mean oxen?) - Like fodder - Used to transport fodder - Tradition of the forefathers that has been passed down - In general people have good skills and experience in rearing them - Can travel long distances in search of pasture - Use the dung as compost Negative aspects highlighted include: - Cattle susceptible to disease
124 - Susceptible to hardship e.g. need water and mineral springs - Needs extra fodder
In some PAs such as Hilassa PA (H2/2007) respondents mentioned the benefits of hybrid cows over non-hybrid: - Good milk - Easily kept at home - Like fodder - Good income
The positive aspects of oxen were also highlighted: - For draught power - Resistant to disease - Can be sold after being used for draught
However increasingly, herders are recognising the value of other livestock. As other proportional piling exercises show (see Tables 9.2 and 9.3) – sheep or goats are becoming the preferred livestock. Sheep may be preferred for the following reasons: - Consume less than cows - Good income - Minor expense - Breed fast – multiplies in short period of time However people started buying more goats as grazing became less, because goats “will eat anything”. Before they would have preferred sheep, but sheep need clean grazing which is becoming scarcer. As one respondent said: If you have sheep, you fight with your neighbour (SW2/2007).
Further goats are preferred for a number of other reasons: - As a meat source – easy to slaughter – food for the family - Can be transferred into cash easily for minor expenses and immediate needs - Slaughtered for guests - Needs less water (can water once per week whereas cattle and donkeys need to be watered twice per week) - Disease resistant - Eat less - Drought resistant because eat everything However others suggested that they give poor milk production and can also cause conflicts with neighbours/villagers as they graze (sometimes uncontrolled) away from the homestead.
125 Table 9.2 Proportional Piling of Livestock Types Observation group 1, Dirra Cluster, Erba PA
Cattle Goat Donkey
Milk source 6 4 -
Meat source 5 (huge) 5 (easy for slaughter) -
Source of money 8 6 2
Needs less water 3 (twice per week) 7 (once per week) 3 Little veterinary care 0 (not resist disease) 8 (disease resistant) 2 (less resistant) Adequate grass/browse 6 9 (eats everything) 4
Drought resistant 5 9 (eats everything) 8
TOTAL: 33 48 19
Respondent given 10 stones to grade advantages
Table 9.3 Proportional Piling of Livestock Group NS01/2007 Nensebo Woreda: Solana PA
Transporting Transporting Minor Breed Score Feeding Income loads/products people expense fast ooooo ooooo Cattle ooooo ooo ooo - ooo ooooo 29 ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Sheep ooo ooo - - ooooo ooooo 36 ooooo ooooo Horse oo oooo ooooo ooooo - ooooo 31 ooooo ooooo Donkey oo oooo ooooo - - ooooo 26
Though expensive, equines are also thought important. For example donkeys are highlighted for the following reasons: - Drought resistant - Can eat anything – not selective - Good income (from 700-1000 Birr) - Less management - Can be used for transportation – loading products/loads. Indeed one respondent stated that without a donkey ‘godantu’ (the annual migrations – discussed above) would be very difficult – to provide supplies to the campsites (SW3/2007).
Further, transport of people is vital in the Bale Mountains where community members have to travel long distances to towns, markets, health clinics etc. Because roads and
126 public transport are essentially non-existent apart from one or two main routes through Dinsho-Robe-Goba-Rira-Delo Mena, mules and horses are highly valued for transporting people and goods. Further there is a strong and long ‘horse culture’ in Bale.
Finally chickens were also given positive attributes including: - Need little veterinary care - Does not need extra fodder - Meat source.
Indeed today livestock herds tend to be more mixed with inclusion of more sheep, goats and camels, and proportionately (per individual) the number of cattle has decreased. Some of these trends can be seen in Table 9.7 below, which shows the decrease in numbers of livestock per individual with some details given in certain PAs as to the type of livestock too. For example, in Hilassa PA during the time of Haile Selassie individuals could own herds of livestock made up of 500+ cattle, 20+ equines and only 40+ shoats (500:20:10). However today the proportion has changed to 4 cattle, 1 equine and 5 shoats (4:1:5) (GH7/2007). Similarly in Solana PA the rich would own cattle only, but today they own a mixture of livestock (NS1/2007).
In drier areas where grazing has become more limited though browse is still available such as in Berak PA, Delo Mena camels are becoming the preferred livestock (see Table 9.4) as they can travel longer distances without water, and graze on shrubs and bushes rather than being dependent on grass as cattle are. However as well as having camels two of the respondents revealed that they also owned herds of 100 cattle (BE4/2007; BE3/2007).
Table 9.4 Proportional Piling of Livestock Individual BE1/2007 Berak PA
Graze Needs Resists Needs Can be For For milk Get close less drought little used trans and good Total to water vet to -port product money home care plough ooooo ooooo ooooo oooo ooooo ooooo Camel ooooo ooo ooooo oooo - o ooooo ooooo 62 oooo o ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Cattle ooooo o ooooo ooo ooooo - ooooo ooooo 49 ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo Goat ooooo ooooo ooo o - - ooo o 38
The different reasons for choosing different types of livestock are summarised in Table 9.5.
127 Table 9.5 Reasons for Preferring Different Types of Livestock
Cattle Oxen Goats Sheep Equines Positive: Positive: Positive: Positive: Donkeys - As a milk source (including - For draught - As a meat source – - Easier to feed Positive butter) power easy to slaughter – - consume less - Drought resistant - As a meat source (large) - Resistant to food for the family - Good income - Can eat anything – - As a source of money disease - Can be transferred into - Minor expense not selective - Some said that cattle were - Can be sold cash easily for minor - Breed fast – - Good income (from disease resistant after being expenses and multiplies in 700-1000 Birr) - Can be used for pulling used for immediate needs short period - Can be used for plough (maybe mean oxen?) draught - Slaughtered for guests of time transportation – - Hybrid cows are easily kept - Needs less water (can loading at home water once per week products/loads - Like fodder whereas cattle and - Less management - Used to transport fodder donkeys need to be Mules - Tradition of the forefathers watered twice per Positive: that has been passed down week) - Used for both - In general people have good - Disease resistant loading and riding skills and experience in - Goats eat everything Horses rearing them and eat less Positive: - Can travel long distances in - Drought resistant - Easier to feed search of pasture because eat everything - Used for riding - Use the dung as compost Negative: Negative: - Cattle susceptible to disease - Poor milk production - Susceptible to hardship e.g. - Graze away from the need water and mineral homestead so that springs there is much conflict - Needs extra fodder with villagers
Chickens were also mentioned as having several positive attributes including: need little veterinary care; not need extra fodder; and a good meat source.
128 Table 9.6 Livestock Numbers: Calculated on Data Collected through Wealth Ranking.
PA No. of No. of No. of No of mules No. of No. of shoats No. of goats No. of sheep No. of household cattle equines donkeys camels Fasil Angeso PA, Goba 253 1156 555 1490
Hilassa PA, 297 1550 805 1516 Goba
Ashuta PA, 482 7016 1014 5620 Goba
Solana PA, 154 - - - - Nensebo Gerambamo PA, Nensebo 91 1915 411 1455 Sodu Welmal PA, Harena 187 2135 800 Buluk Melka Arba PA, Harena 286 2644 128 3308 640 Buluk Erba PA, Delo Mena 547 3346 356 6568 Berak PA, 3830 Delo Mena 560 7207 24 982 12110
129
9.2 Numbers of Livestock
The approximate numbers of livestock are detailed in Table 9.6. These numbers have been calculated from the numbers of livestock provided by community members within the wealth ranking multiplied by the number of households. There appears to be reasonable consistency between the number of livestock owned by individuals in the different participatory exercises, so this would suggest that the livestock numbers given in the wealth ranking are close to correct. However they may be underestimated – for example herds of 100 cattle were mentioned in Berak (BE3/2007; BE4/2007) yet wealth ranking said even the ‘rich’ had only 30+.
In all PAs livestock numbers owned by an individual have reduced as a result of human population increase, shrinkage in pasture land and crop encroachment. However the fall in livestock numbers in Hilassa PA was directed to the time of the Dergue when there were “continuous droughts with the first experience of aid/relief” (GH7/2007). Indeed here in Hilassa the most dramatic reduction in livestock numbers was highlighted – it was said that in the time of Haile Selassie herders would own 500+ cattle, 20+ equines and 40+ shoats (see Table 9.7). However today herders own only 4 cattle, 1equine and 5 shoats. As a result it was concluded that the number of livestock in the woreda has reduced from 2-3 million to 0.25 million (GH7/2007). In Erba PA, one group complained: During Haile Selassie there was no shortage of pastureland and therefore individuals had over 100 cattle per head. But now due to high population increase and crowding of pastures, the possession of cattle per individual is very low compared to the past (DMER4/2007).
Table 9.7 Trends in Number of Cattle/Livestock Owned by Individuals
PA Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF Reference Rich: 210-310 Rich: 80-125 Rich: 30-75 GFA1/2007; Fasil Angeso Medium: 125 Medium: 45-50 Medium: 10 GFA2/2007; Poor: 20-50 Poor: 5-20 Poor: 0-2 500+ cattle, 20+ 25-30 cattle, 5 4 cattle, 1 equine, GH7/2007 Hilassa equines, 40+ shoats equines, 20 shoats 5 shoats Rich: 160c & 35eq Rich: 80c & 20 eq 40c & 8 eq Ashuta Med: 80c & 12 eq Med: 50c & 5 eq 15c & 6 eq GA6/2007 Poor: 20c & 3 eq Poor: 10c & 2 eq 5c & 2 eq
Solana Rich: 5-20 cattle Rich: 15 various Rich: 5 various NS1/2007 500 livestock or 200 400 livestock or 100 300 livestock or NG2/2007; Gerambamo cattle cattle 50 cattle NG5/2007; Rich: 120+ livestock Rich: 10-20 HBSW1/2007; Sodu Welmal Rich: 70+ livestock livestock HBSW2/2007; Average: 100-150 Average: 65 livestock Average: 30 HBMA5/2007; Melka Arba livestock livestock Average: 100 Average: 50 livestock Average: 5 DMB1/2007 Berak livestock livestock
130
Though in most cases individuals have experienced a reduction in livestock herds, as Table 9.7 illustrates, in Solana PA the number was said to have increased during the Dergue and then reduced again afterwards due to forest land being opened up and agriculture taking up most of that land which had been cleared (see NS6/2007). However, in PAs where livestock was still important, community members agreed that overall, though the numbers of livestock per individual had decreased, the total number of livestock had increased (see Trend Analysis DMER4/2007; and DMB3/2007 below). In Erba PA for example one group stated that the livestock numbers have increased 7- fold (DMER4/2007).
9.3 Grazing
As described in Sections 4.0 – 7.0, traditionally grazing throughout the study area has been good in quality and in quantity. Some areas have been particularly prized, for example the grazing of the Chaffa (or marsh) grass. This is illustrated by a blessing given to married couples in Ashuta PA, and particularly the wife in wishing her “Ganga magida ta’ee”(“horse eats the Chaffa grass and breeds”) meaning ‘ be in good condition and have many children as the horses that graze the marshes of Magida’ (A5/2007).
However as has been be discussed in detail above, the quantity and quality of grazing (and in many cases browse also) has declined greatly over the last 60 years or so. This has meant that the time to access grazing has increased by up to 7-fold (GFA1/2007).
The availability and/or collection of grazing and other resources including water, minerals and fodder differ throughout the seasons (see Table 9.7). Though water and grass may be available in most PAs throughout the year, the quantity and quality of it reduces dramatically. Particularly during the dry season bona, there is inadequate grazing and water in all the PAs and movement and/or feeding of fodder is necessary.
The history of access to grazing differs throughout the study area. Those PAs that were identified as good agricultural land by Haile Selassie such as Ashuta and Hilassa, in Goba woreda, were placed under a landlord or ‘Aba lafa’ and a system introduced where the landlord charged the user for access. When the Dergue took over control of the country this system was abolished and land was returned to ‘the people’ and grazing opened up. Community members praised the Dergue for giving them back their grazing land.
Other PAs that were not seen to have agricultural potential by Haile Selassie like Fasil Angeso were left alone and community members highly praised Haile Selassie for not interfering in their affairs. They commented that during this time they were even permitted to go as far as Saudi Arabia to perform religious ceremonies.
131 TREND ANALYSIS: Group DMB3/2007 – Men – Berak PA
Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF O O O O O Quantity of open O O O O O O grassland O O O O O Quantity of cropland O O O O O O O O Time taken to access O O O O O wet season grazing O O O O O Time taken to access O O O O O dry season grazing O O O O O O O O O O O O O Quantity of browse O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Rights to access to O O O O O O O O O grazing O O O O O Types of livestock kept O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Livestock owned by O O O O O Shortage of rain, shortage of grazing, and rise of individual O O O O O O O O O O O O human and livestock population now O O O O O Livestock nos. increased as human nos. increased, now Livestock in the woreda O O O O O O O O O O O have large no. of households in woreda Conflicts with wildlife O O O O O There is little grazing at this time so high number of for grazing - O O O O O O conflicts over grazing with wildlife. O O O O O Conflict of wild animals O O O O O O O Access to water for O O O O O livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Spring water O O O In the past we used livestock only for own
132 Income from livestock O O O O O O O O O O O consumption but now everyone sells livestock and O O O products O O O O O O O O O O There was excess grazing in the past Food from livestock O O O O O O O O O O O O O Sale of livestock O O O O O O O O O O O product O O O O O The livestock are more weak now. Disease occurrence - O O O O O O O O O
133 Today, community members view the current regime, the EPRDF, with suspicion and highlighted the fact that there is severe land shortage. They did not hesitate in commenting that the current government highly supports agriculture and gives little if not no attention to livestock and livestock extension. Those in the lowland areas in particular complained a lot about the lack of attention for livestock services and the only extension input provided was on agriculture, promoting cultivation.
Table 9.8 Availability of Water, Feed and Minerals in the Study PAs
Water Grass Available Fodder Use of PA Available in PA Collection Hora/Haya Ref. for Carried Out Livestock in PA Lowland Areas DMER2/2007; Erba Mar-Aug Mar-June Nov-Jan DMER3/2007; May-Nov May-Nov (little in HBMA3/2007; Melka Arba (little in bona) June-Nov HBMA1/2007; bona) HBMA5/2007; Most of year Most of year not All year except Hora during dry HBSW2/2007 Sodu not Jan-Feb Jan-Feb (bona) but ganna. season, haya HBSW1/2007 Welmal (bona) low quantity Particularly in during wet bona. season. Mar-May and Most of year not August DMB2/2007 Berak Sep-Oct Aug and Feb Highland Areas All year All year though Mainly in Nov- GFA2/2007 Fasil Angeso round some frost in N/A Jan. A little in Mar-June Mar-June All year Mar-Sept (little in Crop residue all Only some use GH3/2007 Hilassa though Oct-Feb) year esp. Oct- in Oct-Feb limited Oct- Feb Feb During During ganna Wheat, maize & Most occupied Ashuta ganna crop residue fed by agriculture, GA5/2007 in bona not used much Most of year but NS1/2007; Solana Most of year can be poor All year round Not used NS4/2007; quality NS6/2007; Most of year but All year round Gerambamo Most of year can be poor N/A but at a NG3/2007; quality/quantity minimum NG5/2007;
9.4 Minerals
Individuals travel far and wide to reach mineral springs (hora) and mineral licks (haya). Herders use of the springs and licks differ during the wet and dry seasons, their different grazing routes and their distance from the minerals. The hora are found in the highland areas (used both in the wet and dry seasons) and the haya in the lowlands (used more in the wet seasons). During this study more emphasis was placed on collecting information
134 on the hora as many are found close to and/or in the National Park, and as such their use can come into conflict with Park protection.
9.4.1 Hora – Mineral Springs
The hora are considered essential to livestock husbandry and used as a treatment for good health. Animals are allowed to take as much mineral water as they want to satisfy their needs. Locally called ‘nadha baasuu’ in order for the animals to be in good health (clean skin and bright blood), the mineral supplement is most important in the dry season when grazing is poor and livestock tend to get thin.
But there were other advantages mentioned too including: - Fatty and pleasant tasting meat (Hora1/2007) - Higher quantity of milk production (Hora1/2007; Hora2/2007) - Initiates mating (breeding) (Hora1/2007; Hora2/2007; FA2/2007), for example insemination/mating is said to occur after the livestock drink from the hora during the dry season grazing in the forest areas (DM2/2007); - Encourages good appetite (fast eating) so fattens animals (Hora1/2007; Hora2/2007).
The springs are used mainly by cattle and equines. Though some shoats also use the water it is not so important for them, plus too much of the water can result in diarrhoea and reduced body weight (Hora2/2007). The hora are visited on a regular basis, for example every two months though it differs from one PA to another: more details of this are found in Sections 4.0-7.0 where information is given by PA.
The hora is also used for human medicinal purpose (FA2/2007). The well water is said to taste like ‘ambo wuha’.
Observation at two springs showed the following usage:
1. Hora Boofaa (GPS Elevation 8131 masl/ft (CHECK) 09’.05.95N; 030’57.830E
The following use of the hora was recorded during two periods:
Date: 30-11-2007 10.15-11.00am 69 cattle 29 sheep 7 horse 11.15-12.00noon 303 cattle 9 sheep 54 donkeys 2 goats
The hora is used for most of the day. Those who frequent the hora often stay for about one hour. However those who come from long distance will stay for one day, and over night at the hora (BE1/2007).
135 2. Hora Sobbaa (north-west of Dinsho)
The hora can be found 15 minutes from the main road (Dinsho-Shashamane). The following use of the hora was recorded during two hours:
Date: 29-11-2007 11.00am-1.00pm 432 cattle 41 horses 19 donkeys
According to those using the hora the same number had just left and similar numbers will continue to use the water up to 5pm. However the users were not keen to divulge information about the hora – they fear losing access to it as it is located near the Park boundary.
The users collect water from the spring and fill a water trough made of wood for the animals to drink from called bidiru (traditional wooden drinking trough). All livestock use the same trough which could be dangerous for transmitting disease. The hora water is protected by stones that block or divert a flood, as well as the animals. However it can still flood when the rains are heavy, which damages the hora and reduces the mineral content – users stressed this as a problem. In fact, the area below the hora is damp and retains water. This means that animals cannot access the hora easily and moreover the stonework needs to be improved.
Management of the hora depends on the local circumstances. It was stated that no one regulates the use of the Boofaa Hora, however it is recognised that everybody who uses it should keep their turn (i.e. s/he has to manage his/her time and respect others too). This is how the spring has always been used. Those interviewed at Hora Sobaa said that the Elders (herders) regulate the use of the hora in collaboration with the local government administration. In the past the Elders would have regulated the use alone, together with power over other resources. Anyone can use the hora at any time regardless of time and location (Hora2/2007).
Box 9.1 Users of Hora Boofaa
Interview at Hora Boofaa (3 individuals were interviewed – answers put together)
The individuals had taken between 1-2 hours to reach the mineral spring. They came from Hora Boofa PA and use the spring twice per day (mornings and evenings) during the wet season (ganna - grass available but too wet) but only once during the dry season (when the grass is dry). However the frequency of the journey depends upon where one lives: some people who use the hora live in distant PAs and will only make the journey once every one or two weeks. They do not use any other hora (yet!).
Those who frequent the hora often stay for about one hour. However those who come from a long distance will stay for one day, and over night at the hora. No one regulates the use of the hora, however it is recognised that everybody who uses it should keep
136 their turn when he brings the animals (i.e. s/he has to manage his/her time and respect others too). This is how the spring has always been used. The management of the hora is poor but its importance is great, with high numbers of livestock accessing the hora on a daily basis.
According to oral history, this hora used to be found in the centre of a bamboo forest and a bull whose owner was unknown, had used it alone for a long time. The bull was called Boofaa and the hora was named after it. The access to the hora was improved during the Dergue time by making a reservoir and adding a cattle trough, but was damaged some time after. Finally its access was changed during the early years of EPRDF by the Water Development Office in collaboration with other agencies whilst searching for potable water (not for livestock). Currently this mineral water is accessed using a pump and fetched with any container for drinking animals. The water appears similar in taste to Ambo (salty).
Though the route they took was quite direct, they listed out other users who access the hora from three different directions: - Rareba path (western part crossing Shaya River. The users are from Mio, Qaso, Shekmery, Seymena and Karra Harre PAs in Dinsho and Sinana Districts. - Karra Hora path – used by Seyamana and Zallo Ababa PAs in Dinsho District. - Kara Mio path – used by Hommaa, Abakarra, Zallo Ababa, Qaso manos and Warra PAs in Dinsho and Agafira Districts. In addition other PAs near by the hora in both Goba and Sinana Districts are accessing the hora at any time needed.
Box 9.2 Users of Hora Sobaa
Interview at Hora Sobbaa (interviews were carried out with 4 individuals – answers put together). Found north-west of Dinsho.
All the users here come from Sobba PA. About nine PAs were listed that use the hora with a shortest journey of half an hour for those from Sobba and Garemba, and a longest journey of eight hours for those coming from Chofira, Harricho and Hafo PAs located in West Arsi zone (Adabba District).
Though all those interviewed came from the same PA they took different routes – some came from inside the Park, some from outside. Currently they are using the hora once per week because it is dry season (grass is less and dry, no need of using hora frequently). However during ganna or wet season when grass is available, they use the spring for 2-3 days per week based on their location. Users stay at the hora for between one hour and one day – depending on the number of livestock. To use the hora sufficiently it takes 1-2 hours.
The Elders (herders) regulate the use of the hora in collaboration with PA or local administration nearest it. In the past the Elders would have regulated the use alone,
137 together with power over other resources. Anyone can use the hora at any time regardless of time and location. The spring is used by cattle and equines. Shoats do not use the water due to lesser importance for them, plus they can easily be exposed to diarrhoea and reduced body weight.
The families of the users interviewed had used the hora since before Haile Selassie’s time. Many years ago they also used Hora Somburi but it is not in use now due to overflooding and siltation, and then drying up.
9.4.2 Haya – Mineral Licks
In the lowlands mineral licks are used, where salts are found within the soil. The lowlanders equate haya to hora. They also use a hora during the dry season grazing when moved to the forest site. The haya and hora provide similar functions/benefits for livestock, as one group suggested for their local haya:
When livestock feed here they become fat and milk increases (DMBE2/2007).
It was said that livestock need to graze for one month after it rains and before they are strong enough to be able to feed from the mineral licks. Unless the livestock get strong they can not access the mineral licks during bona.
Melka Arba in Harenna Buluk woreda is particularly favoured for its mineral licks, of which there are several: • Haya Urde – very well known for its quality and people from far away go there and load the minerals to take away on a donkey or mule. Previously the livestock herders settled there during the rainy season for a month, but these days it is impossible to do that due to agricultural expansion (see Box 9.3). As a result it is not possible to feed from the haya on site, but it must be taken away on pack animals or through human labour. Increasingly agriculture is cutting off access routes so it can take 5-6 hours to get there. Further the site itself is under threat from agriculture. Most of the haya are facing a similar situation. • Haya Karo – also surrounded by agriculture. • Haya Bugitu – Meda Walabu.
Box 9.3 Haya Urde
Haya mineral licks are highly used by the lowland pastoralists as reported by the Melka Arba community. Hayas are related according to their taste for cattle, abundance and site. In Melka Arba there a number of hayas but Haya Urde is the favourite, used not only by the people in the woreda, but also from Melka Welabu, Delo Mena and others. Currently this haya is under pressure from agricultural expansion. There is no more temporary camping around it due to lack of space. Rather they dig out the minerals and carry them home on mules and donkeys. The people near the haya however feed them on the spot.
138 On visiting the site it was clear that the site is indeed shrinking under pressure from agricultural expansion. Even it is feared that the haya itself may be cultivated in the near future. People in the area are confused when asked who promotes agriculture, even the kebele structures are not aware of what is going on. Though people are against agriculture they still invest in it and plough up the land. Some people commented that “a 15 year old boy/girl can rise from bed and ask for plot of land to cultivate”. Then the immediate solution is to give them land. Some land has already been enclosed. The question of fencing the land for agriculture is high on the agenda of government – common property resources are being compromised for more private/individualistic ‘ownership’.
9.4.3 Alternatives to Natural Mineral Sources
Not everyone has access to natural mineral sources. For example in Hilassa PA and Solana PA the community has no access to hora – instead they add salt to crop residues to feed the animals when needed (GH7/2007) and also add soda (baji) that is purchased from the Rift Valley Lakes (NS6/2007).
9.5 Fodder
Fodder collection only started after the Dergue period as access to grass has become more problematic (GH7/2007; HBSW1/2007; DMB1/2007). It is mainly the duty of women and children to collect the fodder (ER01/2007; ER02/2007; ER03/3007; SW2/2007; GH7/2007) or make hay (GH7/2007; HBSW1/2007). However some groups mentioned that it was the duty of the male (DM2/2007), particularly helping to collect from more distant places when the need arose (GH7/2007).
Where agriculture is a greater part of the livelihood system, crop residues and hay is fed to livestock on a regular basis. However where this is not the case people rely more on wild species (shrubs, grasses and trees) to supplement grazing/browsing. Table 9.9 shows the different fodder species listed by respondents.
139 Table 9.9 Fodder Species Collected by Respondents
Local Name Type Species Collected Where? Notes Only leaves are collected. ER01/2007; ER02/2007; Gaalle Bombii Climber Erba PA; Important properties for weak ER03/2007; animals and new born calves fed at home. Fattens up and makes clean ERObs3/2007; SW3/2007; Homba Climber Erba PA; Melka Arba PA; blood. Both leaves, parts and ER01/2007; ER02/2007; fruits are eaten. ER01/2008; Increases milk production, ERObs3/200; ER03/2007; Dikii Climber Erba PA; Melka Arba PA; fattening, clean blood. ER01/2007; ERObs4/2007; Only leaves are collected though SW3/2007; ER01/2008; other said all plant fed to animals. Only leaves collected though Wayabossa Climber Erba PA; other said all plant is fed to ER02/2007; ER03/2007; animals. Important properties ERObs3/2007; for weak animals and new born ERObs4/2007; ER03/2007; calves fed at home. Increases ER01/2008; milk production, fattening, clean blood and initiates breeding. All parts eaten and highly ER03/2007; Gallee Xorsoo Climber Erba PA; Melka Arba PA; favoured. Easily cut, collected ER02/2007; ERObs4/2007; for calves, good for health of SW3/2007; FA1/2007; animal. FA2/2007; Feed just to fill stomach, though ERObs4/2007; ER03/2007; Arabee Tree Verpisd ainellielli Erba PA; Melka Arba PA; fattens too. Only ER02/2007; ERObs3/2007; branches/leaves collected and SW3/2007; SW3b/2007; fed to cattle. ER01/2008; Only branches/leaves collected ERObs4/2007; ER03/2007; Matoqomaa Tree Celtis africana Erba PA; and fed to cattle. ER02/2007; ERObs3/2007; ER01/2008; Evergreen plant highly favoured ERObs1/2007; Gora Thorny Erba PA; by goats and eaten all year
140 bush round. Rhus natalensis krauss Leaves are collected and used as ERObs1/2007; Dabobesa Tree Erba PA; a forage Highly favoured by goats (leaves ERObs1/2007; ER01/2008; Sapansa/Spansa Tree Acacia species Erba PA; are collected or eaten). Also eaten by camels. Leaves are eaten by goat and ERObs1/2007; ER01/2008; Wacu Tree Acacia species Erba PA; camels Plentiful all year round. Highly ERObs1/2007; BE1/2007; Amarresa/Hamaressa Tree Acacia species Erba PA; Berak PA; favoured by camels. Leaves, ER01/2008; branches and fruits eaten by camels and goats. ERObs1/2007; Jirimee Tree Acacia species Erba PA; ERObs1/2007; Observation; Fursa Tree Acacia species Erba PA; Berak PA; ERObs1/2007; Observation; Burquqe Tree Acacia lahahi Erba PA; Berak PA; Leaves, branches and fruits are ER01/2008; Wangai Tree Erba PA; eaten by goats and camels. High milk production (only ERObs1/2007; Birressa/Birdhesa Tree Terminalia brownie Erba PA; leaves are collected and used as ERObs2/2007; a forage) Only leaves collected and fed to ER01/2008; Koriba Tree Erba PA; cattle. Tree ERObs1/2007; Haroresa Erba PA; ERObs2/2007; High milk production, good ERObs1/2007; BE1/2007; Qanqura Tree Erba PA; Berak PA performance fattening, breeding Leaves collected and fed to ER01/2008; Ulaga Tree Erba PA; cattle. Leaves, branches and fruits are ER01/2008; Koka Tree Erba PA; eaten by camels and goats. Highly favoured by goats and ERObs1/2007; Dhigrii Shrub Erba PA; other livestock ERObs2/2007; ERObs4/2007;
141 Leaves and fruits eaten both by ERObs1/2007; Irqee/Mulqa Tree Filicium decipiens Erba PA; livestock (camels and goats) and ERObs2/2007; humans. Only when hungry. ERObs3/2007; ER01/2008; Erythrococca Berak PA High milk production, good for BE1/2007; Fu’o Tree atrauirens fattening, available all year round Leaves are collected for animals; ERObs2/2007; Biqa Tree Erba PA; fruits eaten by animal and human High milk production ERObs2/2007; Dhoqonu Erba PA; Good for fattening BE1/2007 Agarsu Berak PA; High milk production, good for BE1/2007; Lukkato Berak PA; fattening Good for fattening BE1/2007; Silacha Berak PA; Available all year round BE1/2007; Bodaa Berak PA Berak PA; Erba PA Available all year round. Best BE1/2007; ERObs2/2007; Cita/Marga/Marg Grass fodder of all. Easily found ERObs3/2007; ER01/2008; around in abundance (Erba PA). DMBE2/2007; Favoured by livestock. Forest Erba PA; ER01/2008; Gamagne grass Berak PA; Available all year round BE1/2007 Hurufa Forest Sodu Welmal PA; Grass. High milk production and ERObs2/2007; Daafa grass – Erba PA; Fasil Angeso fattens livestock, initiates ERObs4/2007; FA1/2007; broad PA; Melka Arba PA; breeding, makes clean blood. FA2/2007; GR3/2007; leafed SW3/2007; MA2/2007; ER01/2008; Easily cut, collected for calves, FA1/2007; FA2/2007 Ejersa Tree Olea africana good for health of animal. Fasil Angeso PA; Just to feed livestock when find FA1/2007 Kombolcha Shrub Mytenus senegalinsis near house. Just to feed livestock when find Garamba Tree Fasil Angeso PA near house. FA1/2007
142 Pittosporum Fasil Angeso PA Feed livestock when find near Ara Tree abyssinicum house. Also used as medicine. FA1/2007 Fasil Angeso PA Feed livestock when find near Keshome house. FA1/2007 Fasil Angeso PA The leaves are eaten by FA2/2007 Qachama Shrub livestock. It is also used as medicine for animals. Fasil Angeso PA FA2/2007 Gale Annano Climber Melka Arba PA; Berak Fills their belly DMBE2/2007; SW3/2007; Gale/Gallee Climber PA; SW3b/2007; For body building and bright ERObs2/2007; Hamoca/Homa Erba PA; shiny blood. High milk production. Leaves ERObs2/2007; Ogomdi Tree Erba PA; collected and fed to animals
Hirqe Tree Erba PA; ERObs2/2007;
Dhigli Melka Arba PA; Good browse MA2/2007; ERObs3/2007; Gagama Tree ERObs4/2007; Erba PA; Berak PA; Favoured shrub. Good browse. ERObs3/2007; BE1/2007; Gurbi/Gumbi??? Shrub Melka Arba PA; MA2/2007; Feed to fill stomach, fattens Qaca Fibre/Tree? Erba PA; livestock, increases milk ERObs4/2007; ER01/2008; production and makes clean blood and initiates breeding. Leaves fed to cattle. Erba PA; Makes clean blood, fattens, ERObs4/2007; ER01/2008; Amoca Climber increases milk production. Favoured by all herbivores including wildlife. Erba PA; Makes clean blood, fattens, ERObs4/2007; Onoma Tree increase milk production. Crop Fasil Angeso PA; FA1/2007; FA2/2007; residue Gerambamo PA; M.Arba Keeps livestock strong GR3/2007; SW2/2007;
143 PA; Hilassa PA; GH7/2007; GH3/2007; Hilassa PA; In their ‘green’ stage GH3/2007; Oats? Crop Hilassa PA Collected from farmlands for H1/2007 Sirana residue? oxen Enset stem, Gerambamo PA; Contains moisture NS6/2007; Weesi(Enset) leaves, root Banana Gerambamo PA; NS6/2007; stem, Contains moisture leaves, root Hilassa PA; Leaves used in bad time H1/2007 Heexo Tree Hagenia abyssinica Leaves Hilassa PA; Leaves H1/2007 Gaddeena Leaves SW2/2007; Sugar cane Sodu Welmal PA;
Ebicha Veronica species
Maize Sodu Welmal PA; SW3b/2007
Teff straw Sodu Welmal PA; Solana SW3b/2007; NS6/2007; PA
Damii Straw? Sodu Welmal PA; SW3b/2007; Berak PA; Leaves fed to weak and lactating HBMA5/2007; DMBE2/2007; Oda Tree Ficus Melka Arba PA; animals Residue of local beer Gerambamo PA NS6/2007;
Note: Gale/gallee means climber
144 10.0 MOBILITY, LAND AND CHANGING LAND USE PATTERNS
10.1 Land
A number of factors have influenced land, land distribution and use within the study PAs. These include the increase of enclosures; settlement, land certification and re- distribution of land; resettlement of settlers from outside the area; subsistence and commercial agriculture. Further political restructuring has had an impact on geographical distribution of PAs.
10.1.1 Enclosures
Private grazing kalo (enclosures) have increased in several of the study PAs including Gerambamo and Solana PAs in Nensebo, and Erba, Delo Mena (NG3/2007; ER04/2007). The question of fencing the land for agriculture was said to high on the agenda of government – common property resources are being compromised for more private/individualistic ‘ownership’.
In Gerambamo PA all land is fenced as private enclosures and livestock does not move (NGR4/2007; GR1/2007). Those people who only have small numbers of livestock or no livestock at all, rent out their enclosures to those who have larger numbers. One respondent stated that he receives ETB25 per head of livestock per year. Any dung that is left from the livestock is used for fuel and fertiliser, though increasingly it is being used for fuel as fuelwood has become scarcer.
However adequate grass for livestock does not last all year round in the enclosures and by the time of the dry season it has become scarce (NG3/2007). Fodder is then provided to supplement the grazing (see Section 9.5). Further the land tends to be infested with ticks (silma and dirandisa) and therefore cattle are not kept there for a long period of time (ER04/2007).
The increased number of enclosures is meaning a great reduction in mobility and a ‘privatisation’ of resources. This is having a fundamental impact on the livestock systems in the area. Though it would appear that enclosures are benefiting those who have access to them, their establishment is curtailing the mobility and grazing of others e.g. blocking corridors to grazing areas.
10.1.2 Settlement, Certification and Re-Distribution of Land
Settlement has increased in all the study PAs due to increased population, redistribution of land to landless youth, and reduced mobility with an increase in subsistence agriculture.
Certification of land has occurred in all the lowland PAs, however in the highlands and particularly in the forested areas it is yet to be carried out. As a result those who reside
145 in the forest areas graze their livestock locally. There is no ‘private’ land there. As one group of respondents said: Their case is not decided yet but then forest land is not just going to be given to anyone (NGR4/2007).
Land is measured in timads which change according to the agricultural potential of the land. Eight to twelve timads are considered the same as a hectare in the highland areas where agricultural potential is low, whereas on the plains (outside Goba town) where agricultural potential is higher, six or less timads are considered the same as a hectare.
In some of the PAs, such as Ashuta, the government is said to be ‘rationing grazing land’ and redistributing that which is considered to be ‘in excess’ or ‘vacant’ to the landless youth for agriculture (GA6/2007). In Gerambamo PA, for example since 2007 any remaining common grazing area including livestock movement corridors and pockets of common land has been distributed to the landless/jobless youth while individual holdings have been legalised and then fenced (NGR4/2007).
This proved to be a highly sensitive ‘hot’ issue and respondents were wary of discussing it. It was clear that it was having a great impact on mobility of livestock and access to dry and wet season grazing areas for example along the Magida River (A5/2007).
10.1.3 Resettlement
Several of the PAs mentioned an influx of settlers from the early 2000s due to the government’s resettlement programme bringing the landless from Haraghe and settling them in the woreda to the south of the National Park, namely Harenna Bulk including Sodu Welmal and Melka Erba PAs.
10.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture was blamed as a cause of reduced grazing in all of the PAs that took part in this study (e.g. HBMA5/2007; DMB1/2007; DMB3/2007).
In Solana PA it was stated that there were no natural resources left for livestock: all the land has been occupied by fruit trees, enset, coffee and crops (NS05/2007).
In Hilassa PA the numbers of livestock have reduced dramatically since the time of Haile Selassie due to private cultivation. During this time of herders would own 500+ cattle, 20+ equines and 40+ shoats. However today herders would only own 4 cattle, 1equine and 5 shoats. As a result it was concluded that the number of livestock in the woreda has reduced from 2-3 million to 0.25 million (GH7/2007). This fall in livestock numbers was also related to “continuous droughts with first experience of aid/relief” during the Dergue (GH7/2007).
Access to mineral springs has also been curtailed due to agriculture so temporary camping around them is no longer possible (see Section 9.4.2). In some areas there is
146 talk of even ploughing up the mineral springs themselves to grow crops, for example Haya Urde.
10.1.5 Commercial Agriculture
Commercial agriculture has expanded dramatically in the area including coffee plantations in forest areas (O’tu) in Erba PA with some areas being totally restricted/prevented (ER04/2007).
There are also fruit plantations (including avocado); and irrigation/agriculture along the Yodati River in Erba PA (ER04/2007).
Land in Delo Mena has been allocated to the growing of biofuels.
Access to rivers has been curtailed reducing water sources and wet/dry season grazing (particularly Hilassa PA; Ashuta PA).
10.2 Political Restructuring
Fasil Angeso was previously Fasil PA and Angeso PA, but due to new government structures they have been combined. This is not only the case with this PA but many others too. The reason is that the kebeles are starting to be chaired by literate, salaried chairmen, and because of a lack of funds for the salaries the government has reduced the numbers of PAs by combining them. This has meant two very different PAs with different characteristics being combined.
147 11.0 MAIN CHALLENGES AND PROBLEMS
11.1 Livestock Disease
The majority of respondents identified livestock disease as a major problem. Different local diseases highlighted by respondents (and where possible their English name or description of symptoms) are listed in Table 11.1.
It was suggested that disease occurrence has reduced over time due to the more readily available vaccinations and treatments (HBSW2/2007). However others said that today the animals are weaker than they were before so are more susceptible to disease (DMB3/2007). Several respondents complained that the local agricultural offices provided little if no extension services for livestock, only agriculture. And in some PAs (for example Erba PA) there is no veterinarian.
In the highland areas it was said that disease is more prevalent in the wetter seasons as the animals get cold and are more vulnerable (NS1/2007), particularly in woodland grazing areas such as raso (DM03/2007).
In the lowlands disease was said to be more prevalent in the dry and windy seasons (DM1/2007; DM2/2007; HBSW1/2007; HBMA4/2007; NG1/2007) when animals are more stressed due to reduction in water and feed. Further during this time water points get polluted and both livestock and humans find it very uncomfortable (DM2/2007).
One of the researchers stated that in Erba PA: When I came to the village people welcomed me with hope that they will find a solution for these challenging diseases. Many people came to me with their animals and presumed that my study concerned livestock disease – even some were saying that I had come to vaccinate their animals. This shows a strong expectation and need to work on it.
He observed some sick and emaciated goats among the flocks and one goat herder said that he used to look after 200 heads of goats two months ago but because of diarrhoea (albaatii), cough (quffaa), lung disease (dhukkuba somba guba) and skin disease (citoo) the number had dropped to 40. Indeed, as can be seen community members mentioned many different diseases in Erba PA (see Table 11.1).
Local mechanisms for such diseases as gorba, dhukuba and aba sanga include: - Burying the livestock that die; - Burning the dead animals; and - Leaving the area immediately.
148 TABLE 11.1 Livestock Diseases Found in Study Area5
Local Name English Name Prevalent Mentioned Attacks Comment When/Where? Where? Who? DMER02/2007; Abba sanga or Dhikkuba Anthrax Wet and dry season. Erba PA; Berak Cattle ER01/2007; Hora2/2007; Awwaara More prevalent in PA6; Hora Sobbaa; Equines BE3/2007; BE4/2007; (not clear whether Kills within 24 hours lowlands. Sodu Welmal; Goat DM5/2007; DM4/2007; awara is the same as Said to be more DM2/2007; GA5/2007; abba sanga or not). Awara – swells, prevalent in June and HBSW2/2007; Also some have called communicable disease October DMBE2/2007; anthrax Qirxibuss (see (DMBE2/2007). below) Sheep, DMER02/2007; Abba Gorba or Black Leg – kills Adolessa or hagaya Erba PA; Hora Cattle, ER02/2007; ER01/2007; Dhayicha/Dhehichaa immediately. Attacks and sometimes late Sobaa; Sodu Welmal Equines ERObs2/2007; (Not clear whether when cattle fed well. gana – when the PA; Hora2/2007; these are the same or livestock body HBSW1/2007; not) condition is better. DMER3/2007; DM5/2007; DM2/2007; Attacks when cattle are Highland and Cattle ERObs2/2007; Furto/furtu fattened. Swells livestock. lowland. Erba PA; DMER02/2007; DMER03/2007; DM5/2007; Diarrhoea mixed with Dry season. Erba PA; Sodu Cattle ERObs2/2007; Tumma/tumea blood. Attacks when March Welmal; Berak PA; DMER03/2007; cattle are hungry. (DMBE2/2007) DMBE2/2007; DM5/2007;
5 Respondents explained that there were two types of diseases: 1. Those that occurred in their local area and 2. Those that occurred in areas outside their area which they came into contact with when searching for pasture and water e.g. anthrax. 6 Anthrax was mentioned by several respondents in Berak PA and said to be caused when livestock eat the dead bones of the tortoise, of which there are many in Berak (BE3/2007; BE4/2007).
149 Damages teeth meaning HBSW2/2007; cannot eat causing death. HBSW1/2007 Causes stomach cramps. Stomach ache, diarrhoea. Wagabar wet season Erba PA; Berak PA; Cattle ERObs2/2007; BE3/2007; Joksa or Biira (Gandi in Urine mixed with blood grazing, Berak. Sodu Welmal PA; DMER03/2007; Amharic) (Some said and getting thin. Low Or dry season, when Berak PA; DM5/2007; joksa and birra were milk production. Birra – short of grazing. HBSW1/2007; different diseases?) faeces mixed with blood. DMBE2/2007; Diarrhoea, swelling of Erba PA; DM/2007; Gandi head (main disease of cattle – DM2/2007) Burns eyes Erba PA; Donkeys DM03/2007; Daalchaa Caused when livestock Common in gamoji or Erba PA; Cattle ERObs2/2007; Qirixi busa eats remains of dead hot area DM5/2007; DM2/2007; tortoise during adolessa Erba PA; Cattle ERObs2/2007; Naqarsa Parasitic Disease Erba PA; Cattle ERObs2/2007; Injiraan When raining heavily. Erba PA; Cattle DMER03/2007; Raso Diarrhoea and Bona (Nov-Jan) and Fasil Angeso PA Cattle GFA2/2007; Rajo (same are Raso?) constipation? Furmata (Mar-June) Acute disease can kill Bona Ashuta PA GA5/2007; Dika within 2-3 days.
Sunsuuna Erba PA; DMER02/2007; Foot and Mouth Disease Cattle DMER02/2007; Mansa – though another says it Erba PA; Chickens DMER03/2007; attacks chickens? DMER5/2007; DMER03/2007; Galbo Saala Cripples the livestock Erba PA; DMER02/2007
150 DMER02/2007; Daraba Bends the neck Erba PA; ER02/2007; DMER03/2007; Particularly in kalo Erba PA; Cattle, ER02/2007; ER01/2007; Silmii/silma/dirandisa Ticks: damages udder. Goats? ER04/2007/ Erba PA; Goats ERObs2/2007; Guguda Tick born disease Erba PA; Goats ERObs2/2007; Tafki Lice esp. newborn kids Main disease of goats Erba PA; Goats DM1/2007; Gifis (DM1/2007) Swelling of throat and Rainy season (July- Fasil Angeso; Hilassa; Sheep GFA2/2007; Marula/Manula coughing. Kills. Oct & Mar-June) Ashuta; Others? GH4/2007; GA5/2007; Erba PA; ER02/2007; Nefarsaa Erba PA; Sodu Calves ER02/2007; Gagabsaa/Gogsa Kills immediately. Welmal PA; DMER03/2007; [Are these the same] Damages skin. Diarrhoea. ERObs2/2007; DM5/2007; HBSW2/2007; Erba PA; ER02/2007; Dhibee alatfir Fingill Fungus? Erba PA; Chickens? ER 02/2007;
Kiliil/Killisi Adolessa Erba PA; Horse, ER02/2007; Donkey ERObs2/2007; DMER03/2007; Erba PA; Horse, ER02/2007; Daariis/Diris Donkeys ERObs2/2007; Erba PA; Equines ERObs2/2007; Kafira
151 Erba PA; Equines ERObs2/2007; Biche Kills Erba PA; Equines DM1/2007; Dalacha Kills Erba PA; Equines DM1/2007; Salaxa Erba PA; Goat, ERObs1/2007; Albaatii/Daraba Diarrhoea Cattle Quffa Erba PA; Goat, ERObs1/2007; Cough Camels ERObs2/2007; DM5/2007; Dhukkuba somba guba/ In dry season Erba PA; Goat ERObs2/2007; Asiga/Alatti (Are these Lung disease ERObs1/2007; the same?) DM2/2007; Erba PA; Goat, ERObs1/2007; Citoo Skin disease, wounds Camel ERObs2/2007; DM5/2007; Erba PA; Goat esp. ERObs2/2007; Quandho/Qanno Pneumonia newborn DM5/2007; kids Erba PA; Goat DM5/2007; Qollee Swollen throat of animal Hora Sobbaa Cattle, Hora2/2007 Dhoowa Shoats Liver disease Hora Sobbaa Hora2/2007 Sombe Attacks animal’s nose Qundhii grazing area, Erba PA; ERObs4/2007; Ulaanul and tongue when drink outside Erba PA; water and causes bleeding Grazing areas Hilassa PA H1/2007 Cimiso converted to crops in Hilassa PA
152 Wagabar wet season Berak PA BE3/2007 Kiriti grazing Erba PA; Camels DM5/2007; Harare Deafens Erba PA; Camels DM5/2007; Shimbro Swells Erba PA; Camels DM5/2007; Qanache Erba PA; Camels DM5/2007; Xilfe Swells Erba PA; Camels DM5/2007; Hoggota Erba PA; Camels DM5/2007; Hudha Erba PA; Camels DM5/2007; Botootee Wounds In March. Berak PA; DMBE2/2007; Jongii
153 11.2 Restriction of Mobility and Loss of Grazing
Restriction of mobility has increased dramatically in the last fifteen years and particularly in the last five years. This is due to the points raised in Section 10.0 including: 1. Settlement and subsistence agriculture particularly in Fasil Angeso PA (GFA2/2007), Hilassa PA (GH7/2007), Ashuta PA (GA6/2007) Erba PA particularly Qute (ER04/2007); 2. Commercial agriculture including coffee plantation in forest area (O’tu) in Erba PA with some areas being totally restricted/prevented (ER04/2007). There are also fruit plantations (including avocado); and irrigation/agriculture along the Yodati River in Erba PA (ER04/2007) and the threat of biofuel farming in Delo Mena. 3. Individual enclosures (kalo) restricting free movement in some PAs (such as Gerambamo and Solana in Nensebo and Erba in Delo Mena (NG3/2007; ER04/2007). 4. Redistribution/distribution to the landless youth – already occurred in Gerambamo PA and a highly sensitive current issue in other PAs including in Ashuta PA (A1/2007; GA6/2007).
All respondents commented that the quantity and quality of grassland and browse had decreased since the time of Haile Selassie (see various Trend Analyses above). Mobility has been greatly restricted and where severely curtailed it has encouraged people to turn to more sedentarised forms of livestock rearing and agriculture (see Nensebo woreda).
For those who remain dependent on more transhumant livestock rearing, it means that they must now travel further and longer to reach grazing areas and water, avoiding blocked routes. For example in Fasil Angeso a group of youth described that during the Dergue it used to take 10 minutes to reach grazing areas, now it takes 1.5 hours (GFA2/2007).
11.3 Lack of Support from Government for Livestock and Pastoralism
A common complaint from respondents was that farmers and herders got little support from government extension services for livestock and livestock-related livelihoods. Instead the government almost solely promoted agriculture, there being no livestock ‘experts’ at the woreda or PA level.
A local government employee presented the local government’s strategy on livestock at the dissemination workshop held in Robe after the research was completed (see Appendix 4). The main points he raised were: - Livestock are one of the primary sources of income for Bale mixed farmers, agro pastoralists and pastoralists. In mixed crop-livestock production systems livestock support crop production and vice versa. There are large numbers of animals in the area, but animals provide little value for the farmers due to ‘low productivity’. This ‘low productivity’ is a result of local breed type, poor
154 management, overstocking, poor feeding, lack of appropriate technology, and disease. - As a result government is focussing on improving production through dairy development including cross-breeding local animals with Holstein Friesen through artificial insemination, distribution of crossed heifers, and a dairy bull station. A fattening programme including field lot fattening is also underway. However this programme proves expensive so local people still prefer to fatten cattle in a more traditional way supplementing grazing with cut and carried grass and fodder. - The government is also supporting the establishment of milk cooperatives – to date one has been established in Delo Mena and another is being established in Raitu. - Other interventions include introduction of improved beehives (top-bar and frame) and support for poultry farming. - There was little mention of pastoralism which came at the end of the presentation. Two aspects were mentioned as being priorities for local government: 1) Rangeland management in which the government is focussing on bush encroachment, water point development, pond construction and maintenance, hand dug wells, and fodder tree development; and 2) Breed improvement including selection and culling, and crossing with Boran breed.
Further discussion on these issues followed and the following suggestions were made: • The policy of government on ‘godantu’ should be made clear. Though on the one hand the local government states that they support mobility, there is a clear bias towards agriculture (as per government policy on pastoralism summarised in Chapter 1.0). There is still the perception that if only food and water was provided to livestock at the homestead then there would be no need for movement. • How was the growing number of livestock to be reconciled with local land use plans • Improved breeds vs local breed. The presenter commented that the government was looking at crossing local breeds with such as the ‘Borana bulls’. • The current bush encroachment on grazing land (some farmers take the initiative to burn bushes which causes conflict between government and the community). How to manage such situations in the future? The current ‘sato burning incident’ was raised.
Further, within the workshop participants discussed ‘Policy Issues’. Issues highlighted included: • There is no transparent land use policy (policy made at higher level without involving the successive lower levels including the community) • The land use policy or the livestock policy did not consider the ‘godantu’. • Certification for farmers done but common land holders like the pastoralist has no certificate yet – it is not clear how the government will apply certification on common land.
155 • There is no awareness of a land use policy. This is not only amongst the community but also the policy executers at the lower level have poor understanding. • There is no clear and separate policy for mixed farming and pastoralism concerning livestock. • Further there is poor policy implementation
It was suggested that there should be: • Policy revision. • Awareness creation on all policy matters. • All stakeholders need to participate in policy formulation process from inception up to implementation with varying degree. • Clear and practicable policy should be formulated on livestock.
Challenges identified included: • Challenges of accepting new development by the community and therefore need long time to convince them. • There is also resistance to new policy. • There is poor access to livelihood opportunities – there is no consideration for the livelihoods of the poor when certain decisions are made. • There is a lack of skilled manpower and resources.
It was suggested that the following actions should be taken: • Policy revision – by government with stakeholders • Implementation of policies – government, community and stakeholders • Workable livestock development policy formulation by the government.
11.4 Conflicts with Wild Animals
Conflicts with wild animals where divided into two types: firstly conflicts over grazing, and secondly attacks on livestock by animals.
It was said that conflicts over grazing have increased as resources are under greater pressure (DMB3/2007; DMB1/2007).
Additionally some said that attacks from wild animals on livestock have steadily increased over time (HBMA5/2007). Several respondents complained that in particular the number of hyenas and related attacks on livestock have increased. And they were appealing to the government for assistance with the issue (GH7/2007; HBMA5/2007). Reasons for increased attacks were said to include the shortage of grazing land and the ban on the burning of sato (Erica spp.) which was introduced during the Dergue. As a group of youth described: Because there is no burning there are more animals that come to our house to steal (GFA2/2007 – and in below Trend Analysis).
156 It was said that goats in particular were susceptible to attack from hyena (warabesa), jackal (jedala), leopard (qeransa), dero and iyya (wild dog). Lion, hyena and wild dog tend to be found in the higher areas (e.g. Berak PA) and baboons and jackals in the lower areas (e.g. around Welmal River) (DMBE1/2007). One youth group commented that the ‘fox’ ate shoats (GH6/2007), though it is more likely that these attacks were either from a jackal or a hyena.
One group in Erba PA complained: Although the number of wild animals was high during Haile Selassie the conflicts with livestock were low since there was enough pastureland for all and no need to move with livestock. Now due to shortage of grazing land conflicts with wild animals has increased. Previously in the area people had weapons and were praised for killing animals such as lions but not now. It is impossible to kill them now. In addition the community doesn’t own weapons. Therefore the incidence of livestock killed by wild animals is on the rise (DMER4/2007).
However others suggested that incidences of attacks on livestock have reduced being their worst during the Dergue. For example one group of Elders said that they remembered that once a hyena ate 3 donkeys in one day (GFA1/2007). Further in some areas where forests have been cleared since Haile Selassie’s time and agriculture has increased, the number of wild animals themselves have reduced dramatically, having all moved from the settled area (for example in Sodu Welmer PA – HBSW1/2007). Additionally, here livestock is kept close to the homestead at night so there is little room for attack. They will only face wild animals when visiting the forests for dry season grazing and here they can be protected by the herders (HBSW2/2007).
11.5 National Park
However, though most respondents said that they experienced conflicts with wild animals, few showed negative feelings towards the National Park.
Indeed some suggested that access to the Park has improved over time. For example a group from Fasil Angeso PA described how during the time of Haile Selassie the area was owned by a landlord so access was very restricted; this restriction increased somewhat during the Dergue when it was said that “You couldn’t move out of your area and the Park was protected.” However restriction of use, particularly of the forest areas proved difficult due to the age-old customary usage of the forest and now, during the EPRDF the group said: “We graze in the Park as we like”, their being no restriction over access (see Trend Analysis GFA2/2007 above).
However several community members, particularly those who used the forest areas of the Park for dry season grazing (for example Harena Buluk woreda) showed concern and fear that the National Park would increase its enforcement and protection measures and limit the grazing there. Further management practices and protection of natural resources have had an impact – for example the ban on Erica as described above.
157 TREND ANALYSIS Group GFA/2 – Youth – Fasil Angeso PA
Haile Selassie Dergue EPRDF O O O O O Quantity of grassland O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Land under cultivation O O O O O O O O O O O No farming practiced Settlement & farming started Farming land expanding Time taken for accessing - grazing in wet season Livestock taken to grazing in morning and return in afternoon Time taken for accessing grazing in dry season - Some said 10 minutes 1.5 hours O O O O O Quantity of browse available O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Access rights Land owned by landlord “You couldn’t move out of your O O O O O area & Park was protected” “We graze in Park as we like.” Rich = 210 + Rich = 125 Rich = 75 Quantity of livestock owned Medium = 125 Medium = 50 Medium = 10 Poor = 20 Poor = 5 Poor = 2 O O O O O O O O O O Conflict with wild animals - O O O O O O O O grazing Because no burning of sato (Erica) “Because no burning there are more animals that come to our house to steal”
Time to access hora 4 hrs Income from livestock (taken to mean the value of money O O O O O O O O O O O O O at the time) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Food from livestock O O O O O O O O The productivity reduced. Now eat oil.
158 The issues around the National Park were also discussed in the dissemination workshop. Problems identified were: • Unregulated grazing in the Park • Lack of clear boundary of the Park • Issue of ‘sato’/Erica burning for grazing • Absence of benefit sharing with local community • Farmland encroachment • Settlement in the Park • Lack of ownership • The impact of livestock grazing on wildlife not assessed • Lack of alternative livelihoods
The following solutions were suggested: • Regulating grazing in the Park o Challenges – skilled manpower, budget • Demarcate and re-demarcate the Park boundary in collaboration with the local community o Challenges – negative reaction from the community o Budget shortage • Regulate or ban Erica burning o Challenges – poor law enforcement o Shortage of fire controlling equipment • Develop benefit sharing scheme o Challenge – lack of skills and budget • Conduct study on the impact of livestock grazing on wildlife o Challenge – lack of resources • Implement current land use policy o Challenge – lack of ownership by the community, budget shortage • Stop or control settlement in the Park o Challenge – lack of strong local institutions • Create awareness o Challenge – lack of resources
It was suggested that the following actions should be taken by the NGOs such as FZS, the Park offices, and BERSMP: • Identification of resources use types in the sustainable NRM zones • Law enforcement in core conservation zones • Development of grazing guidelines • Participatory re/demarcation of the Park boundary • Better benefit sharing with communities.
159 12.0 CONCLUSIONS
12.1 Livestock as a Central Pillar of Livelihood Systems
Livestock remains a central pillar of the majority of livelihoods in the Bale Ecoregion. However, for many the nature of this livestock livelihood system has changed and today a more diverse set of communities and their livelihoods is found based on resources (natural and economic) available, degree of ‘outside influence’, etc. Though in the past people has almost entirely depended on livestock for their livelihoods and mainly cattle, today households have diversified towards farming and business development, and those that still have livestock now tend to have a more mixed herd.
Indeed, as has been shown in the individual chapters and summarised in Sections 8.0 and 9.0 the types of livestock have changed. In the past people used to have more cattle and only cattle, however today people have reduced their cattle numbers and include sheep, goats, shoats and camels in their herds. The main reason for this is the change in the availability of grazing – the reduced amount has meant a reduction in the number of cattle that can be healthily supported. Reduction has been caused by a number of factors including increased human population with smaller herds, and reduced accessibility to grazing areas due to agriculture etc. Many people have moved to include goats in their herds as they are able “to eat anything” and do not need to be taken to different grazing pastures. In Delo Mena, particularly in the lowland areas, people have invested in camels as they are able to survive on less quality browse and more staggered watering.
Livestock numbers within all woreda (where figures were available) have risen. Unfortunately there were no figures available for livestock figures in each PA, and therefore those collected within this study can only be used as an estimated baseline (calculated through the wealth ranking exercise) (see Table 9.6) and can not be compared with any previous data. However respondents agreed that livestock numbers within most of the PAs have increased, however they stressed that the number of livestock numbers held by individuals have reduced dramatically. Rather it is due to human population increase holding small numbers of livestock that have contributed to the higher numbers.
In many PAs (including Fasil Angeso, Ashuta and Hilassa PAs in Goba; Sodu Welmal and Melka Arba PAs in Harenna Buluk; and Erba and Break PAs in Delo Mena) the traditional godantu system is still used by livestock keepers to utilise resources on a seasonal basis. As described in Section 1.0 the herd is split into two – the fora consisting of dry cows, bulls, camels and sometimes goats that will travel long distances to distant pastures and water points. Secondly, the warra (young, sick or milking cows) will be kept close to the household.
The large migrations of the fora herd take place in two directions. One from lowland areas during the dry season when there is a lack of water and grazing, plus presence of livestock diseases. Livestock will be moved up to the higher altitudes and in particular forested areas that provide shade, grazing and browse (including in Sodu Welmal and
160 Melka Arba PAs in Harenna Buluk). The lower altitudes provide grazing during the wet season when surface water and grazing is available there. However for those living at mid-altitudes where agriculture is possible during the wetter months, livestock may be taken up onto the Sanetti plateau away from crops (rather than down to the lowlands) e.g. in Fasil Angeso, Goba.
Though it has been suggested that such movements are no longer a part of a natural resource management strategy but rather the result of poor land use planning (BMNP 2006) this research disagrees. Instead we suggest that livestock keepers are still making rational decisions about optimal use of resources as part of a natural resource management strategy and despite challenges, for the time being, are able to utilise the landscape in an effective manner. However it is agreed that poor land use planning is threatening this system, together with a lack of knowledge and support for effective livestock based systems.
It is agreed further that there are clear divisions between the different woreda and indeed PAs, in their livelihood systems where some are still transhumant livestock based and others are cultivation oriented (as per Solomon undated). However it is suggested that the use of fodder within past literature and reports has been severely underestimated, both natural ‘wild’ vegetation and the use of crop and other residues. As Table 9.9, Section 9.5 has shown a wide range of fodder plants are collected and used by livestock keepers. As Trend Analyses have shown this collection and use has increased greatly in recent years. Though community members state that they do not use the whole tree, shrub or plant, but only the leaves, their collection and use should be further investigated and if necessary some controls or management of them should be established with community members.
Box 12.1 Livestock Development Policy in Ethiopia
A policy for livestock and livestock development is under development by the Ministry of Agriculture in conjunction with the Livestock Policy Forum – a group of government and NGO partners working in pastoralist areas. Having carried out a series of studies in livestock areas across the country, the Ministry of Agriculture is now developing the policy ready for consultation.
Recommendations:
A system of land use planning that incorporates the needs of the transhumant, agro-pastoralists and livestock keepers described in this report must be developed. BERSMP needs to work closely with government at all levels to highlight the positive aspects of the livestock and pastoral systems found in the Bale Ecoregion and work with them to develop more appropriate and supportive land use and development policies for the area. In order to facilitate this, a landscape (watershed) approach to planning needs to be advocated.
161 A more indepth study of the use of fodder should be carried out, particularly that taken from ‘wild’ trees, plants and shrubs to ensure sustainable use and establish control and management systems if necessary with local communities.
12.2 Challenges to Livestock-based Livelihoods
Many respondents are finding it more challenging to access grazing and browse for their livestock: the primary reasons being given are that grazing land is being removed for other purposes and mobility is being restricted through private enclosures and fencing of commercial farms.
It was interesting to note that when comparing the wealth ranking of the different PAs (see Section 8.1.2) it would seem that the “richer” PAs are of two types: a) Those that have diversified their livelihoods but still maintain relatively high livestock numbers (as in Erba PA) and b) Those that have intensified their livestock systems and holdings (as in Gerambamo PA).
This would suggest that it is still possible to hold relatively large livestock numbers but a) where resources are available and risks of holding large numbers are spread by diversifying livelihoods and/or b) by introducing an intensive livestock system with high inputs (fodder).
Despite the fact that much of the land in the area is not suitable for high or even low production agriculture the local governments continue to distribute and redistribute it for this purpose. Livestock production as a land use is constantly being ignored despite it being a traditional component of the ecosystem and it would seem the most productive use of the landscape and different ecological zones. Further it would seem that communities are raising larger numbers of livestock that appear to provide for markets outside the Bale area. Respondents vocally complained that there was little extension support for livestock, they were faced by diseases that they did not know how to treat, and all they heard from extension staff was the promotion of agriculture.
As such despite knowing that if they or their sons continued ploughing the land and planting more crops it would make their livestock-based livelihood systems more difficult and ultimately contribute to the degradation of the land, they feel that they have no choice and under the guidance of the government will continue to do so.
Further land, declared by the government as ‘open’ or ‘unutilised land’ is being assigned to commercial investors for such as the growing of biofuels. However as described for around Delo Mena, this land is not considered to be ‘open’ or ‘unutilised’ but in fact is critical grazing on a seasonal basis, and of vital importance to the transhumants who travel long distances to use it.
162 Recommendations:
As part of the landscape approach to planning advocated above, discussions should be raised on the need for mobility and livestock corridors to facilitate ongoing transhumance for those who wish to continue utilising the godantu system. Local governments should be provided with more information on the benefits of pastoral and livestock systems and how best they can support them. A study should be carried out on the linkages of livestock production in the Bale area with markets elsewhere in the country – how has the increase in demand in the rest of the country impacted on livestock production systems in Bale.
Further ways to ‘give back’ control and/or increase the control of communities over decisions related to their land and resources need to be identified and promoted. It is up to communities to take responsibility for much of the land use change that has occurred: a participatory inclusive discussion should be facilitated with community members to discuss a vision (an agreed negotiated vision) for the area in the future and how to move towards such a vision. One process that could be explored in this respect is that of Holistic Management (see Box 12.2).
BERSMP should advocate for a halt in biofuel production until the issues has been given open discussion and a more knowledgeable and rational bases for decision making established.
Box 12.2 Holistic Management
Holistic Management manages resources (people, land and money) in ‘wholes’, as one indivisible unit. It reaches decisions through a holistic ‘process’ approach using knowledge blocks learning (setting aside the dominant mechanical ‘systems’ approach to decision making). Complexities of such an approach are taken into account and dealt with. Decisions made are tested to ensure that they are economically, socially and environmentally sound.
Originally developed by Allan Savoury of Holistic Management International (www.holisticmanagement.org) to reverse biodiversity loss and consequent desertification, four key ‘insights’ provide the basis for the holistic management process: 1. The holistic perspective is essential in management. 2. Environments may be classified on a continuum from non-brittle to very brittle according to annual humidity distribution and how quickly dead vegetation breaks down. 3. In brittle environments (normally arid and semi-arid), relatively high numbers of large, concentrated and moving herding animals (wildlife or livestock) are vital to maintaining the health of the land. 4. In any environment, overgrazing and damage from trampling bears little relationship to the number of animals, but rather to the amount of time plants and soils are exposed to them.
Those living on the land play a central role in the planning of the management required. To do this, three steps are followed: 1) A determination of the quality of life they seek to have; 2) Identification of the forms of production required from the land to sustain that quality of life including food, products, profit and aesthetics; and 3) A description
163 and mapping of the landscape for the future in terms of the fundamental processes that define an ecosystem – biological succession, mineral and water cycles and energy flow. This forms the basis of a management plan utilizing a range of tools (range influences including the resting of pastures, fire, animal impact, wildlife, grazing and man) and the establishment of a monitoring plan that will provide earliest possible warning that the work is off course.
Planned grazing will often form an intricate part of a holistically managed environment. This will include taking into account plant abundance, diversity and land cover; infiltration, capture and retention of rainfall; controlled plant exposure to grazing; hoof action of animals; effective dung and urine use; and improved livestock quality and productivity and sustained livelihoods. Land will be rested and used according to these factors. Further, low stress animal handling is promoted.
Source: Savory 1999; Butterfield et al 2006;
12.3 Livestock, Wildlife and the Ecosystem
As described in Section 1.3 it is not clear how detrimental livestock is to wildlife and indeed, there is evidence to suggest that for some wildlife such as the Ethiopian wolf, livestock can have advantages. Further though there has been much speculation about an increase in livestock numbers in and around the Park, again though there are certainly trends to suggest this, clear evidence of any large changes (particularly within the Park) is poor and there has been no in depth impact assessment.
The BMNP GMP agrees that “knowledge of the relationship between livestock grazing, rodents and Ethiopian wolves and other predators is crucial in determining what livestock carrying capacities (see Box 1.3) are sustainable in the Afroalpine” (BMNP 1996:48) and aims to “conduct participatory research to collect baseline and ongoing data to map area of grazing land available and assess carrying capacity in different areas/seasons…” (ibid:129). This will mean relating grazing and browsing resources to number of livestock (and wildlife) units. However it is not going to be easy to define the carrying capacity of these areas as it can be influenced by a large number of factors, many of which are controlled by actors outside the local area including investors and government. These include: - Quantity of pasture available within a PA; - Quality of pasture within the PA; - Quantity of browse available within the PA; - Quality of browse within the PA; - Management of these natural resources; - Availability of water for livestock within the PA; - Mix of livestock types; - Mix of livestock/agricultural system as a livelihood; - Availability of ‘natural’ fodder to supplement grazing; - Availability of agricultural by-products as feed supplements; - Degree of unrestricted mobility within the PA;
164 - Degree of unrestricted mobility to other pastures (to support godantu); - Quantity of pasture visited through godantu; - Quality of pasture visited through godantu; - Availability of water in areas visited through godantu; and - Number of livestock. - Number and impact of grazing/browsing wildlife.
The impact of fire within the sato or Erica zones of the Park is not clear nor the dynamics of the secondary Ericaceous scrub (i.e. if fire and grazing pressure has reduced its’ succession to montane forest formation or not). In secondary Ericaceous scrub fenced for three years, the dominance of Hypericum was gradually increasing (at 3400 m asl) and Miehe and Miehe (1994) have suggested a treeline above 4000m. Further there appears to be little correlation between the distribution line of the large Erica and climate (measured through such as soil temperature) and therefore it is suggested that the firing of the small Erica has had a greater influence: the large Erica begins where the firing of the small Erica or sato by communities stops. However the correlation has not been fully investigated, and experiments within laboratory conditions have shown that there is little difference in Erica regeneration between those areas burnt and not burnt. The implication is that one has to be very careful in prescribing fire and other management interventions in the current secondary scrub (Yoseph Assefa, personal communication 2008). . What is clear however is that ploughing up the Park and its surrounding areas for agriculture is going to have a much more detrimental impact than a livestock-based livelihood system. As such from a conservation perspective it seems likely that taking a more positive approach to livestock and livelihoods based on them is likely to have benefits for the Park and its wildlife.
Recommendations:
It is recommended that there be a more educated and positive debate about the positive nature of livestock, how it can contribute to overall conservation objectives, and how best it can be managed to optimise its benefits including an emphasis on maintaining traditional management systems (godantu) and mobility.
BERSMP needs to work together with conservation and research bodies to ensure that a fair and true picture of the relations between livestock, wildlife and natural resources is identified. This may include commissioning key studies to fill gaps in information and/or ensuring that BERSMP has knowledge of and participates in studies being carried out by other organisations.
Once ‘carrying capacities’ of different ecological zones has been identified as clearly as possible, the BERSMP should work with communities and other interested parties to work out how livestock numbers can be reduced (assuming that numbers may be too high in some places). This is likely to involve a process of negotiation and some trade-offs will be necessary.
165 12.4 Opportunities for Supporting Local Communities
12.4.1 Addressing Access Insecurities
The increasing challenges to local community members and their livelihood systems have been described. For many years those living in and around BMNP have experienced forced movement and/or restrictions over their access to and use of natural resources including grazing, wood and other forest products. Though more recently control over access to the Park has been less restrictive, with moves to delineate the boundary underway community members are extremely worried that further negative ramifications are to arise. Additionally communities living outside the Park are facing further challenges to their continued access to resources including land redistribution to landless youth, land distribution to settlers from outside the area and the giving of ‘unutilised’ land to investors. As such communities are feeling extremely insecure about their future in the area and their continued access to land and resources necessary for their livelihood systems. It is likely that as a result communities will have less incentive to protect remaining resources and their traditional livelihood systems, and more incentive to try and make a ‘quick buck’ from any resources that they still have access to.
Recommendations:
It is recommended that these insecurities are addressed as much as possible. Clear land use policies and strategies for the area need to be defined, that take into account community needs and perceptions and work to negotiate a solution to the different land interests in the region. Though this may not be possible within the lifetime of the project, at the very least processes should be started that include more open discussions between the different interest parties including community groups, government and conservation bodies. Conflicts that have arisen between different parties need to be addressed and resolved: the right forum (e.g. traditional or local government) for these needs to be identified and developed.
To enable a more level ‘playing field’ or ‘negotiating table’ communities’ capacities will need to be built including provision of information on rights and opportunities, with skills required to negotiate and defend these improved. Further key personnel within communities and/or local government bodies need to be identified as conflict mediators, and provided with appropriate training.
Once access and ‘ownership’ over resources for livestock keepers has been negotiated, formal recognition for these should be determined and established.
Better communication links between conservation, government and community bodies should also be facilitated so that information on such as BMNP and/or government strategies reaches community members and community members have the possibility of taking action and/or influencing decisions being made.
166 12.4.2 Community Management of Forest Areas
Though land certification has occurred in the majority of the non-forested areas, this has not been carried out in the forested areas where there is both settlement and occasional, regular use by transhumant livestock keepers.
Recommendations:
BERSMP should open up discussion and move towards a suitable solution for management and access of these forested areas that takes into account the needs of the varied interested parties including conservationists, forest dwellers and occasional/regular users such as livestock herders or honey producers. FARM Africa and SOS Sahel have a wealth of experience in participatory forest management and this should be utilised to resolve the problems of reconciling positions, interests and needs of varied parties.
12.4.3 Improving Protection and Management of Hora and Haya
This study has shown that many livestock owners still rely heavily on the hora and haya to provide vital nutrients to cattle in particular. However community members described how many of these are under threat either from agriculture or from bad management.
Recommendations:
The BERSMP should focus on ensuring access to these for livestock keepers and work with them to develop responsible management systems and necessary maintenance. This may include negotiating special access rights to hora found within the Park as well as negotiating with agriculturalists/settlers to allow livestock keepers to camp near the hora and haya on a temporary basis.
12.4.4 Community Knowledge and Rationalities
As has been shown communities have a vast knowledge of their natural environment and the resources found within it. Further they are making rational decisions about its use and how to adapt to changes occurring in it. They are able to rank reasons for choosing different pastures and investing in different types of livestock. As such if provided with the right tools and support, they should be able to fully contribute to rational decisions about land and resource use as part of a landscape planning approach.
Recommendations:
It is recommended that communities are included as knowledgeable and rational resource users within the planning of the Eco-region and its resources. Participatory tools should be further developed and used to assist them in making decisions about resource use and protection.
167 12.4.5 Provision of Support for Livestock-based Livelihood Systems
Many community members complained of the lack of support provided to them by government extension services in relation to livestock. Instead government only provided extension support for agriculture, which for many was only a small part of their livelihood system. Disease and lack of knowledge on improved animal husbandry has led to livestock death and underproductivity.
Further knowledge on alternative livestock systems such as ‘holistic management’ (see Box 12.2) might well benefit those who have been forced to take up a more intensive livestock system and where they have greater control over the use of grazing etc. Some community members have shown that they can integrate a livestock system with an agricultural one, however it is likely that this could be improved.
Recommendations:
More information is needed on the integrated livestock systems that exist in such as Nensebo Woreda and how and why people moved to such systems. Further how best these can be supported. Depending on the results of this study the appropriateness of replicating these systems in other parts of the Bale Ecoregion should be identified.
Further an indepth economic valuation of the godantu system should be carried out as there is not enough detailed information available to assess its viability, efficiency and contribution to the local and national economy. Often an economic argument is the only one that will win support – if it can be proved that the godantu system is an effective economic and productive one for the area and the available resources it is likely that the government will better support it.
It is recommended that the project works with government partners to develop better support for livestock extension services including providing information on improved livestock management systems, disease and veterinary services. The project should also consider introducing a system of Community Animal Health Workers that has been proved to work well in the lowland pastoral areas. Further some suggest that community animal health services can offer potential for promoting CBNRM as well as conflict management (see Grahn and Leyland 2005).
12.4.6 Niche Markets
The quality of livestock that has been grazed in the Bale Mountains particularly that grazed on the wild thyme, is well known in Ethiopia. Buyers of livestock (particularly cattle and sheep) are happy to buy it at a premium. As such this livestock should be better marketed, highlighting its source and qualities. Further as considered in other reports focussing on livelihood options, the Bale Mountains offers some unique products that if properly marketed could fill relatively high value market niches.
168 Recommendations:
The BERSMP should fully develop the idea of ‘Bale Mountain products’ exploring potential markets, marketing, labelling, customer information, publicity opportunities etc.
12.4.7 Advocacy Work
When talking about mobile livestock and livestock systems within Ethiopia, it is usual to think only of the lowland areas. However as this study has shown many in the mountain areas of Ethiopia such as Bale, also carry on traditional livestock systems such as godantu, where livestock is moved relatively large distances on a seasonal basis. As discussed, such livestock systems are often the most productive use of the landscape and its resources. Yet often perceptions of decision makers are clouded by biased thinking (e.g. agriculture is better than pastoralism) that focuses only at a very local scale and does not consider the ‘bigger picture’.
Recommendations:
The BERSMP is in an excellent position to educate others about the ‘pastoral’ or ‘transhumant’ peoples of the Bale Mountains, their traditions and their rational use of the landscape. The BERSMP should also advocate for their proper consideration and support, if they are not going to be further ignored or marginalised and their rights to resources and their traditional way of life overridden by an agricultural bias.
169 REFERENCES
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173
174 Appendix 1 2007 Livestock Populations of Bale Region by Woreda (Zonal Agricultural Office, Robe)
CATTLE SHOATS EQUINES Woreda Oxen Steer Cow Heifer Bull Calf Sub Total Sheep Goats Sub Total Horse Donkey Mule Sub Total CAMELS TOTAL Agarfa 35013 400 41649 25169 23954 15640 141825 27780 27581 55361 5111 10750 1948 17809 0 214995 Berbere 10144 5100 17775 20333 5100 20222 78674 1008 86274 87282 174 7284 2790 10248 1831 178035 Delo Mena 6079 2932 50867 24448 6261 11737 102324 4596 21501 26097 1199 4512 701 6412 19576 154409 Dawe Kachen 5458 0 7219 9900 9057 10700 78674 3562 18186 21748 73 2937 563 3573 7154 111149 D/Sarer NA NA NA NA NA NA 6400 5708 17492 23200 0 2571 9 2580 5822 38002 Dinsho 9542 474 54806 8058 7130 12892 92902 43434 4169 47603 10995 2238 1050 14283 0 154788 Gassera 15753 1575 24629 11377 14315 12341 79990 15753 17328 33081 7877 8758 6302 22937 0 136008 Gindir 27618 1165 59723 31859 836 20479 141680 5648 19957 25605 583 13236 834 14653 407 182345 Gololcha 8477 6935 31904 23898 19044 23334 113592 2601 23409 26010 44 8606 629 9279 813 149694 Goba 15680 981 33746 10268 9693 17670 88038 31083 8046 39129 18193 6334 2279 26806 0 153973 Goro 25676 0 55440 25917 21254 23701 151988 7787 3733 11520 1555 8746 3429 13730 9829 187067 Gura Damole 2917 239 11795 5991 2433 4125 27500 755 7090 7845 279 1450 204 1933 2550 39828 Herena Buluk 3647 1086 21531 11231 9521 12653 59669 4710 18963 23673 2709 3952 1202 7863 4114 95319 Laga Hida 10312 13258 45668 26517 23572 27990 147317 5671 57128 62799 0 11607 6328 17935 23119 251170 Meda Walabu 9048 4530 30143 9585 14177 14264 81747 3672 59559 63231 10 2766 937 3713 16227 164918 Raitu 2165 0 9023 5065 2333 3864 22450 11508 22661 34169 181 4045 41 4267 9020 69906 Sewena 14502 0 15210 7476 7562 7032 51782 13948 4260 18208 2 4136 243 4381 25320 99691 Sinana 40701 2076 45264 32646 23665 24398 168750 19486 14451 33937 4134 20579 2921 27634 0 230321 Total 242732 40751 556392 289738 199907 263042 1635302 208710 431788 640498 53119 124507 32410 210036 125782 2611618
NOTE - The cattle sub total for Dawe Kachen is incorrect but has been maintained so as not to alter the rest of the data.
175 SHOATS EQUINES Woreda CATTLE Sheep Goats Sub total Horse Donkey Mule Sub Total CAMELS TOTAL Adaba 176187 48349 20529 68878 14034 12001 530 26565 0 271630 Agarfa 130914 12225 10867 23092 3112 7732 1033 11877 0 165883 Beltu Laga Hida 103851 7795 2055 9850 0 2055 391 2446 16313 132460 Berbere 74500 3850 26400 30250 NA NA NA 4752 2210 111712 Dodelo 266619 42336 10273 52609 NA NA NA 38648 0 357876 Gasera Gololcha 307561 5934 56158 62092 4301 10100 2864 17265 393 387311 Ginir 186486 7374 37067 44441 NA NA NA 10692 0 241619 Goba 74397 1899 4725 6624 9263 832 7616 17711 0 98732 Goro 144606 3339 18203 21542 2061 4224 1329 7614 4048 177810 Gura Damole 63173 NA NA 42000 NA NA NA 1580 3200 109953 Kokosa 192397 51672 23310 74982 43089 601 197 43887 0 311266 Meda Walabu 66069 50757 1711 52468 0 2249 616 2865 17509 138911 Mena Angetu 145850 3973 29966 33939 367 4394 1145 5906 11953 197648 Nensebo 100617 15620 1632 17252 NA NA NA 6210 0 124079 Raitu 5978 5978 7738 13716 NA NA NA 6636 9830 36160 Sewena 63440 5000 22000 27000 NA NA NA 2514 2500 95454 Sinana Dinsho 187518 56533 16408 72941 NA NA NA 27211 0 287670 Total 2290163 322634 289042 653676 76227 44188 15721 234379 67956 3246174
Appendix 2: 2000 Livestock Populations of Bale Region by Woreda (Oromia State Government 2000)
176 Appendix 3: Tools Used Within Community Focus Groups and Individual Interviews
Consultation with Community Focus Groups
1. Wealth Ranking
Objective: To identify different wealth groups in the community to ensure adequate sample when carrying out individual interviews, and to provide information on numbers of livestock in the community plus other socio-economic factors.
Wealth Ranking
• Need to make cards, each with the name of a household in a community. If all the households are not included then a random sample should be made. • Interview men and women separately • Ask the group to list five main criteria that can be used to identify the differences between rich and poor. This can include: - No. of livestock (split into different types of livestock – cattle, goats, shoats, horse, mule, donkey, chickens, other) - No. of houses/households i.e. may have a house on plateau as well as having a house in lower areas. - Type of housing e.g. hut with grass roof or new house with tin roof - Percentage of children attending school - Savings or no savings - Other • Ask them to separate cards with household names according to their ideas of the household’s relative level of well-being as per criteria. • As with all the tools ensure that a good and representative copy is made of the exercise.
Communities were ‘ranked’ into rich (duressa), medium (jidugalessa), poor (hiyeesaa) and destitute (dhaba) – ‘destitute’ meaning those who live by selling their labour and by support given to them from others (e.g. zeka). However they were few in number.
A group of community members were asked to identify criteria for measuring wealth (in order of importance) and then households (based on a list from the PA administration office) were divided into the different economically ranked groups. A variety of criteria were identified for the wealth rankings in the different areas (see section 8.1.2).
2. Seasonal Calendar
Objective: To provide a picture of seasonal differences and patterns in relation to livestock and related/influencing factors.
177 Activity: Seasonal Calendar
• Decide on how the year is going to be divided e.g. by months; by seasons or other. If not monthly, then ensure that it is understood how the periods match months. • Decide on the issues to be explored: with the community (see list below). • Using counters, stones or pen/paper depending on where the exercise is being carried out to show the seasonal/monthly fluctuations and changes of the issue being discussed. The higher the incidence of the phenomena in one month/season: the more counters etc. • Compare different issues together and look for causal and other relationships. • Facilitate a discussion on the findings and other issues raised with the community. • As with all the tools ensure that a good and representative copy is made of the exercise.
With participants work out the following: - Climate: rainfall patterns, temperature changes, wind strength, snow. - Quantity of water supply for livestock - Quantity/types of food supply for livestock including hay, fodder, grass, other - Animal husbandry including a) fodder collection, haymaking, height of pasture grass and quality; providing supplementing minerals, grazing patterns e.g. summer or winter pastures used; b) insemination, lambing, calving etc. If possible show who does which tasks – men, women, children. - Income related to livestock and livestock product sale - Animal products (i.e. availability or production of hair/wool, milk, meat) - Labour demand for both men and women in relation to livestock - Labour demand for both men and women in relation to non-livestock activities - Types and incidence of disease
3. Trend Analysis Matrix
Activity: Trend Analysis Matrix
• Ask the group to list key periods of change within their lifetime such as changes in gada, or changes in government. List these key periods at the top of the table. • Using the list below ask the group to show the changes over the different time periods. To do this give the group 20 counters/stones/circles and ask them to distribute the counters according to the changes in number/quantity found i.e. if more livestock in one period then there should be more counters found here. If there is no change over time then there should be an equal distribution of the counters. • After each topic, discuss the trends/changes seen and note points of interest or key events that had an impact. • As with all the tools ensure that a good and representative copy is made of the exercise.
178 Carry out an analysis on the following changes: - Quantity of open grassland available for grazing - Quantity of land under crop production - Time taken to access grazing in wet season (or other relevant division) - Time taken to access grazing in dry season - Quantity of browse available for grazing - Changes in access rights to grazing - Type of livestock kept - Quantity of livestock owned by individual - Quantity of livestock in the woreda - Number of conflicts with wild animals for grazing - Number of conflicts with wild animals that kill/take livestock - Time needed for accessing water for livestock - Time needed for accessing mineral springs - Changes in income from livestock - Changes in food from livestock - Changes in time to collect fodder - Changes in amount paid for fodder (if purchased) - Other important events
4. Mapping of Resources and Grazing Routes a) Mapping of Resources Used By Livestock
Questions to ask:
Ask the group to map the boundaries of the woreda. [Bear in mind that the users may be moving outside the boundaries of the PA to collect resources and these need to be mapped too].
Ask the community to show on the map the different resources used by herders, showing the difference between good and not so good resources, and problem areas, considering different types of livestock and different times of the year. For example show areas that are: - Good wet season pasture - Good dry season pasture - Wet season pasture but not so good because….. - Dry season pasture but not so good because….. - Unsuitable for grazing because…. - Woodland areas that are used for grazing - Areas where there may be increased incidence of disease - Areas where access is prevented because….. - Mineral springs - Water sources for watering livestock at different times of the year - Sources of other resources used by livestock
179 b) Mapping of Grazing Routes
On the map of grazing resources show the major grazing routes and patterns used by the people in the woreda. Map different routes for different types of livestock if necessary and consider seasonal or other variations. The following questions should be useful to facilitate this mapping process:
- Where do the livestock herders in the woreda take their livestock at different times of the year to find grazing? - How long does the livestock stay in this area? - Where does it go next……….? - Is there a system for controlling access to these grazing areas? If yes, explain this system and how access is controlled. - Show the different routes taken to water livestock at different times of the year. - Is there a system for controlling access to these grazing areas? If yes, explain this system and how access is controlled. - Show the different routes taken to find other resources such as minerals or herbs at different times of the year. - Is there a system for controlling access to these grazing areas? If yes, explain this system and how access is controlled. - Show the different routes taken when herding livestock to market. - Show any other routes that are taken by livestock and explain why. - Have these routes changed much to ten years ago – if yes, why have these routes changed? - Have these routes changed much to fifty years ago – if yes, why have these routes changed?
INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS
Selecting Individuals
Select the individuals by random sampling from each of the wealth categories – say 2 to be selected from each category giving a total of 6-8 case studies per woreda. Where the individual is married, try to interview husband and wife (wives) together.
For each individual collect the following basic information: - Name or use code number to ensure anonymity if needed - Age - Education level - Number of livestock by type - Number of households and location [Often a husband will have two or three wives living in a different household – it is important to ensure that the mapping of resources and grazing are carried out in relation to each household individually, plus linkages between the different households identified].
180 1. Mapping of Resources Used By Livestock
Questions to ask:
Ask the individual to map the boundaries of the woreda. [Bear in mind that the users may be moving outside the boundaries of the PA to collect resources and these need to be mapped too].
Ask the individual to show on the map the different resources used by themselves, showing the difference between good and not so good resources, and problem areas, considering different types of livestock and different times of the year. For example show areas that are: - Good wet season pasture - Good dry season pasture - Wet season pasture but not so good because….. - Dry season pasture but not so good because….. - Unsuitable for grazing because…. - Woodland areas that are used for grazing - Areas where there may be increased incidence of disease - Areas where access is prevented because….. - Mineral springs - Water sources for watering livestock at different times of the year - Sources of other resources used by livestock
2. Mapping of Grazing Routes
Draw a separate map to show the major grazing routes and patterns used by the individual. Map different routes for different types of livestock if necessary and consider seasonal or other variations. The following questions should be useful to facilitate this mapping process:
Grazing - What different types of livestock do you own (including horses, mules or donkeys)? How many do you own of each type? - Where do you take your livestock at different times of the year to find grazing? - How long does the livestock stay in this area? - Where does it go next……….? - How long does it take to get to these places? - Who takes the livestock to these places? - Do you need permission to graze in this place? If yes, who gives permission? Is everyone allowed to graze here or are some people prevented? Why is this? - Is there a system for controlling access to these grazing areas? If yes, explain this system and how access is controlled. Water and other resources - Show the different routes taken to water livestock at different times of the year.
181 - How long does the livestock stay in this place? Is it then moved to another place? If yes, where and why is it moved? - How long does it take to get to these places? - Who takes the livestock to these places? - Is there a system for controlling access to these grazing areas? If yes, explain this system and how access is controlled. - Show the different routes taken to find other resources such as minerals or herbs at different times of the year. - Is there a system for controlling access to this water point? If yes, explain this system and how access is controlled. Fodder - Do you feed fodder to your animals? If so, what kind of plant do you collect? Who collects the fodder? From where is the fodder collected? - How much fodder is collected and how often? [Estimate how much fodder is collected in weight]. - Is there any management of the fodder? [If there are different types of fodder then discuss each separately]. - Do you need to get permission to use this fodder or is everyone allowed to use it? - Is there a system for controlling access to this fodder? If yes, explain this system and how access is controlled. Marketing - Show the different routes taken when herding livestock to market. - When/why is livestock taken to the market? - Are livestock products taken to market – where are they taken and how often? - Show any other routes that are taken by livestock and explain why. Changes - Have these routes changed much to ten years ago – if yes, why have these routes changed? - Have these routes changed much to fifty years ago – if yes, why have these routes changed?
2. Observation
Follow up by going with 1. Cattle and 2. Shoats or Goats 3. Horses from two households to observe the grazing and watering routes. On the way observe the following: - How many animals are moving? - Who is taking the livestock to the grazing area? - How long does it take to get to the grazing area? - Are there other animals grazing there – how many? - Who is looking after the livestock in the grazing area?
3. Proportional piling
1. Proportional piling of types of livestock and indicators
182
- Ask individual to identify all the different types of livestock that she/he owns. - Ask her/him to list all the different advantages of the different types of livestock for example: - Adequate grazing/browse close to home - Adequate water close to home - Does not need extra fodder - Needs little veterinary care - Can be used for pulling plough etc etc. - List the different types of livestock and different advantages on different axis of a table. - Ask individual to divide twenty stones between the criteria to show positive weighting of advantages for each type of livestock. - Facilitate and take note of following discussion.
2. Proportional piling of grazing/fodder species and indicators
- Ask individual to identify all the different types of grazing/fodder species that his/her animals eat – may needs some investigation to identify local/scientific names etc.. - Ask her/him to list all the different advantages of the different types of grazing/fodder for example: - Adequate grazing/browse close to home - Plentiful supply all year round - Etc etc - List the different types of livestock and different advantages on different axis of a table. - Ask individual to divide twenty stones between the criteria to show positive weighting of advantages for each type of livestock. - Facilitate and take note of following discussion.
3. Proportional piling of grazing resources (access to water, good quality pasture, opportunities to make hay, and shelter from snow and wind). - Ask individual to identify the different places where their livestock is taken. - Ask her/him to list all the different advantages of these places. - Good quality - Good quantity - Close to home - No controls over access - Protected but have permission to graze there - Etc etc
183 For example Sanetti Gaysay Plain Woodland Woreda Plateau Grassland Good Quality XXX XXXXXXX XXXXX XX XXX Good XXX XXXXXXX XX XXXXX Quantity XXX Close to X XX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX Home XX No Controls XXXXX XXXX XXXX XXXXXXXX Over Access Critical Dry XXXXXXXX XXXXXX XX Season XXXX Grazing
184 Appendix 4 Terms of Reference
Purpose – to develop a clear understanding of where livestock movements are occurring through the seasons within the Bale EcoRegion
Terms of Reference
Review the grey literature, reports and published studies that has looked and studied livestock and livestock issues in the Bale EcoRegion area. Analyse the work to identify and produce a report that notes the changes in livestock management, numbers and movement over the last 50 year period.
Investigate trends in livestock management systems through historical timelines of livestock management, and semi structured interviews (working in four time periods; Haile Sallassie, Dergue, EPRDF (at the beginning 1990, EPRDF now 2007)
For the whole EcoRegion – identify and map livestock location and mobility on a seasonal basis with recognition of the different weather patterns on the west side (Highland – belg – krempt wet seasons) and the east side (Ganna – Hagaya wet seasons) of the Bale massive.
For the four focus Woredas – identify and map livestock location and mobility on a seasonal basis with recognition of the different weather patterns on the West (Highland pattern– belg – mehar wet seasons) and the east side (lowland pattern -Ganna – Hagaya wet seasons) of the Bale Mountains.
For the whole EcoRegion - Map grazing land location and any land use change trends, particularly the conversion of grassland to crop agriculture (using0, 5 and 10 year satellite images).
For the four focus Woredas - Map grazing land location and any land use change trends, particularly the conversion of grassland to crop agriculture (using 0, 5 and 10 year satellite images).
Investigate grassland management systems in terms of the management of common property grazing areas, water sources, and mobility routes (focusing on past systems, current trends and change (timeframe 0, 5, 10 years)
Using mapped livestock data, identify livestock ownership with the aim to identify locally owned livestock and externally owned livestock
Estimate the number of livestock with in the EcoRegion through focus groups discussion, semi structured interviews, secondary data, wealth ranking based on livestock ownership, and average household holding multiplied by local population. (Appropriate methods ??).
185
Conduct a problem / solution analysis focused upon the current escalating problem of the reduction (shrinkage / conversion) of grazing resources and the increase in livestock population
Methodology
A consultancy team, working closely with the BERSMP team (particularly the Planning Specialist (GIS) and the Participatory NRM Advisor(s)) will carry out this work. Researchers will focus on 4 focus woredas for detailed study, and all 14 Woredas for an Eco-Region overview study.
The team should develop and use specific participatory research tools and techniques. These will also be written up as part of the study.
It is estimated that the team will work for the duration of about 1 month field work and 2 weeks writing up.
186 Appendix 5 Workshop Report
Livestock Study Dissemination Workshop (10th and 11th April, 2008), reported by Worku Chibesa
Day 1
The workshop was organized by BERSMP at the Goba District Administration Hall inviting key stakeholders, which included heads of the different relevant sectors from the 14 target districts.
At the workshop objectives of the study as well as literature review were presented to the participants for review comment and amendments as needed. Further, reports from the field work on livestock current status which was collected from the sample PAs from within the current operation areas was discussed.
The field work was conducted in Goba, Delo Mena, Harena Bulluk and Nensebo districts while the sample kebeles were selected for the study by the government partners and BERSMP using the following scenarios. • PAs near the forest • PAs far from the forest • PAs in the middle
Due to time constraints it was not possible to conduct the tools in all the three PAs per woreda. It is only in Goba districts that the middle way PA considered. In all the remaining three woredas only two PAs one near and the other farthest from the forest selected.
PAs Remarks Districts Adjacent to forest Away form forest Goba Fasil Angeso Ashuta Hillasa (middle PA) Delo Mena Erba Berak Harena Buluk Sodu Welmal Melka Arba Nensebo Gerambamo Solana
The government participants raised different views and comments on the presentation made by the researcher, Fiona.
The comments were;
The study seems incomplete since there are no suggested solutions, summary and conclusions. The response to the comment was that…even the objective of the workshop is to elicit feedback on the work done so far so that it is commented critically, enriched and amended before arriving at solution. In addition, solutions without the involvement of the partners may seem weak on implementation. On the first day of the workshop participants were told to keep their comments and issues for
187 the next day (11th of April) where the participants were to be grouped to analyze some of the emerging issues. Therefore, the participants were satisfied with the response.
After presentation of literature and the field work report, comments and point of clarification were asked for e.g. on the methodology and methods employed.
Focus was placed on the wealth ranking, how fair the sample size was with complements.
Day 2
On the next day the Bale Zone Livestock Section was asked to present the government policy directions on livestock. Accordingly he presented some of the programmes in progress in the zone with focus on improving the productivity of the livestock as well as diversification issues but with no focus on the management of the existing stock or on pastoralism as a livelihood component. The following is a summary of his presentation:
1. Introduction
Livestock are one of the primary sources of income for Bale Mixed farmers, agro pastoralists and pastoralists. In mixed crop-livestock production system livestock support crop production and vice versa. There are large numbers of animals in the area, but animals add a little value to our farmers. The reason is that the productivity is very low.
For example: Productivity Under local Management Improved Management Milk production per cow 2liters/day 8liters/day Calving interval 2 year 1 year Egg production per hen 60 per year 300 per year Honey production 5kg/traditional local hive 20-25kg per improved hive
The major reasons for low productivity of animal production includes: • Breed-type problems • Poor management • Overstocking • Poor feeding • Lack of appropriate technology • Disease
As a result the Zonal Agricultural office supports and promotes the following:
Dairy Development
a) Artificial Insemination
188 It involves cross breeding the local breed with Holstein Friesen breed semen ---local Arsi cow X HF cross breed and back-crossing The programme is underway in 5 districts. Out of the districts involved in the programme the achievement of Ginir is poor. By next year the programme planned to cover Gololcha, Dinsho and Goro districts. Problems during the implementation programme • Lack of proper resources allocation • Poor detection of animal in heat • Shortage of trained manpower • Problems related to the semen producing centres
b) Dairy Heifers Distribution Cross breeds of Arsi and Holstein Friesen breeds from Gobe ranch (in West Arsi Zone) have been distributed in the Bale zone.
c) Dairy bull station
The programme is working with the private sectors. Under this programme the Boran bulls are used for insemination of cattle in pastoral and agro pastoral areas. Bulls need to be kept under proper sanitation to protect them from the reproductive diseases. d) Establishing milk cooperatives
Why cooperatives? • Milk production is produced on a daily basis • High cost of transportation • Highly perishable • Milk processing and marketing
Last year the Delo Mena milk cooperative was established while this year the Raitu one will be established.
e) Fattening programme
Two methods of fattening are employed; i) Fattening in the field lot • Provides well drained space • Maintain efficiency and profitability of the feeding operation • Animals reach maximum weight within 3 months • Protects the surrounding environment However the method requires high initial cost and therefore it is not selected as feasible for the zone.
189 ii) Traditional Fattening • Animals need to stay 6-8 months for fattening in good grazing • Traditional fattening can be improved using forage cross-feeding • Urea treatment (straw), fodder, cut and carry systems, • Well drained barns Small holders in the zone are involved in the improved traditional fattening scheme with and without credit from the government.
Beekeeping
All the districts in Bale zone are engaged in honey production. Most of the farmers use the traditional hives but production from such a system is poor both in volume and quality. The average harvest per hive is about 5 kg which is mixed with dead bees, wax and other dirt. Types of systems used: i) Traditional hive/log hive • Large number of hives in district • Wax production good • 130630 (no unit mentioned), but seems the number of hives?
ii) Traditional /top bar hive • Better honey production • Cheaper • 318 (no unit and description)
iii) Frame hive
• More honey production • Swarm can be controlled • Easy for supervision • 294 (see the above remarks)
Poultry production
Small holders are highly attracted to chicken production as a result of the low initial costs involved and the quick turnover. The main problem of chicken production is breed and poor management. The work done in this regard are: • Supply of pure breed chickens • Supply of cock • Supply of commercial egg layers
190 Pastoralism
i) Rangeland Management Under this programme the attention is on: • Bush encroachment • Watering Point development • Pond construction and maintenance • Hand dug wells • Fodder tree development
ii) Breed Improvement
• Selection and culling • Crossing with the Boran breed
Some comments and suggestions were forwarded on the presentation. These include: • The policy of government on ‘godantu’ should be included in its policy(future direction) • What was done to balance the number of livestock with land use plan • Improved breeds vs local breed • The current bush encroachment on grazing land (some farmers take the initiative to burn bushes which causes conflict between government and the community. How to manage such situations in the future? The current ‘sato burning incident’ was raised.
The response from the presenter and some of the government partners were as follows:
On some of the policy issues it seems that they themselves lack proper understanding but respond just to what seems to them politically expedient rather than practical. This is observed from the point that when they start to respond they are biased and speak in favour of the policy whatever it might be.
Concerning the improved breeds the respondent said that the country is still behind to adopt modern way of handling the improved breed starting from feeding to their health management. He also commented that crossing local breeds with such as the ‘Borana bulls’ is under consideration.
His comment on the ‘godantu’ seems mixed up since he seems to say that the government supports mobility. But the final comments made from different partners indicate that the vast land occupied by the pastoralist should be utilized for productive purpose like for investment and the livestock mix maintained by pastoralist counted as unproductive. The target in the long run was also to settle the pastoralist.
191 Some of the participants also considered the movement of pastoralist only to look for water and pasture. They claimed that if both are available at their homestead there is no reason for movement. Therefore, they suggested that government in the future provides what is required in order to settle and improve the life of the godantu. Nobody asked why the action of providing what is missing, if at all it is the cause.
Different sectors raised concern over the burning of bushes specially related to the Park. The community favours burning while the government prevents them from such acts. For the community burring bushes like ‘sato’ highly benefits them. The issue of control burning and further discussion with the community was raised but seems weak argument.
Afternoon Discussion
The participants were grouped into 4 groups to discuss on the following themes that emerged from the workshop.
Themes • Bale National Park (concerning all issues related with the Park like settlement, burning of bushes, etc)---the team mainly consisted of the Park people • Policy issues (concerning livestock in general) • Conflict (over natural resources) • Research gaps
Group presentations
1. Group 4
Theme: Research Gap
This group missed the essence of the theme. The participants totally rejected their presentation since the group members did not understood the theme. They were supposed to point out the gaps observed in the research with appropriate solutions.
2. Group 2
Theme: Policy issues
Issues identified: • No transparent land use policy (policy made at higher level without involving the successive lower levels including the community) • The land use policy or the livestock policy did not consider the ‘godantu’ • Certification for farmers done but common land holders like the pastoralist has no certificate
192 • There is no awareness on land use policy. This is not only the community but also the policy executers at the lower level have poor understanding. • No clear and separate policy for mixed farming and pastoralist concerning livestock. • Poor policy implementation
The group also suggested the following solutions • Policy revision • Awareness creation on all policy matters • All stakeholders need to participate in policy formulation process from inception up to implementation with varying degree. • Clear and practicable policy should be formulated on livestock
Challenges identified: • Challenges of accepting new development by the community and therefore need long time to convince • There is also resistance to new policy • Poor access to livelihoods opportunity---there is no consideration for the livelihoods of the poor when certain decisions are made. • Lack of skilled manpower and resources
Actions: • Policy revision ----by government with stakeholders • Implementation of policies ----government, community and stakeholders • Workable livestock development policy formulation by the government
There were comments, questions and suggestions on the presentation.
Some of the questions revolved around the suggestion of participation of the community in the policy formulation process and the resistance by the community. The brief response was that involving the community in the policy formulation will reduce the resistance.
Others also asked that the government has policy and why another? The response to this question is that the government formulates one policy package for all agro ecology which might in some instances conflict and become an obstacle. Therefore, the appropriate thing is to design policy on the practical needs of land users and directed to the problems of each locality for effectiveness.
3. Group 3
Theme: Conflicts
The group identified conflicts between different actors; these are
193 • Conflict between ‘godantu’. Such conflict arises as a result of shortage of pasture and water for their livestock specially during dry season. • Conflict between ‘godantu’ and farmers (coffee growers –the case of Erba PA) • Conflict between ‘godantu’ and investors (the case of Berak PA) – the cause of the conflict revolves around poor policy implementation—this happens when the community were not involved in what is going on. • The other issue is the redistribution of marginal land used as a corridor for livestock to landless youth. Such land was once used as a passage for ‘godantu’ to search for pasture and water. • Conflict between seasonal migrants and the local residents (occupant farmers)
The solutions proposed were: • Improving the provision of water as well as pasture balancing with the livestock population. • Awareness creation on range land management • Checking farmland expansion • Intensive farming • Fencing coffee field and farmland in general • Improving investment policy by involving the affected party in the decision making thereby identifying alternatives for the land used. • Focusing on community preferred investment opportunities—like on livestock in dry lowland where the community also get lessons on improved practices. • Introducing livelihoods opportunities like o Fattening o Beekeeping o Diary development • Introducing other means of income generating activities rather than redistribution of scarce land or pasture lands to youth(landless) • Managing conflict between different actors through customary laws
Challenges: • Resistance from the community and investors unwillingness with the interest of the local community • Resources shortage (skilled manpower, time, and budget)
Who implements the above solutions? Government sectors, NGOs, Community
Some of the participants asked that the government has policy on investment, already assessed the resources and invite investors to participate on the identified investment opportunity and therefore how can it be possible to change the status quo? In addition the farmers are compensated for the use of the land and what makes matter so complicated with the farmers if they receive compensations?
194 The response from the presenters to the policy issues: The government has policy which is ambiguous not only to the community but also to some of the implementers themselves. Let us take the case of Berak PA where it was only reported that the community confronted with the investors resisting or acting against the policy but that indicate how the community are marginalized. They were not consulted or asked anything about the use of the very land they have been using for so long.
Concerning the close discussion of investor with the local community; even the community can advise on what the best if it is done in their locality. In addition, the community themselves learn a lot from improvement in the business practice.
How can one fence farmland or coffee fields? Although it is difficult to do so we suggested that this might reduce the conflict.
4. Group 1
Theme: Issues of the National Park
Problems identified are: • Unregulated grazing in the Park • Lack of clear boundary of the Park • Issue of ‘sato’/Erica burning for grazing • Absence of benefit sharing with local community • Farmland encroachment • Settlement in the Park • Lack of ownership • The impact of livestock grazing on wildlife not assessed • Lack of alternative livelihoods
Suggested Solutions: • Regulating grazing in the Park o Challenges—skilled manpower, budget • Demarcate and re-demarcate the Park boundary in collaboration with the local community o Challenges--- negative reaction from the community o Budget shortage • Regulate or ban Erica burning o Challenges—poor law enforcement o Shortage of fire controlling equipment • Develop benefit sharing scheme o Challenge—lack of skills and budget • Conduct study on the impact of livestock grazing on wildlife o Challenge—lack of resources • Implement current land use policy o Challenge--- lack of ownership by the community, budget shortage
195 • Stop or control settlement in the Park o Challenge—lack of strong local institutions • Create awareness o Challenge—lack of resources
Actions: • Identification of resources use types in the sustainable NRM zones • Law enforcement in core conservation zones • Developing grazing guidelines • Participatory re/demarcation of the Park boundary
Who: All park offices, NGO (FZS), BESRMP, ARDU
When: As of today
Where: In and around the national park
The participants raised the following questions to the presenters:
You said that we need to investigate the cause of the fire issues but don’t we know already? Response—although we know some of the issues we need further investigation and discussion with the community. Participatory assessment will solve the problem.
You did not mention about the participation of the community in the Park administration but only park boundary demarcation, why? Although we did not strictly mention about park administration we raised issue of benefit sharing where the administration might be included.
196