PACIFIC LINGUISTICS

Series D - No. 46

THE MAKIAN LANGUAGES AND THEIR NEIGHBOURS

C.L. Voorhoeve, ed.

(MATERIALS IN LANGUAGES OF INDONESIA, No.12) ' W.A.L. Stokhof, Series Editor

Department of Linguistics

Research School of Pacific Studies

Voorhoeve, C.L. editor. The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46, viii + 156 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/THEPL-D46.cover AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. PACIFIC LINGUISTICS is issued through the Linguistic Circle of Canberra and consists of four series:

SERIES A - Occasional Papers SERIES B - Monographs SERIES C - Books SERIES D - Special Publications

EDITOR: S.A. Wurm

ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock, C.L. Voorhoeve, D.T. Tryon, T.E. Dutton

EDITORIAL ADVISERS: B.W. Bender John Lynch University of Hawaii University of Papua New Guinea David Bradley K.A. McElhanon La Trobe University University of Texas A. Capell H.P. McKaughan University of Sydney University of Hawaii Michael G. Clyne P. MOhlhiiusler Monash University Linacre College, Oxford S.H. Elbert G.N. O'Grady University of Hawaii University of Victoria, B.C. K.J. Franklin A.K. Pawley Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Auckland W.W. Glover K.L. Pike University of Michigan; Summer Institute of LingUistics Summer Institute of Linguistics G.W. Grace E.C. Polome University of Hawaii University of Texas M.A.K. Halliday Gillian Sankoff University of Sydney University of Pennsylvania A. Healey W.A.L. Stokhof National Center for Summer Institute of Linguistics Language Development, Jakarta; L.A. Hercus University of Leiden Australian National University E. M. Uhlenbeck Nguy�n Elling Liem University of Leiden University of Hawaii J. W. M. Verhaar Gonzaga University, Spokane

All correspondence concerning PACIFIC LINGUISTICS, including orders and subscriptions, should be addressed to: The Secretary PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies The Australian National University Canberra, A.C.T. 2600 Australia.

Copyright 0 The Authors

First Published 1982

Typeset by Dianne Stacey Printed by A.N.U. Printing Service Covers by Patria Printers Bound by Adriatic Bookbinders Pty. Ltd.

Maps drawn by Manlio Pancino, Cartography, Dept. of Human Geography, Research School of Pacific Studies, A.N.U. The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for assistance in the production of this series. This pUblication was made possible by an initial grant from the Hunter Dotigles Fund.

National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 0 85883 277 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Contri butors and thei r affi liations v

Introduction viii

TH E WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE, NORTH MOLUCCAS, INDONESIA: A FIELDWORK REPORT C.L. Voorhoeve 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1. 1. Fieldwork particulars, scope of the report 1 1.2. Earlier sources 3 1. 3. Setting 4 1.4. Local variation 4 1. 5. Linguistic stratification 5 1.6. Linguistic interference 5 1. 7. Folk orientation 7 2. GRAMMAR SKETCH 8 2.1. Phonology 8 2.2. Word classes and morphology 11 2.3 . Phrases 21 2.4. Sentences 27 3. TEXT 32 4. SOME COMPARATIVE NOTES ON WEST MAKIAN AND TIDORE 37 4.1. Introductory remarks 37 4.2. The North Halmahera family 37 4.3. We st Makian - Tidore sound correspondences 39 5. IKHTISAR SINGKAT 46 6. APPENDICES 48 6.1. West M�ian - English vocabulary 48 6.2. English - West M�ian finder list 60 6.3. Indonesian paraphrase of the text 69 NOTES 71

iii iv

FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MAKIAN VOCABULARY James T. Collins 75 1. THE DATA AND FORMAT 75 2. SOME TENTATIVE ELABORATIONS OF VOORHOEVE ' S REPORT 76 2.1. A phonological rule of deletion 76 2.2. Morphological processes 76 2.3. A dialectal difference 78 3. THE WORDLISTS : WEST MAKIAN - ENGLISH 79 3.1. Part I 79 3.2. Part II 84 4. CUMULATIVE ENGLISH - WEST MAKIAN INDEX OF WORDS IN PART I AND II 88 NOTES 95 BIBLIOGRAPHY 97

A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MAKIAN James T. Collins 99 1. INTRODUCTION 99 2.1. Vocabulary, Part I 101 2.2. Vocabulary, Part II 110 3. . ENGLISH - EAST MAKIAN (CUMULATIVE) INDEX 116 NOTES 127 BIBLIOGRAPHY 128

SHORT WORDLISTS FROM SOUTH HALMAHERA, KAYOA, MAK IAN, TERNATE, TIDORE AND BACAN Dick Teljeur 129 1. INTRODUCTION 129 WORDLISTS 133 NOTES 148

MAPS Map 1: Location map vi Map 2 : Halmahera map vii Map 3: Makian Island 2 Map 4: Sketch map of South Halmahera, Ternate, Tidore, Makian, Kayoa, .and Bacan 130 CO NTRI BUTORS AND THEIR AFFILIATIONS

James T. Collins, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi , Selangor , Malaysia.

Dick Teljeur, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands .

C.L. Voorhoeve, The Australian National University , Canberra.

v vi

t;;) TERNATE I. 0--,

TlDORE 1.0\"

C) IVOORHOEVEl () MAKIA�}rJ)< " ,; ,.... �- ; WEDA SA Y ....IC-O-L-L-IN--,Sl ,..- KAYOA I.Q------c!) �

Moluccan Sea o 100 km L' ______�,

o L' __ 1000 km ______,

I o I o PAC/FIC / OCEAN I J I o J �AlMAHERA //------' " C2l ',0 01;) KALIMANTAN 0 0

<:>

Java Sea

Map 1: LOCATION MAP vii

"

0,-, ______...... 1 �0 km /� -" '\ -,,-" '\ / '\ TO -" '\ -" r--- MOROTAI /" :GAQ\ " I / -" / w /

EM EAST MAKIAN

GA GAlElA

lO lOlOOA

MO MODOlE

PA PAGU

SA SAHU

TB TOBARU

TE TERNATE

n nDORE

TO TOBElO

WM WEST MAKIAN

Map 2: HALMAHERA INTRODUCT ION

One of the linguistically least known parts of the Moluccas , Indonesia, is the southern peninsula of Halmahera and the offshore islands to the west: Bacan , Kayoa , Makian . Until recently all that was known of the languages in this area was based on a few wordlists dating from the late 19th and early 20th century . Since 19 79 however surveys conducted by Collins , Te ljeur and myself have yielded a substantial amount of new data in these languages , especially in the languages of Makian Island . J.T. Collins collected materials in the East and West Makian languages during a stay of six days in Laiwui on Obi Island in February 1979 ; D. Teljeur collected comparative wordlists in many villages in the region during his anthropological fieldwork in South Halmahera from August 1978 to March 1980; I obtained data in West Makian during a five-day visit to Makian Island in January 1981. Although varying widely in scope and size , the four papers which are the re sult of those surveys have enough in common to warrant their inclusion in one volume : all of them deal wholly or partly with the languages of Makian Island. They further supplement each other in various ways . The first paper is a short sketch of the West Makian language followed by a wordlist; it is commented on by the second paper which in addition gives supplementary lexical data . The th ird paper presents East Makian materials: some grammatical notes and a wordlist. The last, comparative paper covers a much wider area. Its lists , though short , allow us to form an opinion on the mutual relationships of the languages in the area and their internal variation . It goes without saying that the four papers , being the product of short surveys , do no more than scratch the surface of the languages with which they deal. The series Ma terials in languages of Indonesia seem therefore the most appropriate place to make them available to the public.

viii

Voorhoeve, C.L. editor. The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46, viii + 156 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D46.cover ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE, NORTH MOLUCCAS, INDONES IA:

A FIELDWORK REPORT

C.L. Voorhoeve

KATA PENGANTAR Karangan yang pendek ini adalah laporan ten tang penyelidikan bahasa Makian Barat yang dilakukan dalam rangka penelitian bahasa-bahasa non-Austronesia di Maluku Utara pada bulan Januari 1981. Penelitian itu dapat dilakukan dengan bantuan Departemen Pendidikan & Kebudayaan , khususnya Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI) dan dibiayai oleh Universitas Nasional Australia (Australian National University , ANU) . Penulis sangat berterima kasih dan menyatakan penghargaan kepada segala pihak yang telah sudi membantu dengan berbagai cara , terutama kepada : Dr . E.K.M. Masinambow dari Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Jakarta; kepada Bapak Rochyani , Kepala Daerah Tingkat II Maluku Utara, Ternate ; kepada Dr. Saleh Saheb , Rektor Universitas Khairun di Ternate ; kepada Bapak Abdul Hamid Hasan dari Universitas Khairun , Ternate , dan kepada informannya Muhammad Sehe di Ngofakiaha. Agar dapat dibaca oleh masyarakat luas , laporan ini disajikan dalam bahasa Inggeris dan suatu ikhtisar singkat ditulis dalam bahasa Indonesia (Bab V) .

Canberra , Nopember 1981

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Fi eldwork particul ars, scope of the report The data on which this report on the We st M�ian l language is based were collected during a short stay from 5-9 January 1981 in Ngofakiaha , the main village and government centre of Makian Island. My principal informant was Muhammad Sehe from Bobawa village , a young man in his early thirties who was employed at the Government Office in Ngofakiaha . Pak Kabir, an elderly man in Sabale , acted as an informant during a visit to that village . Apart from general background information, I collected lexical and grammatical data and a

Voorhoeve , C.L. , ed. , Th e Makian languages and their neighbours . (Ma terials in languages of Indonesia, No .12; W.A.L. Stokhof, Series ed .) Pacific Linguistics , 0-46 , 1982 . 1 © C.L. Voorhoeve .

Voorhoeve, C.L. "The West Makian Language, North Moluccas, Indonesia: A Fieldwork Report". In Voorhoeve, C.L. editor, The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46:1-74. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D46.1 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 2 C.L. VOORHOEVE

o 5 km I J

Sabale \ \ , , \ , \ Talapao , , , EAST MAKIAN , Tafasoho WEST MAKIAN , LANGUAGE , LANGUAGE I I Ngofa Bobawa , , I I

Malapa I ",�/,'" KAYOA ... DIALECT...... \ � '" . : � Tahane I � Soma Mailoa

Map 3: MAKIAN ISLAND THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 3

text in the Bobawa dialect and a wordlist in the dialect of Sabale . Part of these materials I recorded in 60-minute cassettes using a pocket-size Sony TCM-600 recorder. The recordings in the Bobawa dialect total 70 minutes , those in the Sabal� dialect 45 minutes. The report is mainly d�scriptive ; the only section which deals with comparative matters is section 4 where I present the sound correspondences between We st M�kian and Tidore . Its aim is no more than to draw an outline of the phonological and grammatical structure of West Makian which can be used as a starting point for further research into that language . This means that all generalisations made in this report are valid only for the present corpus of data and need to be tested when further data come to hand .

1.2. Earl ier sources Although the first data in the West Makian language were collected 120 years ago little more than a few wordlists had been published by the time I began my investigation. In fact, it was only in 1976 that West M�ian was positively identified as a member of the group of non-Austronesian languages of North Halmahera (see below , Watuseke 1976) . In this section I shall list the earlier publications which contain information on , or data in , West M�ian together with short summaries of their relevant contents . The order of presentation is chronological .

18 62 Crab , P. van der, De Moluksche Ei landen . Batavia: Lange . Contains amongst others a wordlist of the West M�kian language of approximately 400 items . 1872 RObide Van der Aa, P.J.B.C. , Vluchtige opmerkingen over de talen der Halmahera-groep . BijdrTLV 19:267-27 3. Links for the first time the West Makian language with the North Halmaheran languages rather than with those of South Halmahera on the basis of lexical comparison of the numerals and a few nouns . 1890 Clercq, F.S.A. de , Bijdragen tot de kennis der Residentie Terna te . Leiden : E.J. Brill . Contains a note on the mutual unintelligibility of the East and West Makian languages (p.82) . 1908 Heuting, A. , lets over de 'Ternataansch-Halmaherasche ' taalgroep. BijdrTLV 60 :370. Expresses the opinion that the grounds on which Robide van der Aa bases his proposition are weak , but that nonetheless there is a possibility that he is right. 19 76 Watuseke , F.S., West Makian , a language of the North-Halmahera Group of the West-Irian Phylum. AnL .18:274-285. Presents further lexical evidence that West M�kian belongs to the group of non-Austronesian languages of North Halmahera . 1980 Te ljeur, D. , Short wordlist from South Halmahera. Kavoa. M�ian. Ternate , Tidore , and Bacan . MS . (published in this volume , p.129) Slightly modi fied Swadesh 100-item word lists collected in 23 locations including all West Makian villages on M�ian Island . 4 C.L. VOORHOEVE

1980 Lucardie , G.R.E., 'The Makianese '. Indonesian Journal of Cul tural Studies 8/3:347-373. Summarises what is known about the linguistic affiliation of West Makian and gives useful historical and ethnographical background information . 1980 Shuji Yoshida , Folk orientation in Halmahera with special reference to insular Southeast Asia. In: Naomichi Ishige , ed . The Galela of Halmahera , a preliminary survey. (Senri Ethnological Studies No. 7.) Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology: 19-88 . Contains a section on the locational and directional roots and their use in West Makianese folk orientation (pp.49-5l) .

1. 3. Setti ng The island of M�ian lies at 0° 20' N, 12 70 30 ' E off the west coast of the large island of Halmahera in the North Moluccas , Indonesia. It is one of a string of small volcanic islands flanking Halmahera in the west: Ternate , Tidore , Mare , Moti , M�ian , Kayoa , Bacan , and many others . The West Makian language is spoken by an estimated 12 ,000 people , 7000 of whom live on the western half of M�ian Island and the remainder on four islands in the Kayoa group south of Makian: Moari , Lelei , Gunage , and Gafi (Watuseke 1976) . 2 There are seven We st M�ian speaking villages on Makian . They are , from north to south : Sabale (Sebelewi , Sebelei), Talapao (Talapaun) , Tafasoho (Mateketen), Tagono , Ngofabobawa , Bobawa , and Malapa (see the map) . 3 The bracketed names are those used by the West M�cian speakers themselves ; the others are the official names. Apart from having their own names for several of the villages , the West M�inese have own names for the island itself and parts thereof, as well as for several 4 isla�ds in the neighbourhood. Thus M�ian is called Moi ; the western half - officially called Makian Luar - is Moi Tesite and the eastern half (M�ian Dalam) is called Moi Ciawi . They call Moti Island TeketenS and Kayoa, Kian . The West Makian name for the mainland of Halmahera is DifaidawO . The name Makian is only used for the main government and commercial centre of the island , Ngofakiaha . On the eastern half of Makian the East M�ian language is spoken and on the south coast, wedged in between East and West M�ian, is one village , Mailoa, where one speaks the Kayoa language . This language is very similar to East Makian and judging by Teljeur 's lists East Makian and Kayoa are in fact dialects of one and the same language . 6

1.4. Local variation The Bobawa and Sabale data represent two slightly different dialects , a fact recognized by the informants and expressed by them as a difference in 'lagu ' (melody) . There seem indeed to be some differences in intonational patterns , but this is only an impression gained during my visit to Sabale . In addition there are a few lexical differences as will become clear when one glances through the wordlist (section 6.1) . Still , no sharp dialect boundaries can be drawn , at least not on Mikian Island itself. Teljeur 's lists show that there are some lexical differences between all the villages but they form a network rather than bundles of heteroglosses . At best one can roughly distinguish between a northern variant spoken in Sabale , Talapao , and Tafasoho , and a southern variant spoken in Bobawa and Malapa with a transition zone extending over Tagono and Ngofabobawa . THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 5

1.5. Li ngui stic stratifi cation West M�ian knows a stratification into polite and common language . The former is used when speaking to or about a person , or persons , to whom one owes respect either because of their social status or because of their age . Polite language is characterised by the use of special vocabulary and the use of the plural forms of personal and possessive pronouns , and verbs , in contexts in which , in the common language , one would use the singular forms . The full extent of the polite vocabulary is unknown to me ; my data are restricted to names of body parts , a few verbs which express actions connected with bodily functions , and some numerals . 7 The polite and common forms of the numerals will be presented in 2.2.10; instances of the 'polite plural ' can be found in 2.2.5, 2.2.10, and in the text. The following nouns and verbs have been found to have common and polite forms :

Bobawa Sabal�

common polite common polite

arm kamma j owj ow ia jowjow eye afe sado afe sado head apota tabia apota tabea

leg gow ta rota ro gufi tarota ro

tooth wi fakar wi ?

mouth mada ? mada pasul to eat fiam fajow fa fajow

to dr>ink beb� ? beb� jowbe

to sleep t i fi ? t i fi kadu

to defecate fu ? fu i (go) + locative phrase

1. 6. Lingui stic interfe rence Both in its lexicon and in its grammar West M�kian shows considerable interference from languages with which it came into contact in the course of its history . Thus far the following sources of interference may be identified : Indonesian, Moluccan Malay , East M�ian, Ternate , Dutch , and possibly Portuguese. That so many languages influenced West M�kian is not surprising. First of all, the West M�ianese shared their small island for centuries with the East MAkianese and although the relations between the two groups were usually unfriendly8 this did not prevent the borrowing of many East M�ian words into West M�ian. Secondly , M�kian Island provided good anchorage and ample supplies of fresh water and food and for those reasons was a favourite port of call for traders from other parts of the Moluccas and further abroad . 8 Portuguese and Dutch, attracted by the excellent quality of the cloves grown on the island built forts there . Politically , the island came under the rule of the Sultan of Ternate in 1608 and remained so till 19 15 . 8 And finally , after the end of the Dutch 6 C.L. VOORHOEVE colonial rule the Indonesian government started vigorously to promote Indonesian , the national language , through the educational system. All those contacts have left their marks on the West M�kian language . I shall discuss here first the lexical borrowings and then the way in which West M!kian grammar appears to have changed under their influence . The mo st conspicuous and nowadays most important source of lexical interference , or lexical borrowing, is Indonesian . Scores of loanwords have already been adopted in the open word classes - nouns and verbs - to cope with the requirements of modern life . Examples of these can be found in the wordlist (section 4) . In the closed classes one finds them mainly among the conjunctions . I shall discuss these in detail in section 2.4.2.2. It is often impossible to determine whether a loanword has entered West M�ian from Indonesian or from Moluccan Malay as the two languages have a lot of vocabulary in common and many words have very similar or the same forms in both9 • Only whe re Moluccan Malay has characteristic word forms or terms entirely different from those used in Indonesian can one recognize borrowings from this source . Such Moluccan Malay loans are for instance mancia (IN10 manusia) people , peda (IN pedang) bush knife , patola (IN ular sawa) python , bet i (MM pece , IN lumpur, rawa) swamp, mud. As said earlier, West M!kian has borrowed many words from its neighbour East M�ian. Many instances can be found in the wordlist (section 4) and the following examples will suffice here : sobo l (EM soba l) sail, puas (EM poas) paddle , lagey (EM lagay) old man , kamma , kamama (EM kamo) hand, 10 (EM 10) and. At least one East M�kian word found its way into the polite vocabulary : sado eye , from EM sado fa ce . East Makian in its turn borrowed words from West M�ian but as far as I can judge not nearly as frequently . Thus we find :

East West Other North Halmaheran M�ian M�ian languages

stone ma i may mari , rna 'di , mama 1 i ng fruit sipo sopo sopo , sofo, sowoko , howo'o to dig pait pa i pa i ti , fa iti , wa i ti , fa i swoHen mosi bos i obos , doboho

The fact that West Makian in most cases has been the receiver and East Makian the donor suggests that of those two languages East Makian enjoyed the higher status . There are a number of apparently very old loanwords of Austronesian origin whose exact source remains obscure , e.g. fati four , siwe nine , imi we (exclusive) . Also the verbal prefixes i- (3rd person singular) and di- (3rd person plural) , the demonstrative ne this , and the locative root na yonder , seem to be of Austronesian origin. The only clear instances of Ternate loanwords I found in the polite vocabulary : jowj ow , fajow, and jowbe all contain the Ternate root jow lord. Also kadu to sleep comes from Ternate . We can expect the Ternate language to have had the strongest influence on this part of the West M!k ian vocabulary as it was for so long the language of the ruling class on the island . Detection of THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 7

Ternate loanwords in the common vocabulary is hampered by the similarity of the phoneme inventories of the two languages and because the sound correspondences between them have not yet been worked out in any detail. Finally there are a few words of Dutch and possibly Portuguese origin : uas (DU wassen) to wash , balak (DU ba lk) wooden beam; kastela tinea may be a Portuguese loan and be be to drink looks as if it could have come from the same source but the presence of be water makes it unlikely . The 'verb ' be be is in fact a cognate-object construction of the type found in Papuan languages of south-west Irian Jaya : Asmat mbu water , mbu mbu to bathe , mbocweeping , mboc mboc to weep , and it may therefore be a non-Austronesian feature of West MAkian . Originally West Makian must have had a grammatical structure much like the one of its relatives in North Halmahera who have a clearly non-Austronesian - or more exactly , Papuan-type - grammar. In West M�ian several of the non­ Austronesian characteristics shared by the North Halmaheran languages have disappeared and have been replaced by features also shared by the Austronesian languages . It is highly probable that this shift from a Papuan-type grammar to a more Austronesian-type grammar has been caused by prolonged contact with Austronesian languages and is a case of grammatical interference , although it is impossible to point out a particular language , or particular languages , as the source . Thus , the order of the ve rb , subject , and object in West Makian declarative sentences is not Subject-Ob ject-Verb as generally in Papuan languages, but Subject-Verb-Object , common in Austronesian languages. Like the Austronesian languages West M�ian has prepositions instead of postpositions , 11 and it lacks the object-marking prefix which in the languages of North Halmahera comes between the subject pre fix and the transitive verb stem. And finally , it does not have the masculine-feminine gender distinction in the 3rd person singular pronouns found in the other members of the North Halmahera Family . On the other hand it has noun classes which are similar to those found in the other North Halmaheran languages both in content and in concord requirements ; like the latter, it has a possessive construction in which the possessor precedes the possessed and is linked to it by a possessive pronoun and finally it marks at least some transitive and causative verbs by a special prefix, as the other languages in the family do . These are all non-Austronesian features .

1.7. Fol k orientation The most recent contribution to our knowledge of the West MAkian language is in the field of ethnolinguistics and consists of two pages devoted to the orientational system of the West Makianese in Yoshida 's article on folk orientation in Halmahera (see 1.2) . In that part of his article Yoshida surveys the locational and directional roots in the language . 12 What he barely touches upon is how the West Makianese orient themselves with respect to places on and outside the island of M�ian. Since folk orientation is relative orientation (Yoshida , p.24) its notions will shift with the circumstances , that is , they depend on the place the speaker takes as his orientational reference point . I shall present here some data on the way the inhabitants of Bobawa (the village of my principal informant) orient themselves. The position of places outside Bobawa is described in the following terms : na over there (but not very far away) , naso beZow , ney above , nao in the direction of the sea, and nanga in the direction of the interior. Malapa and Tagono , the nearest villages to the south and north respective ly , are na . All other villages on the island with the exception of Ngofakiaha are ney , that is, 8 C.L. VOORHOEVE going there is going 'up' . This has nothing to do with actual climb ing as all traffic on the island has to follow the coastline . The steep volcano in the centre makes crossing the island extremely difficult . Ngofakiaha however is again na contrary to all expectations . There is no ready explanation for this irregularity . My guess is , that the ancestors of the Bobawa people lived somewhere near Ngofakiaha at a time when this perhaps was the only East Makian settlement on the island 13 and that na in this case is a remnant or their orientational system of that time. The islands nearest to M�ian, Moti and Kayoa , are both nao in the direotion of the sea , and so are remote overseas places like Ambon. Ternate however is naso below and Bacan is ney above. This fits in with the spatial orientation 14 reported by Yoshida for the Galela and by Te ljeur for the Giman . The up-down orientation with respect to places outside one 's own territory seems to be basically the same in the three groups and can be formulated as follows : at any point of a sea route running from the tip of North Halmahera along the west coast to the tip of the southern peninsula and then east to the Raja Amp at Islands and the Bird's Head Peninsula of Irian Jaya , going towards Irian Jaya is going up, going away from Irian Jaya is going down . Finally , any place to the east of M�ian on the mainland of Halmahera is nanga in the direotion of the interior.

2. GRAMMAR SKETCH

2.1. Phonology

2. 1.1. Vowels

West Makian has six vowe l phonemes: a [a,a], e [e,e], i [i ], u [u,u] , 0 [o,�] and e [a]. The latter is found only in loan words from Indonesian or Moluccan Malay . The details of the allophonic distributions have still to be worked out . a, 0, and u tend to be nasalised word finally after a nasal consonant; a and e have been observed to become mid-central [a] immediately preceding or following a stressed syllable . Word-initial vowe ls are often preceded by a weak glottal stop wh ich does not seem to have phonemic status as it alternates freely with its absence . All vowels can occur word initially , medially, and finally. Sequences of two vowels , including like vowels, are common . A few sequences of three vowels have also been noted. Non- syllabic i and u will be written as y and w.

2. 1. 2. Consonants The consonant phonemes are :

p t k c b d g j

m n ng ny f 5 h r 1 The phoneme symbols have the following phonetic values : p: unvoiced bilabial stop [p ] t: unvoiced interdental stop [�] k: unvoiced velar stop [k] THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 9

The voiceless stops are unreleased in word-final position when followed by a pause .

c: unvoiced alveopalatal stop [cJ b: voiced bilabial stop [bJ; a fricative allophone [eJ has been noted between two o's: [oeoJ. d: voiced dental stop [d] which is retroflexed [dJ after a, 0, and u. ' g: voiced ve lar stop [gJ; a fricative alloPhone [y] was noted between two a's: [ayaJ. j: voiced alveopalatal stop [JJ. m: voiced bilabial nasal [mJ. n: voiced dental nasal [nJ. ng: voiced velar nasal [oJ ny : voiced alveopalatal nasal [nJ f: unvoiced bilabial fricative [�J, in word-initial position often preceded by a weak [ PJ: [ P�]. 5: unvoiced alveodental fricative [5]. . h: unvoiced glottal fricative [hJ. r: voiced trilled or flapped vibrant [r, rJ. 1: voiced alveodental lateral [1J which has a retroflexed allophone [1J following a or o.

The vo iced stops b, d, g, the alveopalatal consonants c, j, ny, and the glottal fricative h do not occur in word- final position. There are no restrictions on the distribution of the other consonants . Consonant clusters are restricted to word-medial position, at least in slow speech and in word elicitation situations . They include non-geminate as we ll as geminate clusters . In connected speech also word-initial consonant clusters have been observed; they are the result of vowel elision , see 2.1.5.2. ny is found almost exclusively in loan words from Indonesian ; the only example of ny in an original We st Makian word is minye one.

2.1.3. Stress pl acement The majority of the words carry the word stress on the penultimate syllable . In addition there are a number of words which carry it on the antepenultimate or on the last syllable . Stress is therefore potentially phonemic, but actual cases of contrastive stress have not ye t been observed. As mentioned before (fnl) I shall indicate the word accent only when it does not fall on the penultimate syllable.

2.1.4. Intonational patterns Two types of sentence intonation have thus far been observed: 1. The tone rises sharply on the last syllable of the utterance , sometimes followed by a sudden drop . This kind of intonation is heard in yes-no questions, in emphatic imperatives , and sometimes in interrogative sentences which contain a question word (information questions) . 2. The tone drops significantly on the last syllable of the utterance . This intonation is heard in declarative sentences , in information sentences (where it seems to be more common than the first type ) and in non-emphatic imperatives . 10 C.L. VOORHOEVE

Within the sentence , clauses and other word groups are sometimes marked by a falling-rising intonation on the last syllable , followed by a pause . This is a stylistic device for creating a mood of expectation : it signals that something special is to follow.

2.1.5. Phonological changes

2. 1.5. 1. Vowel assimi l ati on

A striking feature of West M�ian is a tendency towards vowel harmony which manifests itself in regressive vowel assimilation across morpheme as well as word boundaries . It affects many verb prefixes , several possessive pronouns , the particle dV (2 .3.2.1. ) and the preposition tV to, from, at, on (2.3.3) . All these morphemes have the general form CV (consonant + vowel) . The following assimilation rules apply :

1. CV > Ca / --- (C) a

CV > Ce / - (C) e That is : the final vowe l assimilates to a following a or e regardless whether a consonant intervenes or not . 2. CV > Ce /--- Ci A final vowe l becomes e if followed by a consonant + i. 3. CV > Ci / i (C)o 4. CV > Co { } (C) u A final vowe l becomes o if followed by an 0 or u regardless whether a consonant intervenes or not. The details of the application of these rules will be given in the section on word classes. There are a few exceptions to them which will be discussed in section 2.2.2.1.

5. CV > CVl / - (C)Vl A final vowe l assimilates to any following vowe l regardless whethe r a consonant intervenes or not. This more general rule applies only to the subject prefixes in imperative verb forms .

2.1.5.2. Vowel el i sion Vowe l elision occurs only in connected speech and seems to affect only the vowe l i. It can result in word-initial consonant clusters ; if the i carried the word stress then the stress shifts to the next vowel . Examples are : carita > carta story ka fiti > ka ft°r young (of frui t) badan de gi go > badan de gg6 (b ody-its-hair) body hair

ni sit6 > ni st6 (you-where ) where are you going? THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 11

2.2. Word cl asses and morphology

2. 2.1. Mo rphological processes Word-building processes in West Makian are those of prefixing , reduplication , duplication , and compounding. Prefixing is restricted to verbs and numerals . Reduplication is found in noun qualifiers and stative verbs ; duplication occurs in nouns , noun qualifiers , and stative verbs ; compounding can form nouns and demonstrative pronouns .

2.2. 2. Verbs

2.2.2.1. Verb Stems Verb stems can be simp le , reduplicated, duplicated, or derived. Al l reduplicated and duplicated stems noted so far are stative verbs : sasafo to be hot (safo be warm, have fe ver, pain) kakawi to be arooked (kaw i bend)

bolabo la be lying down, resting ( bo 1 a 7) berebere be weak of body (bere 7) Derived verb stems are formed from verb roots and verb stems by prefixing fV-, mV-, mefe- , or fi-. fV- is subject to assimilation rules 1-4 although it sometimes has the form fa before a following e, as in fa-gey to kill. This prefix combines the following functions : 1. It makes transitive verbs from intransitive verbs : abo to be wounded fa-abo to wound 2. It forms causative verbs from transitive and intransitive verb stems : dad i to become fa-dadi to cause to beaome mi 1 i nga to think of, to love fe-mil inga to make somebody think of 3. It forms transitive verbs from nouns : ca rita story fa-cari ta to teU a story fV- can have a reciprocal meaning : ga leng to abuse fa-ga leng to abuse eaah other ruj u to thump fo-ruj u to thump each other It is possible that fV- verbs allow this interpretation only in certain contexts . The prefix which marks a verb unequivocally as reciprocal is mefe : kerekiri to tiakle mefe-kerekiri to tiakle eaah other isi to kiss mefe-isi to kiss each other However, one also finds mofumete, to go together, acaompany eaah other which is based on the root me te to fo llow . Why it is mofu-mete and not me fe-mete is not clear. There are very few examples of the prefix mV- and its function is still unclear. It seems to follow assimilation rules 1-4 . mV- contrasts with fV- in ma gey to die, be dead versus fagey to ki ll. When prefixed to dad i beaome it changes the meaning of this verb into to exis t, to be as against fa-dadi to cause to become . The Indonesian word asal origin is found as a loan word in West Makian 12 C.L. VOORHOEVE with the changed meaning topia, aontents; its mV- derivative ma-asal seems to have retained something of the original meaning as in i - so i-ma-asal he went down to be ?uni ted wi th his sourae ?, a polite way of saying he died. The examples suggest that mV- verbs are intransitive and belong to the class of stative verbs (2.2.2.2) . The prefix fi- is kept separate from fV- firstly because it does not seem to assimilate the vowe l to the next one and secondly because its function seems to be different. So far only three clear cases of its occurrence have been noted: fi-co to look at, keep an eye on : co to see; fi-teng to say to somebody: teng to say; fi-am to eat: am to eat something (in the Sabale dialect the corre­ sponding forms are fa and a) . In fico, fi- signals an active involvement in the act of visual perception which is lacking in co; fiteng always is followed by an object whereas teng is not. These two cases would perhaps just fit under the semantic umbrella of fV- , in which case one would have to account for the formal irregularity of the prefix. In fiam (and fa) however its function is the opposite of fV- in that it signals 'that the verb canno t take an object. Fiam is irregular in this respect, as is am with respect to the subject prefixes it takes (2.2.2.2) .

2.2. 2. 2. Verb infl ection The only inflectional affixes which verbs take are subject prefixes . One can divide the verbs into three classes on the basis of differences in the sets of prefixes they take . I have provisionally labelled them Action Verbs , Directional Verbs , and Stative Verbs . ACTION VERBS Action verbs take the following set of subject prefixes: Singular 1st person tV- Plural 1st person inclusive mV- 2nd person nV- 1st person exclusive a- 3rd person i - 2nd person fV- 3rd person dV- Al l prefixes with an initial consonant are subject to assimilation rules 1-4 (2.1.5.1) . Examples are: , t i - i I go to- co I see , te-fiam I eat no-co you see . , te - bebe I d:rink I-CO he/she/it sees , mo-co we inclusive see ta-baso I hear a-co, we exclusive see to-toba I bathe fo-co you plural see to-uba I aarry do-co they see Since West M�ian verbs carry no tense marking they depend on their context for tense specification . In context-free examples they can be translated in the past, present or future tense . If the verb is in the imperative mode its 2nd person prefixes assimilate according to rule 5: ni-r, fi-i! go ! no-ogoso, fo-ogos6! put it down ! ne-e, fe-e! get it! nu-uba, fu-uba ! aarry it! na-tala, fa-ta la! aut it! THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 13

Inperative verbs can also occur without subject prefixes : dupe de ngeu ne throw away art left-overs these Throw these left-overs away ! ba l i me tie up him Tie him up ! DIRECTIONAL VERBS Directional verbs differ from action verbs in that the subject markers which follow assimilation rules 1-4 in the latter all have the vowe l i: ti-naso Ternate I am going to Ternate ni-naso Ternate you singular are going i-naso Ternate he is going .. . mi-naso Ternate we inclusive are going 1 di-naso Te rnate 5 they are going to Ternate The roots belonging to this class with one exception all express a movement into a certain direction. Such roots are : no to come towards the speaker, so to go down , fi to come up, fo to come down , fia to come from the sea towards the land and the locative roots given in section 2.2.8 when they function as verbs. The prefixes could derive , historically , from the inflected verb i to go so that ti-i naso became ti-naso, etc. The only non-directional root which seems to belong to this class is the verb am to eat which takes the same set of subject prefixes : ti-am, ni-am etc . STATIVE VERBS Stative verbs seem to take the same subject prefixes as the directional verbs except for the 3rd person singular which distinguishes between animate and inanimate gender, animate being defined' as human or animal, inanimate as non-human , non-animal 15 The subject prefix 3rd person singular for animate gender is ma , for inanimate gender : i. Roots belonging to this class are dad i become , and roots expressing a state rather than an action such as be le be hungry , kaku be small. Many of these roots can also function attributively as noun qualifiers , see 2. 2.4:17. Examples are : ti-bele I am hungry ni-dad i pun i you became a spook i-dad i it happens ma-dadi sangaj i he became a chief

di oma ma ma -kaku i their chi ld that it-small still Their child is still small. pa la ne i-kaku house this it-small This house is small.

2. 2. 3. Nouns

2. 2. 3.1. Noun stems Noun stems are simp le , duplicated, or compound. Examples of duplicated noun stems are sarusaru rib , ragaraga finger , barubaru wall. Some duplicated stems have been formed from verb roots . They denote the person who performs the action or has the quality expressed by the verb : 14 C.L. VOORHOEVE

ted i to steal ted ited i a thief mato to be old matomato an old man A special kind of duplication involves vowel variation : gataguta lid of a receptacle (guta to close) langa long i rope perep iri grass

Only a few compound stems have been noted. They contain two juxtaposed noun roots , or two noun roots in possessive construction , or a numeral plus noun root: 1 afebebe afe + bebe eye + water; tears 6 mudefete mu + de + fe te ?? + its + tree; nose dimaedepa dimaede two persons + pa wife; husband and wife� a couple pa is a bound allomorph of papa woman� wife . Nouns do not take any affixes.

2. 2. 3.2. Noun classes We st M�ian nouns fall into two major classes , Animate and Inanimate , each of which is divided into two smaller classes here labelled Animate High (AH), Animate Low (AL) , Inanimate High (IH) , and Inanimate Low (IL) . Animate Nouns denote human beings and animals, Inanimate Nouns plants , trees and objects . Nouns belonging to the AH class denote persons to whom one owes respect (cf 1.5) . They require the use of special 'polite ' forms of the personal pronouns , numerals , and verbs . Those of the AL class denote common people and animals. The IH class only contains names of trees and the word 'tree ' itself and the IL class names of plants and inanimate objects . The concord requirements of the four classes are set out in the matrix below .

Animate Inanimate

All AL IH IL Choice of special lexical items denoting I 1 body parts or expressing bodily functions + - - -

(cf. 1.2.4:5) . Choice of the plural instead of the singular form of the 3rd p. pronoun and + - - - the 3rd p. subject marker with action verbs (1.2.4:S)

Choice of ma as subj .prf. 3rd p. sg. with + + - - stative verbs (cf. 2.2.2.2:15)

Choice of the poss.pr. mV (cf. 2.2.6:19) + + - -

Choice of the go- numerals (cf. 2.2.10:24) + - + -

Choice of the di- numerals (cf. 2.2.10:24) - + - -

+ = yes, - = no THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 15

Animate and inanimate noun classes are found in many non-Austronesian languages in the area, both in North Halmahera and in New Guinea. The distinction of an AH class is not a Papuan feature and must be due to cultural influence from the Austronesian part of Indonesia. The classification of trees as 'High ' for the purpose of counting could also be a Papuan feature . In the (Papuan) Asmat language in Irian Jaya old people are sometimes referred to as 'trees ', and in many Papuan languages body-parts are equated with parts of trees .

2. 2.4. Noun qual ifiers There are a number of roots which occur attributive ly as noun qualifiers but it is not yet clear whether they form one class which can be labe lled 'adjectives '. I noted a few instances of such roots immediately following the noun they qual ify: sawan gawi a lone ly spot loka sinanga fried bananas oma sibafong (chi ld, male & ado lescent) an adolescent boy Much more frequently the qualifying root is linked to the noun by a particle dV which like the article dV (2.3.2.1) and the possessive dV (2.2.6) follows assimilation rules 1-4. Some of these roots also occur as nouns : papa, a woman, a female da pap� the woman oma da papa a fema le child, a girl ayo older sibling da ayo the older sib ling da ayo da pap� the older sister do oma da ayo the older child (of two) When they function as nouns these roots all denote human beings ; in their attributive function they always qualify animate nouns so the re is no possibility of confusing the linking particle dV with the po ssessive particle dV which always follows a noun of the inanimate class . Thus : da pa la da gas i the posts (gasi) of the hou se , but : da oma ma ayo the chi ld 's older sib ling (v. 2.2.6). Other qualifying roots also function as stative verbs : win da safo a hot sun, a hot day de ti afe i-safo I my eye it-hot, my eye hurts Other examples are : ma i da magol a huge stone afi da rata leve l ground rata in the last example is a borrowing from Indonesian (tanah rata level ground) .

2. 2.5. Personal pronouns There are seven personal pronouns which have the same form in whatever syntactic function they occur . They embody two number distinctions , singular and plural , and distinguish between 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person with an extra inclusive­ exclusive distinction in the 1st person plural . They are : 16 C.L. VOORHOEVE

Singular 1st person de Plural 1st person exclusive imi 2nd person ni 1st person inclusive ' ene 3rd person me 2nd person in i 3rd person erne The plural forms of the 1st person inclusive , 2nd person , and 3rd person can be derived from the singular forms by prefixing a plural marker V which assimilates to the root vowe l and by postulating the morphophonemic change of de > ne . The 1st person exclusive pronoun is built on the same principle but the root seems to be of Austronesian origin : mi < AN kami . To express dual , trial , or higher numbers a numeral root (2.2.10) is added to the personal pronouns . For dual number this is the root j e which is found only in this context , in the compound jepa husband and wife (2.2.2.1.) and by itself with the meaning the two of them. Thus :

imi j e the two of us erne j e, j e the two of them ene unge the three of us, etc.

2. 2. 6. Possessive pronouns The possessive pronouns are :

Singular 1st person ti my 2nd person ni your 3rd person Animate mV his/her/i ts 3rd person Inanimate dV its Plural 1st person exclusive mi our 1st person inclusive nV our 2nd person f i your 3rd person di their The pronouns mV , dV and nV are subject to assimilation rules 1-4; the others do not vary their form. The 3rd person singular pronoun mV occurs with animate possessors , dV with inanimate possessors . The possessive pronouns are often preceded by the corresponding personal pronouns . This construction seems to be slightly more emphatic than the other; one context in which it always occurs is as complement in a verbless sentence . Examp les: d i oma their chi ld(ren) da kab i mo gow the goat 's leg da pala do bungbangi the floor of the house me ne de t i pa la this is my house me ne, me mo oma this is his child As mentioned before (1.5) some social situations demand that one uses personal and possesive pronouns and verbs in a polite way , that is, that one uses the plural forms of those pronouns and verbs instead of the singular . Some examples of polite usage are given here : mene de ti deto di musala this I my Grandmother Her mat This is my Grandmother 's mat. THE [vEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 17

da lagey ma de- i teng the old man that He-said The Old Man said i-fteng eme he-said to Him He said to Him ...

2. 2.7. Demonstrati ve pronouns The following demonstratives have been noted:

I II III

this/these ne mene 17 nema

that/those ma mena -

The demonstrative roots in column I function as noun qualifiers . The forms in column II function as Subject or Ob ject , and also as noun qualifiers . In the latter case they seem to be more emphatic that the roots . Morphologically they are compound , consisting of the 3rd person singular pronoun me followed by a demonstrative root. Nema was observed only twice , in the text (section 3) . Its semantic relation to ne and mene is not clear . Used attributively the demonstratives follow the noun . Examples : pa la ne i-lamo house this it- large This house is large . da aso ma i-kiki ni? the dog that it-bi te you Did that dog bite you? ni-am do loka mene yo you-eat the banana this not Don 't eat this banana! mene de t i pa I a this I my house This is my house . mena omo that already (2.3.1.1) That is enough .

2.2.8. Locati ve wo rds The locatives form a system which is based on eight roots . Two of these are the demonstratives ne and ma o Although not locative themselves they form the basis of derived locatives which fit into the pattern of forms derived from locative roots . Five of the locative roots are speaker-oriented: they define 18 C.L. VOORHOEVE the position of points in space in terms of the position of the speaker. The sixth , fa, does not seem to be speaker-oriented but to refer to a location near another, context-determined point of re ference. The locatives are :

Roots Derived forms

I II

, , Demonstrative ne sine ses ine here ma soma, sosoma, there

, Locative na18 sona [sosona ] 1 9 yonder naso sonaso [sosonaso] below, down there ney soney, sosoney, above, up there nanga sonanga [sosonanga ] on the landi.uard side nao sonao [sosonao] on the seaward side ia sO ,ia ? ?there near X?

The locative roots can have a locational or a directional meaning . Examples of the former are : ne-e da tas nao to motor you-take art bag loc on the boat Fetch the bag (which is) over there on the boat. motor i-dee naso Te rnate omo boat it-reach loc Ternate already The boat has already reached Ternate down there. 2 0 wo lot nao ma i-mau lu pake sea loc that it-deep very The sea over there is very deep. When they have a directional meaning they function as verbs . These directional verbs have been discussed in section 2.2.2.2. The forms in column I are derived from the roots by the prefixing of 50- which has an allomorph si- when prefixed to ne . 21 So/Si restricts the general locative deixis of the root to the indication of a particular location : ni-sitao de sona you-wait me loc Wai t fo r me (on that spot) over there ! no-ogo soney, you-put loc Put it (on that spot) up there! win iwu fa-wcl sine? day how many you-stay here How long wi ll you (plural) stay here? THE WEST MA KIAN LANGUAGE 19

The forms in column II are derived from those in column I by the prefixing of a second 50- which has an allomorph se when prefixed to sine. Their semantic relation to the forms in column I is not yet clear; in some examples they seem to be no more than variants of the column I forms , as in: imu ma-dad i sanga4 i ses i ne? who he-become Camat 2 here Who has become the Camat here ? ni-fo ses ine i you come down here mod Please come down here. Another possibility , which needs further investigation , is that the second so is the verb root so to go down, de scend (i-so fete he climbs down a tree) which can follow another verb to indicate a downward movement: toro so to sit down, ogo so to put down , so that the sentence no-ogo sosoney should be re­ analysed as no-ogo so soney Put it down up there. s es i ne however does not seem to fit in \-J i th this explanation .

2. 2.9. Interrogati ves The following interrogatives have been noted: sito, sto from where, where to n i sto you where Where are you going? na-ay s to, you-depart where From where did you depart? ses ito where Kampong SabaJe rna sesito vi l lage Sabale that where Where is the vi l lage of Sabale? Note that the semantic contrast between sito and ses ito (directional­ locative ) is parallel to that between the locative roots and their derivates , e.g. naso - sona so (2.2.8) . This makes it possible to identj..fy se in ses ito as the same prefix found in sonaso etc . pama what mene pama or pama mene What is this? ni aym pama you name what What is your name ? imu who imu i-tuJ is mene who he-wrote this Who wrote this? 20 C.L. VOORHOEVE

iwu how many/how much no-pol i namu de es i iwu you-buy chicken eggs how many How many eggs di d you buy? pa ruwia when fo-podo paruwia you-come when When di d you (plural) come ? paruwia refers to events in the past. putuiwu when fi-f putuiwu you-go when When wi ll you (plural) leave ? putuiwu refers to events in the future . Originally it must have meant how many nights . Cognates of putu meaning night are found in all North Halmaheran languages. In West M�ian the common word for night is now kaman . sapma } why sapma amo ni sapma {amo} no-podo yo you why you-came not Why didn 't you come ? apato how ka lau ta-maa erne , apato? if I-seize them, how If I seize them, what then?

2.2.10. Quanti fiers NUMERALS There are four sets of numerals : (1) numerals used to count nouns of the Inanimate Low class , (2) numerals used to count nouns of the Animate Low class , (3) numerals used to count Animate High and Inanimate High nouns (2.2.3.2) , and (4) a set of numeral roots . The num erals 1-9 have been elicited in all four sets , the higher numerals only in set 1. The four sets of numerals 1-9 are :

Roots IL AL AH/IH

. , . , . , . , 1 mlnye mlnye mem lnye gomlnye 2 ed�ng, ed� , je medeng dimaede gomedeng 3 unge iunge dimaunge goi unge 4 fat i i fat i dimfati goi fat i 5 foy mafoy dimfoy gomafoy 6 dam idam dimdam goi dam 7 teped ingi teped ingi diteped ingi goteped ingi 8 tukbange tukbange ditukbange gotukbange 9 s iwe is iwe dims iwe goi s iwe THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 21

The numeral roots occur attributively with nouns of the IL class and with plural personal pronouns to indicate dual , trial etc. number . Of the three allomorphs of two we find ed�ng in the former case and je in the latter: win edeng two days ini je the two of you ini unge the three of you The numerals in the second column are used by themselves to count inanimate ob jects (except trees) , and in 'enumerative ' counting. Those in the third and fourth columns occur both attributively and by themselves . In the latter case they can also function as nouns meaning one person, two persons etc . loka minye one banana da lagey gominye one Old Man loka gomi nye one banana tree meminye one person oma dimaede two chi ldren gominye one respectab le person

The numbers 2-9 of the AL set contain the pronominal root di '3rd person plural ' which occurs in this form as possessive pronoun and as subject marker in directional verbs. If we strip these numerals of di- we are left with forms which are very similar to the numeral adverbs meaning two times, three times etc. : di-maede : madeng two times / for the second time di-maunge : maunge three times / fo r the third time Exceptions are the numerals 7 and 8 in which di- is prefixed directly to the root. The se two roots have cognates in all North Halmaheran languages and are clearly of non-Austronesian origin . On the other hand the roots fat i, s i we , and dam are clearly of Austronesian origin. The origin of the remaining roots is uncertain . Finally, mem inye in this set contains the 3rd person singular personal pronoun me .

The numerals in the AH set all contain a prefix go- added to the forms of the IL set. For the latter the numerals from 10- 100 have also been noted. They are : , 10 ainye , , 11 ainye 10 minye , 12 ainye 10 medeng etc. 20 awedeng , 21 awedeng 10 minye etc . 30 awe i unge 40 aweifate etc. , 100 atus minye Indefinite quantifiers are : fo lo many feberes f} all otu few, a bit famas i

2. 3. Phrases

2.3.1. Verb Phrases There are three types of verb phrases : - - I. Non imperative Action verb Phrase (AVP l) II. Imperative Action-verb Phrase (AVP2 ) III. Stative verb Phrase 22 C.L. VOORHOEVE

2.3.1.1. Action verb phrase1 The AVP l has the structure : (mode ) Verb (Aspect) . Modals are : rnusti have to, mus t seba (Sabale : tope) want, intend to suka want very much to, like to rnusti and suka are loan words from Indonesian : seba and tope seem to be original WM words . Aspect markers are : orno already (comp letive aspect) stiU (incompletive aspect) epe again (repeated action) There are no examples of verbs accompanied both by modals and by aspect markers . Aspect markers come clause finally but precede the Sentence Modal if any. That is, they can be separated from the verb by other post-verbal sentence constituents . Examples : de seba te-fiarn (Sabale : de tope ta-fa) S 23_____ VP ____ _ S ----VP---­ I want I-eat I want I-eat I want to eat. I want to eat. Dene rnus ti ti-dadi pun i S ------VP ------Comp I have to I-become spirit I have to become a spirit. Coba ni suka ni-dadi puni , Cj S -----vP----- Comp if you like you-become spirit If you like to become a spirit, Te ne i-sasafo i -- S ------vP---- tea this it-hot stiU This tea is stiU hot. Motor ne i-dee naso Ternate orno --- S ------AdvP---- L ------vP------J The boat has already reached Ternate . Te rus o-jaga epe Cj -----vP----- and he-watch again And again he kept watch . orno and epe have also been observed without verb in the elliptical sentences occurring in the second part of the following discourse :

Speaker 1: Ni - i ta pasar no-pol i narnu de es i 10 ifa! go to market buy chicken eggs and canarium nuts You (sg) go to the market and buy eggs and canarium nuts ! Speaker 2: Speaker 1: Lo parna epe? Merna orno . and what again? that already And what else? That 'U do . THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 23

2.3.1. 2. Action verb phrase2 The AVP2 has the structure : Verb (mode) . The verb is always an imperative . The modal , which occurs clause final , is i. It 'softens ' the imperative to a more polite request. Examples : ni-f i no-pol i de ti tabako 23 ------__vp -- VP 0 you-go mod you buy �d tobacco Please go and buy tobacco for me.

. , . ses lne I AdvP L ------VP ------J you come up here mod Please come up here .

2. 3.1. 3. Stati ve verb phrase

The Stative Verb Phrase differs from the AVP l in that it can contain the intensifier adverb pake . Examples : pa la ne i-go lo orno --- S ------vP---- house this it-old already This house is already old. wo lot nao rna i-rnaulu pake ------S ------vP ----- sea there that it-deep very The sea there is very deep . te, ne i-sasafo i - s ----vP - --- tea this it-hot still This tea is still hot. (The possibility of modals in this Verb Phrase , and the co-occurrence of pake and aspect markers has not been investigated.)

2.3.2. Noun phrases Four types of noun phrases will be distinguished here : 1. General Noun Phrase 2. Possessive Noun Phrase 3. Coordinate Noun phrase 4. Complex Noun phrase 5. Personal Pronoun Phrase

2. 3. 2.1. The general noun phrase A general noun phrase contains at least a noun which can be preceded by the particle dV and followed by a Qualifier , a Demonstrative or Locative root , and a Quantifier: (dV) Noun (Qual .) (Dem. Loc .) (Quant .) 24 C.L. VOORHOEVE

The particle dV which follows assimilation rule 1 seems to have as its most general function that it signals that the root which follows stands in a certain relationship to something else, whether this 'something else ' is represented in the context or not. If it is not , then dV imparts to the following root a certain definiteness . The root then is always a noun , and dV signals that the speaker assumes that the listener knows what or whom he is talking about . In this case dV can often be translated by 'the' . That it is not a real definite article is shown by the fact that a noun with dV can be followed by a d�monstra­ tive pronoun as in da lagey rna that old man in which dV has to remain untranslated. If dV links two nouns however it signals a possessive re lationship in which the possessor precedes and the possessed follows . There is one restriction on the occurrence of dV in this context : the possessor is always inanimate - an animate possessor requires the use of the 3rd person singular possessive pronoun mV , e.g. da pa la da gasi the house posts , but : kabi mo gow goat 's leg. If dV links a noun and an 'adjective ' root, two animate nouns , or a verb and a noun , it signals a qualifying relationship in which the qualified precedes and the qualifier follows . For example : tebe tail end; de tebe the tai l end; et i de tebe the tail end of a canoe ; i-so de tebe (literally) it descended at the rear which , said about a new glass for instance means it has just come out of the factory . And : at man ; da at the man, husband; oma da at a male chi ld, boy ; may da magol a large stone . Examples of General Noun Phrases are : omo (a) chi ld do omo art23 chi ld the child

. , da lagey gom l nye art old man one one Old Man do gupa rna feberesr art coconut that aU all those coconuts da sawan gawi minye art spot lone ly one (spot lone ly one) one lone ly spot ma i da magol ne stone Ql large this this large stone

2. 3. 2.2. The possessive noun phrase The structure of a possessive NP is : (NP/Personal Pronoun) + Possessive Pronoun + General Noun Phrase . When the Possessive Pronoun is dV it is obligatorily preceded by a Noun Phrase with an inanimate head , otherwise the first constituent is optional . Examples : THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 25

(de) ti papa my wife . , mo o ma mem l nye her one ahild (de) ti oma da at my ma le ahi ld, my son de ti ayo rna kab i my older sibling 's goat de eti de tebe the tai l of the aanoe

2. 3.2. 3. Coordi nate noun phrases . These noun phrases contain two NPs linked by the coordinating conjunctions 10 and or fa or. Examples are : Muhammad 10 Hasan Muhammad and Hassan namu de esi 10 ifa ahiaken eggs and aanarium nuts da at fa da papa? (Is it) a male or a fema le ? win edeng fa iunge Two days or thr ee?

2. 3.2.4. Complex noun phrases Complex Noun phrases consist of a General Noun Phrase and one or two embedded clauses . The embedded clause either fol lows the General Noun Phrase or is contained in it as in the first example below : mancia yang di-pun i rna people L_Emb .C123-j those those people who are evil spirits mancia di-isa ramian peop le L __ Emb. Cl __ ...J people who are ho lding a feas t da manc ia de-sedor ia, yang di sifat i-tiahi people L_ Emb .Cl _ ...I , L------Emb .Cl------j· Peop le who passed there and whose fe atures were aomp lete ....

2. 3. 2.5. Personal pronoun phrases These phrases have a Personal pronoun as head, optionally followed by the demonstrative ne or a numeral root: de ne I, I here erne unge the three of them See also section 2.2.5.

2.3.3. Adverb phrases Adverb phrases will here be divided into two distributional classes : those which precede the verb and those which follow it. Pre-verb phrases include time phrases, the modal adverb tarsa perhaps , the intensifier adverb pa ling very muah and the manner adverbs happa like this , hapaapa like this and that and wa also. Examples of time phrases are : 26 C.L. VOORHOEVE

, ma idne today ma rungo minye in three days I time ibulang tomorrow win tanuaw i at noon do bulang fi the fo Hawing day ianso , anso newly, just ma iti so yesterday terahir at last ma rd inge the day after tomorrow If the sentence contains a Subject they precede it ; only anso has been noted in post-subject position. Post-verb adverb phrases can be divided into manner phrases and locative phrases . Manner phrases include instrument phrases, numeral phrases, and Ii also. Instrument phrases are characterised by the presence of the preposition pe with. They can precede or follow the Ob ject . Examples are : na-tala pe peda da langa long i ne you-cut with bushknife art2 3 rope this Cut this rope with a bushknife! yakor te pe sosod ik stir tea wi th spoon Stir the tea with a spoon. Numeral adverb phrases are : mam ,ln ye one time, for the first time madeng two times, for the second time maunge three times, for the third time etc . These have been formed from numeral roots by the prefixing of ma-. maminye epe yet another time, once more minye fa minye in one respect or another Locative phrases fall into two categories: 1. those which consist of a root which immediately follows the verb and indicates the direction into which the action takes place . Roots which function as such directional adverbs also function as directional verbs (2.2.2.2) . Examples are : no-ogo so Put it down ! nu-uba no Bring it here ! de to-toro so I sat down de ta-aw fi I came climbing up 2. those which contain a noun phrase preceded by the preposition tV (Assimilation rules 1-4) or pe , and/or a locative root . tV and pe seem to be mutually exclusive ; tV to, at, in, on is followed by a Noun Phrase with an inanimate noun as Head, pe to by a Noun Phrase with an animate noun as Head , or a personal pronoun . Only one case was noted in which a locative root and a preposition occur together. Examples are : te meja do tubo on tab le its top on the table to motor t% n the boat te fito to/in the kitchen i-waKO pe de may he-threw to me stone He threw a stone at me . nu- uba da tas ne nao to motor you-take bag this loc to boat Take this bag to the boat over there. THE WES T MA KIIlN LlINGUAGE 27

There are a number of verbs which 'govern ' the preposition pe and are always followed by it even if no overt object is present : fimege pe to ask mamae pe to obey fol soma pe to send (a letter) to I noted one case of a post-verb time adverb . It is the case of de tebe me ntioned earlier in section 2.3.2.1: gelas ne i-so de tebe ne glass this it-went down at the rear this This glass is new (i. e. has just come out of the factory).

2.4. Sentences The following main sentence types will here be distinguished: simp le sentences, com plex sentences, and compound sentences .

2. 4.1. Simple sentences Simple sentences contain only one non-embedded clause.2 4 They can be declarative , imperative , or interrogative . Since all imperative sentences observed so far have the same grammatical structure as declarative sentences they will be subsumed under these . Simple sentences which contain a verb phrase are verbal sentences and those which do not contain a verb phrase are non-verbal sentences.

2.4.1.1. Verbal declarati ve sentences Two types of sentences will be distinguished here . The first type consists of a verbal phrase optionally accompanied by one or more of the following sentence constituents , generally in the order as given below: 2 3 (AdvP) (S) VP (10) (0) (AdvP) (SM) The functions of Subject, Ob ject , and Indirect Ob ject are fulfilled by a Noun Phrase . Sentence Modals are ne , yo, wa r, wayb, and mo ra. ne, in origin the demonstrative pronoun ne this seems to lend a certain emphasis to the sentence . The other modals signal the negative mode : yo not; wayb seems to be used to negate states and can be translated by there is/was not� it is not; wa r not yet and mo r a no more . The verb of the verb phrase can be intransitive , transitive , or ditransitive depending on whether it cannot take an object , can take an ob ject, or can take an indirect object as well as an object . Examples : I. With intransitive ve rb de ti-r S 23 VP I I-go I went. 28 C.L. VOORHOEVE

de te-fi�rn yo 5 VP 5M I I-eat not I am not eating. de ansa to-osu ne 5 AdvP VP 5H I just I-get up I just got up!

I I rnaiderna rnern inye i-podo sine AdvP 5 VP AdvP shortly a person he-came here A few moments ago somebody came here. hap�apa i-sag� l AdvP VP like this and that he-walk He walked this way and that way . II. With transitive verb da aso rna i-kiki de -----5---- VP 0 art dog that it-bite me That dog bit me . nu-uba kurs i ne ta pa I a - - VP - --0 --- --AdvP-­ you-take chair this to house Take this chair to the house! na-tala pe pi so da langaloni ne - VP ---AdvP --­ ------0------you-cut wi th knife art rope this Cut this rope wi th a knife ! pa l ing de-rni I i nga erne orno AdvP VP o I very much they-love them already They already love them very much. ne-bebe de te rnene yo VP ------0------5M you-drink art tea this not Don 't drink this tea! III. With ditransitive verb ne-pi de te VP 10 0 you-give me tea Give me (some) tea! THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 29

2.4.1. 2. Non-verbal declarative sentences

These have the structure : Adverb phrase + Subject + Compler,lent. The complement is manifested by a Noun Phrase , an Adverb Phrase , a numeral , or by an embedded non-verbal sentence . The subject of the embedded sentence refers anaphorically to the sentence subject either by itself as in the third examp le below, or through one of its constituents as in the fourth example . , mene Hasan mo oma S23 ------Comp----­ this Hasan his chi ld This is Hasan 's chi ld. anso di oma dimaede AdvP ----S----- Comp newly their children two They had only two chi ldren. mama mena te fito S -----Comp------S Comp Mo ther she-there in kitchen Mother is there in the kitchen. dimaedepa di oma dimaede S ------Comp------S ---- Comp man & wife their children two The man and his wife had two children.

2.4.1.3. Interrogati ve sentences Yes-no questions : these differ from declarative sentences only by having a question intonation (2.1.4) . Information questions : these differ from declarative sentences in that a Noun Phrase , an Adverb Phrase, or a Quantifier has been replaced by an interrogative word . Also the order of the constituents can be different from the order in declarative sentence . Thus pa ruwia and putuiwu when (2.2.9) which replace the time adverb phrase occur in sentence-final position. Arld imu who precedes the Subject when it is the complement in a non-verbal sentence . Examples are : fo-uba pama VP 0 you-carry what What are you carrying? imu i ni Comp S who you (pI) Who are you? n i sapma no-podo yo S AdvP VP SM you why you-come not Why didn 't you come ? 30 C.L. VOORHOEVE

imu i-tul is mene S2 3 VP 0 who he-wri te this Who wrote this? Kampong Sabale rna ses ito ------s ------Comp vi Uage Sahale that where Where is the vi l lage of Saba le ? win iwu fa-wa sine --AdvP--- VP AdvP days how many you-stay here How long will you (pl) stay here? fo-podo pa ruwia VP AdvP you-come when When did you come here ?

2.4.1.4. The pre-verb object In all the examples of simple sentences given above the object follows the verb . But the ob ject can also precede the verb namely when it is topicalised. It then also precedes the Subject . The vacated post-verbal position is then occupied by what I would like to label an 'echo Ob ject ', i.e. a pronoun which refers anaphorically to the pre-verb Ob ject. Examples of the object in pre­ verbal position are : ti oma rna puni i-am me ____O L 3 ______S VP EO my chi ld that evil spirit it-eat him My chi ld was eaten by an evi l spirit jadi di oma rna , pa ling de-mi linga erne omo Cj ------0------AdvP EO L ______VP ____ J SO their children those, very much they-love them already Therefore they loved their chi ldren very much . Another examp le will be given in the section on embedded clauses .

2.4.2. Compl ex sentences Complex sentences contain two or more concatenated clauses . The intraclausal relations are expressed not by morphological means but either by juxtaposition or by a number of coordinating or subordinating conjunctions . Both ways of clause linking can be found within the same sentence .

2.4.2.1. Juxtaposed cl auses Juxtaposition signals that the action expressed by the verb in the second clause either simp ly follows the action expressed by the verb in the first clause , or that it is an intended action to which the first action is a preliminary . Also juxtapos ition can throw two actions into contrast. Examples are : ------,

THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 31

ni-i ta pasar no-pol i namu de es i 10 ifa

23 ------Vp AdvP VP 0 you-go to the market you-buy chicken eggs and canarium nuts Go to the market and buy eggs and canariums nuts . de t i - i to-tobo s VP VP I I-go I-bathe I go bathing. , na-wa te do yuwi fatta, de ta-wa, fatta VP ------AdvP ------S VP AdvP you-stay at the end one side I I-stay one side You stay at the end on one side3 and I stay at the other.

2.4. 2. 2. Clauses linked by conj unctions Most of the conjunctions we find in We st Mikian have been borrowed from the Indonesian language . Not all of them are also conjunctions in Indonesian ; some became conjunctions in West Makian by a functional and semantic shift. Thus , West Mikian coba if Indonesian coba to trY3 see if serta because serta with3 together with terus then (a t once) terus straight3 directly The only conjunctions which seem not to have been borrowed are amo because , 10 and, fa or , ma then , te so that and situ until. All conjunctions occupy clause-initial position . Coordinating conjunctions are : 10 and jadi so, therefore fa or terus and then, and at once tapi but Subordinating conjunctions are : cOba setelah after } if ka law waktu when, at the time that } serta since, because sebap situ unti l karena because amo te } so that, so supaya There seems to be no difference in meaning between coba and ka law. The semantic shift in cob a suggests that it is an older loan than ka law. sebap and karena are synonyms as they are in Indonesian . amo was found in two contexts : (1) following sapma why : sapma amo . . . can be translated by why is it that . . . ; (2) clause initially ; in that case it can be rendered by it is that/the reason is that/ because . supaya and te seem to have the same meaning, but supaya is an Indonesian loan and te (probably) the original West Mikian conjunction. cob a clauses are often followed by a clause introduced by ma then. Examples : . , I-maa me 10 i-d6 me VP o Cj VP 0 he-grab it and he-hold it He made a grab for it and got hold of it. 32 C.L. VOORHOEVE

i-wakis fa i-for VP2 3 CJ VP he-slap or he-beat with stick Did he slap (you) or di d he beat (you) with a stick? ah, coba hapa rna ti-i te-sefo de ne wa ti-dadi pun i 23 int Cj Comp Cj VP VP --- 8 --- VP Comp ay if like this then I-go I-seek I too I-become evil spirit supaya ti-am mancia Cj VP 0 so that I-eat people We ll, if that 's the case, then I'll go searching fo r a way to become an evil spiri t too, so that I can eat peop le !

2.4.3. Embedded clauses Embedded clauses can be verbal or non-verbal. Non-verbal embedded clauses do not differ structurally from their non-embedded counterparts. They occur as complements in non-verbal sentences (examples in 2.4.1.2) . Verbal clauses occur embedded in other clauses and in Noun Phrases . In the latter case they sometimes are introduced by the relative pronoun yang (an Indonesian loan) . Examples : dene , ka rena t i-pun i t i -am me 8 ----Emb.Cl------VP 0 L______Cl ______J I because I-evi l spirit I-eat it Because I am an evil spirit I ate it!

·la ma, da mancia de-sedor ia, yang di sifat i-tiahi AdvP ----8------Emb . Cl ------Emb.Cl------L------NP------______J there peop le they-pass there, who their fe atures it-comp lete Peop le who passed there and who did not miss any part of their bodies ....

dene te-sefo mancia yang di-pun i rna supaya da-fad idi de puni 8 VP ------0------Cj VP 0 Comp I I-seek person who he-evil spirit that so he-make me evil spirit I am looking fo r someone who is an evil spirit, so that he makes me an evil spirit.

na-jaga mancia di-isa ramian VP ------0------you-watch peop le they-make fe ast Look out for people who are having a fe as t!

3. TEXT The following text is about a man who loses one of his two children and, as is often the case in the Moluccas , ascribes its death to the work of an evil spirit or puni. A puni is a person who has the power to leave his body and roam around killing other people by eating their spiritual bodies . Frustrated by his loss the man decides to become a pun i himself. With the help of an old sorcerer THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 33 he succeeds but only to find that his second child dies too because he himself unknowingly has eaten its spiritual body . Aghast, he asks the sorcerer to change him back into an ordinary human being, but his request falls on deaf ears .

The text offers several examples of polite speech when the man addresses the old sorcerer. In both the word-by-word and the free translation which accompany it I have written the English equivalents of the polite terms and prefixes with initial capitals . Also the translation of lagey old man has been written with initial capitals . In the West M�ian version , which is a transcription of the original recording, non- final pauses are marked by a slash I, and sentence- final pauses by a double slash II ·

The man who wanted to become an evi 1 spiri t

, , no to ro so te ta-facari ta minye II jadi da cari ta nema I you sit down so that I-te ll a story one So art story this Si t down so that I can te ll you a story . So this story is about an

da asa 1 pun i I I Jadi kebetulan dimaedepa I di oma its topio evil spirit. So it happened that man & wife their chi ld evi l spiri t. So it happened that there were a man and his wife dimaede II anso di oma dimaede II Jadi di two just their ohi ld two Therefore their who had two chi ldren. They had only two ohi ldren . And therefore they , oma ma I pa ling de-mi linga eme oma II terus satu saat / ohi ldren those very muoh they loved them already then one time loved their ohi ldren very muoh . Then one day one of terus di oma ma magey II do oma da ayo ma magey II then their chi ld that die art chi ld eldest that di e their chi ldren died. Their eldest chi ld died. , dimaede bukan I jadi do oma da ayo magey, II karena magey Ierne two not so art child eldest die Because dead they They had two, hadn 't they, so, the elder di ed. Beoause it died and they , jepa, de-m i l inga me I terus da at ne i-sefo II de man and wife they loved it then art man this he sought I had loved it, the man at onoe began to look fo r ways (to take revenge) . 'I

ne must i t i-dad i pun i 1 i I sebap da-baso teng t i oma this must I beoome evil spiri t too beoause I heard word my ohi ld mus t beoome an evil spirit too (he thought) beoause I have heard people ma pun ii-am me bukan II Jad i terus da at that evil spirit it ate him, not? So then art man saying that an evi l spirit ate my ohi ld, didn 't he? So then he man said: ma i-iteng I a I coba hapa ma ti-I te-sefo te supaya de that he said we ll if like this then I go I seek so that I 'Well, if this is the oase, then I go searching fo r a way to beoome an evil ne wa ti-dadi puni I supaya ti-am manci a I I ta-balas here also I beoome an evil spirit so that I eat peop le I revenge spirit too, so that I oan eat people! In this way 34 C.L. VOORHOEVE

hapa II terus i-sefo i-saga1 II hapaapa thus at once he searched he walked like this and that I take revenge!' At once he set out on his search . This way and that way i-sagal I terus i-do da lagey gorninye I da lagey rna de­ he walked then he me t art Old Man One art Old Man that He­ he went, and then he met one Old Man. The Old Man asked him: firnegepe rne I a I ni st6 ne II terus rne i-jawap erne bukan I asked him hey you where this then he he-answered Him not 'Hey you there where are you going? ' And he answered Him, you know, he said i-fteng erne I a I dene te-sefo rnancia yang di-puni rna he-said Him oh I this I-look for somebody who He -evil spirit that to Him: 'I here I'm looking for somebody who is an evil spirit so that He supaya da-fadad i de puni II setelah i-f teng erne rna so that He-cause to become me evil spiri t after he-said to him that makes me into an evil spirit '. When he had told him that the

terus da lagey rna de-teng I 0 I bole sesne orno II cob a ni­ at once art Old Man that He-said Oh fi ne here already if you- Old Man at once said: 'Oh, that can be done right here! If you like suka ni-dadi puni I rna i-dadi II jadi thus je di- like you-become evi l spirit that it-happens so then they two they to become an evi l spiri t, it wi II happen '. So then the two of them made isa do s6w rna bukan I di-isa do s6w rna I te rus made art magic that you know they-make art magic that then the magic (for it), you know, in order to make the magic the two of them

je di-I da-saga l II sagal je di-I te25 da sawan they two they-went they walked walk the two they-went to art spot they went on their way and walked to a lone ly spot. gawi rninye II terus de-dee so sorna do-d6 da rnay lonely one then they-arrived down there they-found art stone They arrived down there and they fo und this large ob long da rnagol ne I teruv , s da lagey rna de-fi teng rne I a I na-wa large this then Old Man that He-said to him: ah you-stay stone, and the Old Man said to him: 'we ll, you have to stay at one end of it, te26 do yuwi fatta I te ta-vla, fatta II sete lah erne je at art end on one side at (?) I-stay one side after they two and I stay at the other end. When they had taken da-wa te teta I da lagey ne de-fteng rne I a I jaga they-stay at both ends art Old Man this He-said to him hey keep their pZaces at the ends, the Old Man said to him: 'Hey, keep looking at me ! ne-fico de II coba no-co, de I a rna berarti ni-puni you- look at me if you-see me that means you-evi l spirit If you see me, that means that you have become an evil

, v , rna i-dad i coba no-co de y6 I i-dadi wa i II terus that it-happened if you-see me not it-happened not yet then spiri t. If you don 't see me, that has not yet happened '. Then THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 35

, , , anso rnarninye I terusv i27 -fteng no-co de orno fa wa l II only one time and he-said you-see me already or not yet after the fi rst time (he made magic) he said to him, he asked him: 'Do you see me already or not? ' terus da at rna i-teng I a I to-c6 ini wa i terus i-isa And art man that he-said ah I-see You not yet then he-made And the man said: 'I don 't see you yet '. Then he made it

' . , rnarn inye epe I artl nya i-isa do sow rna rnarn inye epe I one time again that 's to say he-made art magic that one time again another time, that 's to say, he made that magic one more time; i-isa yang rnadeng i-firnegepe me I do lagey rna he -made it the second time he-asked him art Old Man that when he had made it the second time he asked him - the Old Man asked him: i-frnegepe me I a I no-c6 de orno fa wa r II a I to-c6 ini he-asked him hey you-see me already or not yet oh I-see You 'Hey, do you see me noW or not?' Oh, I see You already orno tapi i-terang wa i II ya I towparna na-jaga te ti-isa already but it-clear not yet we ll if so you-wait so that I-make but not yet clearly. 'Well if that 's the case stay where you are rnarn inye epe II i-isa do s6w rna rnarninye one time again he-made art magic that one time so I can make it yet another time '. Once more he made the magic - so that epe I jadi rnaunge bukan I a terus i-frnegepe me I a I no-c6 de more so third time isn 't it and then he-asked him hey you-see me was the third time, you know and then he asked him: 'Hey, do you see rn6 II a I to-c6 ini orno I to-c6 ini terang orno II setelah already oh I-see You now I-see You clearly noW after me already?' 'Oh, I see You already, I see You clearly now '. When he had

• , v , I-CO erne orno terus i-fteng me I yang da lagey rna i-fteng he-saw Him already then he-to ld him that art Old Man that he-told seen Him he to ld him - the Old Man said to the man : da at, rna I e I ni-dadi puni orno ne I terus na-jaga art man that you-become evil spirit already this now you-watch 'Right, you have become an evil spirit! Now you mus t rnancia da-wa te da sawan rna II artinya na-jaga rnancia peop le they-stay on art spot that that 's to say you watch people watch the people who stay on that spot, that 's to say you look out for di-isa rarnian I rarnian hapa na-wa te gopao da they-make fe ast fe ast like this you-stay on path its peop le who are having a fe ast; when there is a fe ast you have to stay at the saga te supaya na-jaga erne te na-rnaa erne I terus branch in order to you-watch them so you-catch them then path junction in order to look out fo r them so that you can catch them and ni-arn erne II jadi terus i-jaga epe I i-rni1 inga de-bi cara you-eat them so then he-watched again he-took notice of He-spoke eat them! ' So he again watched; he did what he was told to do and he 36 C.L. VOORHOEVE

ma terus I-Jaga II waktu ramian maminye I de-sedor oma jongi that and he-watched when fe as t one time they-passed boys stood on the lookout. The fi rst time there was a fe ast boys and girls oma sbafongi de-sedo r I oma oma r de-sedor II a de-sedor I girls they-passed chi ldren still they-passed they passed passed along there, those who passed there were still chi ldren. As they came terus de-femi 1inga me I ka1au waktu de-sedor I coba di sifat then He-ordered him when time they-pass if their fe atures along He ordered him: 'When they pass (you) and they don 't miss any body i-tiahi I ma na-maa eme yo II jad i i-fmegepe eme I ka 1au it-comp lete then you-seize them not so he-asked Him if parts, then you may not seize them! ' So he asked Him: 'What happens if ta-maa eme I apatow II a I cob a na-maa eme I ma ne-dee eme I-seize them how ah if you-seize them then you -reach them I (try to) seize them? ' '0, if you (want to) seize you 'll not be ab le to yo II tapi di sifat i-kurang minye fa minye ma not but their appearance it- lacks one or one then reach them! ' But if they miss some body parts, then you can seize them, na-maa eme ma no-do erne II na-maa eme no-do you-seize them then you-get ho ld of them you-seize them you-get hold of then you can get ho ld of them. When you have caught them, eme I terus ni-am eme II a I terus i-jaga epe II iama da them then you-eat them so then he-watched again there art then you eat them up !' So he watched again. Peop le who di d . , mancia de-sedor ia I yang di sifat i-tiahi I I-maa people they-pass there who their appearance it-comp lete he-seize not miss any body part passed by and he could not catch them. eme wave II situ terahir mem inye do oma meminye i-sedor them was not unti l at last one person art chi ld one it-pass Un til fi na lly one person, one chi ld pa ssed along there, and ia I a terus ma apota wave II a I serta ma apota wave there and then its head there was not head was-not it di dn 't have a head! And, since it had no head he ma I terus, i-maa, me II i-maa, me 10 i-do that at once he-grabbed it he made a grab for it and he-got hold of immediate ly grabbed it. He made a grab for it and got ho ld of it.

, rne II i-do mema I terus i-am me II a I do bu1ang it he--got hold of it and he-ate it then art light When he had caught it he ate it. Then, the fo llo wing , , fi I mo oma mem inye magey epe II jadi do oma ma ma gey I come up his chi ld one dead again so art chi ld that died morning again a chi ld of his died. So, when that chi ld died he

v , . , teru, s i-bafikir I Al l ah I de ne pun i nema I tarsa tl-am me then he-thought God I here evil spirit this perhaps I-ate it thought: 'God, it 's me who is an evi l spirit, perhaps I ate it! THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 37

, omo II artinya de ne karena ti-pun i tl. -am me II a I already that 's to say I here because I-evi l spiri t I-ate it so That 's to say, because I am an evi l spirit I ate it! ' So i-bafikir mema, tev rus , i a i-fteng da lagey ma I a de ne he-thought that at once there he-told art Old Man that I here when he realised that he at once told the Old Man there : 'I don 't ti-dadi puni maya II a I sapma lama ni-da i pun i I-be evi l spirit no more hey why that you-be evi l spirit want to be an evi l spiri t any more ! ' 'Hey, why is it that you don 't want to . , maya II amo tl-am t i oma ela II a I no more because I-ate my child therefore oh be an evil spirit any more? ' 'Because I ate my OWn chi ld, that 's why! ' 'Oh, , mema II jadi ka lau pun i nema feberes l ma-mamae pe te I that so if evil spirits these all we-obey (?) is that it? But as evi l spirits we all obey, don 't we, we all obey ! I mamae pe feberes l I bukan II artinya mancia wa mamae pe I obey all not that 's to say peop le also obey That means : people (know how to) obey, but pun i wa mamae pe II selesai II spirits also obey fi nished spiri ts too ! That 's the end.

4. SOME COMPARATIVE NOTES ON WEST MAKIAN AND TIDORE

4.1. Introductory rema rk s

As mentioned in 1.2. and 1.6. there are both lexical and grammatical grounds for classifying West Makian as a member of the group of non-Austronesian languages of North Halmahera. In this chapter I shall first say something about the clas­ sificatory status of the group itself and the subgrouping of its member languages . Following that I shall present further evidence that West M.3.kian is a true member of the group by showing that regular sound correspondences obtain between it and the Tidore language .

4.2. The North Hal mahera fami ly The languages of the group of which West M&kian is a member have become known as the North Halmaheran languages although three of them -Ternate , Tidore , and West M&kian - have their centre on islands off Halmahera 's west coast. In my recent survey of these languages2 8 I have classified them as a language family wh ich I labelled the North Halmahera Family , and subgrouped them in the following way : 38 C.L. VOORHOEVE

NORTH HALMAHERA FAMILY

Southern �� subfamily West Makian Insular groUP--- �inland group Ternate Sahu Tidore Tobaru Loloda Galela Tobelo Modole Pagu

The family tree is based on quantitative evidence , i.e. on a preliminary lexico­ statistical analysis wh ich gave the following results : 1. The languages of the mainland group are closely related . They score be­ tween 70 and 85 per cent shared cognates and possibly form a dialect chain . 2. Ternate and Tidore are also closely re lated. They score about 80 per cent shared cognates and could be considered dialects of one language . With the languages of the mainland group they share between 50 and 70 per cent cognates. 3. West M�ian shares about 30 per cent cognates with Tidore . Other percen­ tages involving We st M�ian have not yet been calculated, but the figure of 30 per cent is sufficient to show the isolated position of West Makian within the family. The qualitative evidence however suggests a quite different arrangement at least with regard to West Makian , Tidore , and Ternate . There are a numb er of cognates and phonological features which are shared only by West Makian , Tidore and Ternate and in a few cases also by Sahu. Exclusively shared cognates are for example : West Makian Tidore Ternate Sahu mada moda mada madang mouth fete hate hate ate tree jupi ku l-cifi finger nai l Phonological features shared by West Ma.kian , Tidore and Ternate are for instance : 1. The loss of initial k in the word for skin : West Makian fi, Tidore , 2 Ternate ah i but Galela kah i, Modole I ai , and all others except Sahu 9 ka i . 2. t + u where the other languages have d + i in the word for sky : West M.3.kian tupam, Tidore , Ternate tufa ; dipa, diwanga, dihanga, diwama in the other languages. 3. The presence of an initial alveopalatal nasal in the word for fish : West M.3.kian yao (from earlier nyao) , Ternate , Tidore , nyao , Sahu nyao'o; all other languages have initial n: nao , naoko, nao'o. THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 39

The se are only random observations , but they already suggest that West Makian Tidore , Ternate , and perhaps Sahu hang closer together than a lexicostatistical analysis shows . The family tree would then look like this :

�� Southern subfamily Northern subfamily / ______(Sahu??) West MaJcian /-- .... _ Tobaru Ternate (Sahu ??) etc . Tidore

The subgrouping of the North Halmahera languages appears to be a complicated matter and further detailed study is needed before firm conclusions can be reached.

4. 3. West Makian - Tidore sound corre spondences

4. 3.1. Prel iminari es We st Makian and Tidore have identical phoneme inventories . Both languages have five vowels la , e, i, 0, u/ , two semi-vowels Iw , y I , and seventeen consonants Ip , t, c, k, b, d, j , g, m, n, ny , ng , f, 5, r, 1, hi. All observations on the sound correspondences between the two languages are based on the list of lexical correspondences given in section 4.3.4. First the consonant correspondences will be presented , then the vowel correspondences . Each list is followed by relevant notes . The numbers behind each set of correspondences and behind the examp les given in the notes refer to the list numbers of the lexical sets in 4.3.4.

4. 3.2. Consonant correspondences Consonant correspondences fall into 17 sets ; within each set a distinction is made between correspondences in word-initial , word-medial, and , where relevant, word-final position. The latter position is not relevant for voiced stops and alveopalatals as they occur only word initially and medially. In some cases more than one correspondence is found in a particular position , as e.g. in set 5 in wh ich West Makian initial t corresponds to Tidore t or s. They will be commented

on in the notes that follow the list. The abbreviations used are I = Initial ,

M = Medial , F = Final position. West M�ian Tidore Lexical set no : l. I P f 5 19 28 38 58 M P f 25 43 46 F no data 2. I f h 13 29 52 54 M f h 22 24 27 36 45 47 F f ¢ 40 40 C.L. VOORHOEVE

West Makian Tidore Lexical set no : 3. I b b 4 50 M b b 35 44 49 51 59 4. I m m 7 33 34 M m m 6 16 42 57 F m ¢ 20 46 5. I t t 17 42 44 46 48 t 5 18 M t t 11 18 29 39 54 F t ¢ 41 47 6. I 5 5 1 16 25 26 27 35 36 47 M 5 5 24 55 F no data 7. I d d 12 M d d 3 33 d r 8 32 48

8. I n n 7 M n n 15 52 56 F n ¢ 5 12

9. M ¢ r 9 44 I no data F no data 10 . I 6 n 9 37 M 1 4 17 28 38 41 F ¢ 44 51 II. I ¢ k 31 k k 14 M k ¢ 14 F no data

12 . I ¢ 9 2 21 30 51 M 9 9 10 13. I ¢ ng 40 41 56 57 M ng ng 1 9 37 53 F no data

14. I j c 43 M j c 40

15. I ¢ ny 59 y ny 23 M no data 16 . I ¢ Y 3 49 60 M ¢ Y 20 58 F Y Y 13 19 17 . I w ¢ 41 M w w 26 30 F w w 34 THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 41

NOTES : Set 1: There are a number of le�ical correspondences between West Makian and Tidore which show West Mikian p : Tidore p. All those sets consist of Austronesian loans and therefore have not been included in 4.3.4. There is evidence that Tidore p was introduced in the language via Austronesian loan words after the original *p had shifted to f. Set 2: West Mikian f: Tidore h form part of the larger series : West M�kian : Tidore : Ternate :Sahu : Tobaru : Loloda :Galela :Tobelo :Modole :Pagu f h h ¢ ¢ h h ¢ ¢ ¢ The earlier reconstruction of the Proto-North Halmaheran sound under­ lying this series (Wada 1980 , Voorhoeve 19813°), which did not take into account the West Mikian data , was *h. West M�kian f now raises the question whether it is not more correct to set up *f, the argument being that the change of *f to h (and its subsequent loss in several languages) could be seen as part of the same process of lenition which caused *p to change to Tidore f (and in other North Halmaheran languages f, w or h) . There is however a counter argument : in all North Halmaheran languages except, it seems We st M�kian , noun roots can be derived from verb roots by a process of modification of verb root initial consonants . Not all consonants are subject to this process; for those who do the following rules apply 31 : Verb root} Noun root p- f- > b- w-

t- > d-

k- > g-

h- > ng- Sound shifts affecting the verb root initial consonants do not seem to have had any affect on the direction of the process : in Sahu, where original *k became a glottal stop " and *h has disappeared, , still becomes 9 and roots which originally had initial *h still have initial ng in the derived form. If the proto-sound of the series had been *f, one would expect the rule to be h + b, not h + ng. However , if Proto-North Halmaheran first split into Proto-West M�ian and a language ancestral to all other North Halmaheran languages as the lexicostatistical analysis suggests , then it could be that the whole morphological process is an innovation of the latter, post-dating the shift from Proto-North Halmaheran *f to Proto­ Northern Subfamily *h. Sets 2, 4, 5, 8, 10 : In a number of words West M�ian has .retained a final consonant which was lost in Tidore . There is comparative evidence that Proto-North Halmaheran allowed all consonants 3 2 except voiced stops in word- final position . In Tidore , Ternate and Galela all word-final con­ sonants have been dropped. West M�ian retained them in some words and lost them in others ; the reasons for this seemingly errative behaviour are unclear.

Set 5: We st M�ian t: Tidore 5: is the only case in which both members of the set are followed by i: West M�ian ti ta, Tidore sita and it is reasonable to assume that the presence of i is the conditioning factor. There is no comparative evidence from other languages which either supports or refutes the assumption. 42 C.L. VOORHOEVE

Set 7: The two correspondences in medial position re flect the merger , in West M�ian , of two proto-phonemes : Proto-North Halmaheran '� d and *5 . Proto-North Halmahe ran *d is reflected by d in all North Halmaheran languages; Proto-North Halmaheran *5 by West Makian d, Tidore , Ternate , Sahu, Loloda r, Tobelo , Modole h, Tobaru , Galela 5, and Pagu 1. Examples of the latter are : Galela ngoosa moon Galela tos i to steal Ternate ara Ternate tori Tidore ora Tidore tori West M�ian odo West M�ian ted i Sahu ngara Pagu tol i k Tobelo tohiki Modole toh i 'i Tobaru tosiki Sahu tori 'i a Set 10 : As ye t there is no explanation for West M kian 1-: Tidore 1- as we ll as n- in this set . Sets 11, 12 , 13: All the original word-initial ve lar consonants seem to have been dropped in West M�ian . The k : k correspondence is found in West �ian koko : Tidore oko chin from earlier i'okok . Tidore lost the final k, and West Makian the initial vowe l, apparently after the loss of initial velar consonants had occurred, so that the newly initial k was retained. The question of the loss of initial vowels in West Makian will be discussed in more detail in the next section . The final vowel in the West Makian form is irregular ; such a 'suppo rting vowel ' however occurs quite regularly in several other North Halmaheran languages. Thus , "'okok > Pagu okok, Tobelo , Tobaru okoko , Modole 0 ' 0 ' 0, Galela, Ternate , Tidore aka, West M�ian koko . It is possible that not all cases of West M�ian ¢ : Tidore ng represent cases of phonological change . There is comparative evidence that Tidore ngone we (incl .) and ngomi we (excl .) (West Makian ene , imi) contain an old prefix ngo-. Did the West Makian forms ene and imi once contain this prefix too , but lost all trace of it, or did the prefix not occur in Proto-West M�ian? The question can not yet be answered. There is however some evidence that West Makian once possessed a noun prefix ngV33 or ng- (perhaps a class marker) corresponding to a prefix ngo-/ng- in other North Halmaheran languages . Two bits of evidence will be cited here ; the first is the word for moon given above (set 7) : Galela has ngoosa (ngo-osa) , Sahu ngara (ng-ara) ; The second is the word for canoe which in Ternate , Tidore , Pagu and Sahu is oti , in Tobe lo ngotiri , Modole ngoot ili, Tabaru ngoot iri, and in West M�ian eti. In these words the prefix does not appear (any more ) in Ternate and Tidore . The fact that the West M�ian words odo and eti did not lose the initial vowel (see 4.3.3, notes) suggests that they originally contained the prefix but that ng- was lost in accordance with the 'loss of initial velar consonant 'rule . It is at present not possible to say whether the noun prefix ngV-/ng - and the pronominal prefix ngo- were different prefixes or different applications of the same prefix.

Sets 11 , 12 : There are two Austronesian loans in West Makian which must have entered the language early enough to be affected by the loss of initial ve lar consonants . They are West M�ian aso (Tidore kaso) dog and West Makian ase (Tidore gas i) salt. THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 43

Set 15 : We st M�kian ¢, y- : Tidore ny- : no conditioning factor is evident .

Set 16 : We st Mikian ¢: Tidore y in 20, 49 , and 58 are part of �he larger series : West M�kian : Tidore :Ternate :Sahu : Tobaru :Loloda :Galela :Tobelo :Modole : Pagu ¢ y h r d j d e34 : d : y 5 The proto-sound underlying this series is written *D3 • Tidore y in 3 and 6 has no corresponding consonants in any of the other North Halmaheran languages and may be an accretion restricted to Tidore .

4.3.3. Vowel correspondences West M�ian : Tidore Lexical set no. I. a a 1236713 16 17 18 1923242627 2 833 35 38 43 46475159 2. e e 4 35 53 54 56 3. 2 5 11 18 21 29 31 43 45 48 50 52 55 57

4. 0 0 1 6 7 9 14 15 23 25 29 32 34 41 49 5. u u 8 10 39 40 46 51

6. a 0 16 17 20 26 28 33 7. a e 38 8. e 0 3 4 11 21 44 48 56 9. e a 52 54 10. u 42 II. 0 u 27 12. 0 a 31 32 13. u 8 40 14 . u 0 22 36 15. ¢ v- 5 10 14 15 22 45 55

NOTES Sets 6-14 : In section 2.1.5.1. it was noted that West Makian has a tendency towards vowe l harmony which mani fests itself in regressive vowe l assimi­ lation across morpheme and word boundaries. The same tendency , from a historical point of view , has been at work within morphemes , only here progressive assimi lation has occurred more frequently than regressive assimilation . Thus the following assimi lation processes in West Makian have led to the correspondences in sets 6-14 : Set 6: oCa > aCa36 In all cases except 20 7: eCa > aCa 8: oC i > eC i } In all cases except 3 and 56 oCe > eCe 9: aCe > eCe iCa > iCe 44 C.L. VOORHOEVE

Set 10 : uC i > iCi Set 11: aCu > aCo

Set 12 : OCa > oCo In 32 ; 31 is the only instance in which the Tidore vowe l seems to have assimilated to the preceding one : io > ia Set 13: iCu > uCu uC i > uCu

Set 14 : iCo > iCu In 22 only The exceptions are all cases in which no assimilation is apparent ; at present no explanation can be offered. Set 15 : It seems that at an early stage in its history West M�ian lost all initial vowe ls in bisyllabic words . Later, new bisyllabic words with initial vowe ls were created when West M�ian lost all word-initial velar consonants and the re flex of Proto-North Halmaheran *0 (cf. sets 11-13 , and 16 in the preceding section) . Examples are :

Loss of v- : pin < '� op i n bee (5) s i < "' i s i urine (55) no < "' i no come (15) Loss of k- , g- , ng- , and ," 0- : io < "' k io to ma:rry (31) e s i < '� gos i egg (21) uj uf < '�nguc i h sativa (40) bos i < ( '�obos i ) < '� Oobos i swollen (49) bual < ( *ubua 1 ) < '� gubua 1 termi te (51) These examples show that bisyllabic words with a newly acquired initial vowel did not loose it but that trisyllabic words did. There is some evidence that the loss of initial vowe ls in trisyllabic words occurred only after the sound change which involved the loss of initial ve lar consonants had ceased to exist. gua < '� ugua buttocks (10) and koko < '�okoko chin (14) retained the initial velar consonant after the initial vowe l had been dropped . The assumed order of these sound changes is then : 1. loss of V- in bisyllabic words 2. loss of initial velar consonants 3. loss of V- in trisyllabic words The loss of ," 0 can have accompanied o:!: preceded the second of these sound changes; the present data do not allow a more exact ordering37•

There are a number of cases in which West Makian does not seem to have lost the initial vowe l in bisyllabic words . They are : West Makian Tidore et i ot i canoe (11) odo o ra moon (32) utu utu root (39) udu i ru to blow (8) TIlE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 45

In the first three cases there is evidence that at least in West Makian these words contained an initial ng- (cf. 4.3.2, notes to set 11-13) which prevented the loss of what are now initial vowels. Thus Tobe lo has ngotiri , Sahu has ngara and Galela ngutu. Only West Makian udu remains unexplained for lack of comparative data.

4. 3.4. List of lexi cal correspondences The list given below includes only non-Austronesian words and Austronesian loan words which were borrowed early enough to be affected by the regular sound changes in West Makian and Tidore . We st Makian Tidore l. sango sango to answer 2. i a gia arm, hand 3. ade yado to arrive 4. be le bo le banana 5. pin of i bee 6. lame lame big 7. namo namo bird 8. udu i ru to blow 9. longo nongoru younger brother 10 . gua ugu buttocks ll. et i oti canoe 12. don doadoa cape 13. fay hay centipede 14. koko oko chin 15. no ino to come 16 . samami soma crocodi le 17 . ta la to la to cut 18. tita sita day light 19 . pay fay to dig 20. am oyo 3 8 to eat 2l. es i gos i egg 22. fu iho faeces 23. yao nyao fi sh 39 24. fat i ra-ha four 25 . so po sofo frui t 26 . sawa sowasowa goanna 27. safo sahu hot 28. pa la fo la house 29 . fi to hi to kitchen 30 . awo gaw long (of distance) 3 l . io kia to marry 32 . odo ora moon 33. mada moda mouth 34 . mow mow mute 35 . seba seba near 36 . sufu soho pig 37. Iinga ninga to remember 38. pa la fe la to rise (sun) 39. utu utu root 40 . uj uf nguc i saliva 46 C.L. VOORHOEVE

West MaJcian Tidore 4l. wo lot ngolo sea 42 . timi tum to set (sun) 43. japi cafi coconut she II 44. tebe l torobe to shoot 45. f i ahi skin 46. tupam tufa sky 47. safat saha sole of foot 48 . tedi tor i to steal 49 . bos i yobo swollen 50. biso 4O bi tai l 5l. bual gubua termite 52. fine hina thin 53. i-unge ra-nge4 1 three 54. fe te hate tree 55. s i is i urine 56. ene ngone4 2 we (inclusive) 57. imi ngom i 4 2 we (exclusive ) 58. paa faya woman 59 . abo nyabo wound 60 . ufi yufi to flow

5. IKHTI SAR SINGKAT Bahasa Makian Barat adalah suatu bah�sa non-Austronesia yang digunakan oleh kira-kira 7000 orang penduduk di sebelah barat pulau Makian (Maluku Utara) dan sekitar 5000 orang di beberapa pulau di kepulauan Kayoa . Bahasa itu termasuk rumpun bahasa Halmahera Utara (North Halmahera Fami ly) sama dengan bahasa-bahasa yang berikut : Ternate , Tidore , Sahu, Tobaru , Loloda , Galela , Tobe lo , Modole , dan Pagu. Pengaruh yang kuat pada kosakata dan tatabahasa dari bahasa-bahasa Austronesia nyata sekali dalam bahasa Makian Barat . Karena itu dulu bahasa Makian Barat dianggap termasuk bahasa Austronesia. Hanya baru-baru ini diketahui berkat penelitian Bapak Watuseke , 43 bahwa bahasa Makian Barat itu adalah bahasa non-Austronesia. Klasifikasi itu berdasarkan perbandingan beberapa kata benda dan kata bilangan dalam bahasa Makian Barat dan bahasa Halmahera Utara yang lain. Dalam karya ini disajikan hasil dari penelitian setempat di pulau Makian yang dilakukan dari 5 Januari sampai 9 Januari 1981. Hasil itu berupa deskripsi pertama tatabahasa Makian Barat , terutama dialek yang dipakai oleh penduduk kam­ pung Bobawa . Pembagian tulisan ini seperti berikut : 1. Keterangan umum tentang bahasa Makian Barat ; 2. Uraian singkat tenta tatabahasanya; 3. Contoh teks ; 4. Pengklasifikasian dan pembandingan ; 5. Ikhtisar ; 6. Apendiks. Bahan-bahan yang dibicarakan dalam Bab 1 ialah : (1.1) Perincian keadaan penelitian lapangan . (1.2) Beberapa karya mengenai bahasa Makian Barat yang te lah diterbit dulu. (1.3) Deskripsi keadaan umum di pulau Makian : nama kampung-kampung di sebelah barat , jumlah pemakai bahasa Makian Barat , nama-nama geografis yang dipakai oleh orang Makian Barat sendiri . Keadaan kebahasaan di pulau Makian : disitu ditemukan tiga bahasa yang berlainan , yaitu : bahasa Makian Barat , bahasa Makian Timur (East Makian) dan bahasa Kayoa . THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 47

Dua bahasa yang terakhir itu berbeda sedikit dan harus dianggap dua dialek dari satu bahasa. Bahasa Makian Timur -Kayoa itu ialah suatu bahasa Austronesia. (1.4) Variasi lokal dalam bahasa Makian Barat . Ada perbedaan keeil diantara dialek semua kampung tetapi batas dialek yang jelas tak dapat ditentukan . (1 .5) Stratifikasi dalam bahasa Makian Barat . Bahasa Makian Barat mempunyai tingkat tuturan : bahasa halus dan bahasa kasar . Bahasa halus itu dipakai dalam pereakapan dengan orang yang harus dihormati , misalnya orang yang lebih tua atau berpangkat lebih tinggi dari pembieara . Ciri bahasa halus ialah penggunaan kata-kata khusus , kebanyakan berupa kata-kata pinjaman , terutama dari bahasa Ternate . (1.6) Pengaruh dari bahasa lain atas kosakata dan tatabahasa bahasa Makian Barat. Bahasa Makian Barat mempunyai banyak kata yang berasal dari bahasa-bahasa lain seperti Makian Timur , bahasa Maluku , bahasa Indonesia, bahasa Ternate , dan beberapa dari bahasa Belanda dan bahasa Portugis. Dalam tatabahasanya pengaruh bahasa Austronesia dipertunjukkan oleh (a) penghilangan prefiks penanda obyek pada verba ; (b) penggantian urutan subyek -obyek -verba (SOV) ke urutan SVO ; (e) penghilangan postposisi dan penggunaan preposisi, seperti dalam bahasa Austronesia. (1.7) Orientasi rakyat . Bahan-bahan yang diberikan di sini melengkapi bahan-bahan yang disajikan oleh Yuiehi Wad a dalam karyanya mengenai sistem-sistem orientasi rakyat di Halmahera . 44

Bab 2 terbagi atas empat bagian utama : (2.1) Satu sketsa fonologis yang me liputi inventarisasi fonem bahasa Makian Barat, penempatan tekanannya , biasanya pada suku kata yang kedua dari belakang (penultima) , pola intonasi, dan asimilasi bunyi vokal (vowe l harmony) . Bahasa Makian Barat menunjukkan keeenderungan untuk menyelaraskan vokal pada tingkat morfofonemis dan sintaksis. Gejala itu juga dapat ditunjukkan seeara diakronis. Asimilasi yang terakhir ini akan dibiearakan dalam bab 4. (2.2) Bagian kedua mengenai golongan kata dan morfologinya. Golongan kata yang diuraikan yaitu kata kerja, kata benda , kata sifat , kata lokatif dan kata bilangan. Kata kerja berinfleksi untuk kategori jumlah dan persona saja; prefiks verbal menandai subyek . Kata benda terbagi dalam empat kategori seperti berikut :

l. bernyawa 2. tak bernyawa a. halus I b. kasar a. hal us I b. kasar Oposisi bernyawa - tak bernyawa dan halus - kasar tampak dengan adanya penyesuaian pada kata pronomina, kata bilangan dan kata kerja. (2.3) Bagian ketiga memperlihatkan hasil penelitian jenis frasa, dan bagian keempat (2.4) menguraikan jenis kalimat . 48 C.L. VOORHOEVE

Dalam bab 3 diberikan suatu contoh ceritera rakyat beserta terjemahan kata demi kata dan terjemahan bebas dalam bahasa Inggeris. Terjemahan bebas dalam bahasa Indonesia diberikan dalam bab 6. Bab 4 terdiri atas dua bagian . Bagian pertama mengenai klasifikasi bahasa Halmahera Utara. Terlihat hasil klasifikasi itu tergantung pada metode yang digunakan : metode leksikostatistik atau metode komparatif. Penyilsilahan bahasa berlandasan metode leksikostatistik diberikan pada halaman 38; percabangan yang dihasilkan oleh metode komparatif terlihat pada halaman 39 . Perbedaan an tara dua silsilah itu memperlihatkan bahwa klasifikasi bahasa Halmahera Utara masih merupakan masalah yang belum terpecahkan . Bagian kedua mengenai korespondensi vokal dan konsonan antara bahasa Makian Barat dan bahasa Tidore . Korespondensi tersebut cukup beralasan untuk membenarkan klasifikasi Makian Barat sebagai anggota rumpun bahasa Halmahera Utara . Akhirnya, bab 6 berisi tiga tambahan : daftar kata Makian Barat - Inggeris , dafter kata Inggeris -Makian Barat, dan terjemahan dalam bahasa Indonesia dari ceritera rakyat yang telah diberikan dalam bab 3. Tiga peta (pada halaman vi , vii , p.2) me lengkapi tulisan ini .

6. APPENDICES

6.1. West Makian -Engl ish vocabulary The list is based on the Bobawa dialect but the words collected in Sabale have also been included . All entries are Bobawa words unless followed by S wh ich marks an entry as a Sabal� word . In that case no Bobawa equivalent has been collected. If the Bobawa and Sabale forms are the same , the entry is marked by an asterisk at the end. If the Sabale form is different from the Bobawa form it follows the entry and is preceded by S: . The following abbreviations have been used in the list :

excl exclusive id idem sg singular incl inclusive sp species intr intransitive tr transitive pl plural v see pol polite vulg vulgar

Source of loan words : AN Austronesian (unspecified) DU Dutch MM Moluccan Malay EM East Makian PO Portuguese IN Indonesian TE Ternate THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 49

A a cooked, done aw* to climb , ascend: ta-aw to pu I climb the mountain to rise abamo handle ; peda da abamo ; (moon) handle of a bush knife awed�ng twenty ; awedeng 10 minye abey'� snake twenty-one abo'-: be wounded, have a wound ; aweifate forty fa-abo to wound aweiunge thirty abul0 forehead awo'-: long , deep ae'-: to laugh ay to come back (?) afe'� eye , front; te ti afe in front of me ; ta pa la da afe in front of the house ayo'� older sibling ; ayo da a t'-: afebebe tears older brother; ayo da papa , S : ayo da pa older sister afi* ground, earth (in S also : garden) ainye S: awi nye ten; ainye 10 minye eleven ; ainye 10 medeng B twelve ba vagina alus IN da alus still young , baaba S: baabaa mad , crazy small baba father (address) am S: a to eat tr . badan IN body amo (the reason) that, because ; sapma amo ... why is it that .... ba fikir MM to think amo liver bafo to grow ano part (of something) baj u IN dress , shirt anso just, recently baku'-: EM sago , sago palm aoro* frog ba lak DU beam (timber) apa to'� how ba las IN to revenge , to pay back apota'� PO? head balat waves artinya IN that 's to say ... ba 1 i'� to bind, to tie arufe'-: mouse , rat barenti MM to stop asa l IN contents , topic baruba ru wall of house ase": salt baso'-: to hear aso'-: dog be": water at'� man, male ; da at (1) the be be to drink ; fe-be to give a man , husband , (2) male drink atipa S, MM drum bebewi . bebe i s: dijah i ri to be angry a to'� thatch beeb6m S: ka lbo butterfly atus IN hundred be le'-: to be hungry ; de ti be le I am hungry 50 C.L. VOORHOEVE

be I ebe le'� (1) soft , weak ; (2) going c slowly cahaya IN to shine be lo tongue cako tarat l p to sit cross-legged bene'� louse capati'� IN quick (ly) berarti IN to mean cari ta IN story ; fa-carita to be rebe re weak tell a story be t i ,', MM swamp , mud ciawi the inside ; so-ciawi in , inside bicara* IN to speak , speech

cio = co to see bilu* AN bamboo co* to see ; fi-co to look at bi rah i* beautiful (of women) coba IN if bi rbori* grindstone bisi* calf of leg b i so'� tail D biti to bail water dV multifunctional particle , bo penis v. 2.3.2.1. boba s: buba to call; to boba ti dadano friend baba call your father! dad i to become ; fa-dadi to cause bodo'� belly to become ; ma-dadi to live , be alive bodok S, IN stupid dam S: dami six; idam , dimdam, bokoboko round and flat goi dam id. v. 2.3.10 bolabola to be lying down for a dama'� forest rest (but not asleep) de'� I, me ; de ne I (emphatic) bole IN good, fine ! dee to arrive , reach ; dee pe to bo r i ,� to sharpen arrive at ; i-dee yo it's not bos i ,� swollen ; de t i bodo i bos i enough omo my belly is already swollen , deg6w real, true I have had plenty to eat deto'� grandmother bual", wh ite ant , termite di their bukan IN isn't it? , you know , didn 't he?, etc. dial nye ten (people) v. 2.2.10 bulang : i-bulang tomorrow ; bulang dimaede two (people) v. 2.2.10 fi the following day d i maedepa husband and wi fe , couple bule to twine (a rope) d i maunge three (people) v. 2.2.10 bu l o;' AN white dimdam six (people) bungbangi floor dimfati four (people) burey ye llow dimf6y five (people) dimsiwe nine (people) diteped ingi seven (people ) THE WES T MA KIAN LANGUAGE 51 ditukbange eight (people) fay'-' millepede do to find, to get hold of, to fajoW'-' pol . to ea t; v. fiam receive faka S: fakar IN fence do go to increase , add fakae ri to scratch the ground for don cape , headland for food (chickens ) dootu : so-dootu in a few moments , fakar pol . tooth shortly fa laaki to sew dudu to sink famasi all dupe1' to throw away , to drop (the fao father (reference) anchor) fapasi v. pas i durian* IN durian (fruit, tree) fari handle; puas da fari the handle of a paddle

faruj u v. ruj u E fasa to pull down (a house) e'-' to fetch, to take fatala* v. tala edeng two ; medeng, dimaede, gomedeng id. v. 2.2.10. fa t i1, four ; ifa ti , dimfat i, id. v. 2.2.10. ! goifati ef i ! s: efiw to be raw fatta'�: fatta ... fatta (on) one ekor to make noise side ... (on) the other side ela that 's why ! fa tum'-' to smell tr . erne they , them fay shoulder ene we , us incl . fay S: payapaya wing epe again , once more fayang i S: fayang light in weight es i is i egg s: febe v. bebe eta a half, half; yao de eta half feberes ! all a fish fe l ey S: faley to search for lice et i1' canoe femi linga v. mi l inga thin fen i* bat , flying fox

F fete'-' tree fa or fi'� skin; fe te de fi bark ; mada de fi lips faabo v. abo fi to come up from below , to come v. fadadi dadi up fae to feed fi your pl . fafos1, a boil fia to come towards the land from fafu1' to touch , feel the direction of the sea fagaleng v. ga l eng fiam s: fa to eat intr fag�y* to kill (S: of animals , of fico v. co people : kuba) , to extinguish (fire) fid! to pull out (plants ) 52 C.L. VOORHOEVE

o fil w s: fiogo to fill (a bag) gasi posts (of house) fimegepe s: femegepe to ask gataguta lid (of a pot, jar etc.) f i 5 i'� sea water gawi lonely (of a place) , deserted a fit right, correct (e.g. the gegele s: ge le blunt solution of a problem) ge l as IN glass fiteng, fteng teng v. ge lew l breadfruit f i to'� ki tchen gifi sticky tree sap fo to come towards the sea from the land side 9 i go'� body hair, feathers gilit throat fofu to have diarrhoea gina cargo (of boat) fokow v. kow gires l yaws , framboesia fol0 many gode AN? thick , fat (of people) folouju s: nguj u to wash (clothes) gol i nasal mucus fol soma pe to send (a letter) to go lo* to be old (objects) ; far fono ti-fono don't want ... s I away for to hit (repeatedly) with a gominye one (person , tree) 2.2.10. stick or other object v. gono to be old (objects ?) fotola s: fatola to break earthenware gopao track , footpath foutu to harvest (rice) gopo incorrect , not right fu'� faeces gow s: gufi foot, leg fuae to dry in the sun gua s: pan i buttocks ; fay do gua armpit gulani* thorn

G guma full ga : be da ga bamboo water gunange red ant container gupa'� coconut (fruit, tree ) gafa'� crab guta to close (a lid of a jar etc.) gafe : jub i 1 da gafe arrow gaga ra ro'� cold, feel cold gag i ,': me at , blade of a knife: H peda da gagi the blade of a bush hapa like this , thus knife hapaapa like this and that ga l eng to scold , abuse ; fa-ga leng to scold, abuse , each other haywan IN, S: namu bird ga 1 of": to swim gamat i'� already cold, cooled off (e .g. of food) i'� to go, to leave gapu": back of body , backside ; ta gapu at the back , behind still THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 53

K i a there kabal i* AN left side ibulang* v. bulang kaban* wet. idam six v. 2.2.10. kab i'� IN goat ifa canarium nut kadu S, TE , pol . to sleep ifati four v. 2.2.10. kadukadu'� TE to be sleepy imi we , us exel . kae lo to capsize imu'� who ; imu mV whose kafiti , kafti unripe , green (of fruit) ini you pl . ka ilome to lie on one 's belly i o'� to marry kakawi S: kaka i bent, crooked ipP IN fire kaku'" small i sa", to make ; i sa pa 1 a to build a house ; isa ipi to make a fire ; ka law IN if isa musala to plait a mat kamama S ia da kamama finger isi to kiss; mefe- isi to kiss each kaman'� night other kameu S: kamow ear isiwe nine v. 2.2.10. kamma S: ia hand , arm iunge three v. 2.2.10. kampong IN village i wu hOly many , how much karanga to lie on one 's back ka rena IN because

J kasana* prawn ja'" to cry kastela PO? tinea, cascado jadi IN so, therefore ka toba'� short , shallow jaga IN to watch , look out for , to kau lo straight keep doing kauwa S to carry in the hand jajow TE , pol . to hold kawe", to vomit jane 1 a'" IN window kayawi S: kaya i the right side japi shall (of coconut) kebetulan IN it so happened that , jarangahe pol . faeces accidentally j e two , they two v. 2. 2 . 10 . kekey* black ; ma aru de kekey rain clouds jepa husband and wife , the couple ke l ida : i-safo i-ke l ida he is jong i : oma jongi adolesc ent boy very sick jowbe S, TE , pol . to drink kerekiri to tickle ; me fe-kerek iri jub i 1 IN bow to tickle each other jupi* (finger) nails kida to split wood j uw i ,� earthquake kiki IN to bite ko to carry on the back 54 C.L. VOORHOEVE

koh i slow , not on time M koko'� chin mY his , here v. 2.2.6. komudu EM thick (of objects) ma that , those kow to break intr . (of wood) ; ma then fo-k6w to break tr . maa to hold , seize kuat IN to be strong maa ru* cloud kuba to cut mada'� month kulot keel (of a canoe) madadi v. dadi . kurang IN less , lacking maedeng two times , the second kursi IN chair time v. 2. 3. 3. kurus IN , S: lalus skinny maf6y'� five ; dimf6y, goma f6y id. 2.2.10. kusu'" kunai grass , alang-alang v. mager S twig magey'� to die , to be dead

L magol large (of longish objects like canoes , trees) lagey EM old man ma idne maydine today laia'� shell fish; laia de fi shell s: ma i t i so'" yesterday 1 a 1 at i EM? worm mak i to plant la16w to howl (of dogs) ma l awan to be sick , have pain 1 amo'� large mama mother 1 anga long i'� rope mamae pe to obey lawa'� door mam inye one time , the first time 1 i also mamo�' thumb 1 i a 1 a to know mamu mother (reference ) lil ipo s: 1 il ipong house fly mamu t ipi da mamu t glowing embers likokawi winding (of a path) mancia* people , person 10 EM and MM mango t sharp (of blade , point) logos AN coral (reef) ma rari ng ma rareng afternoon , 10ka'� EM banana s: evening 101 a'" thigh l ma rd ingi s: ma rd ng the day after 101 upa'" red tomorrow , th� day before yesterday lome to be present ma rungo miny e in three days time 1 on go'" younger sibling; 10ngo da masi finished, nothing left a t younger brother; 10ngo da mato AN to be old (of peo ple) papa younger sister ma tomato* AN old man , old people 10to'� dry ; de ti gi lit i-loto my throat is dry , I am th irsty mau 1 u very deep lukaman to be dark maung i three times , the third time THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 55 maw i'� star musti IN to have to , must mawiji to have malaria mut S: maamut charcoal may s: ma i stone muteeti sweat maydema not long ago maya ashamed me he , she , it, him, her N nV our incl . v. 2.2.6. medeng'" two ; d i maede , gomedeng id. v. 2.2.10. na s: ana there , over there , to go over there me feisi v. isi naka IN nangka (fruit , tree) mefekerekiri v. kerekiri nama* flower meja IN table namu'� chicken mema'� that nanga (in) the direction of the mem i nye one (person) v. 2.2.10. land , to go in the direction me n� the re , yonder of the land mene S mine this , this one nao s: ho (in) the direction of the sea, to go in the direction of mi our exel . the sea ; so-nao on the seaward mi a�' good side mi l i nga�' to think of, pay attention naso to downward side , to go in to , remember, love ; fe-mi I inga to downward direction ; so-naso on make someone think of, to instruct the downward side someone to do something nawi palm wine • , c m I nye" one ; meminye , gominye id. ne (1) this , these ; (2) sentence- v. 2.2.10; minye fa minye in one modal, v. 2.4.1.1. respect or another nem� this mo come ! come on ! nep in ngun ingun i shin (bone ) . mo to swallow s: ney the upward side , above , to go v. mo omo in upward direction; so-ney up moc i s: mok i blind there , above mo fume te to accompany ni you sg. , your sg. mol lool i attractive (of girls) vul g. no to come towards the speaker , coming towards the speaker momua empty ; ge las do momua an empty glass nuri MM parrot mo tor DU? motorboat mow'" mute NG moya no more (?) ngaba IN midrib of palm frond , s: mu mo to be ripe gabagaba mudefete'� nose ngaj i outrigger mu rma ri s: ma ramari blue fly nga lalupe s: ngalipe to forget musala mat 56 C.L. VOORHOEVE ngeu (1) dry grass ; (2) left overs , pa it to rise (of the moon) scraps (of food) pa I a'� AN house , nest ngursa to cheat pa I ao'� village pa lat to rise (of the sun) pa ling IN very much 0 pama'" what od01' moon , parnano goods , cargo odo'� to jump pande S, IN clever, adroit ofat s: wofat wide pangan'� grass sp . ofo a fart, to fart papa* woman , wife ogo to put papa S: pa female ; orna da papal ogo so'� to put down orna da pa a girl oi ginger paruwia when (in the past) ok it s: wok i navel pasar IN market orna child; ornaorna children pas i to fight; fa-pasi to fight orno , rno already with each other onu* spider pasul S, pol . mouth onga* hair of head pateng shoulder blade ongo thing (?) , property (?) ; pato I as, MM python de ti ongo mine ; ene no ongo pay to dig ours; irnu rno ongo whose pe with, to v. 2.3.3. 050* to enter (a house) peda S: weda MM bushknife 050 S: 050 fe te cassava ; 050 I anga long i'�, 050 dosodus i sweet pe l ey bottom side potato sp. perepiri* grass 050 pe S: osu pe to put something pi S: pula to give , to sell into , to fill pia S: pea rice osu to get up (from sitting, sleeping) piga dish , plate oto to cough pig i r IN side ; te ti p i 9 i r beside me otu : do otu a little (bit) , shortly , in a moment pikir IN to think oy S: oi mosquito pi lang* food oy full pin* bee pipot black ant pi ri S: afi garden p piso IN, S: kob i EM knife paa S to hit with the hand podo'� to come , arrive , to be born paapu S: papu knee , elbow , corner (of room) po l i IN to buy pa i nge to count polu to collect , gather THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 57 pong i'� rain samami* crocodile pongo l'� deaf sangaj i MM District Head , Camat posa to boil tr . sangan i splinter poso cooking pot sango'� to answer posowi s: poso i sao'" to roast over fire pu'� mountain sapma why puas EM paddle sarangati have a grudge against pundak'� EM? pandanus tree sarke s: sarake to shove puni ma levolent spirit who kills sarusaru rib people sasafo'� hot putuiwu when (in the future ) saw* to burn tr . sawan place , spot sawramu fog R seba'� nearby raga raga s: kamama finger seba s: tope want to , intend to ramian IN feast sebap IN because rar i ng'� thunder sedor to pass by rawa'" wave sefo'� to look for , to seek rebot'" to close (a door) sere ro s: sirero to run away re ro'" lightning serta IN since re rre to shiver ses i fi 1 s: sisi fi 1 slippery (path) reu to carry on the shoulder sesine here , on this spot ru'" neck ses ito where , on which place ruj u'" to thump ; fa-ruju to thump each other setelah IN after ruru'" ashes s ii'" urine , to urinate sibafong, sbafongi : oma sibafong adolescent girl

s sibato to wait for sa'" bad, rotten siesu to stand saawa , sawa* goanna sifat IN appearance sado'� EM, pol . eye sinanga TE fried; loka sinanga fried bananas safat'� palm of hand , sole of foot simur IN a well safo'� warm , have a fever; t i bodo i-safo I have a belly ache sinaot s: sinao narrow , small saga* branch , junction of paths sine, sne here saga 1 ,', to walk ; saga 1 gow to go sitao , stao to wait on foot site outside sa le resin s i to, s to'" where , to which place 58 C.L. VOORHOEVE

situ until tala* to cut , to cross (a river) ; 5 i eW", nine ; I 5 I we , dims i we , go i 5 i we fa-ta la to break a rope

i d. v. 2. 2 • 10 • tano S: tanu sugar cane so 5050 ( 7 ) to go down , descend , s: tanuawi : win tanuaw i the middle climb down ; to-so to pu I go down of the day , noon the mountain , S: to-soso to pu ; to pu to-so I come down the tanusi island mountain tapi IN but sobo 1'� EM to sail tapoke tired sodu l0 to hide (oneself) ta pu TE anchor , sO ia on that spot there ia v. tarotaro* pol . leg , soma on that spot there v. rna tarsa perhaps sona, on that spot over there , yonder tas DU bag , handbag v. na tawado S to know sonanga on that spot on the landward side v. nanga te tea sonaso on that spot below v. naso te so , so that soney on that spot up there v. ney tebe rear end : eti de tebe the tail of a canoe ; i-so de tebe songa old woman he went down after the others, he songa IN river went down later sopo'� fruit tebe l to shoot (with a rifle) sosod ik IN spoon tedeng l S: tedeng ingi chest sosoney on that spot up there (?) ted i to steal sow magic, sorcery ; isa do sow ted ited i a thief to perform magic, sorcery tege'� to lift , take up sow i S: so i smoke te l ia front side ; eti de te lia subal to pour the stem of a canoe subeb i* bone te 1 ida hard sufala, sfala diligent te l0 S: adu to fell a tree sufu* pig teng'" to say ; fi-teng to say to someone , to te ll someone suka IN to like teped ingi seven ; diteped ingi , supaya IN so that , in order that goteped ingi id. v. 2.2.10. susu IN breast terah ir IN at last tedng IN clear te r us IN then , and then, and at T once tV on , at , to, from 2.3.3. v. teta end , far end tab i a S: tabea pol . head teto* grandfather tagar* to fly teto 10 os i the ancestors taj i to stab with a knife ti my tiahi complete, without defect THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 59

tiba S: tibe IN scoop up , draw unge�' three; iunge , dimaunge , (water) goi unge id. v. 2.2.10 tifi* to sleep us i* a scar timi to set (of the sun) ; win usufl s: sawria (in the ) morning i-timi the sun is setting utu to push t ita daylight , at day utu root of tree , vein tite in front, formerly tobo* to bathe tr. intr toga to pull up (anchor) w tog i to bark wa to stay ton i son-in-law wa also too S to wrap up wa l s: aywi not ye t topo : do to po new ; do topotopo wa k is to hit with the hand , to the first beat toro s6* to sit down , to sit wa ko* to throw towgu finished waktu IN when , at the time that tow6* cheek wawau s: wao to play towpama in that case , if that 's the wayo there is not ; lome wayo he case is not here , he is absent tubo", top side , top ; te meja do we'� leaf; puas de we blade of a tubo on top of the tab le paddle ; mej a de we a table top tukubange s: tukbange eight ; we r i'� rattan ditukbange, gotukubange id. v wewe i s: wewe i ant 2.2.10 wi-!: tooth tupam'� sky wi n'� day , sun tupe'" to open wolot the sea tusa MM cat wom'� sand tuso hole ; mudefe te do tuso nostril; gua do tuso anus

y

u yakor to stir ua s DU to wash (dishes, floor) yang IN who v. 2.3.3 uba to bring, carry yao�' fish ubu'� grandchild yaya mother (address) udu'" to blOw , wind yekor to make noise uj uf to spit, spittle yo not um ,l voice yofoyofo slippery (stone) un i s: wun i blood yono areca nut yuwi point 60 C.L. VOORHOEVE

6.2. English-West Ma kian fi nder list This list is only a key to the preceding West �kian - English vocabulary and should not be used as a vocabulary in its elf. The English entries have been kept as general as possible . The West Makian given behind them do no more than re fer to the entries in the vocabulary under words wh ich the reader may find the We st H�ian word he is looking for . The following abbreviations have been used in the list:

v verb t transitive

n noun i intransitive

A above ney ascend aw absent lome ashamed maya abuse gal eng ashes ruru accidentally kebetulan ask fimigepe accompany mofumete at tV

ache v. safo attractive mo l looli add dogo averse fono after tebe , setel�h afternoon ma raring again epe B back gapu alive dadi bad sa all famas i, feberes i bag tas already omo bail bit i also 1 i, wa v. bamboo b i 1 u ancestor teto loos i banana loka anchor tapu bark tog i and 10 v. bark n. fi angry bebewi , sarangati bat feni answer v. sango bathe tobo ant gunange , pipot, wewew i beam ba lak anus tuso beat waki s areca nut yono v. beautiful birahi arm kamma , jowj ow because amo , k� rena , seb�p armpit gua become dadi arrive podo , dee bee pin arrow gafe behind gapu THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 61 belly bodo canarium nut ifa bent kakaw i canoe et i bind v. bal i cape don bird haywan capsize kaelo bite v. kiki cargo gina , pamano black kekey carry kauwa , ko , reu , uba blade gagi , we case towpama blind moc i cassava 050 blood un i cat tusa blow v. i. udu chair kursi blunt gege le charcoal mut body badan cheat v. ngursa boil v. i. posa cheek towo boil n. fafos chest tedeng i bone subeb i chicken namu born podo child oma bottom pe ley chin koko bow n. j ubi 1 clear terang boy jong i , oma clever pande branch n. saga climb v. aw breadfruit gelewi close v. t. rebot, guta break v. fotola, tala, kow cloud maa ru , kekey breast susu coconut gupa bring uba cold gagara ro, gamati brother ayo, longo collect v. polu bui ld v. isa come ay , fi , fia, fo , mo , no, po do burn v. t. saw complete t i ah i bushknife peda container ga but tapi contents asal butterfly beebom cooked a buttocks gua coral logos buy v. pol i corner paapu correct fi ta cough oto c count pa i nge calf of leg bisi crab gafa call bob a v. t. crazy baaba 62 C.L. VOORHOEVE

crocodile samami earthquake juwi crooked kakawi eat am , fiam, fajow

cross v. tala egg esi cry v. ja eight tukubange , ditukbange cut v. kuba , ta la elbow paapu eleven ainye embers mamut D empty momua dark lukaman end n. teta day win, bulang enter 050 daylight t i ta evening ma rari ng dead magey eye afe, sado deaf pongol deep awo , maulu

descend so F deserted gawi faeces fu , jarangahe diarrhoea fofu far golo die v. magey fart n. v. ofo

dig v. pay fat gode diligent sufala father baba , fao dish piga feast ramla. , n District Head sangaj i feather gigo dog aso features sifat done a feed fae

door lawa feel v. fafu downwards naso fell v. t. telo draw v. tiba female papa dress baj u fence faka drink v. bebe , jowbe fetch e

drop v. dupe fever sado

drum at i pa fight v. pasi dry v. t. fuae fill v. fi low, 050 pe dry loto find v. do fine ! bole finger kamama E ear kameu finished mas i , towgum earth afi fire i pi THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 63

fish yao goanna saawa five ma foy, dimfoy goat kab i floor bungbangi good! bole flower nama good mia fly v. tagar goods pamano fly n. murmari , lilipo grandchild ubu flying fox feni grandfather teto fog sawramu grandmother deto food pi lang grass kusu, ngeu , pangan , perepiri foot gow green kafiti forehead abulo grindstone birbori forest dama ground afi forget v. ngalalupe grow bafo formerly t i te _grudge sarangati forty awe ifate four fati , ifa ti , dimfati H fried sinanga hair gigo, onga friend dadano half eta frog aoro hand kamama , kamma , jowj ow from tV handle n. fari , abamo front te I ia, t i te , afe hard tel ida fruit scpo harvest v. foutu full guma , oy he me head apota , tabia

G hear base garden piri her me , mV , , gather v. polu here sesine, sine get hold of do hide v. sodu lo get up osu him me ghost pun i his mV ginger oi hit v. wakis, paa , for girl sibafong hold maa , jajow give pi hole tuso glass gel�s hot sasafo go house pa la go down so how apato 64 C.L. VOORHOEVE how many iwu large lamo , magol howl v. lalow last terahir hundred atus laugh v. ae hungry be le leaf we husband at leave v. husband & wife dimaedepa , jepa left side kabal i left-overs ngeu leg gow , tarotaro less kurang if coba , ka law lid gataguta incorrect gopo lie down bolabola, ka ranga, ka ilome increase v. dogo lift v. tege inside ciawa light fayang i instruct mi linga light v. i sa intend seba lightning rero island tanusi like v. suka it me like hapa , hapaapa lips fi little n. otu J liver amo jump v. odo lonely gawi junction saga long awo just anso look at co look for sefo

K look out for jaga keel kulot louse bene kill v. fagey love v. mi I inga kiss v. isi kitchen fito M knee paapu mad baaba knife piso magic sow know I i ala, tawado make v. isa malaria mawiji

L male at lacking kurang man at landwards nanga man , old ma tomato, lagey THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 65 many folo noon tanuawi market pasar nose mudefete marry io nostril tuso mat musa la not yo , wayo me de not yet wa i mean v. berarti meat gagi midrib ngaba o obey mamae pe mi llepede fa i old ma to. golo. gono moon odo on tV morning usufi one minye , meminye , maminye , y mosquito o gominye mother mama , yaya open v. t. tupe motorboat motor or fa mountain pu our mi , nV mouse arufe outrigger ngaj i mouth mada , pasul outside site much pa l i ng mucus gol i mud be ti p must musti paddle puas mute mow pain ma l awan my ti palm of hand safat palm wine nawi pandanus tree pundak N parrot nuri nail jupi part n. ano name aym pass by sedor narrow sinaot path gopao navel ok it penis bo nearby seba people manc ia neck ru perhaps tarsa nest pa la person mancia new topo pig sufu nine siwe , isiwe, dimsiwe place sawan noise ekor, yekor plait v. isa no more moya plant v. maki 66 C.L. VOORHOEVE play v. wawaw rice pia point yuwi right fi ta post n. gas i right side kayawi pot poso ripe mu pour out suba l rise v. aw, pa it, pa lat prawn kasana river songa present lome roast v. sao property ongo root n. utu pull down fasa rope langa longi pull out fidi rotten sa pull up toga round bokoboko push v. utu run away serero put v. ogo put down ogo so python patola s sago baku

sail v. sobo I

Q salt ase quickly capati sand wom sap gifi say teng

R scar n. usi rain pong i scold galeng rat arufe scoop v. t i ba rattan we ri scratch v. fakaeri raw efi i sea wo lot reach v. dee search for v. feley real degow seawards nao rear n. tebe sea water fisi receive do see co recently anso , maydema seek sefo red lolupa seize maa remember mi l inga sell pi resin salo send fol soma pe rest v. bolabo la set v. i. timi revenge balas v. seven teped ingi, diteped ingi rib sarusaru sew v. fa laaki THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 67 shallow ka toba so jadi sharp mangot so (that) te, supaya sharpen bori soft be lebele she me sole of foot safat shell laia, japi son-in-law ton i shell fish laia sorcery sow shin nepin speak bicara shine v. cahaya speech bicara shirt baju spider onu shiver rerre spirit pun i shoot tebel spit v. ujuf short katoba spittle ujuf shortly otu, dootu splinter sangani shoulder fay split v. t. kida shoulder-blade pateng spoon sosod ik shove sarke stab taj i sibling longo , avo stand v. siesu sick ke l ida, ma l awan star mawi side pigir, fatra stay v. wa since serta steal ted i sink v. dudu still sister longo, avo stir v. yakor sit v. toroso, cako taratip stone may six dam, idam , dimdam stop v. barenti skin fi story carita skinny kurus straight kaulo sky tupam strong kuat sleep v. tifi , kadu stupid bodok sleepy kadukadu sugar-cane tano slippery sesifil, yofoyofo sun win slow koh i swallow v. mo slowly bel ebele swamp beti small alus, kaku, sinaot sweat muteeti smell v. t . fatum sweet potato 050 smoke n. sowi swim v. galof snake abey swolle n bos i 68 C.L. VOORHOEVE

T thunder raring table meja thus hapa tail bi so tickle v. kerekiri take e tie v. ba l i take up tege tinea kastela tea te tired tapoke tears afe bebe to pe , tV tell v. teng, carita today ma idne ten ainye, diainye tomorrow bulang termite bua l tomorrow +1 ma rd inge that ma, mema tomorrow +2 ma rungo minye thatch ato tongue be la their di tooth wi them eme top tubo , we , then ma , terusy topic asal there ia, na , mena , sona, soma , soia touch v. fafu there fore ela, jadi track n. gopao these ne tree fete they eme , je true degow thick gode, komudu twelve ainye thief ted ited i twenty awedeng thigh lola twig mager thin fenefine twine v. bule thing on go two medeng , dimaede , maedeng, edeng, je think mi linga , bafikir, pikir thirsty loto thirty awe iunge , , U this ne , nema , mene unripe kafi t i those ma until situ three unge, iunge, dimaunge, goiunge , upwards ney maunge urinate s i i throat gil it urine s i thorn gulani i us imi , ene throw n. wako throw away dupe thumb mamo thump v. ruj u THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 69

whi ther s i to v vagina ba who imu, yang vein utu whose imu village pa lao, kampong why sapma voice umi wide ofat vomit kawe wife papa wind n. udu winding likokawi w window janela wait v. sibato, sitao wing fay walk v. saga 1 with pe wall barubaru woman papa , songa want seba , fono worm lalati warm safo wound v. abo wash v. t. fo louj u, uas wrap up too watch v. jaga · water be wave ba lat, rawa y we ene, imi yaws giresi weak be !ebele, berebere yellow burey well n. simur yesterday ma itiso wet kaban yonder mena what pama you sg. ni when paruwia, putuiwu, waktu you pl . ini where sesito young alus white bulo your sg. ni your pl . fi

6.3. Indonesian paraphrase of the text The following is an Indonesian paraphrase of the text given in section 3, told by the same speaker. His speech is a variant of Indonesian which lies somewhere between official Indonesian and the dialect spoken in Moluccas. Some features of the latter are : dropping of final consonants , change of final n to ng , ai to e, au to 0, a to u, ber- to ba, and contracted forms like pa from pada, pi from pergi, su from sudah; the speaker further uses ngana you (sg) , a Ternatan loan , instead of the Moluccan kamu . 70 C.L. VOORHOEVE

Dudu supaya saya carita satu. Carita ini , diapunya judulnya itu suanggi . Jadi pada satu hari , dua orang laki-bini bukan , a jadi dua orang laki-bini itu dorang punya ana dua orang. Jadi ana itu memang paling dorang sayangi suda itu ana. Jadi begitu ... tiba saat, artinya satu saat, ana yang tua itu dia me ninggal . Setelah dia me ninggal si laki ini , suarni ini , dia karena terlalu ingat sarna dia punya ana itu dia terus pi cari : 'Saya ini , kalau bole saya jadi suanggi supaya saya makan itu ... orang lagi seperti dorang makan saya punya ana ini! ' Jadi dia jalan-jalan , pi cari itu orang yang suanggi itu. Serta dia pigi , sarnpai di ... satu paitua , a disana dia terus ... paitua dia tanya : 'Mo kemana? Tujuan kernana? ' 'Tida , saya ini saya cari orang yang bisa ajar jadi suanggi . Maksudnya supaya saya ini jadi suanggi .' Begitu. A, terus , ' 0 , bole , kalo rnau jadi suanggi disini juga saya bisa ... orang jadi suanggi bisa'. Setelah ada persetujuan , keduaduanya jalan-jalan di satu tempat yang kosong, sunyi dimana disitu ada batu batu besar. Se telah mereka sarnpe disitu , terus si paitua ini ... dia di sebelah , sebelah batu , batu yang besar itu sedangkan yang lelaki yang dia mau ingin jadi suanggi ini , di sebelah . Jadi sebelah menyebelah . A disitu, terus si paitua ini tanya -paitua ini bilang sarna si lakilaki : 'Ngana liat, ngana liat pa saya' begitu. A, jadi , dia terus liat. 'Kalau ngana dapa lia pa saya, ngana bilang! ' Jadi begitu dia bilang : 'Ngana dapa lia pa saya ka terada? ' ' 0 , saya tara lia' . Itu baru pertama. A, kedua kali . Begitu dia bikin dia pun uba, uba-uba itu. Dia tanya: 'Ngana su lia? ' 'Ow, rnasi sarnarsarnar , saya lia itu masi belum terang.' 'Kalau begitu , ngana tunggu saya bikin dia punya uba yang ketiga supaya ngana lia. ' Begitu dia bikin yang ketiga kali dia tanya pa itu lakilaki: 'Su lia? ' 'A, memang , saya su lia terang !

Saya su lia terang sekali !' Setela itu, setela dorang ..• setela selesai itu ub a, do bikin uba, terus si paitua ini terus kasi tau, bilang sarna si laki itu: 'A ini , sekarang ngana su jadi suanggi . Jadi , kalau ngana mau ini makan orang, ngana pigi di rnasuomasuo45 begitu , baru ngana jaga. A, jadi kalo ngana jaga itu orang yang bikin rame , a itu! Ngana jaga kalau dorang datang '. Begitu dia inga itu pesan itu, terus dia ... satu saat ... ada bikin rarne . Dia suda jaga di persimpangan jalan . Dia jaga . Begitu orang lalulalu itu jalan itu, jalan jalan jalan ... lakilaki itu, nonanona , nyongnyong, dorang bajalan . Ana-ana ... begitu bajalan, itu, ada pesan dari orang tua itu: Kalo ngana lia itu orang punya sifat itu lengkap , artinya dari anggota semua anggota itu lengkap , itu jangan ngana tangkap ! Kalo ngana tangkap memang sala! A, jadi kalo ngana mo ingin tangkap pa dia, itu ngana tangkap orang anggotanya kurang ! Ya, begitu. Terus , serta ... yang terahir, ana satu dia lewat , dia kepalanya tida ada . A, setelah dia dapa lia itu kepalanya tida ada terus dia tangkap ! Tangkap , dapa ! A dapa pa dia terus dia makan. A, makan pa dia, itu suanggi dia makan pa dia. Dia rnakang, jadi begitu dia pe beso kebawa , dia pe ana meninggal . Ana satu itu dia meninggal lagi ! A, begitu dia pikir pikir ... 'Allah! ini mungkin karena saya suanggi saya makan saya punya ana sendiri!' Dia terus pikir punya fikir : 'Ah, ini suanggi ini ... lebe bai kasi pulang suda supaya saya jangan jadi suanggi lagi! ' A begitu terus dia sarnpe itu ... sarnpe sarna orang tua , guru itu, orang tua itu, dia bilang : 'A, saya ini tera mo jadi suanggi lagi !' Jadi orang tua itu tanya : 'Biki apa ko ... suda tida suka lagi itu suanggi?' ' 0 , begini , saya ... mungkin karena saya suanggi saya makan saya punya ana! ' Jadi orang tua tadi dia bilang : 'A, jadi itu! Samua kita orang , suanggi juga dapa perinta, rnanusia juga dapa perinta ! Itu selesai . THE WES T MAKIAN LANGUAGE 71

Indonesian equivalents of Mo luccan Malay words found in the text :

ana anak nyongnyong pemuda ba i baik pa pada bajalan berjalan pa i tua orang tua biki bikin pe punya bole bo leh pi } pergi pigi dapa dapat rame rama i do } me reka dorang sala salah inga ingat sampe sampa i kalo ka lau su sudah l ebe lebih tau tahu 1 ia 1 i hat tera tidak makang makan terada tidak ada

mo mau uba obat

NOTES

1. In general the placement of word-stress in West M�ian , as in the other North Halmaheran languages , is on the penultimate syllable (see 2.3.3) . I shall mark word-stress by an acute over the stressed vowe l, but only in words which deviate from the general rule . 2. For further details see Watuseks 1976 . I did not visit those islands and shall restrict myself to the situation on M&kian Island. 3. De Clercq (p.80) gives the same village names with only a few differences in spelling (Sabele , Talapaoe , Molapa) . He further mentions the name of another village on the we st side of Makian: Tabalolo, situated between Malapa and Mailoa. This village which has since disappeared was probab ly not West M&kian but East M�ian speaking (Lucardie , pers . comm . ). 4. De Clercq gives Waikiong as the local name of M�ian . Lucardie informs me that Waikion is the name given to Ngofakiaha in the northern dialect of East Makian (in the southern dialect it is Waikian) . 5. De Clercq calls the island Keten . This is the East Makian name for Moti (Lucardie , pers . comm. ). 72 C.L. VOORHOEVE

6. Teljeur's lists also show that East Mikian-Kayoa is closely related to the Gane (Giman) language in the southern peninsula of Halmahera . The two languages be long to the South Halmahera-West New Guinea subgroup of the Austronesian languages . 7. R. Lucardie has since informed me that the stratification into polite and common language is not nearly as restricted as my data suggests . 8. Lucardie 1980 , p.351 (see 1.2) . For further bibliographical references the reader is referred to this article . 9. Naturally this is not the case with very recent loans such as terms belonging to modern technology which must have reached West M�kian via Indonesian .

10 . Language names have been abbreviated as follows : IN = Indonesian , � MM = Moluccan Malay , WM = West Makian , EM = East M kian .

11. Note that I distinguish here between North Halmaheran languages = languages of the North Halmaheran Family (see section 3) and languages of North

Halmahera = those North Halmaheran languages which are spoken in the northern peninsula of Halmahera. 12 . Although my own data are far from complete I have some reservations as to the correctness of some parts of Yoshida 's analysis , especially the semantic and structural interpretation of the directional roots fi , fia and fo . A full discussion of the matter will have to wait until my field notes on the other North Halmaheran languages have been worked out .

13. The name Ngofakiaha and its local eq�ivalents Mikian (WM) and Waikion (EM) all mean ahi ldren of Kian (Kayoa) or better : those who have aome from Kian (Lucardie , pers . comm. ). This would be a likely name for the earliest group of immigrants from Kayoa . 14 . D. Te ljeur , Spatial orientation among the Giman of South Halmahera . Paper read at the Seminar Halmahera dan Raja Ampat, Jakarta 1-5 June 1981. 15. Full paradigms have not been elicited. 16 . The form be be in this example is a reduplication of be water. 17 . The Sabale form is mine; it shows that both me ne and mine are probably contractions of me and ine; ine is of Austronesian origin ( < Proto­ Austronesian *ini this) . ne is a shortened form of ine. 18 . Like ne, na is a root of probable Austronesian origin (cf. Proto-Eastern Oceanic na yonder) . 19 . The bracketed forms have been taken from Yoshida 1980 :50. 20. In the West Makianese folk orientation Ternate is located below Makian (1.7) . 21. From a diachronic point of view sine is a contraction of 50 + ine, cf. Sabale mine < me + ine, section 2.2.7. 22. A Camat is the Head of a district (Kecamatan) who resides under the Bupati , the Head of a Province (Kabupaten) . ,------_.._------

THE WEST MAKIAN LANGUAGE 73

23. AdvP Adverb phrase NP Noun Phrase art article 0 Direct Ob ject Cj Conjunction PersPr Personal Pronoun Comp Complement PossPr Possessive Pronoun Dem Demonstrative root S Subject EmbCl Embedded Clause SM Sentence Modal EO Echo Ob ject Qual Qualifier GenNP General Noun Phrase Ql Qualifier Link Int Interjection Quant Quantifier 10 Indirect Ob ject VP Verb Phrase Loc Locative Root 24. Sentences containing embedded clauses are often discussed under Complex Sentences. The complexity however is not on the sentence but on the phrase level. Embedded clauses will here be discussed at the end of section 2.

25. One would expect ta but the speaker uses te a few times instead of an assimilated form. 26 . Instead of to; see the previous note . 27. The speaker is not consistent in the use of the polite prefix dV. In this and several other cases he uses the ordinary i- instead . 28. The non-Austronesian languages in the North Moluccas . To be published in : E.K.M. Masinambow , ed. Proceedings of the 2nd Ha1mahera Conference , 1-5 June 1981 , Jakarta, 1982. 29 . The Sahu word is not cognate . 30 . Voorhoeve , C.L. The Halmahera connection : a case for prehistoric traffic through Torres Strait. In : Amran Halim, Lois Carrington and S.A. Wurm, eds Papers from the Third Interna tional Conference on Austronesian Linguistics , Vol.2: Tracking the travellers . Paci fi c Linguistics C- 75, 1982 . 31. This is a generalised and simplified account of the process of modi fication as it occurs in the North Halmaheran languages . All language specific variations have been left out . 32. It is still unclear whether Proto-North Halmaheran had alveopalatal stops or not . If it had them, they too did not occur in word-final position. 33. I write here V to indicate a vowel of unknown quality.

34 . Tobelo e is an interdental voiced fricative .

35 . Wad a 1980 writes 0; the diacritic serves to distinguish it from 0 which I write as *d .

36. That is , the earlier sequence 0 + consonant + a became a + consonant + a, etc.

37 . The case of West MaJ

39 . The Tidore form contains a petrified prefix ra- . 40. The West MAkian form possibly is an old compound (bi-so) . 41. Both the West M�kian and the Tidore forms contain old prefixes. cf. fn . 2. 42. ngone and ngomi contain an old prefix ngo- , see 4.3.2., notes to set 11-13. 74 C.L. VOORHOEVE

43. Lihatlah bibliografi pada halaman 2. 44. Lihatlah bibliografi pada halaman 2. 45 . This word is not known to me from Indonesian or Moluccan Malay ; the

meaning seems to be junction (of tracks) = pe rsimpangan jalan.

Voorhoeve, C.L. "The West Makian Language, North Moluccas, Indonesia: A Fieldwork Report". In Voorhoeve, C.L. editor, The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46:1-74. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D46.1 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MA KIAN VO CAB ULARY

James T. Co l lins

It is with considerable hesitation that this short wordlist is presented here . Not only are non-Austronesian languages beyond the scope of my studies but the data upon which this list is based were collected during only four working sessions while I was conducting a linguistic survey in the Moluccas . l Nonetheless because , as Dr Voorhoeve notes , our knowledge of West Makian is very limited, the data are presented here in order to complement Voorhoeve 's important contribution .

1. THE DATA AND FORMAT The words cited in this auxiliary vocabulary are divided into two sections . In Part I, the words which are listed are among those which I recorded (7-12 February 1979) in Laiwui , Pulau Ob i. My informant, Hassan Kamaluddin, was born and raised in Talapao , Makian ; at that time , he was a 27 year old school teacher recently posted to Obi . In addition to his cooperation during my stay there , he also kindly agreed to fill out an additional wordlist which he later posted to me .2 The words listed in Part II are drawn from that list with no spelling changes . A cumulative English-West Makian index is also included. In order to avoid duplication of Voorhoeve 's vocabulary of Sabale and Bobawa , I have not listed the Talapao entries wh ich are already cited in the same form in his list. In a few cases , however , I have noted some words found in that list if the definition is slightly different or implies a broader range of meaning . More frequently words are repeated here because there appear to be small phonetic differences between my fieldnotes and Voorhoeve's entries . For example , in my notes diphthongs such as [al] are distinguished from vowel sequences such as [ai ]. This may be a case of overdifferentiation in the unanalysed fieldnote transcription but the distinction is retained here because it may indicate a dialectal difference . Voorhoeve , too , occasionally suggests the same kind of interdialectal variety , e.g. Bobawa may but Sabale ma i stone.

Voorhoeve , C.L. , ed. , The West Makian languages and their neighbours . (Ma terials in languages of Indonesia , No .12; W.A.L. Stokhof, Series ed .) Pacifi c Linguistics , 0-46, 1982 . 75 © James T. Collins

Collins, J.T. "Further Notes Towards a West Makian Vocabulary". In Voorhoeve, C.L. editor, The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46:75-98. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D46.75 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 76 JAMES T. COLLINS

Note that in Part I the palatal and velar nasals are indicated by the usual symbols r and � respectively. In other respects this list uses the phonemic symbols suggested by Voorhoeve . This means that I have followed him in noting only non-penultimate stress . For example , [burei ] is cited as bure i but [bedaga ] is bedaga . In some cases vowel length and stress placement in Voorhoeve 's vocabulary differs from the forms cited in this list. This does not occur often ; it may reflect real dialect differences or merely the hurried manner in which the data were collected . Bapak Hassan also notes long vowe ls but sometimes his orthography is at variance with one or both of the linguists ' notes. Could this re flect a writing convention or inaccuracy?

2. SOME TENTATIVE ELABORATIONS OF VOORHOEVE 'S REPORT In the course of preparing this auxi liary wordlist, some additional phonological and morphological details of West Makian surfaced. Furthermore , one of the apparent dialectal differences in this material may have some bearing on one of the sound correspondences between West Makian and other North Halmahera languages . Despite my inadequate knowledge of the comparative evidence , the data seems important enough to present for consideration .

2.1. A phonologi cal rul e of deletion In Section 2.2.5.Voorhoeve notes that 'Vowe l elision occurs only in connected speech and seems to affect only the vowe l i ' . That this rule affects the Talapao dialect as we ll is quite clear; for example , we note : putuwu beside V putuiwu when sesu beside V siesu to stand; and manca beside V mancia person (Loanword). Perhaps , however, his entry fo l soma pe to send (a letter) to should be compared to the entry (Part II) fo l osoma something (?) sent . In this case, it seems that both Sabale and Bobawa have deleted a vowe l other than i (and notably not in the penultimate syllable). That this may not be a historical change but part of the synchronic phonology of West Makian is indicated by other forms of the {fV1V-} morpheme discussed below. In addition to that evidence , I also recorded fn ii bat (but V fen i) and kamuma finger beside V kamma hand, arm. These two entries suggest that at least there was (or is) vowe l deletion in the dialects of West Makian. The scant evidence suggests that i, e, u, and 0 could be de le ted , usually in the penultimate position . That is , all non-low penultimate vowels may be deleted , presumably in the circumstances which Voorhoeve mentions , namely in connected (or casual?) speech . The consequent shift in stress which he indicates does not seem to occur in kamma and it is rather different in fo l soma . Further research may resolve this inconsistency .

2. 2. Mo rphologi cal processes On the whole , the additional material available in these auxiliary wordlists supports Voorhoeve 's notes on West M�ian morphology . There are numerous entries illustrating the prefix fV (2.3.2.1.). Indeed, one entry in the Talapao dialect FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WES T MAKIAN VOCABULARY 77

displays the root word predicted by Voorhoeve on the basis of fagey to ki ll and magey to be dead in the other dialects ; in Talapao we note gei dead. There is at least one more case of the prefix noted by Voorhoeve , fi-, that is fitoga wi thdraw a machete which can be compared to V toga to pull up (anchor) . There is also at least one more example of the kind of reduplication which involves vowe l variation mentioned in V 2.3.3.1, namely ma lanol i plug, bung. There are several examples of complete reduplication : be lu belu tongue manok manok whale cinga cinga hair bun fato fato stand in a line ngafo ngafo a stand taj i taj i to jab at It is worth noting , however, that in the example above we can see that complete reduplication results in more than stative verbs as Voorhoeve commented. We observe here nouns and transitive verbs are also derived by reduplication . Furthermore , several other kinds of reduplication seem to occur in West �kian. There are at least four examples of fv- and complete redupl�cation : famato-ma to be quiet, fopoti-poti to inlay , fawayo-wayo to grub (of a pig) and fapula-pula to share out {beside V pula give) .3 In at least one case we note the possibility that in complete reduplication the final consonant of the word base is not repeated in the first element , i.e. bala balat ro ller fo r beaching a boat beside V ba lat wave. Voorhoeve cites two examples (2.3.2.1. ) of the kind of partial reduplication wh ich yields stative verbs , for example safo + sasafo. In fact another kind of partial reduplication is very productive ; it derives instrumental (or locative) nominalisations from transitive verbs . The morphological rule duplicates the initial consonant of the verb ; and then between these two consonants the non-high vowe l closest to the first vowe l of the base word is inserted. 4 For examp le biti bai l becomes bebiti bailing bucket. This seems to be a morphological process essentially different from the sasafo type noted by Voorhoeve . Among the many examples found in the wordlists (Part I and II) are : bobul i, bebese, jejela, jojoho, kakalu, roruga , sasaku, ses ikat, sosoya, wowoden , lel iwat, tatapa , etc. In addition to the derivation of instrumental nominalisations (tool-nouns) through partial reduplication outlined above , there is ye t another very productive morphological process in West Makian which comes to light in the wordlists. Even a casual perusal of the first few pages of the lists shows a very large number of words which begin with fala-. A number of these words are related to the burning of swidden fields (falapari Q , fa larari, fal asao) . At first glance it may seem that the fa la- element is part of a compound ; perhaps fala means burn. But sao means burn and this occurs beside fal asao to burn a field. This dilemma is resolved by a more careful consideration of the material avai lable . In the wordlists we note folobori to sharpen (beside V bori to sharpen), fol okuda to weed and folowuj u to launder. This suggests a verbal prefix, presumably {fvlv-}. The affixation of this morpheme to transitive verbs results in intransitive verbs s of continuous (habitual?) activity. This formation occurs especially when describing tasks . So , fa l asao should prob�bly be glossed as to be engaged in burning. In addition to the evidence provided by the pairs of words noted above , sao/fa lasao and bor i/fo lobori, there are also : 78 JAMES T. COLLINS

wudu to blow folowudu to smoke (cigarettes) jejela broom fe lejela to sweep sasaku sago mattock fa l asaku to scrape (sago pith) Comparison with Austronesian roots yields some additional support : '� tapis fa l afati to winnow *muRmuR fi l imumu to gargle '�uki (r) fuluuki r to carve 6 An apparent independently motivated morphophonological rule likewise lends support to the contention that fvlv- is a morpheme . In my fieldnotes , a glottal stop ordinarily occurs between like vowels only when that glottal stop marks a morpheme boundary . For example , in de?eta some , do?otu a little , {dv- } functions as the third person plural marker. If this is true , then in fal a?aki to be engaged in sewing the glottal stop presumably marks a morpheme boundary . It seems fairly certain then that on the basis of the pairs of affixed and non-affixed entries as well as the morphemic signal provided by the intervocalic glottal stop , at least one more prefix, {fvlV-}, should be added to the inventory outlined by Voorhoeve . The vocalic adjustments (V + e, a, 0) demonstrated in the occurrence of this morpheme strengthens the claim that it is a regular morpheme of West Makian because precisely this kind of vocalic harmony is typical of the morphemes of this language . The comparative North Halmahera evidence is not at my disposal but certainly many Austronesian languages in the Moluccas display morphemes similar in form and/or meaning to {fvlv-}. Stresemann (1918) cites two kinds of pa la- prefixes in Paulohi (Southern Seram) , although admi ttedly it is not clear that this morpheme was productive in that language . In Asilulu (Collins to appear b) pa la­ appears as an apparently non-productive affix in pa l aheha to ca ll (each other) beside heha to call and pa l amumu to garg le etc . Throughout the Mo luccas the notion of habitual activity is conveyed by affixation (usually Ipa-I and the infix I-an-/) . It may be that similar to the widespread occurrence of verbal (inflectional) marking among Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages of the Mo luccas , the affixation of a morpheme of habitual activity may be an areal feature .

2. 3. A di al ectal di fference One of the chief differences between Talapao and the dialects described by Voorhoeve seems to be a slight phonetic variation in the initial sound of some words . We note , for example :

Sabale/ Bobawa Talapao

blood uni wun i saliva ujuf wuj uf blow udu wudu tuber 050 woso enter 050 woso exit (?) get up 050 woso pe aso hunt FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MAKIAN VOCABULARY 79

This could indicate an onset characterised by an added semivowel, w. On the other hand , there is no regular correspondence between Talapao and Sabale or Bobawa because there are also many words which occur with no excrescent w- . For example , we note ula planting stick , ufi flow (?) , utu root, vein , ofa pit trap , ota stairs and others . Do these forms indicate a case of irregular correspondence due to interdialectal borrowing or is there some other explanation? Voorhoeve (4.3.3.) has reconstructed '*ngucih saliva ' as the proto form wh ich is reflected by Sabale-Bobawa uj uf. It is possible then that in West Makian :� I) became w- before round vowels. 7 In Talapao this w- was retained but in the other dialects it was 10st.8 On the other hand, all dialects of West Makian agree in displaying odo moon , although the comparative North Halmahera material (Voorhoeve 4.3.2.) suggests a form prefixed with *I)V- . Similarly utu in all West Makian dialects is matched by I)utu in Galela. That Talapao does not display initial w- in these words weakens the claim that w- is a reflex of :� I). Nonetheless it is possible that *1)- , the inherited protosound underwent innovations which did not affect *I)V- , an old prefix. Certainly grammatical elements often display unique retentions and innovations. If that is the case , it is *1)- which has been partially retained as w- in Talapao while *I)V- was lost (but only after the loss of initial vowels in bisyllabic words, as noted by Voorhoeve ). This suggests that udu , uni and 050 should be reconstructed with *1)- , just as ujuf is reconstructed as *I)ucih. Certainly, this proposal can only be validated through comparison with a broader sample of North Halmahera materials which unfortunately are not available to me .9

3. THE WORDLISTS : WEST MAKIAN - ENGLISH

3.1. Part I

A B aefi; laia aefi a kind of large clam bafo alive ; V to grow afi dirt , earth , cultivated field ba la balat roller (for beaching boats) ; V ba lat wave afo LwAN lime eaten with betel nut baru LwI boat caulking ale bait bata maize (?) arnot to suck at (hose) bebiti bailing 'bucket '; V biti ari l) see yaril) to bail asi LwAN (?) house rafter bedaga bamboo vessel; V ga : be da ga awo ire ten ; V ainye, awo i del) be lu be lu tongue ; V be lo twenty bio LwAN taro , bio pal)an a kind awuo long; V. awo of tuber boba LwI? father; V baba . See ke i 80 JAMES T. COLLINS bob ie lemon grass fau faya male sibling; V fao bun� ginger father fegini feverish , sick, spicy (food) burei yellow; V burey fe lejela sweep fe letiso: fe l etiso pe to chisel See peep i c ca l anre one thousand fidupe give fiji jou grasp cofa LwM? raft fikini to caulk (a boat) fn i i LwAN bat ; V fen i

D fo l obor i to sharpen (with water) dapu sister-in-law (woman speaking) fo l okuda to weed dare fall (from a height) fo lowudu to smoke (cigarettes) dono mother-in-law or daughter-in­ fo lowuj u wash (clothes) ; V fo louj u law fou to paddle fou sireh leaf

E fu lo sago porridge efi raw ; V efi i eni plaited fish trap eti boat with outrigger; V canoe G gaag6 old

gagi LwAN (?) scratch 1 0

gaj i LwI (?) animal fat ; gaj i-gaj i F dirty faano nephew, niece gal e-gale LwM guts faamo : faamo fas6 inhale ga l ema LwM eagle ray fafa ray fish. gamati chilled (of cooked food) fas6 breath (?) . See faamo gargaj i LwM saw fa i yese different ge i dead fajou eat ; V fajow goloQi LwI? machete 'ring ' (joining fal a?ak i sew ; V fa laaki blade and hilt) fa lapariQ to burn field a second gomu LwM a kind of breadfruit time gou torch of coconut fronds fa larari slash , burn and clear field guagas i comb fal asao to burn a field falatafi LwAN sift , winnow ; de tafalatafi pea I winnow rice H fatawan i yawn ha iwan i LwI animal; V haywan bird fatuQ sniff; V fatum haamas i all hapaato how FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MAKIAN VOCABULARY 81

keke i black ; V kekey ia hand keketo drunk iao fish; V yao . kol iIi scabies idami six; V idam korutu bite i faf) LwAN skin fungus 11 kusu LwM phalanger i ja pestle i lui guma full tide

, imu who ; V imu L laal io spring trap iono areca nut ; V yono

, lal io hearth i sa pama why lei lei bamboo lice crusher iwaso low tide losof) LwM mortar

J jape-jape dirty M maaba t i duyong jihi oyster maasof)a grandmother jojo mother's or father's sister, father 's sister's spouse , father's mabaje gill brother mafoi five ; V mafoy juame fallow field ma i stone ; V may , ma i ma lamol i plug, bung mama LwM mother; mama mother K (reference) , V mama kaba l i LwAN left (hand) manca LwM person, V mancia kaban wet manok manok whale ka iyai right; V kaya i marica LwM chile pepper kaka LwM elder sibling (vocative mijo fear only) mira cured, healthy ka? iaf dolphin mo to suck up (sago porridge) ; ka lawol if) seasick , nauseous V to swallow ka l iIi to stumble and fall moma la hook kamej a octopus momoa emtpy ; V momua kamou ear; V kamow mo rea LwM freshwater eel kamuma finger mumu to smoke (meat, fish) ka ra nunu LwAN(?) pillow kas i house post, V gas i kawin LwI to wed N nepin roof ridge cover; V shin ke i : boba kei grandfather 82 JAMES T. COLLINS

nimiomi t a kind of small crustacean (?) R Qon i LwM you (respectful) rafot press, squeeze QOu fallen leaves, rubbish1 2 raQo LwM shark ran i LwI sing rekeQ LwD count ruo spouse of one 's sibling-in-Iaw (of the same sex)

0 ofa pit trap ofupe fold s sabap LwM because ; V sebap; ole yes sebap i pOQ i j ad i tasaga 1 i 0 oma faya female sibling13 Because it rained, I didn 't go omu already; V omo safo painful due to a blow; V warm , have a fever ota stairs, ladder sal awa sharpen with back and forth motion but no water sampan LwI dugout canoe p sapupu LwI cousin paapuda l hand net1q saroQ LwI : peda da saroQ machete paapuu knee ; V paapu sheathe paag igi a kind of burrowing crustacean sasafu hot; V sasafo; win sasafu (Stomatopoda ?) the day is hot; de tisasafu I'm pa i dig; V pay hot palo sister-in-law (man speaking) , sao burn; V saw, sao brother-in-law (woman speaking) saufi garfish pa lolas ringworm sesu stand; V siesu pana LwAN bow , to shoot a bow ; 5 i imu fish poison tapana me I shot him sinef heart pancona torch of bamboo and oil soa to plant paQan undergrowth , forest; V grass sp. sog iIi mantis shrimp pa r i ama star soma LwM (?) net (dragged) pato to strike (with an instrument) somo, needle patu-patu LwM(?) adze (boat making) soosu squid paya-paya wing, fin; V wing sonamu mist peepi chisel supepi suck (finger) pisoQ coconut crab susu LwAN to suckle , breast; V po lase rub breast poparo Spanish mackerel poo seed, pit punQpaQi seat in boat putuwu LwAN (?) when; V putuiwu FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MAKIAN VOCABULARY 83

T u tad ik LwI horn ufi see yufi tado mother 's brother ula planting stick tai yurn sea urchin S talatulak punting pole1 W ta?a i inside16 wagol tuna tapu brother-in-law (man speaking) 8 wado recognise, know 1 tarusi LwM barracuda wayoi not yet; V wayo there is not tatapa winnowing basket wij i cold; de t iwij i I'm cold tasb� bead necklace woso laQaloQi yam; V 050 cassava taubu conch shell woso; woso pe aso hunt ; V 050 pe taun LwI year to fill tediQi chest; V tedeng i wudu wind , blow; V udu te i plait wuj uf spit; V ujuf tet irni smoking rack wun i blood ; V uni tirnu LwIN cucumber toga to pull, to lift up (from water) i.e. fish trap ; V to pull up (anchor) y yaabe rudder toi if; toi epoQ i rna tasagal io if it rains , I won 't go yariQ float tokubane eight; V tukubange yofo yofo greasy; V slippery ton i father-in-law or son-in-law; yor ik citrus fruit V son-in-law yufi flow topo new 17 totooroso sit; V torose tuka LwAN to change ; ituka rnefi it's shedding it's skin (of a snake) tun io fish's scale 84 JAMES T. COLLINS

3. 2. Part II

A E aba cradle in arms e wudu sip (see blow) ; Ve to fetch afe face ; V eye , front eg it groan ami (?) : iyami burnt atur LwI arrange au climb ; V aw ; au fi climb (mountain) ; V fi come up F faae to feed (child) ; V fae , ae to laugh (?)

faago hide (something) ; see ogo B faboba call; V boba baa re sago meal ; baa re do lou lou large container (for sago) fado insult , cuss out baase : ibaase accidentally knocked fagetes splash ; see ge tes down fakae I 0 turn over ; V kae I 0 capsize ba le LwM return fakar LwI fence (house) , fence bebese coconut scraping tool (garden) ; V tooth pol l9 be I et slice faka l awo l ing cause to turn around be lu lick; V belo tongue fakou break (wood) ; V fo-kow bi I ik LwI room fa l asaku scrape sago pith ; see sasaku bobu le rope twi sting tool; V bule to twine (a rope ) famal ise; bo la-bola famal ise lie on side bubufu talk in sleep famato-ma to be quiet; V ma to to be old? 20 famodeyo to pant c fangi : fangi dangafo-ngafo low cinga cinga hair bun ; ba l i bench in kitchen ci nga-cinga fasten hair bun fapula-pula share out ; V pula to cobi blink , wink give coo fi gaze upward ; V co faracak to rip

fasaro LwAN to lean (something)

fasubal spill; V subal to pour D fa tegu to carry da re to fall (fruit) fa tola to shatter (plate ) duruma so coconut fibre filter in sago processing apparatus fa to- fa to sit with legs stretched forward dusu drive away fa to-fato stand in line duu to fell fawayo-wayo to grub (pig)

fe lerebo pry out (thorn) FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MAKIAN VOCABULARY 85

femegepe ask fendemen LwD foundation ima ma i cough fidi do me et; V fidi yank out , to irus LwM spoon , coconut shell ladle find iyo- iyo never mind ; V yo no filkeke r to stub (toe) fi l imumu LwAN to gargle fi ltibuk to stub (toe ) J fi lyaose wh isper jahi l LwI (?) to pout fimou admit to , agree to jejela broom fi toga withdraw mache te ; V toga jojaga hut in garden; V jaga to to pull up (anchor) watch fofo i itchy jojoho upper basin of sago apparatus fogogoto to bury fo l osoma something send; V fo lsoma pe to send (a letter) to fo lobule twist (rope fibre) ; V bule K kae loso : bo la-bola kae loso lie on fopoti -poti to inlay belly forre : ifrore accidentally struck ; kaeri touch V for kakalu LwAN stirring utensil, foso l strangle spatula; see ka lu; ka kalu bes i fu explode iron spatula fubusbes i to compete kako cloth sling for carrying children fu luuk ir LwI carve ka lah LwI lose

ka 1 i 1 i collapse

G ka lu LwAN stir; see kakalu; ka lu fulo stir up sago porridge gagae a rack for drying sago bread (?) kama r LwD room gagu LwM stutter ka rabaya coarse container of ga l apean fish plaited pandanus gan i floor kar ja LwM work ga ro LwM to scrape (coconut) kas ian LwM too bad ge las thatch peg of bamboo kini pinch getes see fagetes ; igetes to cast kok i whistle (chicken feed) kukusan LwM coconut steamer (of gisi crush (lice) plaited bamboo ) gopau see sidang i kuti LwM snap finger on gotir sago processing trough 86 JAMES T. COLLINS

pake LwI wear L ladu peel, pare , skin pa l isite approach, move nearer

lae thread pane to cross over

lalou to shout ; V to howl (of dogs ) pang LwM pot; see ngafo-ngafo

lel iwit coconut grater pangko LwM put in lap

lonter LwM (?) attic paorang stick (bamboo) of thatch

lupa; ilupa ignite , be aflame paras LwI (?) to shave

lut hug pa ru LwM to grate (coconut)

pastaka sago mold leveler

pesupe ; ipesupe stretch (on M rising) marne catch peu peg manyang kal LwM deny pi 1 i LwI choose manyasal LwM regret poos to cane masi ; imasi finished poso to boil; V posa mese l LwM stone (cement) wall; poso pot; poso bes i wok ; poso mesel sego pe rawa sea wall afi earthenware basin; see ngafo-ngafo mok LwD mug pou pay mou LwI �lant pung pang i board mutu to pound pusoma shift away

N R nane dream rano soak ngafo-ngafo stool, support; fang i dangafo-ngafo low kitchen stool; raro a broad bench of split pang dangafo-ngafo trivet ; poso bamboo dangafo-ngafo loosely woven rattan riri kick with heel stand for pots robo sago meal container (made of sago leaves

roruga a pole used to dislodge a fruit ogo hide (oneself); V to put ruang tamu LwI living room or i tad i k-tad ike to bob with rube a large earthen vessel for drowsiness water

ruu squat, sit

p pa slap; V paa

pa request FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MAKIAN VOCABULARY 87

s teden connect (ropes); see tadateden sabe to hang teko LwI water vessel, tea pot ? saga l to walk ; saga l dare-dare Zl to be lame t ima lIe dip sang reach for tinef massage sango to answer (when one' s name is tiso: itiso penetrate called) to to package ; V too ; toto a sapo bowl package sara to chip at , chop fine tok i LwM rap sasaku LwAN sago mattock; see to los badan wipe body fa l asaku toror i sedimentate ; V toro so to sego obstruct (path) sit down sepak LwI kick (forward ) tuka LwT change siedi sneeze sidang i to lose; sidang i gopau to lose one 's way u sidula: isidula slash ujumi make a noise; V lJm i voice sikat LwI scrape ; sikat bet i 10 ma i untung LwI win scrape (body) dirt with a stone ; uring snore ses ikat sosoya sago mould wiper

5 i Ie point out 5 i 10 to order w singeru to grunt (pig) waaso live at; V wa to stay soi no go home wakole: wa kole ful0 stir up and soor pour serve a helping of sago porridge 50500 descend ; V 5050 wasoma io move (?) sosoya sago mould (pottery) wiji shiver , cold sudel le; isudel le slipped womu chew (?) surabi LwI porch woso exit? ; V 050 enter susun LwI arrange wuj uf spit; V uj uf wowudu tube for blowing on fire ; V udu to blow

T tadateden connection taj i LwI (?) pierce ; taj i be to y dive ; taj i taj i kamma to jab; ya mongo don't V taj i to stab with a knife yayakis tongs , cooking chopsticks; tan i rub (aches) yayakis ipi tongs for embers tarima LwM receive tatapa sifting basket 88 JAMES T. COLLINS

4. CUMULAT IVE ENGLISH - WEST MA KIAN INDEX OF WORDS IN PART I AND II

A board pung pang i admit fimou boat seat pUf)paf)i

adze (boat making) patu-patu bob with drowsiness ori tad ik- tadike aflame lupa boil poso agree to fimou bow pana alive bafo bowl sapo all haamas i breadfruit sp . gomu already omu break (wood) fakou animal ha iwan i breast susu answer sango breath (?) faso approach pa l isite broom jejela arrange susun , atur brother kaka , fau faya areca nut iono brother-in-law tapu , ruo , pa lo ask femegepe bung ma l amo l i attic lonter burn sao aunt jojo burn (field) falasao, falarari fa laparif)

burnt ami B bury fogogoto bailer bebiti bait ale barracuda tarusi C basin poso afi call faboba basin (sago technology) jojoho canoe sampan basket (winnowing) tatapa carry fategu, aba bat fn i i carve fuluukir beat poos cast (chicken feed) getes because sabap catch marne bench raro, fang i caulk (a boat) fikini bite korutu caulking baru black keke i change tuka blink cobi chest tedif)i blood wun i chew (?) womu blow wudu chile marica FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MAKIAN VOCABULARY 89

chilled gamati D chip at sara daughter-in-law dono chisel peepi dead ge i chisel (something) fe let iso pe debris (organic) I)ou choose pi I i deny manyangka l chop up sara descend 50500 chopsticks yayak is different fa i Yese citrus fruit yor r k dig pa i clam sp. laia aefi dip timalle clear (field) fa larari dirt afi climb au dirty jape-jape, gaj i-gaj i cold wiji dive taj i be collapse ka I iIi dolphin ka? i a f comb guagasi don 't ya mongo command 5 i 10 dream nane compete fubusbesi drive away dusu conch taubu drunk keketo connect (ropes) teden duyong maabat i connection tadateden container toto E container (large) baa re do lou lou eagle ray ga lema container (plaited pandanus) karabaya ear kamou container (of sago leaves) robo earth afi container (bamboo) bedag� eat fajou cough ima ma i eel morea count rekel) eight tokubane cousin sapupu empty momoa crab pisol) exit? woso cradle in arms aba explode fu cross over pane

crush (lice) gisi

crusher (lice) lei lei F crustacean (?) nimiomit, paag igi face afe cucumber t i mu fall (from a height) dare cured mil)a fasten (hair bun) see cinga-cinga cuss out fa do fastening (machete) golol)i 90 JAMES T. COLLINS

fat faj i greasy yofo yofo father boba grill for fish galaPean father-in-law ton i groan eg it fear mijo grub fawayo-wayo feed (child) faae grunt (pig) singeru fell (a tree) duu guts ga le-gale fence faka r feverish fegini H field afi hair bun cinga cinga field (fallow) juame hand ia filter (in sago technology) duruma so hang sabe fin paya -paya healthy mira finger kamuma heart sinef finished mas i hearth lal io fish iao hide ogo , faago five mafo i hook moma la float yaril) horn tad ik flow yufi hot sasafu fold ofupe how hapaato forest pa l)an hug lut foundation fendemen hunt woso pe aso fungus (skin) ifal) hut jojaga

G garfish saufi if to i gargle f iIi mumu ignite lupa gaze upward coo fi inhale f�amo fasb gill ma baje inlay fopot i -pot i ginger bure inside ta?a i give fidupe insult fado go horne soino itchy fofo i grandfather see ke i grandmother maasol)a grasp fiji jou J grate (coconut) paru jab taj i taj i kamma grater leI iwi t FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MAKIAN VOCABULARY 91

K mist sonamu kick (forward) sepak mould sosoya kick with heel r i ri mould leveler pastaka knee paapuu mortar losor) , knocked down baase mother mama know wade mother-in-law dono

move ( ? ) wa soma io

move nearer pal isite

L mug mok ladder ota ladle irus lame sagal dare-dare N launder folowuj u nauseous ka lawolir) lean fasaro necklace tasbEf , leaves r)ou needle somo left kaba l i nephew faa no lemon grass bob ie net paapudal, soma lick belu never mind iyo-iyo lie on belly see kaeloso new topo lie on side see fama 1 i se niece faano lift up toga not yet wayoi lime afo live at waaso 0 living room ruang tamu obstruct sego long awuo octopus kameja lose ka lah, sidang i , old gaago lose one's way sidang i gopau order si 10 outrigger boat eti

M oyster j i h i mackerel poparo maize (?) bata make a noise ujumi p package to mantis shrimp sogili paddle fou massage tine f painful safo mattock (sago) sasaku pant famodeyo meet fidi do pare ladu 92 JAMES T. COLLINS

pay pou raft cofa peel ladu rafter asi peg peu, ge las rap tok i penetrate t i so rattan pot stand see ngafo-ngafo person manca raw efi pestle ija ray fish fafa phalanger kusu reach for sang pierce taj i receive tarima pillow karanunu recognise wado pinch kini regret manyasal pit poo remove skin ladu plait te i request pa plant soa return soino, ba le plug ma lamo l i right ka iyai point out 5 i Ie ringworm pa lolas pole (dislodge fruit) roruga rip faracak poison (fish) siimu roller ba la ba lat porch surabi roof ridge cover nepin post kasi room kamar, bi Iik pot po so, pang rub po lase pound mutu rub (aches ) tani pour soor rubbish I)ou pout jahil rudder yaabe press rafot pry out (thorn) fe lerebo pull toga s sago meal baare punting pole talatulak sago porridge fu lo put in lap pangko saw gargaj i

scabies ko IiI i

scale (fish) tun io Q quite famato-mato scrape sikat

scrape (coconut ) garo

scrape (sago pith) fa l asaku R scraper bebese rack gagae , tet imi scratch gag i

sea urchin tai yum FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MA KIAN VOCABULARY 93

seasick ka l awo l iQ sneeze sied i sedimentate totori sniff fatuQ seed poe snore uri ng send see fo l osoma soak rano serve wakole son-in-law ton i sew fa la?aki spatula kakalu share out fapula-pula spicy (food) feg ini shark raQo spill fasuba l sharpen folobori, sa l awa spit wuj uf shatter fat ola splash fagetes shave paras spoon irus sheathe saroQ squat ruu shed (skin) tuka squeeze rafot shift away pusoma squid soosu shiver wij i stairs ota shoot (bow) pana stand sesu shout lalou stand in line fato-fato sick fegini star pa r i ama sift fa latafi steamer (rice) kukusan sifter tatapa stick (for planting) ula sing ran i stir ka lu sip wudu stone ma i sireh leaf fou stool ngafo-ngafo sister kaka , oma faya strangle fosol sister-in-law dapu , pa lo, ruo stretch (on rising) pesupe sit totooroso , ruu stretched out (legs) fato fato sit (stretched out) fato-fato strike pato six idam i struck (accidentally) see forre slap pa stub filkeker, filtibuk slash sidula stumble ka I iIi slash (field) fa larari stutter gagu slice be let suck supep i sling (for carrying children) kako suckle susu slipped sudel le suck at amot smoke (meat , fish) mumu suck up mo smoke (cigarettes) folowudu support ngafo-ngafo snap finger kuti sweep fe lejela 94 JAMES T. COLLINS

T w talk in sleep bubufu wall (cement ) mesel taro bio walk sagal tea pot teko want mou tear faracak wash (clothes) fo lowuj u tear down faka l iIi water vessel teko, rube ten awo i l)e wear pake thatch 'spine ' paorang wed kawin thousand ca l anre weed fo l okuda thread lae wet kaban tide (high) i lui guma whale manok manok tide (low) iwaso what ? jou tongs yayaki s when putuwu tongue belu be lu whisper filyaose too bad kas ian whistle kok i

. , torch pancona , gou who Imu touch kaeri why isa pama trap laal io, ofa win un tung trap (fish) en i wind wudu trivet see ngafo-ngafo wing paya-paya trough (sago technology) gotir wink cob i tube (for fire) wowudu winnow fa latafi tuber sp. bio pal)an wipe tolos badan tuna wagol wiper ses ikat sosoya turn around fakalawol ing withdraw (machete) fitoga turn over fakaelo wok poso bes i twenty awo i del) work karja twist (rope) fo l obu le wrap to twisting tool bobule

y yam wo so lal)a lol)i u yawn fatawani uncle jojo year taun undergrowth pal)an yellow bure i

yes ole

you I)on i FURTHER NOTES TOWARDS A WEST MAKIAN VOCABULARY 95

NOTES

1. This survey was undertaken during fieldwork in the Moluccas, October 1977 to August 1979. I am grateful to the staff of Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, under whose auspices I conducted my enqu�r�es . The staff of the Indonesian government in the province of Maluku was always helpful, in particular Bapak A. R. Tjoa, B.A. who , as camat of Obi at that time , was my thoughtful host during my visit to that island. My deepest thanks go to the generous people of Maluku who assisted and encouraged me wherever I went. I am especially grateful to Bapak Hassan Kamaruddin, my capable and cooperative informant . 2. This additional wordlist was developed for research in the Central Moluccas . Consequently, some of the concepts as well as the terms (written in Ambonese Malay) were occasionally baffling to the North Moluccan informants . These problems were easily worked out in elicitation sessions; however, in this case, the informant completed the wordlist by himself without the benefit of elaboration in such a session. It is likely that due to this interdialectal problem (Ambonese vs . Ternatan Malay) some distortions have crept into a few of the definitions in Part II.

3. It is not clear why the expected form fopula-pula does not appear . 4. This vowel adjustment can be compared to Voorhoeve 's notes (2.3.2.1.)

regarding the choice of the vowel in the prefix fv- .

. 5. This analysis of the process is seemingly contradicted by the entry in the wordlist : d e ta-falatafi pea I winnow rice. Here an apparent object immediately follows the verb. The suggestion that affixation of {fvlv} results in intransitive verbs onl y may be inaccurate .

6. Note , however that we would predict the forms folo?ukir and folomumu . Do the irregular vowe ls of these words indicate that both words were borrowed in toto, that is with the affixes, from some unidentified source? Or are there special kinds of vowel adjustment for loanwords?

7. This can be seen as a kind of assimilation. Both o/u and � are acoustically similar; both round vowels and this velar nasal are grave and resonant . Thus , � has shifted its degree of consonantality to adjust to the following vowel. Note , that the changes p > k and k > P are not unusual in the languages of the world or of the area (Collins , to appear a) . The shift of � to w is precisely parallel to the shift of k to P but at a different grade of consonantality.

8. In fact, one of voorhoeve 's lexical correspondences between west Makian (Sabale/Bobawa) and Tidore suggests that there has been sporadic retention of w- in those dialects as well. Note : west Makian wo lot, Tidore ngolo sea. This may , however, be a misinterpretation on my part because I do not know the Proto-North Halmahera form for this correspondence (which is curiously identified as the w:¢ consonant correspondence [voorhoeve 3.2.2.J ). 9. It is perhaps pertinent that some forms which voorhoeve records with initial Y- are listed in my wordlist with initial i- (probably with a semivowel transition) . For example: yonD iono ([ iYonoJ 7) areca yao iao ([ iYaoJ 7 ) fi sh 96 JAMES T. COLLINS

Similarly, Voorhoeve lists yo no but Bapak Hassan writes iyo-iyo never mind. This phonetic difference could indicate that the occurrence of i- in Talapao is a sort of diphthongisation phenomenon involving original y- and this may be compared to the w- appearing before original 0 or u. The absence of a close parallel (semi-vowel + vowel compared to vowel + semi-vowel) , however , does not support this analysis.

10. This might be compared to V knife blade . If that is so, there should probably be two separate entries in the wordlist for gag i because Talapao also has gag i flesh. But Bapak Hassan writes gaag i irerre which seems to mean the flesh shudders ; this suggests a long vowel which neither linguist writes. Or is this an orthographic strategy to disambiguate an actual homonym? 11. It may be that the initial i- in this entry is a verbal marker (third singular person marker) ; so ifaQ may mean He is afflicted by skin fungus . 12. Voorhoeve cites 'ngeu dry grass '; the difference in the vowel is unexplained . 13. Compare this entry to fau faya male sibling. 14 . Voorhoeve cites 'paa to hit with the hand' . Is paapuda l, then , a compound word?

15. Should this be compared to V tala cross a river? 16. As mentioned in the introductory notes, the intervocalic glottal stop suggests a morpheme boundary, presumably ta is tv at. In that case, ai might be compared to V ay to come ba�k.

17. Voorhoeve lists this word under dotopo but almost certainly do- is a bound morpheme (3s pl verbal marker) . In my fieldnotes, most adjectives appear with i- or dv. In fact, dotopo appears in the sequence de?eta , dotopo , dagaago, dakafiti etc. 18 . Voorhoeve cites 'tawado S to know '. Again ta- is mo st likely a bound morpheme (ls verbal marker) . See Voorhoeve 2.3.2.2. 19. Compare to ka lawol iQ (Part I) dizzy, seasick. 20. In Part I we note faarno inhale. Voorhoeve cites rno swallow. Is faa- (or fa- as Bapak Hassan writes it) a prefix or part of a compound? 21. Compare to dare dare to fa ll. BIBLI OGRAPHY

APITULEY , c.,. A. LESSY , D. TAKARIA, M.J. PATTISELANNO and A. SAHERTIAN

1981 Struktur bahasa Terna te : Laporan penelitian . Ambon .

COLLINS , J.T.

fie a The histori cal relati onships of the languages of Central Ma luku, Indonesia . PL D-47.

fie b Asilulu-Engl ish dictionary .

HUETING , A.

1907 Tobeloreesch-Hollandsch woordenboek . Leiden .

STRESEMANN , E. 19 18 Di e Paulohi-sprache: Ein Bei trag zur Kenntnis der Amboinischen Sprachengruppe . 's-Gravenhage .

VOORHOEVE , C.L.

19 81 The We st Mikian language : a fieldwork report . (published in this volume p.l) .

WATUSEKE , F.S.

1976 West Makian , a language of the North Halmahera group of the West Irian phylum. AnL.18:274-85.

97 Collins, J.T. "Further Notes Towards a West Makian Vocabulary". In Voorhoeve, C.L. editor, The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46:75-98. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D46.75 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. A SHORT VOCAB ULARY OF EAST MAKIAN

James T. Co l lins

1. INTRODUCTION Despite considerable linguistic research in the North and South-east Mo luccas during the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth, there remain enormous areas which are practically uncharted. For a variety of reasons , among these understudied areas is the southern part of the administrative region of Maluku Utara . Re cently Blust (1978) made a considerable contribution towards the charting out of the inter-relationships of some of the Austronesian languages in this area. Nonetheless in some cases this important work relied on a very limited data base . In particular his information about East Makian (Makian Dalam) was drawn from very old sources (van der Crab , 1882 ; de Clercq, 1890) and the brief list collected by C. Molony . In view of this paucity of data , this preliminary vocabulary of East Makian is presented, l although it is far from satisfactory . The vocabulary is the result of a very brief visit to Laiwui , Obi (North Maluku) in early 1979 . At that time less than fifteen hours of informant sessions were devoted to collecting information about the languages of Makian . In preparing this manuscript for publication the numerous inconsistencies in the transcription as well as some serious gaps in the phonological analysis became embarrassingly apparent . Any academic value this list has must be attributed to the conscientiousness of my sole informant for Makian Dalam, Bapak Junus Djabir (35 years of age) , a government official posted at the Obi district office . Bapak Djabir was born and raised in Tahani (Tahane) on Makian Island where East Makian , locally known as Makian Dalam2 or as Makian Timur , is spoken . Not only was he a patient and cooperative teacher of the language but also he agreed to complete an additional wordlist which he posted to me some months later. Consequently , the vocabulary published here has two parts . The first was collected (hurriedly ) in Obi; the second is the wordlist filled in (with numerous comments and elaborations) by the informant. Both lists have been rearranged alphabetically . A minimum of cross-referencing within each list has been attempted. The only changes made in Bapak Junus 's orthography have been the use of Q and 0 for his 'ng' and 'ny' , respectively . There is a small amount of overlap in the material largely because words which he volunteered in sample phrases have also been incorporated in the list. 3

Voorhoeve , C.L. , ed . , The west Makian languages and their neighbours .

(Materials in languages of Indonesia, No . 12 ; W.A.L. Stokhof, Series ed. ) Pacific Linguistics, D-46 , 1982 . 99 © James T. Collins

Collins, J.T. "A Short Vocabulary of East Makian". In Voorhoeve, C.L. editor, The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46:99-128. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D46.99 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 100 JAMES T. COLLINS

In both of these lists no attempt has been made to isolate affixes , even whe re very clear morphological processes are involved. For example , in at least some cases ha- seems to be a prefix which marks a continuous activity . Note for example :

with verbs : with nouns : tut strike wi th the hand baku sagoJ sago tree hatut fi ght habaku extract sago pith teta I cut susu breast hatetal attack with a machete hasusu suck le be it string fish through gi lls habeit sew

Further analysis of ma- and ta- would probably demonstrate their status as bound morphemes as well . Similarly , reduplication of the initial consonants of verbs results in instrumental nominalisations , although the details of that process are not clear . For example : benat shutJ obs truct bulai turnJ twist binbenat door bibbulai tool used to twist fibres into rope

However, because so little data is available and not all the roots have been recorded, arrangement by individual entry rather than by root word was chosen.

In some instances, there are pairs of entries which are clearly forms of the same word . For example , we note mama/mamo mother, ma ta l ms isseh/matal ne i sseh have a muscular twi tch , sa/ca climb and so forth . It is not clear whether phonological assimilation or dialect mixing in the informant's speech has resulted in these variations . At least in part grammatical factors may be involved. At one point the informant volunteered that ma tua meant ripe for things at hand but ma tuo meant ri pe for things out of sight . This sugge sts a postposed reference article , perhaps 0, which is common enough in both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages of the area. Again because this possibility is difficult to test with the limited data avai lable , both ma tua and ma tuo and other such pairs are cited independently .

On the other hand, in this vocabulary an attempt has been made to isolate the verbs from the obligatory markers which accompany them. Th is system of verbal marking is wide-spread in East Indonesia and elsewhere . In Makian Dalam it appe ars to take the form of prefixing markers to verbs to indicate the person and number of the sentence subject. For example : /ml ih/ to laugh Singular Plural

1 kaml i h l(in) taml i h l(ex) amI i h 2 maml ih 2 haml i h 3 naml i h 3 laml i h These obligatory verbal markers should not be confused with the optional (?) , emphatic pronouns : lak, au, i/n, kit, am, meu and si . Note , too , that the process of verbal marking is linked to conjugational systems which involve modification of the verbal root . For example : A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MAKIAN 101

/soba l/ to sai l Singular Plural 1 ksoba l l(in) teobal l(ex) asobal 2 msobal 2 shobal 3 neoba l 3 isoba l

/pe/ do, make Singular Plural 1 kpe l(in) tpe l(ex) ape 2 mpe 2 phe 3 npe 3 lpe In view of this complicated verbal marking system and the apparent existence of at least three conjugations , usually entries in this word list are made under the apparent verbal root . But this is probably not always the case; entries such as nea l ineorreet, neepa bear frui t or nei sseh twiteh indicate the possibility of a third person singular marker prefixed to the verb . A parallel problem occurs in the listing of nouns . As noted by numerous linguists for the past 100 years , languages in East Indonesia and elsewhere are often characterised by two genitive systems : one for alienable possessions and the other for inalienable properties . Makian Dalam is no exception to this widespread semantic categorisation . This phenomenon is reflected in the two genitive marking systems in the language . For example : INALIENABLE /mta/ eye ALIENABLE /um/ house Singular Plural Singular Plural 1 mtag l(in) nid mta 1 nig urn l(in) nid urn l(ex) rna mtam l(ex) mam urn 2 nim mtam 2 meu mta 2 nim urn 2 meu urn 3 nim mta 3 nidi mta 3 n i urn 3 nidi urn Note that in the plural paradigm there is some overlapping of forms . However, taken as a whole , it is clear that we are dealing with two different systems : the one (largely) a suffixing system; the other a prefixing system. In the wordlists here , the entry is cited with no genitive marker. The genitive pronouns and ligature (ni-) have been listed separately . Finally , this introductory note should explain some of the details of the transcription . Stress , where it is noted , is indicated with ' and , rarely , '. Diphthongs are marked with �. In several cases strongly checked final consonants are marked with �. Glottal stops [? ] are sometimes noted, although their phonological status is unclear. Geminate consonants are written as double consonants but long vowe ls are indicated by a colon . A close study of Makian Dalam will certainly reveal errors in this transcription as we ll as in the me anings assigned to the words . Let us hope that that study takes place soon .

2.1. Vocabul ary, Part

A a- numeral connector ; see niw i a tol ada mortar a- lp (ex) verbal marker; see am ado with (instrumental) 102 JAMES T. COLLINS

ai wood ; ai weo leaf bib" b6ka round ait climb (hill) bib" buyo ear akm6 mother-in-law, son or daughter­ b i latu spear trap in-law bimmba f) level ala bait bob i a above am we (exclusive) ; see a- boka see bib" boka au you; see m- bo l it sharpen a blade with water awi 1 hook and stone bo� to stagnant water in bamboo vessel (?) B b6sok sea crab ; bosok basalaf) basalaf) baba father; baba kutu youngest land crab ; see born paternal uncle ; baba lalo bulaf) white eldest born paternal uncle bulho raw babakoam see bakoam buna grandchild babas fallow field buyo see bib" buyo ba i see dado bai bak6am night ; babakoam dark baku sago tree , bread made from sago c pith ; see habaku ca one ; see psa ba 1 a see bib" ba 1 a ca rise ; see sa ; pa it ca the ba 1 i bi n bel imbing, a kind of fruit moon rise ba 1 i sa drunk ca lan ca 1000 ; see psa bal it left (hand) ci them; see si baraf)ka pit trap ciccudi l adze (boat making) basalaf) a k.o. palm used to make buckets bata l star

, batalaf) sit; bat.3laf) gau seat in D boat; see gau -d our (inclusive ) bata lan sit daba cultivated field bau snake dabo a lot bebaf) butterfly dado maternal uncle ; dado ba i be it to string fish ; see habe it paternal aunt 's spouse dama sibling of the opposite sex be lu a small crustacean damana related , relation bta kind of tuber dat bib" ba 1 a roller (for beaching boats) raft dayo tip , cape A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MAKIAN 103

ddaba dirt ; see daba gamas dry (of clothes) ddewa grass , weeds gamis dry (of a river bed) ddewa 1 6 forest gamis sweet dd6bo stomach gamuna scraps , vegetable debris to be swept away ddu east gau place ; see batalal) gau ddu pi 1 1 shoot a bow g ias sireh leaf di their; see si g l gim Stomatopoda, a seaside dia there , that creature di nd i I) wall go neck ; see gowo d i ne here , gog i ringworm dla seaward go la mantis shrimp dle landward go lo snot , mucus dodoku bridge , gomo a k.o. bread fruit du 1 a merayap gowo neck ; see go dulal) punt , pole gulo unripe , immature dupi 1 bow

H E ha- 2p verbal marker em see ha pue how enG plait habaku to harvest sago pith ; e ta? find see baku habb6an slash , burn and clear field habe it sew; see beit F hab6ba call fa ? ray (stingray) haga ras to weed fakat split (wood) ha l dis to spit ha l sa when ha i saki to use a sago hoe ; see G sisaki -g my ; nig urn my house ; mtag ha i sa l) to burn a field my eye ha itun give birth gadum maize ha iy6 ? tooth gag scratch haka l f lik lie down gagam sea urchin , .. hako wing gaJ I animal fat ha 1 i am see I)an ga l a l areca nut ha l 1m bailing 'bucket' , to bail ga lega le guts water from boat 104 JAMES T. COLLINS ha l6mi to gather i la to lift ha l usa say in drink hamasik rice (cooked and uncooked) i ne this hamu l rudder i :6na bone han go ipo saliva han skin fungus i p' i �p' dust hanal) argue hap�l)l i� to burn a second time (of swidden J hapun kill ja up has�le all j �Ii lola north hasodas suck at (cigarette) jojo paternal aunt; jojo youngest maternal aunt (?) hasop bathe j ou ' Wha t did you say? ' (respectful), hasusu suckle; see susu , Me? ' , Huh? ' hat four jubi see uru jubi hattfk' 1 ak weave hatetal attach (each other) with machete ; see tetal K hatotas wash (clothes) k- , ka- Is verbal marker ha ttu lo body hair, feathers kab.h dirty hatut' fight; see tut kabin goat hawol call kabus wet hen sea tortoise ka (as dolphin htfto calf, shin ka iol i I) spun about hia alive ka i paya to winnow rice hi lho navel cord kaka open (of mouth) h 11 i k slow ka lai bird hoas a boil ka l ual) fall from a height ho l' fish trap kamm ld il) feel cold hool rap (head , door) kamo? hand huat a dragging net kapi 1 pillow kat' rafter katno chest kau seed, pit he , she , it; see n kaw iwi porridge (of maize) ia yes klhis flow i�n fish kina female genitals Iho brother-in-law A SHORT VOCA BULARY OF EAST MAKIAN 105 kit we (inclusive) laulaf) shrimp , lobster k r i t octopus lekto wicked k I e no to caulk (a boat) lhlan centipede klu fear li at, on; mej a li on the table kku tail 1 ik outside of k 1 a 1 recognize 1 Iko skin kobus rotten 1 i kso edge kodo bite lipaf) keep (ginger) in ground to keep it from drying out, bury ko lano ruler , chief 1 it worm; 11 it' earthworm kol0 spider 11 i pole kpaya to winnow rice 10 with (accompaniment) , numerical k�da black connector ; yahasa 10 psa 21 ; k�hin fold utinca 10 yahasa 120 k�r bread fruit 10 inside kulan water vessel loan stairs, ladder kusok phalanger lobi lobi cloud kut' louse; kut' n i to 1 0 louse nits; 10h fathom see tol0 loka banana kutu small; see baba kutu l omo friend kuyo , kuyo? finger nail lu two luhoar garfish luo see peda L luoi high tide la- 3p verbal marker lusif) pestle la see f)an l�tan fire; lutan mUf)ko smoke lahat press, squeeze , . 1 al big 1 a i just now; lai kpe 'I just did M it ' ; la i i pe just now -m your (singular) ; nim um your lak I house; mtam your eye lako trunk ma- 2s verbal marker laf)a a large green parrot ma? tongue laf)it sky maap yawn lala blood mabatim Dugong dugon lal ai stone maddodaf) straight 1 a 1 I an hearth mad lma l yellow lal0 see mama , baba , lala mag' 10 branch lata lata south 106 JAMES T. COLLINS ma i shy meu you (plural), your ma i pea Q a fly; ma i peaQ mumin a mhanas painful (from a blow) kind of large fly mhon full ma i liQak forget mh� it fish poison maka t red mial in drift makawa feverish , hot , mlgno chilled (of food and drink) ma l a village mla lut greasy ma l eo different mla Qa long ma leos i foreigner , outsider ml fh laugh ma l oQo hear , mmena sand mam our (exclusive) mnamna hurry, quickly a m ma mother; see mamo; mama lalo mn igis thin eldest maternal aunt mnt�f t fall on flat surface mamao l play mn�nit scabies mamo mother ; see mama moda wind maQele? laugh loud mo le empty ma Q r Q i 5 smile mamas rub , wipe off ma Qo dry (of coconuts or maize) momoQok forget mar i -mar i bead necklace mp�da l float man male , man , husband mta eye mana, w inhale mtul i sleep; see tul i man [1 sour m�mik to smoke (fish) ma nik fowl mumin see ma i peaQ man itap work mUQko see lutan map ln, female, woman , wife , mar I caQ chile pepper

, masure good N a m t dead n - 3s verbal marker ma � person (especially used in na- 3s verbal marker enumerating) nagon correct mat ite las brackish nahab r to near matua ripe na iko fin matuo ripe na lau far mauka rat na lh�ak seasick mawet is sharply pointed nan sharp (of blade) mawi hungry naQ howl (dogs) mbos swollen nca l wrong me who ncepa to bear fruit megan shattered (glass , plate) A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EA ST MA KIAN 107

ndadik therefore , so; ulan ndadik p khan te 'It rained so I didn't go ' pa down nene grandmother pa carry on shoulder nhi� small bat; nhi� bula8 fruit pada to strike , rap bat pagil to hoist up (fish trap) ni genitive marker pal t dig niwi coconut; niwi a tol 3 coconuts palt moon nkihis leak (bowl, pot) pako coarse nkiso leak (boat, house) paku nail nmada ripe pa lo some nmalat spicy (food) pancona a torch of bamboo nm�s low tide papa father; see baba p�pis lice-crushing blade of bamboo n6bat plugged up pa ra pa rau smoking rack n6mi dew , pa t west nu it pe make pea8 see ma i pea8 � peda machete; peda l�o machete 8sh in (to rest burdens coil of cloth hilt; peda saru8 machete sheathe ; on head) peda s6pa k ring of iron securing 8an sun machete blade to hilt 8an day; 8an ha l u 2 days; 8an pe lal6in cook 8an la hal iam noon time; day time pe8ha cook; see pe 8kihis nkihis runny nose; see pi lai taro 88ela hair pilai lekto a kind of tuber; see l ekto pip' chisel , rani sing pip pak a small frog ro dog pip pid spring trap (snare) pis lick, suck; pis pis suck at (candy)

0 pfsa? how many oik put, want pit seven opa, to fly pI im five , 6sa l stand poas paddle, to paddle 6tap whale poenam six ot ik give p6ka l short 6t in tuna pol6 if, where , which owa, l . ginger 108 JAMES T. COLLINS

, poparo Spanish mackerel 5 i they , powo new siroa an inedible sea urchin , poyo head sisaki mattock-like tool to extract , sago pith ppoas to paddle soba 1 to sail psa one ; see ca sodo1 suck up (porridge ) ps io nine sog r 1 i freshwater eel pto1 i thick , soman outrigger pontoon puduf) blunt (of a spear tip) , somo needle pue what; see ha pue , sona name pu ik malodorous sopak see peda puko knee , sar i cross-eyed pUf)an ridge cover ssei comb pupi sago porridge ssiab oyster su see te R su: squid , reba 1 eagle ray (fish) sua grasp , suan dibble stick su10? point out , s sumo mouth ; su, mo wi 10 lips sa climb (tree) ; see ca , susu breast; see hasusu sada face , , suwat shell fish; suwat kaka sadua 1 rub on large clam; see kaka sadu1ak rub on (something) suyu casting net sagu stab , . sa l sweep T sa1ewa i to whet blade without using water ta- Ip (inclusive ) verbal marker sampan dug-out saf) burn tadi throw saf)o answer tadopas snapped sanawat narrow, tight taggu10 back -'- sapa lYak sniff tahak push saruf) see peda takis seawater sau to wed tako horn sawa? monitor lizard ta1 uba torch of coconut fronds se1ak tie tamno? elder sibling , sepo fruit taf)epu flawed, chipped edge A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MAKIAN 109

, tanam to plant um house , tanawan remember umh6 nose tapaga broken unak know , tapi n ash unco scale tap16d exploded (balloon) up' a kind of tuber; taraca split (dry bamboo) uru jubi coconut crab tarus i barracuda ut in ca 100 tatampa winnowing basket (for rice) utusa a little taubu ritual conch uwe t mountain taun year; taun hasio 9 years te not; te hu not yet; te su not yet w tepul taste with the tip of the wag, sail boat tongue , � wagau bamboo water vessel tetal cut ; see hatetal , . wa ll)U child tete grandfather wa l eight thena younger sibling wa la rope timun cucumber wa le see up' timur east wam come toga l pull wa l)to flesh to l three , wao root t6 10 male genitals , waya water t6 10 egg; see kut' n i to le , wayan right (hand) top sugarcane we ? vomit t6p to rap sharply we I i rattan , a rod made of rattan tua old we I i k pig , boar tubuku navel wena leg , foot ; see wwe? tuka l to moult (snake) wee see ai wee tu li sleep; see mtul i wet strike with a rod tul rem dream; see em wi 10 see sumo tut strike (with the hand) ; see wi lwalo vein ; see wwa lo hatut , . WO I shark w6 1at sea wulo? liver u uas wash (plate , face) wwa lo vein ; see wiwalo uho blow wwe ? leg, foot ; see wena ulan rain wwi mango 110 JAMES T. COLLINS

y , ya reply to hearing one 's name yasin salt called, 'Huh 7 ' yatas thatch yaeco heart yawa? run yaha- ten marker ; yahasa 10 ; yohan count yahalu 20 yor i k citrus fruit yahalu 20 ; yahalu lopsa 21; , yahalu loplu 22 yum stonefish yahasa 10 ; yahasa lopsa 11; yahasa I u 12 yah i lime , chalk yal take 7 yal)ho gill ?an eat yas swim

2. 2. Vocabul ary, Part II

A ada exist, there is benat shut (door , window) , obstruct (path) ; benat bawa shut the door ; ai tree see binbenat alo grasp , catch bess peel, pare , skin al)ka nwnber be t cradle in arms aru stirring paddle ; aru bes i bibbulai rope twisting tool; see iron spatula bulai atur arrange binbenat wall; see benat atut touch bita to package

blawis penetrate (7) ; nab lawi s penetrated B bola thread baku sago borhak shift away balas respond in kind bota hug , carry on hip (child) balat: balat pupi serve sago bulai turn ; see bibb ulai ; porridge bulai wa la twist fibre into rope bale buy bum disappear bal)ha laim living room bumm disappear , lose bawa door A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MAKIAN 111

c genas rip ; see tagenas cako taratib sit cross-legged geo sauce cocak sip giak sway , shake , bob gogan to hide (something) ; see op gono put ; see gono D goti 1 sago trough dafi dafi steamer da�to a floor or raised platform made of bamboo or wood H dego dego split bamboo bench habaku scrape sago pith ; see baku dikak move habes ik see habess dimo noise; nidimo its noise habess compete ; habes ik wag to dod request race boats dopas to cause to snap ; see tadopas; haboba call kdopas 'I cause (it) to snap ' habokak bring closer together dukon eru pt (volcano) hadud carry on head dumik expired , finished hagono put ; see gono hajak cast (chicken feed) hai dil stretch (on rising) E ha i l)u l) i gargle egan to cause to shatter ; see megan ; kegan 'I shatter (it) ' ahi to show em see ha iy to feed (a child) emus blink hajo to splash (someone ) el)kar deny hakal house fence eta find; see makaeta; eta lalan te haka lual) tear down , cause to not find one 's way (be lost) collapse hakaop turn (it) over; see hakop hakop face downwards ; see hakaop; F tu li hakop lie on belly fandasi foundation ha lai l to scrape coconut ; see lai 1 fati ob struct (path) ha lomi k gather ha lopi hut in a garden ha l uat share out G hana � argue ga il poke at, touch hapal ihara bury the dead gal apean wire clamp for roasting haparas to shave , have a haircut fish hapuak rub with (stone) ; hapuak gamas send lalai rub with a stone gamuno leave (scraps) behind 112 JAMES T. COLLINS hase lap cut down , to have been kakaua climb (under duress) felled; see se lap kalah lose hasikat wash (hair) ; has ikat niwi kalai pound treat hair with coconut ka luaQ collapse , fallen down hasiktak rub with (stone) ; has iktak lelai rub with a stone kama r room has ipaQ pry out (thorn) kapid snap finger on (another 's hand) hasop wipe (body) kas ian too bad hassel ik lean back katt thatch peg of bamboo hasubut fasten hair bun kautik shout · hasul it to grub , root about ; we l ik nhasul it the pig is grubbing kawe le hang ha ta len on one 's back ; tul i hatalen ker ja work lie on back kidam niwi remove coconut husk hatal ikis on one 's side ; tul i kinit pinch hatalikis lie on side ki u fear hatinas have a massage ; see tinas kuba slit throat (Islamic ritual hattom pout slaughter) hatuka l change clothes; see tuka l ku lai stir haunak inform kul an earthenware pot, iron hawik to sun (something) skillet, wok hayas whisper; see makahayaso kutan ask hoo l hit with a length of wood or kuyum body grime iron

L 1 ai 1 coconut scraping tool; see ha la i 1 ihod run lala blood irus coconut shell ladle lalan road, path , way iyok weep lante floor (on ground level) ; lante semen cement floor leb ignite ; see lebo ; nleb it's J aflame jajar stand in line lebo a flame ; see leb jendela window lege r foundation lelai insult , cuss out -1 i interior; tas 1 i inside the K bag kab in goat 1 i ba drive away kakaua reach for A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MA KIAN 113 loba sago container ms i sseh twitch ; matal ms i sseh twitch ; see ma tal lois steal mtet fall lotel) attic mu l go home , return luk squat; see lukuluku musa la mat luku l uku to be squatting; see luk

N M nama t to chop off magag i shaken nani sago mattock magesi burn crisp , thoroughly destroyed by fire natut stubbed; see tut magun quiet ncebak approach ma il il)ak forget ncisseh twitch ; see ms i sseh; ma ta l ncisseh twitch makae ta meet; see eta ndudus to fall (ripe fruit) makahayaso whisper to each other; see hayas nhabito nearby makauj u one on top of the other nhassha thakki extremely near, right up against ma ladua sit with legs stretched forward niwi coconut ma lasam shiver nmada ripe mama grope in the dark nmasa cooked mamasula thief; see masula nnat sedimentate manao breath (compare manak) ; I)ahal) grunt (pig) ; we l ik nal)ahal) manao dumik to pant the pig grunts manau to rest I)a rak grow ; badan I)a rak to grow ma n i tap work I) i l)ah in pot support mal)aku admit to, agree tO I f10 dog maf1asal regret mapup cough ; mapupak lala to cough up blood o masula thief; see mamasula ohal rub (aches) matal itchy ; see ms i sseh oik don't ma u want ol)a t pole used to knock down fruits mayuyu sleepy op hide (oneself) ; see gogan megan shattered (plate) ; see egan ota l strangle , choke mese l stone (cement) wall ml ayo splashed momo l)ok forget mos i satiated 114 JAMES T. COLLINS

p s pa carry on shoulder sa climb (tree) paeitakan sao mold leveler saada sneeze pada rap with knuckles sada face paga break; see tapaga; kpaga I sahat slap break; mpaga you break sa leap slash pake wear ; see paken sal) burn , bake paken clothes sal)o to answer (a question) pa lan open (door) sapa bowl pa las pay sapal ik exit pal)in get up sapawagao drinking mug papan board ; papan tul is black sasaiy broom board selap to fell (tree) ; see haselap paruda to grate semen cement paso serving bowl for sago porridge sepak kick pat i n yank out ser desire pe do , make ; pe I)han to cook sikat haiyona brush teeth pe to twist fibre into rope ; pe wa la to twist fibre into rope sipal) prying tool ( ?) pi Iih choose sissipal) a tool for removing coconut flesh from shell pi r i I) plate soak spill piss lick sobak throw away piyi whistle sowo pour water while bathing poe i water vessel with spout ssod ik spoon poroeo basket ssoya pottery sago mould posa boil ssulo point out with finger posol unfasten (knots); posol kabin wa lo unfasten the goat 's rope suku papat low bench in kitchen powolan bamboo 'spine ' of thatch sulak order , command puko corner sule plate pupi porridge made of sago pith suI) enter putar turn surambi porch susun arrange

R rube a large earthen water vessel T taban later , wait tabee burnt A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EA ST MAKIAN 115 tadopas snapped; see dopas; tou pour (on plants , fire , dust) wa la tadopas the rope snapped tukal change ; see ha tuka l tagenas torn; see genas tul jab (with finger) ta ibiklak accidentally knocked down tu li sleep ta isudik slipped tu I i em dream tak ik accidentally struck tut punch tam to reply (to a greeting) tan press; yaQo ntan talk in one 's sleep (because he is pressed by a u spirit) uas wash tanak to cover (with a lid) ; tanak udu l a basket of bamboo ku lan cover the pot uiQ snore tanam plant uki r carve tanawan remember untuQ win tano jja gaze upward uto hill tapaga broken; see paga uwa t mountain tap in kitchen taplod explode tarima receive w tas bag, suitcase wag sailboat tatampa winnowing basket, sifting wag ik sell basket wa la rope ; see wa lo te no , not wa lo rope , line teba l shoot (gun) wu lona feelings; wu l ona bum teden connect (ropes), splice ( ? ); faint; see bum titeden connection tega carry in hand , lift teta l-teta l to chop up , dice y tiba bucket yag jump time crush (louse) ya lo take out ; ya lo paken tasli take the clothes out of the tinas to massage ; see hat inas suitcase tindis press down ya Qo a shade , an image; yaQo ntan titeden see teden talk in one 's sleep; see tan tob i descend ya t is cooking tongs of bamboo , tongs for coals tolaQ stay behind yawa search for tOQ to bark; ro ntoQ the dog barks top hi t with a stone torop bamboo tube used to blow on flames 116 JAMES T. COLLINS

3. ENGLISH - EAST MAKIAN (CUMULATIVE) INDEX

A above vasa , bob ia beads ma l) i -mal)i

abutting nhassha thakki i bear fruit neepa admit to mal)aku bench dego-dego suku papat adze e i eeud i I betel gias aflame leb big I ai

agree rnaI)a ku bird ka lai

alive hia bite kodo

all hasale black kuda

animal fat gaj i black board papan tul is

answer sa 1)0 blink emus approach neebak blood lala

areca nut ga lal blunt pudul) argue hanal) blow uho

arrange atur, susun blowing tube torop

arranged vertically makauj u boar we I ik

ash tapin board papan

ask kutan bob giak at Ii boil V posa

attack (machete ) hatetal boil hoas

attic lotel) bone i :ona

aunt jojo, mama lalo bow dupi I

bowl paso ,sapa

brackish mat itelas B branch mag' 10 back taggulo break paga bag tas bread (sago) baku bailer ha I 1m breadfruit gomo , kul bait ala breast susu bake sal) breath manao banana loka bridge dodoku bark (dog) tOI) bring together habokak barracuda tarusi broken tapaga; see paga basket poroeo , tatampa , udul broom sasaiy bat nhIk ' brother dama , tamno? , thena bathe has6p A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EA ST MAKIAN 117

brother-in-law iho choose pi l ih brush (teeth) sikat haiyona citrus fruit yorik bucket t i ba clam suwat burn sal) clamp ga l apean burn (field) hapa l)l i�, ha isal) clear (field) habboan burnt mages i, tabee climb a it, kakaua , sa bury hapa l ihara, lipal) clothes paken butterfly bebal) cloud lob i -lob i buy ba le coarse pako

coconut niwi

coil (cloth) I)ah in

c cold kammidil) calf heto collapse ka l ual) call haboba, hawo l comb ssei cape dayo come warn caulk (a boat) kif no compete habess carry hadud , pa , tega conch taubu carve ukir connect teden cast hajak connection titiden catch alo container loba cause to snap dopas cook pelaloin, pel)hau cause to shatter egan cooked nmasa cement semen corner puko centipede lhian correct nagon chalk yah i cough mapup change tuka 1 count yohan change clothes hatuka l cover tanak chest ka tno crab bosok , uru jubi chie f ko l ano cradle in arms bet child wa il)u creep dula chile ma rical) crisp mages i chilled migno crush timo chipped (edge ) tal)epu crustacean be lu, gigim chisel pip' cross-eyed sor i choke otal cucumber timun chop off namat cuss out lelai chop up tetal-teta l cut tetal 118 JAMES T. COLLINS

haselap cutdown E eagle ray reba l ear bib' buyo D earthworm I I i f dark babakoam east t imur, ddu daughter-in-law akmo eat ?an day I)an edge I ikso daytiIl'e I)an a I eel sog i I i dead ma t egg to le debris gamuna eight wa l deny el)ka r empty molo descend tobi enter suI) desire ser erupt (volcano) dukon de stroy (fire) magesi exist ada dew nomi exit sapalik dibble stick suan expel l iba dice tetal-tetal expired dumik different ma leo explode tap lod dig pa it eye mta dirt ddaba dirty kabat disappear bum, bumm F do pe face sada dog 00 face downwards hakop dolphin ka ias faint wul ona bum door bawa fall mtet , ndudus don 't oik fallen down kalual) down pa fallow babas dream tul i em , ya l)o ntan far nalau drift mi al in fasten (hair) hasubut drink in father baba , papa drive away Iiba fathom loh drunk ba I i sa fear ki u dry gamis, gamas , mal)O feather ha t tu 10 dugout sampan feed haiy dust i p' i ap' feelings wu lona duyong mabatim fe ll (tree ) se lap A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MA KIAN 119 felled hase I ap G , female map ln garfish luhoan fence hakal gargle hai l)ul)i feverish makawa gather ha lomi , ha lomik

, , few utusa gaze upward tanG jja field daba genitals (female) kina fight hatu t' genitals (male) tole fin naiko genitive marker ni find eta?, eta get up pangin finger nail kuyo? gill yal)ho finished dumi k ginger owa i fish ian give oti k fish poison mhu it give birth ha i tun fish trap hoI' go han five pI im go home mu l flame lebo; see leb goat kabin flawed ta l)epu good masure flesh wa l)to grandchild buna float mpuda l grandfather tete floor I an te grandmother nene flow kihis grasp alo, suo fly V opa grass ddewa fly ma i peal) grate paruda fold kuh in greasy mlalut foot we na, wwe ? grime kuyum foreigner ma leos i grope mama forest ddewa lo grow I)a rak forget ma iIiI) ak , momol)ok grub hasul it foundation fandas i, leger grunt I)ahal) four ha t guts gale gale fowl manik friend lome H frog pip pak hair I) i el a fruit sepo hair (body) hattulo fruit sp . ba Iibi n hair cut haparas full mhon hand kamo? fungus han 120 JAMES T. COLLINS hang kawe 1e inside 10; see Ii harve st (sago) habaku insult lelai he i, n- interior -1 i head poyo island weh hear ma lol)o it i, n, nu heart yaeco itchy matal hearth 1 al ian here dine hide gogan , op J jab tul high tide luoi jump yag hill uto hilt peda luo hit hool , top K hoist up pag i 1 kick sepak hook awi 1 kill hapun horn tako kitchen tapin hot makawa knee puko house um knocked down ta ibik1ak , how ha pue know unak how many pisa? , howl nau hug bota L huh ? ya ladder loan hundred utin ca ladle irus hungry mawi landward dIe hurried mnamna later taban husband man laugh ma l)ele?, ml ih hut ha lopi leaf ai weo leak nkihis, nkiso lean back hassel ik leave behind gamuno ak I 1 left (hand) ba 1 i t if polo leg wena, wwe? ignite leb; see lebo level bifTlT1bal) image yal)o leve ler paci takan inform haunak lice crusher papis inhale mana, w lick pis, piss A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MAKIAN 121

hakal ilik lie down mountain uwet i la, tega lift mountain uwat wa lo line mouth sumo sumo wi 10 lips move dikak wu lo? liver much dabo bal)halaim living room mug sapawagao mlal)a long my -g lose ka lah lost see eta lot dabo N louse kut' nail paku , low tide nmas name sona narrow sanawat navel tubuku M navel cord hi lho popa ro mackerel near nahabito, nhasshathakki peda machete nearby nhabito peda sopak machete ring neck go, gowo gadum maize necklace map i-map i make pe needle somo man male net huat , suyu puik malodorous new powo man man night bakoam wwi mango nine ps io gola mantis shrimp nits kut n i to le hatinas , tinas massage no te musa la mat noise dimo nani , sisaki mattock noon time I)an halaim makaeta me et north ja i 101 a lai moment ago nose umho sawa ? monitor lizard not te pa it moon not yet tehu, tesu ada mortar number al)ka mama , mamo mother numeral marker (ten) yah a - - akmo mother in law numeral connector 10 mould (pottery) ssoya moult (snake) tuka l 122 JAMES T. COLLINS

o plant tanam obstruct benat, fat i plate pi ri Q , sule octopus ki it platform daQto old ma tuo, tua play mamao l on 1 i plugged up nobat on one 's back hata len point out sulo?, ssul0 on one's side hatal ikis pointed mawetis one psa poke at ga i 1 order sulak pole lli, oQat open kaka , pa lan pontoon soman our -d, mam porch suramb i outside 1 ik porridge (of maize ) kaw iwi outsider ma leos i porridge (sago) pupi oyster ss iab pot kulan

pot stand Qi Qahin

pound ka lai

p pour sowo , tou package b i ta pout hattom paddle V ppoas press lahat , tan paddle poas press down tindis painful mhanas pry out has i pa Q palm sp . basa laQ prying tool sipaQ pant manao dumik pull toga l pare bess punch tut parrot laQa punt dulaQ path lalan push tahak pay pa las put hagono, gono , oi k peel bess peg ka tt penetrate (?) blawi s Q person ma e quickly mnamna phalanger kusok quiet magun pig we 1 ik pillow kapi 1 R pinch kinit race habess place gau rack pa ra para u plait enD A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MAKIAN 123

raft dat rotten kobus rafter ka t? round bib' boka rain ulan rub hapuak , has i ktak , moma s, ohal , . sadua l rap hool , top rub on sadulak rap (knuckles) pada rudder hamu 1 rat mauka run ihod , yawa ? rattan we l i runny nose Qk ihis raw bul ho ray fish fa? reach for kakaua s receive tarima sago baku recognise klal sail soba l red maka t sailboat wag regre t marasal saliva i po related damana salt yasin relation damana sand mmena remember tanawan satiated mos i remove (husk) kidam niwi sauce geo remove (skin) bess say halusa reply tam scabies mnunit request dod scale unco respond in kind ba las scrape (coconut) halai 1 re st manau scrape (sago) habaku, ha isaki return mul scraper 1 ai l rice hamasik scraps gamuna right (hand) wayan scratch gag ringworm gog i sea wo lat rip genas search for yawa ripe ma tua , nmada sea urchin gagam , siroa rise ca sea water takis road lalan seasick nalhuak rod we l i seat (boat) batalaQ gau roller (boats) bib' ba la seaward dla roof ridge cover pUQan sedimentate nnat room kama r see em root wao seed kau rope wa la, wa lo 124 JAMES T. COLLINS sell wa g ik sky laf)it send gamas slap saha t serve (sago) balat slash saleap seven pi t slaughter (ritual) kuba sew habeit sleep mtul i, tul i shade ya f)O sleepy mayuyu shake giak sling on hip bota shaken magag i slipped ta isud ik share out hal uat slit throat kuba shark wo i slow hi 1 ik sharp nan small kutu sharpen bo l it, sa1 ewa i smile ma f)i f) is shattered megan smoke lutan mUf)ko share haparas smoke (fish) mum ik she i ,n snake bau sheathe peda sarUf) snapped tadopas she llfish suwa t snare pippid shift away borhak snap finger kap id shin he to snapped tadopas shiver ma l asam sneeze saada shoot ddup i Ii, teba l sniff sap.31 Yak short pokal snore uif) shot go10 so ndad ik shout kaut ik some pa lo show haito son-in-law akm6 shrimp I aulaf) sour man r 1 shut benat south lata lata shy ma i spatula aru sifter tatampa spicy nmalat sing rani spider kol0 sip cocak spill soak sister dama , tamno? , thena spit ha idis sit ba lataf) splash hajo sit cross-legged cako taratib splashed mlayo sit (stretched legs) ma l adua split fakat, ta raca six poenam spoon ssodik skin 1 i ko spun about ka iol if) A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MAKIAN 125

squat luk, luku-luku T squeeze lahat tail kku squid su: take ya l stab sagu take out ya lo stairs loan taro pi la i stand osa l taste tepu l stand in line jajar tear down egan , haka lual) star ba d l ten yahasa stay behind tol al) thatch yatas steal lois their d i steamer dafi dafi them ci stick (thatch) powo lan there dia stir ku lai therefore ndad ik stomach ddobo they s i stone lalai thief masula, mamasula stone fish yum thick ptol i store (below ground) lipal) thin mn igis strangle ota l this ine straight maddodal) thousand ca lan ca stretch (on rising) ha idil thread bo la strike pada , tut, we t three to l string (fish) be it throw tad i struck takik throw away sobak stubbed natut tie selak suck at hasodas tight sanawat suck up sodol tip dayo suckle hasusu too bad! kasian sugarcane top tool (coconut) sissipal) suitcase tas tool (twisting) bibbulai sun I)an tooth ha iyo? sun (something) hawik tongs ya tis sway giak tongue ma? sweet gamis, sa i torch pancona, tal uba swim vas torn tagenas swollen mbos tortoise hen touch atut, ga i 1 126 JAMES T. COLLINS

trap baral)ka , bi latu, pippid water waya tree ai water (stagnant) bop' to trough (sago technology) got i I we am, kit trunk lako wear pake tuber sr>. bia, pi lai lekto, up' weave ha tek' I a k tuna ot in wed sau turn bu lai, putar weed haga ras turn over hakaop weep iyok twist into rope pe west pat, ta (1) twitch ms isseh , nci sseh wet kab� s twenty yaha lu whale otap

. , twenty-one yahalu lopsa what JOU , pue twenty-two yahalu loplu when ha i sa two lu where po l o

whet salewa i

which po lo U whisper hagas, makahayaso uncle baba , dado whistle piyi unfasten poso l white bulal) unripe gulo who me up ja wicked lekto up there yasa wide nnapa , wife mapln

win untul) v wind moda vein wiwalo, wwa lo window jendela verbal marker a- , ha-, ka-, la-, ma -, na-, ta- wing hako vessel ku lan, poci , rube , wagau winnow ka i paya , kpaya village ma la winnow kpaya vomit we? wipe (body) hasop wipe off momas with ado W with 10 wait taban wok ku lan wall binbenat, dindil), mese l , woman map ln want mau wood ai wash has ikat, hatotas, uas work kerja, man itap A SHORT VOCABULARY OF EAST MAKIAN 127 worm lit yap tOr)

, wrap bita yawn maap wrong nea l year taun

yellow mad inal yes ia y you au, meu yam up' wa la your -m yank out pat in

NOTES

1. This survey was conducted during my doctoral research in Maluku, 1977-1979. I am grateful to the staff of Lernbaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, under whose auspices the research took place, as well as the civil servants and staff of the Indonesian government in Maluku Province who , along with the people of Maluku, provided me with generous assistance and encouragement. I am especially grateful to Bapak A.R. Tjoa , the cama t of Ob i at that time . He and his family were generous hosts during my unexpected visit. Of course, I am deeply grateful to Bapak Junus Djabir who proved himself a reliable , thoughtful and energetic informant. 2. According to Bapak Junus, they are Soma , Mailoa , Peleri, Samsurna, Ngofakiaha, Ngofageta and Tahani. These villages face Halrnahera, hence the name of the language , Makian Dalam 'Inner Makian '. While there are some dialectal differences, all these villages share the same language , which is sharply distinguished from Makian Luar , spoken on the western part of the island. Due to the dense population on Makian as well as the very active volcano there , speakers of both languages have migrated and formed new settlements on nearby islands , especially Halrnahera, Kayoa and the Bacan group . A more complete analysis of the factors involved in this migration is found in Lucardie (1980:351- 365) . 3. The wordlist submitted to Bapak Junus was a portion of an auxiliary questionnaire developed for use in informant sessions in Central Maluku. The portion which he filled out was a wordlist of about 200 verbs and some tool and indigenous technology terms . One of the problems was that the wordlist was written in Arnbonese Malay not in Indonesian. This was extremely useful in Central Maluku but not in North Maluku. The informant's uncertainty about some words resulted in the volunteering of several forms with detailed glosses in Indonesian. BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADRIANI , N. and A.C. KRUIJT 19 14 De Bare 'e-sprekende Toradja 's van Midden Celebes , vol.3. Batavia : landsdrukkerij .

BLUST, R.A. 1978 Eastern Malayao-Polynesian : a subgrouping argument. In : S.A. WURM and Lois CARRINGTON eds . Second Interna tional Conference on Austronesian Linguistics: proceedings , fascicle I. Western Austronesian . PL C-6l: 181- 234 .

CLERCQ , F.S.A. de 1980 Bijdragen tot de kennis der Residen ti e Terna te . Leiden : Brill .

CRAB , P. van der 1862 De Moluksche Ei landen . Batavia: Lange .

LUCARDIE , G.R.E. 1980 The Makianese : preliminary remarks on the anthropological study of migration-oriented people in the Moluccas . In: E.K.M. Masinambouw , ed. , Halmahera dan Raja Ampa t: Konsep dan strategi peneli tian , 347- 374. Jakarta : LEKNAS LIPI .

MOLONY , C. n.d. Comparative wordlists of Halmahera languages , MS .

128

Collins, J.T. "A Short Vocabulary of East Makian". In Voorhoeve, C.L. editor, The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46:99-128. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D46.99 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. SHORT WORDLISTS FROM SOUTH HALMAHERA,

KAYOA, MAKIAN, TERNATE, TIDORE, AND BACAN

Dick Te ljeur

1. INTRODUCTION During anthropological fieldwork in South Halmahera in the North Moluccas, Indonesia, from August 1978 until March 1980, I collected some short wordlists in the languages spoken by the original inhabitants of the area , using a modified version of Swadesh's basic wordlist. The original list was shortened to a hundred words , and nine new words were added (41 house, 42 door , 43 kitchen, 69 island , 98 six, 99 seven , 100 eight, 101 nine , 102 ten) . The list was then translated into Indonesian . A language in this area is usually named after the village where it is spoken so the indigenous distinction between these languages (bahasa) is on social rather than on linguistic grounds . For instance , Foya and Mafa speak the same language and although the people are aware of this they talk about the 'language ' of Foya and the 'language ' of Mafa . Makianese maintain that on their island fourteen 'languages' are spoken . However they also speak of the 'language ' of Makian although on the western part of the island a totally different, in fact non-Austronesian, language is being used. Furthermore they also distinguish between an 'ins ide ' and an 'outside ' part of Makian which correspond with the language areas of the East Makian and the west Makian language respectively. On the other hand Ternate , Tidore and Bacan are considered each to have one language . These different classifications probably re flect di fferences in social structure . The purpose of the paper is not to produce yet another classification of these 'languages ' but to supply raw linguistic materials from a rather unknown language area . There are wordlists in the following 'languages ' (local names are in brackets) :

Voorhoeve , C.L. , ed. , The Wes t Makian languages and their nei ghbours . (Ma terials in languages of Indonesia, No .12; W.A.L. Stokhof, Series ed.) Paci fic Linguistics, 0-46 , 1982 . 129 © Dick Teljeur

Teljeur, D. "Short Wordlists From South Halmahera, Kayoa, Makian, Ternate, Tidore and Bacan". In Voorhoeve, C.L. editor, The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46:129-156. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D46.129 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 130 DICK TELJEUR

, o 50 km I I J I TERNATE I I 1 I �, I g'I g) �I �I HALMAHERA o .�I �I I 61 o 1 �I I �I , cl , gl , '01 , .... 1 , �I , Cil CD , , \0 0, I / I / / ,. I .... I I I I ( \ \

Ma p 4: SKETCH MAP OF SOUTH HALMAHERA, TERNATE TIDORE , MAKIAN , KAYOA , AND BACAN SOUTH HALMAHERA AREA WORDLISTS 131

I. In South and Centra l Halmahera

l. Weda (Were) I spoken in the village of Weda in Central Halmahera .

2. Foya (Foya) I spoken in the village of Foya in South Halmahera ; about 900 speakers .

3. Mafa (Boli) I spoken in the village of Mafa in South Halmahera ; about 1000 speakers .

4. Wosi (Wos ) I spoken in the villages of Wosi, Tanjung Jere and the Mos lim part of Matuting in South Halmahera ; about 700 speakers .

5. Gane (Gim�n), spoken in the villages of Gane Dalam (Gim�n Pulil6 ) and Gane Luar (Giman Pulikin) in South Halmahera ; about 1500 speakers .

6. Saketa (Saketa) I spoken in the village of Saketa in South Halmahera ; about 700 speakers .

II. On Kayoa Island { 1. Kayoa (Ngelo) I spoken in the village of Goruap n. 1 2. Bajo. Th is Bajo dialect is spoken in the vi llage of posiposi.

III. In the eastern part of Maki an Island

1. Mailoa (Wailoa) I spoken in the village of Mailoa (the language is very close to the Kayoa language ).

2. Soma (Soma ) I spoken in the village of Soma .

3. Tahene (D�ori) I spoken in the village of Tahane . { 4. Peler (Ploli) I spoken in the village of Peler{ . { 5. Samsuma (Suma ) I spoken in the village of Samsuma (Peler and Samsuma languages are identical) . 6 6. Ngofakiaha (Waiki n) I spoken in the villages of Sangapati , Matangtengin ,

Tiowor (Kiowor) I Gitang , Ngofakiaha and Barumadehe . � 7. Ngofagita (Waigitang) I spoken in the vi llages of Ngofagita and Sobob .

IV. In the western part of Makian Island � � l. Sabal (Sebelei) I spoken in the village of Sabal .

2. Talapao (Talapao) I spoken in the village of Talapao .

3. Tafasoho (Tafasoho) I spoken in the vi llage of Tafasoho .

4. Tagono (Tagono) I spoken in the village of Tagono .

5. Ngofabobawa (Ngofabobawa) I spoken in the village of Ngofabobawa .

6. Bobawa (Bobawa ) I spoken in the village of Bobawa .

7. Malapa (Malapa) I spoken in the village of Malapa . 132 DICK TELJEUR

V. On the Island of Ternate 1. Ternate . The language is also spoken on Hiri Island and is used as a lingua franca in the North Moluccas .

VI. On the Isl and of Ti dore 1. Tidore . This language is also spoken on Mare Island, on the northern half of Moti Island and along the coast of the Oba subdistrict in Central Halmahera.

VII. In the Bacan archi pel ago 1. Bacan . Spoken in the vi llage of Labuha on Bacan Island , and used as a lingua franca in the Bacan archipelago . 2

The wordlists are written in the official spelling of the Indonesian lan­ guage . The sounds are more or less identical with those of Indonesian. Weda , Foya , and Mafa have the 0 sound usually more like the English oa in coa t but shorter; the other languages more like the English aw in law but shorter . ei sounds like the English a in make whereas the e in ei is more like the English e in pet . Geminate consonants as in di lla, daddoba are to be pronounced twice as " long as a single consonant. Stress is indicated by the symbol as in kikle, poboi lo, if the word does not stress the penultimate syllable . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. English head hair ear eye nose mouth tongue tooth neck Indonesian kepa la rambut te 1 i nga mata hidung mulut 1 i dah gigi lehe r , Weda uto bebo tanglu mto fl iko sumo pepleu ngango koko Foya/Mafa uto bebone tanglo mto, fi 1 ko sumo pepleo ngango koko , Wosi poyo kikle tinge mto ufno sumo mimowo hah6 kok6 Gane po i kikle tinge mto usnu sumu mimou afo/fafo koku

, . , Saketa poyo kikle tinge mto ufno sumo mlmo hah6 kok6 . , , , Kayoa poyo kikle tinge mto usno sumo mmo ah16 gowo , , Mailoa poyo kikle tinge mto usno sumo mmo ah16 gowo , , Soma poyo nge lo bibio mta umh6 sumo ma hay6 gowo , , Tahane poyo ngela bibuyo mta umh6 sumo mma hay6 g06 , , Peleri/Samsurna poyo ngela bibio mta hungo sumo mma hay6 go , Ngofakiaha poyo kakle baibio mto hungo sumo plelo lalho gowo , Ngofagita poyo kakle ba ibio mto hungo sumo plelo lalho gowo Sabale apota onga kamou afe mudefete mada be lu wi ru Talapao apota onga kamou afe mudefete mada be lbelu wi ru Tafasoho apota onga kamou afe mudefete mada belbelu wi ru Tagono apota onga kamou afe mudefete mada be lbelu wi ru Ngofabobawa apota onga kameu afe mudefete mada bela wi ru Bobawa apota onga kameu afe uml efete mada belo wi ru Malapa apota onga kameu afe umlefete mada be lo wi ru Ternate dopolo hutu ngau lako ngun mada aki ing cama Tidore dofo lo hutu ngau lao ngun moda ak i ing sako Bacan kepa la rambut te 1 i nga mata hidung sumo leda gigi nganggo Bajo tikolo bulu tikolo te 1 i nga mata uro boa di 11a gigi kul lo f-' VJ 10. ll. 12 . 13. 14 . 15 . 16 . "" English heart liver back foot hand bone blood Indonesian jan tung hat i be l akang kak i tang an tulang darah � Weda me la3 yocu po 1 i Itowo sowo fau mom lelo :>: jantung � Foya/Nafa yo co too 500 poo mom le16 t: kusi-kusi t>:1 Wosi yo co bayao we komo mom git §i Gane kus i-kus i yocu bayau/bawa i we komu moma /momus 9 it

Saketa kus i-kus i yoco bayao we komo momo 9 it Kayoa kus i-kusi yoco tiwl0 we komo beb i 110 Mailoa kus i-kus i yoco tiwl0 we komo beb i 110 Soma kus i-kusi yaco tagul0 we kamo beb i lala Tahane kusi -kusi yaco taggul0 we kamo yo lala Peleri/Samsurna kusi-kus i yaco taggul0 we kamo yo lala Ngofakiaha kusi -kusi yoco taggul0 we komo yoyo 10 Ngofagita kusi-kusi yoco taggul0 we komo beb i 10 Sabale sinef amo gapu gufi kamama/ ia4 subeb i wun i Talapao sinef amo gapu gofi kamama/ i a 4 subeb i wun i Tafasoho sinef amo gapu gof i karrma subeb i wun i Tagono sinef amo gapu gofi kamma subeb i wun i Ngofabobawa sinef amo gapu gof i kamma subeb i wun i Bobawa sinef amo gapu gou kamama subeb i wun i Malapa sinef amo gapu gou kamma subeb i un i Ternate kus i-kus i gate dudu hohu gia obo au Tidore kus i-kus i gate dulu yohu gia goka au Bacan jan t ung hat i bangkurung t i 01 tangan tulang dara Bajo kar i ka atelI • buku na i tangan bakas laha 17 . 18 . 19 . 20. 2l. 22 . 23. 24.

English skin eat drink sleep stand walk sit laugh Indonesian kul it makan minum tidur be rd i r i jalan duduk tertawa Weda Iiko nom inem yenef wose l fan to l eng ml if Foya/Mafa Iiko mnom inem yenef ose l fan/han to leng ml if Wosi kakuto haon imi n imtul i wosal han bol i ml r f Gane kakutu fon imin imtul i wosal han bo l i ml r f Saketa kakuto/l iko hawon imin imtul i wosal han bo l iml rf Kayoa I iko hawon imin imtul i wosal han bo l iml rh Mailoa I iko awon imin imtul i wosal han bo l iml rh Soma I iko ahan imi n antul i wosal han batalan amI rh Tahane I iko ahan in amtul i wosal han batalan amI rh Peleri/Samsuma I iko ahan imin antul i wosal han batalan amI rh Ngofakiaha I iko ahon imin antul i wosal han bata lon amI rh

Ngofagita Iiko ahon imin antul i wosal han bata lon amI rh til a fi ·fa bebe t ifi siesu sagal totoI roso ae c: Sabale ;;'l fi fa bebe t i fi siesu saga l toroseI ae Talapao § I fi fa bebe t i fi sesu sagal torose ae t-t Tafasoho � Tagono fi fa bebe t i fi sesu sagal toroseI ae ::x: Ngofabobawa fi fa bebe t ifi sesu sagal toroseI ae � I � Bobawa fi fiam bebe t i fi sesu saga \ torose ae t>j :l> f i fiam bebe t ifi siesu sagal toroseI ae Malapa � ::u Ternate ahi oho oke hotu koko tagi tego hohe tl t-t ..... Tidore ah i oyo yuru otu koko tag i tori n i ohe til Bacan kul i t makan longgar tidur bad i ri ba l ampo duduk tatawa � Bajo kul i t nginta ninung tidur ningge duma lang ningko\o tittoa '"' w l.n 6 7 ..... 27a. 28. 29 . w 25. 26 . 27. 0'1 English die ki 11 wash wash know hear

Indonesian ma t i bunuh cuci cuci tahu dengar t:l I-; , Weda mo t pun tewus fetotef unek longe Q , � Foya/Mafa mot pun tewus fetotef unek longe t>J , t; Wosi mo t pun awas hatotaf unak longa t>J , §i Gane mo t pun awos hatotaf unak longa , Saketa mot pun awa s totaf unak longa Kayoa mot pun was hatotas unak longa Mailoa mot pun was hatotas unak ma l ongo , Soma ma t pun uas hatotas unak ma l ongo , Tahane mat pun uas hatotas unak ma l ongo , Peleri/Samsuma ma t pun uas hatotas unak ma l ongo , Ngofakiaha mot pun uas hatotas unak longa/ma longo , Ngofagita mot pun uas hatotas unak longa/ma longo , Sabale gei kuba uas fol ouju wade base , Talapao gei kuba uas fol ouj u wade base , Tafasoho ga i fakuba uas fol ouj u wade base , Tagono gai fakuba uas wuj u wade base , Ngofabobawa ga i kuba uas folouju/fo l op6s wade base , Bobawa gei kuba uas fol ouj u/fol op6s wade base , Malapa gei kuba uas folouj u/folop6s wade base Ternate sone koru fiki uj u wa re ise Tidore sone koru roc a uj u wa re base Bacan ma ti bunu sasa basasa tahu danga Bajo ma te i ma pate i ngoso mopu takatonangku takaleku 30 . 3l. 32. 33. 34. 35 . 36 . 37. English see dig come play person name man woman Indonesian I i hat gal i datang ma in orang nama laki-Iaki perempuan , Weda mnau alei wom monge mutu ngosnu mon mep ln , Foya/Mafa mna i /mnau ole wom monge motu ngosno mon mep ln , , Wosi am alai wom bisa metu/manus ia fsona maon map i n , , Gane am alai wom bisa manus i a/matu fsona maon mapi n , mapln, Saketa am alai wom bisa metu fso maon mp ln, Kayoa am pa it worn I iulawa manusia ssona mon mp ,ln Mailoa am pa it wom liulawa manusia 550 mon map ,ln Soma em pa it wam mamal manus ia ssona man map ,ln Tahane em pa it wam mamaul manusia ssona man mapln, Peleri/Samsuma em pa it wam mamaul manus ia 550 man map ,ln Ngofakiaha am pa it worn lalawa manus ia 550 mon mapln, Ngofagita am pa it worn lalawa manusia 550 mon tI) 0 c:: co pa i podo wao manca aim at i papati '"'3 Sabale ::t: aim aa, t papa, Talapao co pa i podo wao menca � aim aat i papat i t:< Tafasoho co pa i podo wao manca � aat i papat i ::t: Tagono co pa i podo wao manca aim papa, Ngofabobawa co pa i podo wao-wao manusia aim aat � , , � aim aat papa Bobawa cio pa i podo wao-wao manusia g; aat, papa, Malapa cio pa i podo wao-wao manusia aim <: §5 hida/mina fa i kado tuniru diki ronga nonau foheka tl Ternate t:< nonau faya Tidore hoda fa i haro bi so manusi a/mansia ronga � , laki-Iaki perempuan, � Bacan I i a gal i kapo bau I ak manusia nama nar inta nga l i nia kukuri manusia aran Ii J Ja dinda Bajo ..... w -.J f-' w 38. 39. 40. 4l. 42. 43. 44. 45. ex> English father mother child house door kitchen fire ashes t:J Indonesian bapak ibu anak rumah pintu dapur api abu � papa mama ntu urn ngorakla beap gou luten beap >: Weda .." Foya/Mafa momo/papa nono/mama ntu urn ngoweng apemd I luteng beap � c.., , tt:I Wosi bapa mamo tu/mtuna urn ngoan tapin lutan tapin � Gane bapa mamu tu/mtuna urn ngara tap in lutan tapin Saketa bapa mamo tu/mtuna aba i ngoan tapin lutan tapin Kayoa papa mma mtu aba i ngoan tapin lutan tapin Mailoa papa rna mtuna aba i ngoan tapin lutan tapin Soma baba mama mtuna urn bawa tapin lutan titta pin Tahane baba mama mtuna urn bawa tapin lutan tapin Peleri/Samsuma baba mama mtu urn bawa tapin lutan tapin Ngofakiaha aba mama mtu urn boa tapin lutan tatapin Ngofagita baba mama rntu urn boa tap in lutan tatapin Sabale baba rna oma pa la lawa fito i pi ruru Talapao boba rna oma pa la lawa fito i pi ruru Tafasoho boba rna oma pa la lawa fito ipi ruru Tagono boba mama, oma pa la lawa fito ipi ruru Ngofabobawa baba mama oma pa la lawa fito i pi ruru Bobawa baba mama oma pa la lawa fito ipi ruru fi to i pi ruru Malapa baba mama oma pa la lawa Ternate baba yaya ngofa fa la ngara hito uku fika Tidore papa yaya ngofa fola ngora hito uku fika Bacan bapa ibu anak ruma pintu dapur api abu Bajo ua mma anak ruma bul awa dapurang api abu 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 5l. English meat fish salt bird egg tail Indonesian dag ing i kan garam ayam9 telur ekor Weda wonget/wongto ing gas i manek bon keu Foya/Mafa wongto ing gas i manek tele/manek telu keku , wosi wonto ian gas i man ik tol i/man ik tole wauyo Gane wontu ian gas i /myasing8 man ik to I i /man i k tol i wa lu , Saketa wonto ian gas i man ik tol i/man ik to le wauyo Kayoa wokno ian yasing man ik tol i/man ik n i tole kikku Mailoa wokno ian yas in man ik tol i kiku Soma wanto ian yas in man ik manik tole kikku Tahane wanto ian yas in man ik man ik tole kku Peleri/Sarnsurna wanto ian yas in man ik man ik tolo kku Ngofakiaha wokno yan yas in man ik man ik tolo kaku Ngofagita wokno ian yas in man ik man ik to lo kaku {fl 0 c:: Sabale gagi yao ase namu es i /namu des i bi so "'3 ::x: Talapao gag i yao ase namu nam desi biso � Tafasoho gag i yao ase namu nam des i biso �::x: Tagono gag i yao ase namu nam desi biso Ngofabobawa gag i yao ase namu nam desi biso � � Bobawa gag i yao ase namu nam desi biso � Malapa gag i yao ase namu nam des i biso � @ Ternate rehe nyao gasi namo boro biki � f-i Tidore rehe nyao gasi toko gos i bi {fl � Bacan dag ing lao gas i manuk telur manuk ekor daya garam mane antul lu mane ngko Bajo dag ing I-' w 1.0 � "" 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 0 English dog snake louse tree root leaf flower fruit Indonesian anj ing u1ar kutu kayu akar daun bunga bush tl f-< : "'3 yau bau kit t>:I Foya/Mafa ya i wo 1e/wo1u 1u bunga pon/pono t-< c.... t'lo si yo bau kut gag l, wo l0 10ngko sayo sapo t>:I 53 Gane yo bau kut gag l, wo 1u 10ngku bungan/sai bobu Saketa yo bau kut gag l, wo l0 10ngko sayo sapo Kayoa yo bau kut a i wo l0 11u bunga sapo Mailoa yo bau kut a i wo 10 11u bunga sapo Soma .10 , bau kut ai wau wee bunga sepo Tahane nyc bau kut a i wau wee bunga sepo Peleri/Samsuma nyc bau kut ai wao/wau wee bunga sepo Ngofakiaha nnyo ko1ai kut ai wowo 11u bungan sapo Ngofagita nnyo ledang kut ai wowo 11u bunga sapo Sabale aso abei bene fete utu wewe, nama sopo Talapao aso abei bene fete utu we nama sopo Tafasoho aso abe i bene fete utu we nama sopo Tagono aso abei bene fete utu we nama sopo Ngofabobawa aso abi bene fete utu we nama sopo Bobawa aso aba i bene fete utu we nama sopo Malapa aso aba i bene fete utu we nama sopo Ternate kaso moh ia gan hate wutu rau saya sofo Tidore kaso ega gan luto utu rau saya sofo 0 10 Bacan yoyo u1ar tuma kayu akara1 dauna 10 bunganal O buanya Bajo asu pangahang kutu kayu uraga kaun bunga bua 60. 6l. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67 . English sky sun moon star earth rain wind water Indonesian langit ma tahari bulan bintang tanah huj an angin air , Weda langet ngenngan sn i ngo betbet fe lfele mure woye , Foya/Mafa langet ngenngan sni ngo betbet fel fe le/fele more woye wo si langit hawe pa it batol gigy.3t ulan moda waya Gane langit hawe pa it. ba tol gigyat ulan moda waya Saketa langit hawe pa i t batol gigawat ulan mod a waya , Kayoa langit ngngan pa it batol glat ulan moda woya , Mailoa langit ngngan pa it batol glat ulan moda woya , Soma lang it ngngan pa it badl didaba ulan moda waya , Tahane langit ngngan pa it badl daba ulan moda waya , Peleri/Samsuma langit ngngan pa it batal daba ulan moda waya , Ngofakiaha lang it ngngan pa it batol daddoba ulan moda woya langit ngngan, pa it batol daddoba ulan moda woya Ngofagita C/l 0 tupam win odo bi ntang 11 afi pong i wudu be c:: Sabale '"3 ::t: Talapao tupam win odo ma i afi pong i wudu be i; Tafasoho tupam win odo mawi afi pong i wudu be win odo ma i afi pong i wudu be �::t: Tagono tipam t>:I Ngofabobawa tupam win odo mawi afi pong i wudu be SZ ;t. Bobawa tupam win odo mawi afi pong i wudu be :u g; Malapa tupam win odo mawi afi pong i wudu be � ara ngama kaha besa kore ake :u Ternate tufa wange 0 t-< Tidore tufa wange ora ngoma hale bosa kore ake tl '"3 Bacan lang it matahari bulan bintang tana ujan ang in pa isu C/l , Bajo lang i mata lloi bulan mamau tana urang sangei boi I-' 0I>- l-' ------

I-' *" 68. 69. 70. 7l. 72. 73. 74. IV English sea island mountain woods river stone sand pulau gunung hutan ka l i batu pas ir t1 Indonesian laut I--t () Weda wo let yef elepo banga woye loi bebet seselapu :>;: .., t>:J Foya/Mafa wo let/olet wef elepo banga/rom woye te loi betbet ka lea t1 wo lat waf uat dom wa l i la i m i nyana � wosi � Gane wo lat waf uat dom wa l i lai minyana

Saketa wo lat waf/waho uat dom wa l i la i minyana Kayoa wo lat wah/waho uto dom songa i lai myana Mailoa wo lat wah uat dom songai lai myana Soma olat wweh uto ngada songa i lalai mena

Tahane olat weh uto ngada songa i lalai men a Peleri/Samsuma olat weh uto ngada songai lalai mena Ngofakiaha wo lat wa h uto ngodo songai la lai nyannyana Ngofagita wo lat wa h uto ngodo songai lalai nyannyana Sabale wo lot tanusi pu dama songa ma i wom Talapao wo lot tanus i pu dama songa ma i wom Tafasoho wo lot tanus i pu dama songa ma i wom Tagono wo lot tanus i pu dama songa ma i wom Ngofabobawa wo lot tanus i pu dama songa ma i wom Bobawa wo lot tanus i pu dama songa ma i wom Malapa wo lot tanusi pu dama songa ma i wom Ternate ngolo gura ma ngofa kie banga ake mari dowong Tidore ngolo kie buku banga ake mafu ui Bacan lauta pulo bukit rimba songai batu lecak Bajo 5 illa pulau bul lu roma lubbangan batu guso 75. 76 . 77. 78. 79 . 80 . 8l. 82 . English big small long short thin straight sharp warm Indonesian besar kec i 1 panjang pendek tipis lurus tajam panas Weda pe16l myake mlonge ketobe ml i fes me loleng mda lem fones/pseng Foya/Mafa pe 16l mya/myake mlonge ketobe ml i fes me loleng mdalem pseng Wosi l6al wa io mlonga katobat manihis mi lolang magamin/non psan Gane l6al wa i mlonga katoba t manifis mi lolang magamin/non psan Saketa l6al wa io mlonga katoba t manihis mi lolang magamin/non psan Kayoa 101 kutu/myas i mlonga poka l mn ihis mi lolang nawata matutin Mailoa 101 myas i mlonga pokal mn i his mi lolang non 12 ma tut i n Soma laIc kutu mlanga poka l ml i his madodang nan makawa Tahane laIc kutu/myas i mlanga pokal mn ihis maddodang nan makawa Peleri/Samsuma laIc utu/myas i mlanga poka l mn ihis maddodang nan makawa Ngofakiaha 1010 myas i mlongan poka l mn ihis maddodang non/nwata makoa i 1010 kutu mloas pokal mn ihis maddodang non/nwata makoai Ngofagita tI) , 0 Sabale lame kaku awo katoba fen ifine kaulo mangot sasafo c:: , � Talapao lame kak� awo katoba fenifine kaulo mangot sasafo , i; Tafasoho lame kaku awo katoba fenifine kaulo mangot sasafo t-< , S Tagono lame kaku awo katoba fenifine kaulo mangot sasafo ::t:: , \6 Ngofabobawa lame kaku awo katoba fenifine kaulo mangot sasafo :t.o , :t.o Bobawa lame kaku aiwo katoba fenifine kaulo mangot sasafo :u , f:; Malapa lame kaku aiwo katoba fenifine kaulo mangot sasafo Ternate lame i ci gila podo hina loa mango sosahu t:J� t-< lame kene gi ra po do hina loa paha sahu f-< Tidore tI) Bacan ra diki t tingg i pendek tipis lurus tajam panas � Bajo basar didikki taha pipinda ninipis lurus tarang panas I-' ",. W � 83 . 84. 85 . 86. 87 . 88 . 89 . 90. 01::> 01::> English cold dry wet good bad new white black

Indonesian dingin kering basah baik baru put ih hitam tl jelek '"" () Weda bebobe l mang me lom fie Ie nobeng mfus beb lut ::-; Foya/Mafa bebobe l mangek/gernOs be I b i I ek fie Ie wobnu mfus beb l6t � , t wo si makuh in gamos de tas hia lekat powo bulang kidkuda t>J §l Gane makufin gamos, ba loam fia lekat pou bul ang kidkuda Saketa makuh in gamos, gabus hia lekat powo bulang kidkuda Kayoa miding gamos, kabus hia lekat powo bulang kuda , Mailoa miding gamos kabus hia lekat powo bulang kuda , Soma miding gamos kabus hia lekat powo bulang kuda Tahane miding gamas, kabus hia leka t powo bulang kuda , Peleri/Samsuma miding gamas kabus hia lekat powo bulang kuda Ngofakiaha miding gamos, kabus hia lekat powo bulang kuda Ngofagita miding gamos kabus hia lekat powo bulang kuda Sabale gagararo Iota kaban minya, sa topo bulo kekei Talapao gara ro Iota kaban mla· , sa topo bulo kekei

· , Tafasoho gagararo Iota kaban mla sa topo bulo kekei

· , Tagono gagararo Iota kaban mla sa topo bulo kekei

· , Ngofabobawa gararo I ota kaban mla sa topo bulo kekei

· , Bobawa gararo I ota kaban mla sa topo bulo kekei

· , Malapa gagara ro Iota kaban mla sa topo bulo kekei Ternate alo otu musa laha ira sung bobudo kokotu Tidore alo hotu hobo laha jira sung bulo kotu Bacan dingin ker i ng basa maj ang kasalmo baru puti nggoa Bajo jarinni toho base ala buntu babau pote lohong 9l. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96 . 97. 98. English red yellow one two three four five six Indonesian me rah kuning satu dua tiga empat 1 ima enam Weda mek6t bengbongel puso pe lu petel pef6t pe 11m pewonem Foya/Mafa mek6t gelp6 puso pe lu petel pef6t pe 11m pewonem wosi mikoa t mad imal pso plu ptol phot pl im pwonam Gane mi koat 13 mad imal pso plu ptol pfot pl im pwonam Saketa ma l aka mad imal pso plu ptol phot pl im pwonam Kayoa ma laka mad imal pso plu ptol phot pl im pwonam Mailoa ma laka mad imal pso plu ptol phot pl im pwonam Soma makclt mad imal psa plu ptol phat pl im pwonam Tahane makat mad imal psa plu ptol phat pl im pwonam Peleri/Samsurna makat mad imal psa plu ptol phat pl im pwonam Ngofakiaha mak6t makn inis pso plu ptol phot pl im pwonam pso plu ptol phot pl im pwonam Ngofagita mak6t makninis Cil 0 Sabale lulupa burei minye medeng iunge i fat i maafo i idami c:: � Talapao lupupa burei minye medeng iunge i fat i maafo i dami il Tafasoho lulupa burei mi nye medeng iunge i fat i maafoi idami t< � Tagono lulupa burei mi nye medeng i unge i fat i maafoi idami ::t: t>:1 Ngofabobawa lulupa borei minye medeng iunge i fat i maafoi idami � :bo Bobawa lulupa borei minye medeng yunge i fat i maafoi idam/dam ::u � Malapa lulupa borei minye medeng iunge ifati maafo i idami <: Ternate dol i ha kuraci rimoi romdidi raange raha romtoha rara � t::l t< rimoi ma l ofo range raha romtoha rora I-t Tidore kohor i kurac i Cil , Bacan se la kunyit habua dua tolu ampat 1 ima enam � , Bajo mi ro kune dakkau dua tullu mpa 1 ima anam I-' ..,. U1 f-' .t> 99. 100 . 10l. 102. 103. 104 .

t:! Indonesian tuj uh de1apan semb i 1 an sepu 1uh kapan siang '-i () , Weda peflt pewa 1 pepupet yofes6 fe ifls ngenngan >: , >-3 t'] Foya/Mafa pef lt pewa 1 pepopet yofes� nganefls ngenngan t-< c.., ph it pwa 1 ps iwo yohas6 nganoh ls ba1 anto t'] Wosi § , Gane pfi t pwa 1 ps iu yag i mso hafi sak ba1antu Saketa ph it pwa 1 ps iwo yohas6 nganoh ls ba 1anto Kayoa ph it pwa 1 ps iwo yohas6 hai sak mowodo Mailoa ph it pwa 1 ps io yohas6 ha i sak moa Soma ph it pwa 1 psio yahasa hai sak nganma1at Tahane ph it pwa 1 psio yahasa haisa ngan1a Peleri/Samsuma ph it pwa 1 ps io yahasa hai sak ngan1a Ngofakiaha phit pwa 1 ps io yohas6 poh iso/poiso ngan161 Ngofagita ph it pwa 1 ps iwo yohas6 opoh i so/po i 56 ngan161 , Sabale teped ingi tukubange is ie awonye putuwu wi 1a1a , Talapao teped ingi tukbange isiwe aunge putuwu wi 1a103 Tafasoho teped ingi tukbange isiw e awo i nye putuwu wi 1a1 a Tagono tepedingi tukbange isiwe aunge putuwu wi 1a103 , Ngofabobawa teped ingi tukbange is iwe aunge putuwu i 1a 103 Bobawa teped ingi tukbange isiwe ainye pitwu i 1 a 1a , Ma1apa teped ingi tukbange isiwe awoiwinye putuiwu wi 1a103 Ternate tomd l tufkange sio nyagimoi wange1 amo Tidore tomd l tufkange sio nyaboi fio wange 1 amo Bacan pitu dua1 apan se1apan sepu1u apabi1a cava Bajo tuj u de 1 apan semb i 1an spu1u sume rang 110i 105. 106 . 10 7. 108 . 109 . English night lefts ide rightside where? not Indonesian ma lam k i ri kanan dimana tidak

' -. Weda me rorem balet wone l pobe i 10 t i se Foya/Mafa do rem ba l et wone pua tise wosi bakema aba 1 it awoyan pa loi tes Gane bakomu abal it awoyan pa lol i/alol i tes/tes in Saketa bakemo abal it awoyan pa lol i tes/tes in Kayoa bake l aba l it awoyan pa le1 i tesen Mailoa bake l aba l it awoyan pa lel i tes in Soma bakoam ba l it wayan 101 i tes Tahane bakoam ba 1 it wayan po lol i tes Peleri/Samsuma bakoam ba 1 it wayan pa lol i te Ngofakiaha ga lmumi t ba 1 i t woyan po 1 01 ill 0 1 i te

Ngofagita ga lmumi t ba 1 it woyan 101 i te (I) a c:: Sabale kaman kaba 1 i kayai site io � Talapao kaman kaba l i kayaw i sito io � Tafasoho kaman kaba 1 i kayawi site io

, �::t: Tagono kaman kaba l i kayaw i sto io � ;t. Ngofabobawa kaman kaba l i kayai sit e io ;t. :>;l Bobawa kaman kaba 1 i kayaw i site io !;l . , Malapa kaman kaba l i kayaw i Slto io � a � Ternate sifutu gubad i guny ira kas ua t! t"i I-t Tidore sifutu kuba l i kuny ira kabe ua (I) � Bacan patang ki ri kanan dimana mayo Bajo san gang kikida kanan man i ngge ngga i I-' 01> -.I NOTES

1. I met a native speaker of this dialect in Gane Dalam 2. I have not been to Bacan , but met a native speaker of this language in Wosi. 3. me la also means areca nut. 4. kamama arm including the hand up to the fi ngers . ia the fingers . 5. moma bones in itself mom-u bones in re lation to the body 6. to wash clothes , etc. 7. to wash dishes , etc. 8. myas ing is seen as the original word, but this is seldom used. It also means salty (water) . Instead they use the Ternatan gasi . 9. ayam chicken has been taken instead of burung, because most languages have no general word for 'bird' . 10 . The se forms differ from the Indonesian , and have probably possessive suffixes. 11. bintang is used in this village , probably because ma i also means stone (73.) . Stars become thus batu di langit stones in the sky in the local Moluccan Malay of the village .

12 . non = n-on he eats . on is the transitive form of awon (18.). Also they say in Moluccan Malay dia makan if the sharpness of a knife is meant. 13. In Gane Luar mikoat is used , but in Gane Dalam : ma laka .

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Teljeur, D. "Short Wordlists From South Halmahera, Kayoa, Makian, Ternate, Tidore and Bacan". In Voorhoeve, C.L. editor, The Makian languages and their neighbours. D-46:129-156. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D46.129 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.