September 30 – October 1, 2010 Stockholm, Sweden September 30 – October 1, 2010 Stockholm, Sweden Welcome to Stockholm The First Ever European Green Capital
Noise is a serious health problem in Europe. Road traffic is the predominant source of exposure in urban areas. As a basic measure in fighting noise, the City of Stockholm has monitored noise pollution since the early 1970s. Information about the current status of noise pollution is available in a data base, also containing information on protective actions and noise reduction measures. Our work against noise is one of the reasons why Stockholm was the first city to be awarded the European Green Capital title.
To be successful in the future in delimiting noise exposure, more attention is needed to prevention of noise at the source, as well as to the city’s planning process. The City of Stockholm has taken part in research showing that people’s judgments of the soundscape in their homes greatly depends on factors like access to a ‘quiet’ side of the house or access to a ‘quiet’ sitting-out area. In addition, access to a ‘quiet’ recreational area within reasonable walking distance is of importance. This research shows that cities need to work in several ways, and not using noise abate- ment as the only strategy. Soundscape management can be a useful tool to achieve a more attractive and human city.
We are proud to be a partner of this conference and to contribute in the exchange of experience between dif- ferent professions, and in introducing the soundscape approach to architects and urban planners.
Gunnar Söderholm Head of the Environment and Health Administration City of Stockholm © COPYRIGHT the individual contributors, 2011
Citation: Axelsson, Ö. (Ed.). (2011). Designing Soundscape for Sustainable Urban Development. Stockholm, Sweden: City of Stockholm.
Designing Soundscape for Sustainable Urban Development ISBN: 978-91-85125-42-5
Distributed by the Environment and Health Administration, City of Stockholm.
City of Stockholm Environment and Health Administration P.O. Box 38024 SE-100 64 Stockholm Sweden The term ’soundscape’—the acoustic equivalent to ‘landscape’—is relatively new to many. The present report summarises the results of the conference Contents Designing Soundscape for Sustainable Urban Development, which was organised in order to introduce the soundscape approach to architects and urban planners who have little or no previous experience in this field. Like the conference, the present report seeks to inspire and provoke new thoughts in order to challenge the visual dominance in architecture. In order to reach this objective I invited among the finest soundscape experts in the world to present their thoughts and case studies for others to follow. By the present report they provide their contributions in written form for those who Designing Soundscape for Sustainable Urban Development Östen Axelsson ...... 9 could not participate in the conference. I am convinced that these thoughts will change the way you perceive the built environment, as well as the way Acoustic Design of Outdoor Space you think about and listen to sounds. The report makes evident that the Lex Brown ...... 13 soundscape is an essential environmental resource. Acoustic Design for Early Stage Urban Planning Bert De Coensel and Dick Botteldooren ...... 17 Östen Axelsson Italian Sonic Gardens: An Artificial Soundscape Approach for New Action Plans Conference Organiser and Editor Gaetano Licitra, Lorenzo Brusci and Mattia Cobianchi ...... 21
Essential Soundscape Concepts for Architects and Urban Planners Gary W. Siebein ...... 26
Dominant Contexts, Affecting Perception of Urban Soundscape in Open Spaces Jin-Yong Jeon ...... 31
Towards an Aural Urbanity? Maria Leus ...... 35
The Zadar Sea Organ Hrvoje Domitrovic and Kristian Jambrosic ...... 39
Planning for the Soundscape of Transportation Martin Gold ...... 42
Urban and Regional Planning: Introducing the Soundscape Approach Max Dixon ...... 48
Quiet Urban Areas in Rotterdam: Enhancing Soundscapes? Miriam Weber ...... 52
Sonotope Analysis: Characterising Sonic Landscapes for the Swedish Transport Administration Per Hedfors and Rikke Thiirmann Thomsen ...... 56
Smell and the Urban Environment Victoria Henshaw, Trevor J. Cox and Andrew Clark ...... 61
The Challenge of Sustainable Urban Development in Third World Countries Hooshmand Alizadeh ...... 65
Partners and Sponsors ...... 70 Soundscape has a great potential in urban planning, and there is a strong need for large-scale case studies that may inspire and provide a basis for new approaches. The path to implementation is via applied research in urban planning, in close cooperation with local stakeholders. Östen Axelsson Conference Organiser
Designing Soundscape for Sustainable Urban Development
The conference Designing Soundscape for Sus- Gunnar Söderholm, Head of the Environment and tainable Urban Development was organised in Health Administration, City of Stockholm, opened Stockholm, September 30 – October 1, 2010. The the conference and welcomed the participants to conference was part of the City of Stockholm’s Stockholm. In his introduction he explained why official programme as the first European Green the European Commission designated Stockholm Capital. as the first European Green Capital.
The purpose of the conference was to assemble The term ‘soundscape’ refers to the acoustic practitioners and researchers in architecture, ur- environment at a place, like a residential area or a ban planning, acoustics, noise, and related disci- city park, as perceived and understood by people, in plines, to discuss how soundscape research may be implemented in urban planning and design in context. It is the acoustic equivalent to ‘landscape’, Europe. and includes all sound sources, wanted as well as unwanted. Photography by Jin-Yong Jeon Jin-Yong by Photography
Gunnar Söderholm, opening the conference.
9 Photography by Jin-Yong Jeon Jin-Yong by Photography Jeon Jin-Yong by Photography
Professor Jian Kang, Chair of the COST Action on Soundscape. Keynote speaker, Professor Lex Brown.
Professor Jian Kang from the University of Shef- tion between culture and environment in order to in relationship to well-being and the build envi- conducted in the form of five parallel workshops. field, UK, presented the COST Action TD0804 strengthen the conditions for sustainable urban ronment. The project provoked a lively debate in These were held on the second day, and focused Soundscape of European Cities and Landscapes development. Particular focus is on cultural and local media. Understandably, as for most ground- concrete cases of soundscape planning that may including the various activities and disciplines social aspects, as well as, the architecture’s role. breaking projects, complains were raised even be- form the basis for new working models. The involved in this large European network of re- fore the work was completed. workshops explored opportunities and best prac- searchers and practitioners. Using present examples from Stockholm City— tices in: including a model and auralization of the future Stockholm Virtual Soundscape Tour The keynote speaker, Professor Lex Brown from traffic situation in the “Slussen”-area, and an au- by Stockholm Noise 1. Urban Recreational Areas Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia, intro- ralization of the acoustic environment at the city The third activity of the afternoon was a virtual 2. Urban Open Spaces duced the conference’s topic: Soundscape and park Mariatorget—Architecture for the Senses soundscape tour conducted by music producer 3. Urban and Regional Planning Urban Planning. Professor Brown stressed his aimed to discuss the visual dominance in urban Håkan Lidbo in collaboration with ethnologist Elin 4. Mobility Management view that soundscape research and practice must planning and design. Responsible for the exhibi- Franzén. Together with the participants they dis- 5. Residential Areas and Housing be regarded as a complement to traditional noise tion was the architect Björn Hellström, Associate cussed ‘good’ and ‘bad’ sounds to explore attitudes. control, not as an alternative approach. He advo- Professor of Architecture, and Professor of Urban In the presentations a number of central themes cated that it is central to achieve congruence be- Sound Design at the University College of Arts, Can Stockholm be a city worth visiting because of emerged. The soundscape is an environmental tween landscape and soundscape, and that sound- Crafts and Design in Stockholm. its sounds? Just as other cities around the world at- resource that must be creatively planed and de- scape perception may be understood in terms of tract people with beautiful views or exotic smells, signed, not considered as an afterthought. It con- auditory masking. Soundscape management may Mariatorget Håkan Lidbo and Elin Franzén believe that it is cerns the meaning of sounds, which is fundamen- aim at masking unwanted sounds with wanted After the museum followed a study visit to Maria- possible to promote Stockholm as a well-sound- tal in establishing a sense of place. Soundscape is sounds, rather than using noise abatement as the torget in the South End of Stockholm City. In 2010 ing city. In a web-based interactive media player not a question of how loud sounds are, but what only strategy. Mariatorget was restored. Part of the development the visitors ‘played’ the city and created their own sounds are appropriate to a place. It is an impor- concerns the soundscape from an environmental, Stockholm soundscape. By listening to environ- tant aspect of quality of life and may promote or Architecture for the Senses architecture and art perspective. Architect Björn mental sounds as if they were music, new quali- impede psychological restoration, as well as daily In the afternoon of the first day, the conference Hellström created a permanent sound installation ties can be discovered. The city may sound much activities, like speech, sleep, and recreation. At participants visited the exhibition Architecture in the park in collaboration with the City of Stock- better than we thought. the same time there is no one ideal soundscape. for the Senses, on sound and light in urban plan- holm. Hellström presented the installation, and In order to decide which soundscapes are good, ning, at the Swedish Museum of Architecture. explained the conceptual background, as well as Workshops we must consider which activities the soundscape The Swedish government has given the museum, the practical issues that have emerged during the To facilitate discussions between conference may enable at a place. among others, the mission to promote interac- construction phase. The project discusses sound participants the main part of the conference was
10 11 Panellist Professor Björn Hellström pointed out Soundscape planning is not about quietening—high quality soundscapes that if you build a school, it will serve as a model are not necessarily about low sound levels or about silence. What for the next school; these two schools will then in they are about is sounds that are appropriate to that place—achieving turn serve as a model for the next school, and so congruence between landscape and soundscape. forth. This is how architecture develops. Sound- scape planning needs a similar approach. Lex Brown Urban Research Program, Griffith University, Australia Evaluation In total 104 persons from 23 countries partici- pated in the conference. The foreign participants represented 67 %. Although the conference was mainly marketed in Europe it also attracted par- Acoustic Design of Outdoor Space ticipants from Australia, Iran, Japan, South Korea, I loved what I heard when I was in Catalunya that others present were necessarily consciously Photography by Björn Hellström by Photography and USA. Besides Sweden most participants came Square, Barcelona: pigeons flapping and cooing; listening as I was—it is not at all unreasonable Mariatorget. from the Netherlands, England and Italy, which people walking; voices and children; the sounds to surmise that the acoustic environment enabled indicates where in Europe the issue of soundscape of splashing water from the fountain. In truth, it their enjoyment of this place. Sound is only one is most central today. was a loud place; full of sound, full of energy and component of people’s experience of place: there vitality—and a delight to experience. All of the is also the visual experience, the temperature, the Panel Discussions Out of the 104 participants 66 filled in a written sounds present in this place made up its acous- wind, the vegetation, the different materials of the The workshops were summarized in a final plena- evaluation. Among the respondents 18 expressed tic environment, and people’s experience of this surfaces, the physical safety of the place, their own ry session, including a panel discussion between a that the conference was very good, 39 that it was acoustic environment is the soundscape of the activities and the activities of others present, their group of experts and the conference participants. good, and 9 that it was neither good nor bad. No place. own motivations and expectations. While experts The main topic of the discussion was the future one expressed that the conference was seen as tend to dissect environments into their component of soundscape research and practice, and its po- poor. The most important factor explaining satis- My enjoyment of this place was enhanced by its parts, the reality is that people’s experience is of tential in urban planning. The discussions showed faction with the conference was that it provided soundscape. And if you take a close look at the the whole of their environment. that soundscape has a great potential in urban inspiration. As expected the benefits of the con- activities and postures of the people in the photo- planning and in architecture. ference was rated highest among those who had graph, they too were enjoying the environment this “All of the sounds present in this place made up its little experience of soundscape in the past. How- square provided. Of course, as an acoustician, I acoustic environment, and people’s experience of this A main theme that emerged from the discussion ever, 42 % of those who had previous experi- was very much aware of the acoustic environment acoustic environment is the soundscape of the place.” was the relationship between soundscape research ence expressed that the conference brought new of the place. While I do not make the assumption and traditional noise and health research. Con- insights. In addition, 95 % of the 66 respondents cerns were expressed that focus on wanted sounds expressed that the conference had convinced them may ignore potentially harmful effects of noise. that soundscape research has a lot to offer urban On the other hand, the preceding workshops had planning and design. illustrated the limitations of traditional noise control approaches that only focuses on noise as Conclusion a health risk and thereby do not provide incen- The main conclusion of the conference was that tives for creating restorative environments of high soundscape planning should not be implemented acoustic quality. through legislation and directives. Rather, the path to implementation is via applied research in urban Another theme was the need for case-study re- planning, in close cooperation with municipali- search, where soundscape design measures are ties and other stakeholders, and with the support evaluated from acoustical, architectural, percep- of basic research and other scientific disciplines tual, and health points of view. The hitherto low such as acoustics, human geography, psychology, number of large-scale case studies was cited as and sociology. The strategy is further international one reason why soundscape design has not yet and interdisciplinary research collaboration, and reached the urban planners. Architects and ur- exchange of experiences at conferences in urban ban planners continue to request more concrete planning and architecture. Progress will be based cases that inspire and provide a basis for new ap- on learning from each other by continuing to de- proaches. Thus far, case studies have been limited velop, present and discuss concrete and successful to individual residential and recreation areas, as cases of soundscape planning. ■ illustrated by the presentations in the workshops. Photography by Lex Brown by Photography
12 13 Despite this, we can justify a workshop focus- on this experience of people’s levels of engage- (Table 1), and to avoid confusing the two. They ing on just one of the components of place, the ment with the space/activity; visual/aural interac- are complementary, not competing (Brown & Step 1: For a particular place, soundscape, as a necessary positive discrimina- tions; the potential restorative functions of sound- Muhar, 2004). and a particular context tion towards sound in the design and management scapes; or the role of listening states—analytical (zoning may be appropriate) of outdoor space. There is, currently, little atten- listening vs. distracted listening (Truax, 2001). In noise control, sound is seen as a waste prod- tion devoted to this dimension relative to the at- The important question for this forum is: “Do we uct—to be managed like all wastes. It deals with tention afforded the visual, and other, dimensions know enough to provide advice on soundscape sounds that cause human discomfort. In fact the
of place. design to design professionals”, even with these model underlying noise control is that the level Step 2: Establish present shortcomings in our knowledge. If, in any of discomfort is proportional to the level of sound acoustic objectives Managing the sounds of places is soundscape of the places I have described, the soundscapes and that management is achieved by reducing its planning, soundscape design, or soundscape were not accidents (most, I regret, probably were) level. management. is it possible to identify the underlying principles that made the soundscape of each of these places The soundscape approach, by contrast, considers Step 3: Identify ‘wanted’ and special? And, how can these principles be incor- the acoustic environment as a resource. Rather ‘unwanted’ sounds that may I have similar experiences of high quality sound- porated in a design process for the acoustic envi- than focussing on unwanted sounds that cause hu- influence these objectives scapes in many places: a waterfront/seascape in ronment of outdoor space? man discomfort, the concern is much more with Helsinki (the sounds of waves on seawalls, gulls the sounds people want, or prefer—and, critically, calling, the sounds from a small diesel-engined Firstly, is it not just a matter of making such preference may, or may not, depend on the level
fishing boat); within the cavernous space ofa places quieter? No. Quiet can be of importance of the sound. Step 4: By management or restored indoor market place in Budapest (a dull in some soundscapes, but very few. As in Cat- design, is it possible to: babble of people buying and selling, occasional alunya Square, Barcelona, many marvellous ur- What sounds do people prefer? The results from loud calls or laughter, trolleys moving across tiled ban soundscapes are, if not loud, at least far from the available research (e.g., Zhang & Kang, 2007) floors); in a tiny garden park in the midst of down- quiet. Even in wilderness, nature is very rarely are consistent and unsurprising: moving water—
town Manhattan (mostly the sounds from a water quiet. One can be unequivocal: soundscape plan- in all its forms; the sounds of nature—birds and mask the ‘unwanted’ sound either structure in a reverberant space). These high qual- ning is not about quietening—high quality sound- animals, wind in trees; and the sounds of people by ‘wanted’ sound ity soundscapes have not only been urban places, scapes are not necessarily about low sound levels (voices, footsteps, laughter, and singing) vis-à-vis but rural and country ones too, areas of outdoor or about silence. What they are about is sounds mechanical sounds (transport, machinery, ven- recreation, and natural parks and wilderness. that are appropriate to that place—achieving con- tilators). Such human preference in any place is While the sources of sounds may be very differ- gruence between landscape and soundscape. highly dependent on context. Within any particu- ent across these different domains, as may be the lar setting, it is unlikely to be too difficult to gain activities people undertake within them, there are One useful way to illustrate the underlying de- consensus in indentifying which sounds are pre- ensure that ‘unwanted’ sound does not mask the ‘wanted’ some fundamental principles that underlie sound- sign principles for soundscape planning is by ferred. sound scape planning and management, and these prin- contrasting the way noise control and soundscape after Brown & Muhar (2004) ciples are the same irrespective of the domain. approaches differ. There is already quite a wide- The final two rows in Table 1 identify the final spread understanding of the approaches of man- principle. Nearly all acoustic environments in out- The design process for outdoor space. There is much we still do not know about sound- aging the outdoor acoustic environment through door places of interest will consist of sounds from scapes of the outdoor environment: how to prop- noise control. It is critical to identify how differ- many different sources. High quality acoustic erly measure people’s experience of it; the effect ent the soundscape approach is to noise control environments result where the dominant sounds place and context need to be established (using heard in a place are those that are wanted or pre- the normal processes by which planners gain com- ferred in that place, and/or that sounds that are not munity or focus group consensus in similar mat- Table 1. Comparison of Noise Control and Soundscape Approaches. wanted or preferred in that place are not heard. In ters). Some example acoustic objectives, which Noise Control Approach Soundscape Approach acoustic design terms, what needs to be achieved take into account the soundscape design princi- is to ensure that the wanted sounds are not masked ples of preference and masking include: moving – Sound as waste – Sound as resource by the unwanted sounds. water should be the dominant sound heard; a par- – Concerns sound of discomfort – Concerns sounds of preference ticular (iconic) sound should be clearly audible – Human response related to level of sound – Preference often unrelated to level—quiet The design process for outdoor space, which in- over some area; hear, mostly, (non-mechanical, not the objective corporate these principles, includes 4 steps. Step 1 non-amplified) sounds made by people; not be – Measures by integrating across all sound – Requires differentiation between sound requires unambiguously defining the place of in- able to hear the sounds of people; the sounds of sources sources: wanted sound from unwanted terest and context (who are the people involved, nature should be the dominant sound heard; only sound what are they doing, what are others doing, time the sounds of nature should be heard; suitable to – Manages by reducing level – Manages by ‘wanted sounds’ masking ‘un- of day, weather, motivations, expectations, and so hear unamplified speech (or music); suitable to wanted sounds’ forth.). In Step 2, the acoustic objectives for this hear amplified speech (or music); acoustic sculp-
14 15 Acoustical considerations have to be an integral part of the design of a development, not added as an afterthought. The soundscape is a resource. Bert De Coensel and Dick Botteldooren Department of Information Technology, Ghent University, Belgium
Photography by Lex Brown by Photography Acoustic Design for Early Stage Urban Planning Ensuring the iconic sounds of a bell tower can be heard through the village, and not masked by unwanted sources, would require management of levels from such sources (e.g., traffic, ventilation plants, amplified music, etc). Planning of urban outdoor space often involves a be most effective, acoustical considerations have Hearing mostly, the sounds of nature in a park, requires management of unwanted near and distant mechanical sounds to ensure large number of stakeholders: local authorities, ar- to be an integral part of the design of a develop- they did not always mask the sounds of rustling leaves or bird calls. In the park, occasional human voices, or footsteps, are chitects, developers, consultants, local inhabitants, ment, not added as an afterthought. Moreover, ac- acceptable. and so forth. All may have different expectations, counting for the sonic dimension at an early stage imposing (sometimes conflicting) constraints on in the planning process makes it possible to con- the planning process. Current urban planning sider sound as a resource, not just as a waste to be practice is mainly based on socio-economic con- managed. Not all sounds are noise; some sounds ture/installation sounds should be clearly audible; ties for acoustic management and design in Step 4, cerns, aspects of visual aesthetics, safety and mo- do fit well in some environments, and we should sounds conveying a city’s vitality should be the using all of the skills and tools normally applied bility. In order to cope with the long-term impact strive to preserve or even accentuate these sounds, dominant sounds heard. in noise management and acoustic design. of large urban development projects on the wider rather than to eliminate them. Acoustic design community and the environment, most countries represents a more positive and holistic approach Based on the principles in Table 1, and unlike There are many candidate locations for sound- have established planning guidelines and regula- as compared to traditional noise control (both are noise control where acoustic objectives are usu- scape planning, design and management: urban tions concerning environmental and sustainability complementary), aimed at designing entire envi- ally specified in terms such as, “levels should parks and gardens; country parks; recreational ar- issues. Aspects of noise are usually included in ronments that are pleasing to the ear. not be greater than x dB”, the objectives include eas; malls and pedestrian precincts; and even some the environmental impact assessment of planning specification of the wanted sounds in this place residential precincts. Opportunities are likely to proposals, in the form of (legally binding) noise Proposed Planning Methodology (e.g., moving water, nature, speech, music, church be greatest when areas are being redeveloped, limits. However, at that stage soundscape consid- We propose a two-stage methodology, which, if bells), sometimes the unwanted sounds (e.g., not or in initial design stages. The design of outdoor erations can no longer influence the overall plans; adhered to by planning authorities, should make be able to hear the sounds of people), and specifi- acoustic space requires careful specification of the focus is often only on minimising the adverse it possible to account for aspects of acoustic de- cation of the extent of masking required—wheth- acoustic objectives. Consideration of soundscapes impact of high noise levels on future residents. sign already in an early stage of the urban plan- er masking should be complete (the only sound in the planning and design of outdoor space can The acoustic environment of the vast majority of ning process. The two stages differ in their level heard) or partial (the dominant sound heard). If reinvigorate management of the outdoor acoustic public spaces (parks, squares, courtyards, etc.) is of detail, and the type of advice that is expected planners complete Steps 1 to 3, acoustic specialists environment. ■ given little thought. from the acoustic consultant. can be charged with investigating the opportuni- During recent years, there is a growing awareness In the first stage, advice should be given on the that sound forms an integral part of the environ- placement of building blocks, roads, squares and/or References ment, and that it should be considered at the same parks. The main concern in this stage is to define a Brown, A.L., & Muhar, A. (2004). An approach to the acoustic Zhang, M., & Kang, J. (2007). Towards the evaluation, level of importance as visual aesthetics in the ur- planning proposal that meets basic acoustic objec- design of outdoor space. Journal of Environmental Planning description, and creation of soundscapes in urban open spaces. and Management, 47, 827–842. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 34, 68–86. ban planning process (Olafsen, 2009). For exam- tives. Balancing these with economical, aesthetic, ple, a good placement of buildings is much more safety and mobility objectives will require a good Truax, B. (2001). Acoustic Communication (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Albex Publishing. efficient than remediating measures such as plac- coordination with the architects and developers. ing noise barriers or absorbing materials. Next to Considering dwellings, basic acoustic objectives this, there is growing evidence that having a ‘quiet could be building guidelines or level-based noise side’ at one’s dwelling may reduce noise annoy- regulations. Considering urban parks and squares, ance and health effects related to noise (Öhrström the basic objective should be to create potential et al., 2006). Access to urban green areas with a for soundscape design. Of course, this does not fitting soundscape, within short range of one’s mean that complete silence is the objective. Often dwelling, is also an important factor to consider in only particular sounds should be avoided; other light of psychological restoration (Klaeboe, Enge- sounds may be tolerated or even wanted. Impor- lien & Steinnes, 2006). Therefore it is clear that, to tant aspects of this first stage are therefore to ac-
16 17 doned gasworks site, a parking lot and a trans- a place for everyday use within close range, in former station. The area is enclosed by an elevated which they could relax. It was found that the noise railway to the north, a residential area to the south from the railway is more or less tolerated; limiting and a major road and freeway to the east (Figure 1). the intruding noise from the freeway was found It is to be redeveloped into a residential area, with to be of greater importance. This led to the ob-
room for a coherent public green space. The main jective of keeping the daytime LAeq caused by the focus will be to attract new inhabitants, as well as freeway below 60 dBA inside the planned park. to enhance the quality of life of the people already A main concern mentioned by most inhabitants living in the neighbourhood. The architecture of is that they would like the park to be contigu- Figure 2. Tag cloud visualizing the main perceived assets of the neigh- the planned buildings has to blend with the sur- ous with the existing residential areas. In order borhood. rounding art nouveau style. The use of high-rise to process and visualise the results of the open buildings is therefore restricted to a minimum, questions, tag clouds were used. Figure 2 shows posing a limit on the amount of space that can be an example, based on the question on what they reserved for the park, in order to keep the project most like about their neighbourhood. The ‘Dager- economically feasible. Next to this, planning is aadplaats’ is a square located nearby, which most guided by the presence of a number of old trees, people found to be well planned, and which could which should ideally make part of the urban park, be used as an inspiration for soundscape design and the presence of a shed in the centre of the measures. area, which could be remodelled into a multifunc- tional facility for the inhabitants, reminding of the Advice on Building Arrangement history of the site. Based on architectural, economical and mobility Figure 1. Aerial photograph of the case study area. boundary conditions, and guided by the results Analysis of Existing Soundscape of the survey, a set of building layouts were con- 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 dB(A) The current acoustic environment was character- structed in consultation with the architects and city Figure 3. Noise maps (L ) for road (left) and railway traffic (right), count for the vision of the local inhabitants, and ised using long-term and ambulant sound meas- planners. Figure 3 shows an example of a scenar- Aeq,day for a particular building placement scenario. The blue dot represents a to characterise the existing acoustic environment, urements, conducted at various locations in the io, in which the park forms a peg from the west- particular listener location. in order to identify the most important sources of area. Results of the former were used to validate ern to the eastern edge, with a series of artificial sound, both wanted and unwanted. noise maps (see below). It was found that the mounds at the western edge. A line of buildings sound level centrally in the area drops below 55 is used as a noise barrier. In case these are used Finally, advice on the selection of a planning sce- In the second stage, advice should be given on dBA only during the night, so noise reducing as dwellings, it is essential that the most exposed nario was formulated to the planning authority the detailed acoustic design of the public space measures will be necessary for (at least part of) façade is well insulated, and that the least exposed in the form of a SWOT analysis on the basis of and private gardens and balconies, which extends the new dwellings. Together with the ambulant façade is sufficiently quiet, in order to secure a noise and annoyance estimates, the potential for much beyond limiting the sound level. The gen- measurements, binaural recordings were made, fair quality of life for the inhabitants. The inte- acoustic design of the urban park, the outcomes of eral building and road layout is considered to be which can be used in the second stage of the plan- rior design could be optimised also, for example, the survey, and the fulfilment of various hard and more or less fixed. The goal should be to shape the ning process for auralization purposes. with the entrance along the ‘quiet side’ and noisier soft design objectives. Strengths and weaknesses acoustic environment in line with the intended use rooms such as the kitchen facing the freeway. In for each scenario were mainly based on acousti- of the space, integrating the sound from local ac- In-depth face-to-face interviews were performed any case, a strict enforcement of acoustic specifi- cal information. Autonomous evolutions, such as tivities. This implies creating zones with different with 15 people, carefully selected to have a good cations during construction would be required. traffic flow reductions, are examples of opportuni- acoustic environments, from lively to quiet, from geographical spread around the case study area. ties; the cost of remediating measures and associ- natural to more urban, which will only be possible Most participants were well informed about the Noise maps for road and railway noise were cal- ated necessary authority approvals are examples if the first-stage advice was followed. redevelopment plans. The interview consisted of culated for the different scenarios, and validated of threats. questions on the quality of their own living en- using the sound measurement data. Figure 3
Case Study Overview vironment, and of open questions on the use of shows the Lday maps for the scenario considered in Advice on Acoustic Design of We will illustrate the above approach using a par- green space in their neighbourhood, on possible this paper. It can be seen that, for the park, noise Public Space ticular urban development case study, putting em- strengths and weaknesses of the redevelopment from local road traffic does not form a major ob- On the basis of the analysis in the first stage, black phasis on the methodology that was followed. In plans, on where they would personally like the stacle. Railway noise levels are acceptable inside spots and areas of opportunity for soundscape de- this project, the authors were involved as acoustic park to be and how they would organise it, and on the park, taking into account the fact that railway sign are identified and worked out in detail for consultants to advise the local authorities in plan- important noise sources that should not be over- noise was found to be less annoying in the sur- one or a few building scenarios, in order to pro- ning decisions. looked in the soundscape study. vey. The effect of the artificial mounds on freeway vide detailed advice on how to create a pleasing noise is little, but this is partly due to the receiver soundscape in the urban park. Design measures to The case study area is located in the south-eastern The surrounding area has a lively social atmos- height of 4m (in accordance with European stand- be considered could be passive (e.g., introducing part of Antwerp and mainly consists of an aban- phere, and inhabitants expressed the need for ards) which is not realistic for a park visitor. low-noise road surfaces, creating diffusive, irreg-
18 19 1.0 1.0 (a) (b) In areas where reduction of noise levels are not viable, a more active 0.8 0.8 approach may be necessary, such as adding positive sounds in order to mask unwanted sound. For this purpose Architettura Sonora in Italy has 0.6 0.6 developed an intelligent and interactive audio system. 0.4 0.4 Gaetano Licitra masker: masker: 0.2 bird sound 0.2 bird sound ARPAT - Regional Environment Protection Agency of Tuscany, Florence, Italy
is not energetically masked
Fraction of traffic noise that
Fraction of traffic noise that fountain sound is not informationally masked fountain sound Lorenzo Brusci and Mattia Cobianchi 0.0 0.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Architettura Sonora, Florence, Italy LAeq of masker [dB(A)] LAeq of masker [dB(A)]
Figure 4. Simulated fraction of traffic noise that is not (a) energetically masked, and (b) informationally masked, as a function of the L of the masker. The dashed line marks the L of the traffic sound. Aeq Aeq Italian Sonic Gardens: An Artificial Soundscape ular façades, or optimising roof shape, possibly of the tools that could be used at this stage (De using green roofs), or active, by accentuating ex- Coensel et al., 2010a, 2010b). As an illustration, Approach for New Action Plans isting sounds or even generating (or encouraging Figure 4 shows the potential of introducing the In most urban areas, plans and actions aiming at The soundscape approach has grown vastly since activities that generate) additional sounds. These sound of a fountain or birds at a particular loca- the mere reduction of noise levels are not viable. the pioneering work of Murray Schafer, becom- sounds do not necessarily need to mask non-fit- tion inside the park in the considered case study This is sometimes because of their invasiveness ing more and more important as a different per- ting sounds energetically; they could just distract scenario (See Figure 3 for the location), for mask- and aesthetic impact, or simply for reasons of eco- spective from which to assess the effect of sound attention from unwanted sound as much as possi- ing the traffic noise. The applied model could be nomical or technical feasibility. Moreover, plans on human beings. Only a few papers are available ble. Popular examples of this approach are install- used to draw masking maps, delimiting the area and actions should be aimed more to the perceived on the artificial modification of a soundscape (for ing water features or adding greenery in well ar- for which design elements are effective in infor- quality of sounds than the mere noise reduction to example, through the placement of new sound ranged spaces. The latter may enhance the sound mational masking unwanted sound. effectively improve a citizen’s acoustic comfort. sources like fountains or through the placement level distribution, but may also attract songbirds. This approach is usually called ‘the soundscape of loudspeakers) and even less research has been Another option is to install attractively and ap- Acknowledgments approach’, a paradigm widely accepted and used carried out on intelligent and automatic genera- propriately designed loudspeakers, or sound art The authors would like to thank their co-work- for the characterisation and preservation of exist- tion of artificial soundscape. installations, playing back fitting environmen- ers Annelies Bockstael and Luc Dekoninck, and ing situations but not yet fully exploited: a large tal sounds (e.g., Hellström et al., 2008; see also the members of the expert committee (Brigitte scientific debate is going on, as in the COST Ac- In this paper we reflect upon our experiences over the next article in the present report, pp. 21–24), Schulte-Fortkamp, Jian Kang, Mats E. Nilsson) tion TD0804 “Soundscape of European Cities recent redesign of the soundscapes of noise pol- although further research is needed on issues of for their valuable input in this project. Bert De and Landscapes”. Promising developments in the luted areas, especially garden and parks, with the context and user choice. Coensel is a postdoctoral fellow of the Research generation of artificial soundscapes to re-develop aid of an intelligent and interactive audio system Foundation–Flanders; the support of this organi- and transfigure the existing degraded and polluted that is able to mask background noise. The arti- Detailed propagation simulations, auralization lis- sation is gratefully acknowledged. Furthermore, soundscapes are expected. ficial soundscape generation system comprises tening tests or virtual listening tests using models this project was partially funded by the planning innovative sound sources (loudspeakers) able to for simulating soundscape perception are some authority of the city of Antwerp, Belgium. ■
References De Coensel, B., et al. (2010a). The soundscape approach for Klaeboe, R., Engelien, E., & Steinnes, M. (2006). Context sen- early stage urban planning: a case study. In O. Inácio (Ed.), sitive noise impact mapping. Applied Acoustics, 67, 620–642. Inter Noise 2010: Noise and Sustainability. Lisbon, Portugal: Portuguese Acoustical Society. Paper IN10_504. Olafsen, S. (2009). Using planning guidelines as a tool to achieve good soundscapes for residents. In J.S. Bolton, B. De Coensel, B., et al. (2010b). Application of a model for audi- Gover, & C. Burroughs (Eds.), Inter-Noise 2009: Innovations tory attention to the design of urban soundscapes. In Proceed- in Practical Noise Control. Ottawa, Canada: The Institute of ings of EAA EuroRegio, 15–18 September 2010, Ljubljana, Noise Control Engineering of the USA, Paper IN09_453. Slovenia. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Slovenian Acoustical Society. Öhrström, E., Skånberg, A., Svennson, H., & Gidlöf-Gunnars- Hellström, B., Nilsson, M.E., Becker, P., & Lundén, P. (2008). son, A. (2006). Effects of road traffic noise and the benefit Acoustic design artifacts and methods for urban soundscapes. of access to quietness. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 295, In Proceedings of the 15th International Congress on Sound 40–59. and Vibration. Daejeon, Korea: International Institute of Acoustics and Vibration. Photography by Architettura Sonora by Photography
20 21 Photography by Architettura Sonora by Photography Architettura Sonora by Photography
withstand harsh, outdoor conditions. Those loud- • amplifiers; 1) Spectral and spatial masking posed and designed around the data available speakers are carefully designed to be aesthetically • proprietary loudspeakers. 2) Informational masking from a previous characterisation of the area under pleasant and to perfectly complement architectur- study. They can also be designed to encourage or al and natural landscapes. At the heart of the sys- Loudspeakers Spectral masking is the well known psychoacous- discourage defined activities (relax, playing, so- tem is a piece of software capable of choosing the The loudspeakers are specifically developed and tic phenomenon by which each perceived sound cial relations, etc.). All soundtracks are highly in- proper soundtracks (from a music database of me- produced to dialogue with and become part of the creates a bell shaped inaudibility area in the fre- volving and immersive, taking advantage of sur- ta-compositions) and to process them in real time existing context, from the architectural, landscape quency/sound level plane, depending on both round sound techniques and multichannel systems to match the features of the noise to be masked. and naturalistic point of view. They are responsi- spectral content and time evolution. However, in of 8/16 channels. ble to produce a uniform and undistorted sound- a 3D sound-field the spectral masking can only From Analysis to Synthesis of Soundscape field inside the area, without disrupting the aes- be effective if the angle by which the listener per- Experiences and Results This step involves the participation of different thetic features of the environment in which they ceives both the noise and the masking sound is This is a short list of the principal installations professionals like urban planners, acousticians, are placed. below a certain threshold. Informational mask- where the approach previously described has been psychologists and sociologists to define the acous- ing is strongly related to the social and cultural tested: tic features of the area under study, relying on data Artificial Soundscape Generation context and to the expectations of the user who such as the activities which have to be encouraged This software processes in real time the sound- is within the area ‘hic et nunc’. It is based on the • Sonic Garden “La Limonaia dell’Imperialino”, or discouraged, the user’s expectations, and so tracks chosen among a meta-compositive data- ‘informational content’ of the soundscape: an in- Firenze, 2004–2007 forth. The action plan will be based on the gen- base to make them effective for the purpose of teresting signal will cause an attention shift, rel- • Square G. Caen, Paris, 2006 eration of artificial soundscapes which are able to noise masking. Please note that the software does egating the noise to the perceptual background. • Sonic Garden @ Parco Sempione, Milano, restore and redevelop the degraded soundscapes. not work as an active noise control process that Nevertheless, an ‘out of context’ sound, that is, a June 2009 The audio system to generate artificial sound- reduces the energy of the sound field, instead the sound completely unrelated to the ‘ante operam’ • Sonic Garden @ Villa Aldobrandini, Roma, scapes consists of: software adds a small amount of energy to the soundscape, will easily result in an alarming, al- May 2010 existing sound field so that the final sound level ienating, or unwanted aesthetic content. • Sonic Garden @ Castello di Bisarno, Firenze, • microphones to capture the environmental is a bit higher than the ‘ante operam’ value, but June 2010 noise signal; the reduction in the perceived annoyance greatly Soundtracks • soundcard; compensates for this level increase. The main The audio soundtracks in the meta-compositive Different assessment strategies have emerged • computer with proprietary software; principles employed for the masking effect are: database are extremely site-specific, and are com- during the years. Some related to the use of psy-
22 23 choacoustic descriptors or even non acoustic ed to define a procedure to objectively assess the ones, others more related to the sociological and effects of artificial soundscapes, in order to cope psycho-social aspects of the sound experience. with the noise polluted areas under study. The first To note also the total acceptance of the new area chosen as case study is the New Sonic Gar- soundscape by the local fauna: even animals seem den at the Bisarno Castle, Florence (IT). This area to like it! The outcomes of the measurements has been chosen both for its representativeness of and assessment process at the Sonic Garden “La a typical and beautiful Italian garden and for its Limonaia dell’Imperialino” are already significant proximity to a busy roadway. in showing and validating the increased acoustic comfort in those areas where artificial sound- Conclusions scapes were employed. Surveys among the users The experience of recent years has shown that of the garden have indeed confirmed the improved there is great potential for the artificial soundscape pleasantness and acoustic comfort obtained. It is approach as a tool to restore acoustically degraded also clear that the average sound pressure level locations. The promising ongoing research, aimed expressed through Leq or similar quantities are at the development of an intelligent artificial not useful in those conditions, while new descrip- soundscape generation system and its objective tors such as Slope are much more informative and and systematic assessment, will allow the rede- correlated to user’s perceived annoyance. A new velopment of those areas, otherwise condemned scientific and systematic collaboration with the to an uncomfortable annoyance if not even a total National Council of Research has just been start- lack of human presence. ■
Suggested reading Davies, W.J. et al. (2009). The positive soundscape project: A Licitra, G., & Memoli, G. (2006). Testing new solutions for ac- synthesis of results from many disciplines. In J.S. Bolton, B. tion plans in quiet areas. In J. Hyurynen & R. Pääkönen (Eds.), Gover & C. Burroughs (Eds.), Inter-Noise 2009: Innovations EuroNoise 2006: Advanced Solutions for Noise Control. Tam- in Practical Noise Control. Ottawa, Canada: The Institute of pere, Finland: European Acoustics Association. Noise Control Engineering of the USA, Paper IN09_379. Memoli G., Bloomfield A., & Dixon M. (2008). Soundscape Hellström, B., Nilsson, M.E., Becker, P., & Lundén, P. (2008). characterization in selected areas of Central London. In Pro- Acoustic design artifacts and methods for urban soundscapes. ceedings of Acoustics ’08 Paris, June 29 – July 4, 2008. Paris: In Proceedings of the 15th International Congress on Sound Société Française d’Acoustique. and Vibration. Daejeon, Korea: International Institute of Acoustics and Vibration. Raimbault, M., & Dubois, D. (2005). Urban soundscapes: Ex- periences and knowledge. Cities, 22, 339–350. Kang, J. (2007). Urban Sound Environment. London, UK: Taylor & Francis. Schulte-Fortkamp B., & Fiebig, A. (2006). Soundscape analy- sis in a residential area: An evaluation of noise and people’s Lercher, P., & Schulte-Fortkamp, B. (2003). The relevance of mind. Acta Acustica united with Acustica, 92, 875–880. soundscape research to theassessment of noise annoyance at the community level. In R.G. de Jong, T. Houtgast, E.A.M. Schulte-Fortkamp, B., & Dubois,D. (2006). Recent advances Franssen, & W.F. Hofman (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th In- in soundscape research. Acta Acustica united with Acustica, ternational Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem 92, V–VIII. (pp. 225–231). Rotterdam, Netherlands: International Com- Shinn-Cunningham, B. (2002). Speech intelligibility, spa- mission on Biological Effects of Noise. tial unmasking, and realism in reverberant spatial auditory Levitin, D.J. (2006). This is Your Brain on Music. New York, displays. In R. Nakatsu & H. Kawahara (Eds.), Proceedings NY: Dutton. of the 8th International Conference on Auditory Display (ICAD2002). Kyoto, Japan: International Community for Au- Licitra, G., & Memoli, G. (2005). Noise indicators and hier- ditory Display. archical clustering in soundscapes. In Inter-Noise 2005: Envi- ronmental Noise Control. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: International Zwicker, E. & Fastl, H. (1999). Psychoacoustics: Facts and Institute of Noise Control Engineering. Models. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
24 Architettura Sonora by Photography Soundscape theory offers the possibility to integrate the conscious vironments can be tuned to their inhabitants that team members, user groups and other stakehold- design of the sonic attributes of the environments as a part of the build on local character and transforms it into en- ers can intelligently and actively participate in the design process for interior and exterior spaces as well as significant vironmental wonders puts a new paradigm within aural shaping of their environments. natural areas. Environments can be tuned to their inhabitants. reach for the design, construction and planning fields. Recent developments in acoustical meas- “The magical sensation of unbroken sound-filled Gary W. Siebein urement, modelling, prediction and simulation space is only possible when man. . . begins to School of Architecture, University of Florida, USA methods enable acoustical consultants, planners, deliberately shape his buildings (and environments) to Siebein Associates, Inc. Consultants in Architectural Acoustics architects and communities to plan and design achieve that sensation” (Schafer, 1985, p.92) for the positive aspects of sounds in their com- munities, buildings and natural areas as well as to regulate or reduce unwanted or disturbing Elements of a Soundscape noises during the planning and design process. Sound often has content, meaning and symbol in Essential Soundscape Concepts for Architects This field of study is called soundscape analysis addition to level and other quantitative properties and design which is derived from notions about that are important in the experience of a sound- and Urban Planners the acoustical landscape of a community3. So- scape in a building or exterior space. The mean- phisticated computer modelling and measurement ings attributed to the sounds are uniquely tied to Soundscape concepts present a unified theoretical Soundscape theory offers the possibility for archi- systems allow acoustical consultants to measure the participants, locale and context in which the framework to link people and wildlife with their tects, interior designers, landscape architects and and model sounds as they are actually heard by sounds are expressed. Two essential elements of acoustic environment experienced through the me- urban planners to integrate the conscious design people. This technique allows planners and resi- soundscape analysis involve: diating structures of landscapes, urban spaces and of the sonic attributes of the environments they dents; architects and clients; and others involved buildings as well as ‘deep’ natural settings such as plan, design and construct as a part of their typi- with the design, construction and planning proc- 1. getting to know the participants to understand pristine wilderness areas and national parks. It is cal design process for interior and exterior spaces ess to acoustically preview the qualities of the the values and meanings they assign to vari- rooted in the poetic transformation of goals and as well as significant natural areas. The proposi- acoustic environment while it is being designed. ous sounds through questionnaires of various information into a composed, multi-sensory, aes- tion that the multi-sensory attributes of space can These calibrated auralizations can be prepared in types, narrative interviews and focus group thetic experience of people communicating with be made tangible and explored through advanced addition to the traditional, quantitatively-based, discussions4 and each other through objective and subjective means technology during the design process and then ‘decibel’ assessments or noise contour mapping in space and time1. It provides the opportunity to evaluated after a building or other design inter- 2. experiencing the context through multiple of average sound levels. Auralizations—acousti- 5 identify, engage and design acoustic communities vention is constructed offers exciting possibilities soundwalks and observations at various times cal ‘sketches’ of the sounds that will result from a within natural areas, cities and buildings2. for architects and planners. Multi-dimensional en- of day at specific, critical locations in the com- specific source at a specific location propagated to munity. a specific receiver over a certain distance through various types of vegetation or topography, and so One of the primary goals of the soundwalks and Notes forth—are prepared through computer modelling discussions with participants is to reveal the na- 1. Schafer (1977) and Truax (2001) proposed a theory about composing the sonic attributes of the physical environment indoors of specific sites, buildings and natural areas. The ture of the structural, ecological relationships and outdoors as it is designed and constructed. Schafer (1977) originally developed the concept of a soundscape to refer to any method results in a design process where design acoustic field of study or to any portion of the sonic environment regarded as a field of study. He postulated that the concept among the participants in the soundscape so that could apply to actual environments or to abstract constructions such as musical compositions and art installations especially when they are considered as an environment. Schafer hoped that soundscape would form a unifying theory that linked studies examining many aspects of the relationships between people and sounds in their environment ultimately leading to the forma- Notes tion of a new “interdiscipline . . . acoustic design” where the acoustical attributes of indoor and outdoor spaces are consciously 3. Thompson (2002) conceives of a soundscape like a landscape which is “simultaneously a physical environment and a way of composed as the spaces are designed and built. “The home territory of soundscape studies will be the middle ground between perceiving that environment: it is both a world and a culture constructed to make sense of the world (p. 1)”. She conceives of science, society and the arts (Schafer, 1977, p. 4)”. Their original work consisted largely of documenting significant sound- the soundscape as the physical sound waves that move through the world, the materials that create the sounds and alter their scapes that were in danger of degradation and developing notational systems to graphically record the complex factors that propagation. The cultural aspects involve the relationship between the listeners and their environment, scientific and aesthetic affect the soundscape. Ultimately they proposed composing the sonic characteristics of space the way a composer orchestrates ways of listening, and the social conditions that determines who gets to listen and what they get to listen to. She continues “a a piece of music. soundscape, like a landscape, . . . is constantly under construction and always undergoing change (p. 2)”. There are many interesting interpretations that Schafer’s idea of an ‘acoustic field’ can lead one to reach. A field means a large, unbroken expanse or an open tract of land without trees or buildings. In other words, it can be thought of as large or expansive, 4. The focus group discussions can occur for groups of people from various stakeholder interests; in formal neighbourhood or beyond the immediate sensory grasp of a person; and continuous, or flowing; without objects that constrain, subdivide or oth- user group meetings that are open, or by invitation; include structured presentations and/or discussions of issues; or be rela- erwise interrupt the flow of the field. Therefore, when one defines a soundscape, a similar open, expansive and unconstrained tively unstructured meetings with individuals or small groups of people in their homes, spaces at work or in a city park where vision should form the basis of the definition. This is much different than the derivation of the word landscape which has its free-flowing narrative interviews are held. Some researchers use questionnaires to structure responses. Sometimes the entire roots in framed views of constricted outdoor space bordered by the viewpoint of the observer. Schafer does not interpose an community or its representatives participate. Sometimes only those with common values participate. Sometimes individuals observer in his initial concept. Therefore, perception by a person is not intended to be a mandatory requirement for a sound- are addressed separately. scape. Artistically a field can mean a space on which something is drawn or projected, or the framework or background on which a work of art is created which may become the underlying structure of the work. The notion of the soundscape forming 5. A soundwalk is a way that an observer or group of observers can experience the varying sonic conditions in an environment. part of the underlying structure of the environment in the way that a piece of music has structure is perhaps a key thought One can walk and listen to comments of the users as to what are important sounds; when and where they occur. One can also here. take acoustical measurements, aural and/or video recordings of pertinent specific acoustic events along the walk. In addition one can also perform ‘undercover’ soundwalks where an observer moves through a community with recording equipment 2. Truax (2001) defined acoustic communities as groups of people for whom communication is important and who share com- that is not observable by passers-by to document conditions without the possible effects that could occur from an identifiable mon meanings and interpretations of sounds. Communication could refer to conveying, exchanging or imparting both tangible observer where behaviours of people or wildlife may be altered in response to the observer. Schafer (1977) called the docu- or intangible information, or knowledge in speech, writing, signs or symbols. menting of the soundscape ‘sonography’.
26 27 points of commonality can be identified and bal- soundscape along the acoustic itineraries or paths ances among competing groups within the com- of their daily routines that connect acoustic rooms munity can be found, similar to the balances and or zones where communication and listening of Table 1. Soundscape Assessment and Design Method niches that can be found among competing spe- various types can occur. An acoustic room is anal- cies or functions within an ecosystem6. ogous to Schafer’s concept of acoustic space. This 1. The acoustical communities involved in each situation actively participated in the is an indoor or outdoor area whose shape and vol- process in each phase of the project. This included interviews and focus group discus- “We are always at the edge of visual space looking ume are determined by the nature of the sonic ex- sions early in the project to identify sonic issues and criteria for the project; taking into it with the eye. But we are always in the center changes within it and which ‘colours’ the sounds soundwalks with the researchers to provide the expertise of those who live, work or of auditory space listening out with the ear” (Schafer, within it by reflection, diffusion and absorption8. play in the study area to the team; review of auralizations of design proposals; post 1985, p. 94) The daily and seasonal routines or rhythms of the construction evaluation of the results; and modifications of the original designs. various activities of the participants in a sound- 2. Both conventional and experimental acoustical measurements were taken in all stud- scape and the sounds they create form an acous- ies. The measurements taken included overall A-weighted and C-weighted sound lev- The soundwalks and focus group discussions are tic calendar. The acoustic calendar represents the els over extended periods of time, more detailed octave and one-third octave band used to experience each of the localised sonic variation of activities and sounds from various readings of specific acoustic events and calibrated monaural and binaural recordings of the actual sounds that were later analysed in a variety of ways as well as used in events within the soundscape. This process in- sources over periods of time. aural simulations of various types. volves identifying the participants in the sound- scape; locating acoustic arenas7 or zones with spe- Schafer (1977) used the term ‘sonography’ to de- 3. Modelling and simulation of the proposed designs were undertaken for each project cific acoustical characteristics within the larger scribe methods to graphically document various with the people involved with the project evaluating the results and offering design in- put at each stage of the project. Advanced computer modelling of the proposed sites community; observing the time patterns of activi- attributes of the soundscape. Sonographic meth- was undertaken in CADNA-A and proprietary software with the results calibrated ties and sounds that occur within the soundscape; ods can include ways to document quantitative and with acoustical measurements made at the existing sites. Noise contours of overall and becoming as immersed as possible in the qualitative aspects of the soundscape. Architects A-weighted and C-weighted sound levels, sound level versus frequency vs time plots sonic experience of the environment. A taxonomy and urban designers may be particularly interested and other metrics were evaluated. is used to catalogue each source of sound as it is in developing an art of sonography to transform 4. Aural simulations or ‘auralizations’ of alternate design solutions for the aural inter- measured, recorded and located in time and place the quantitative data used by acoustical consult- ventions were prepared for each project based on the acoustical measurements within the soundscape. The relationships among ants, noise control engineers, psychoacousticians and computer model studies. The auralizations were played back to the design team each sound with the other sounds and activities in and social scientists into figurative, spatial map- members, focus groups, city officials, individuals and others associated with each of the soundscape are diagrammed in a systems net- pings that can be used to form an aural structure the projects to allow them to evaluate prospective design solutions and offer input to work (Odum & Brown, 2007) to allow the trans- for proposed acoustical design interventions. In the design team for aural modifications to the original design proposals. formation of objective information into a format other words, in developing methods where acous- 5. Acoustical intervention strategies employed included reducing and buffering existing that can allow it to become part of the underlying tical design in addition to dealing with the func- sources of unwanted sounds or noise; preserving and enhancing desirable sounds that structure of a design intervention. tional, performative aspects of sounds in buildings already existed in the soundscape; and adding new sounds and/or new activities that and environments also provides a metaphysical or produced new, desired sounds in the soundscape. In the Nauener Platz project, inno- vative park sculpture and furniture pieces had loudspeakers installed within them to Soundwalks through a natural area, urban district theoretical structure to the project as well. create a micro soundscape within the larger park for people to become immersed in or building quickly reveal that there are usually while they read a book on a park bench for example. The researchers for the Ghent multiple sound sources and listeners involved in The acoustical measurement methods used in project proposed to integrate water and bird sounds as informational masking signals each soundscape. The participants may be a sound soundscape studies are inherently different from in areas of the park where transportation sounds were thought to intrude on the source and a listener simultaneously in some cas- those used in noise control or acoustical engineer- restorative qualities of the park. This means that even though the masking sounds are es. Both may assume either role at other times. ing studies. First, because localised sounds must be not heard at levels higher than the transportation sounds that move across the site, they would hold people’s attention because of their different pitch, time patterns and The sound sources and listeners move through the measured and recorded as specific acoustic events information content (compared to the transportation sounds) for periods of time. These approaches of inserting sonic interventions in somewhat harsh urban environ- ments were contrasted with the ‘net-zero’ noise approach for the generator plant Notes project. The generator plant was designed and constructed so that the sounds emit- 6. Systems ecology theory (Odum & Brown, 2007) is used to identify relationships, functions and sonic flows among participants ted from it would be buried within the existing ambient sound levels in all frequencies in soundscapes similar to the energy, material and money flows in natural, human and hybrid ecosystems. so that people would not be aurally aware of its presence when it was operating.
7. An acoustic arena according to Blesser and Salter (2007) is an area in which all listeners can hear a sound source.
8. Acoustic space is formed by sound itself as it propagates from each source in a building or outdoor space to one or more prospective listeners. It is the profile of sound over or through the landscape (Schafer, 1977, p. 271). “It creates its own dimen- sions moment by moment . . . It has no fixed boundaries. . . and does indeed contain something” (Schafer, 1985, p. 87–89) (i.e., physically the sound, metaphysically, the information, meaning or symbolism associated with the sound). Thus, an acoustical space can occur within a portion of a room inside a building, become coincident with and include the entire room and even move through multiple rooms within a building. Outdoors an acoustic space or acoustic room can be quite large when the sound source is traffic on a busy highway or an aircraft overflight. The acoustic room for a person or animal in a forest may be quite limited in size when the sound of concern is a bird calling to its mate or the soft ripple of water flowing in a brook or stream.
28 29 30 generative” (Schafer, 1985, p. 96) analytical andreflective. Soundingisactiveand “Seeing andsoundingare different. Seeingis Rcetr V: Destiny Books. VT: Rochester, World. the of Tuning the and ment (1977). M.R. Schafer, York, NY: ColumbiaUniversityPress. Century: 21st the for Society M.T.H.T.,Brown, Odum, (2007). & MIT Press. tening? Blesser,Salter,& B., (2007). L-R. References to people for methods and mechanisms provides It composition. physical and sonic into perience ex- and experience into place place; into material material; into sound place; into space space; into These methods allow designers to transform sound enced afteritisbuilt. experi only than rather design during evolves it as studied be Salter,can & 2007) (Blesser tecture archi aural the of composition the so programs analysis computer advanced using simulated and of the new soundscape can be modelled, predicted the environment. The physical and aural attributes of mappings sonographic transformational the by these new interventions can be essentially formed of structure underlying the Furthermore, original. the from soundscapes new create and places new posed interventions that bring new activities, make com- architecturally and aurally produce may er the soundscape. Ultimately, the acoustical design- within calendars and rooms itineraries, sounds, er ever, people may want to preserve or enhance oth- sound (or noise) as in of conventional practice. How- sources unwanted mitigate or buffer reduce, to used be can interventions acoustical Designed influence ontheacousticaldesigner. existing conditions; and provides inspiration to or from extrapolates sources; competing from often field sound complex a to contributions multiple assimilates that data interpretive by transcended and frequencies or pitch, while important, must be loudness or levels sound of documentation cause be- Second, wildlife. or people by perceived are they which in ways the to similar are that ways in : Cmrde MA: Cambridge, Architecture . Aural Experiencing h Soundscape: The . New Energy . of Hierarchy The Spaces Speak, Spaces AreYou Lis- Environment Power and EnvironmentPower u Snc Environ- Sonic Our - - Truax, B. (2001). 1900-1933. Cambridge,MA:MIT Press. America, in Listening of Culture the and Acoustics tectural (2002). E. Thompson, bar, FL:KreigerPublishingCompany. (Eds.), R. Mugerauer & Seamon D. In Space. Acoustic (1985). M.R. Schafer, CT: Albex Publishing. built. are communities and buildings and executed are plans after propagation noise excessive regulate only than rather processes design building and planning community the in considerations the of one as soundscape community the preview discuss aurally and to and emerge and redevelop grow, they as qualities acoustical desirable for design consciously to de- communities and velopers planners, architects, allow methods These design method. and assessment soundscape a propose to used are Tablewhich in 1, listed those including methods, similar many employed presented, studies case neighbourhood in the southeast United States. The residential a in plant power large a and U.S.; the in Florida central in community suburban a in tre amphithea an Belgium; Ghent, in roadway and line rail major a near project housing and park a Berlin; in space public Platz Nauener the of tion evalua and construction design, the in used ods meth soundscape involving sites urban of design The papers were related to experiments in applied Housing. and Areas Residential of Soundscapes on session the in presented papers 3 were There Soundscape Method ofaProposed Summary natural settings. ‘deep’, and landscapes in as well as spaces urban and buildings in space architectural of formant a as space acoustical includes and rooms; acoustic enables one to design for the qualitative aspects of process; design the in for accounted be to sounds of meanings and values the for allows munity; com- a in project new each from gain noise cept ac- than rather projects infrastructure large for impacts noise zero net create to live; and listen Acoustic Communication (2 Mala- Environment. and Place Dwelling, The Soundscape of Modernity of Soundscape The nd ed.). Westport, : Archi- ■ - - - Urban SoundscapeinOpenSpaces Dominant Contexts, Affecting Perception of Hanyang University, Seoul, SouthKorea Jin-Yong Jeon various configurations of buildings, traffic roads, traffic buildings, of configurations various that each site had a different urban environment with tumn 2009. Ten sites were chosen based on the fact Social surveys were performed in Seoul in late au- investigated. were group each of characteristics the and groups several into classified were soundscapes urban survey,the of results the From soundscape. urban the of perception on contexts of effects the gate investi to conducted was survey social a study, this In investigated. been yet not has impression overall to context each of contribution the and clear not still are soundscape of perception the affecting factors dominant com- the However, constructive ments. of plenty provided has and perception, soundscape of process the explain to The group has suggested a block diagram in order (contexts) affecting the perception of soundscape. the meaning of soundscape and significant factors investigated has 54, 1/WG 43/SC ISO/TC tion, Standardiza for Organization International the of experts soundscape of group international The soundscape design. then beclassifiedbasedoncontextual features, whichmay aidfuture investigate itscontributiontotheoverall impression. Soundscapes can Context may influencesoundscape perception, to anditisimportant Figure 1.Sites1–5(top row, left–right)andSites6–10 (bottom row, left–right). - - hr scin 1 smni sae dsrbn the describing scales semantic 12 section, third the In site. each at perceived those among sound preferred most and ‘soundmark’ the describe to asked were participants the section, second the In scale (with 0 as ‘not at all’ and 10 as ‘extremely’). 11-pointan using evaluated numerical were They lighting, fragrances and odours, and reverberance. scape such as acoustic comfort, visual image, day- sound- urban of conditions physical to preference section sought to obtain the overall impression and tions were arranged in four basic sections: The first ques- The themselves. participants the and scape, tionnaires to assess the acoustic environment, land- ques- using by evaluated was soundscape Urban city parks. are 10 and 9 Sites Cheongyecheon. stream, city a with pathway pedestrian a is 7 Site traffic. small road to exposed are 5–8 Sites fountains. squares with urban are Seoul, downtown in located rise buildings are close to road traffic. Sites 3 and 4, high- and traffic, heavy with streets shopping are 2 and 1 Sites 1). (Figure trees and features, water
31
Photography by the research team 0 5 10 15 20 25 Natural sounds Group A Group B Group C Site #3 Rustling leaves Wind Site #6 Bird song #3 #6 #7 Site #7 Stream Group A Fountain Site #5 Horn from passenger cars #5 #4 #10 People’s activity Site #4 Machinery Site #10 Footsteps Music from buildings Site #1 #1 #2 #8 Street music
Group B Site #2 People’s speech Road traffic
Site #8 Man-made sounds 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage of selection [%] Group C Site #9 #9 Figure 3. Soundmarks of Groups A–C. Figure 2. Results of the hierarchical cluster analysis (average linkage method).
quality of the soundscape were used: ‘pleasant’, In case of overall impression, it was found that Group A consists of different kinds of urban spac- texts. It was found that the best combination of ‘comfortable’, ‘disturbing’, ‘noisy’, ‘loud’, ‘natu- Sites 4, 7, and 9 showed higher subjective ratings es such as urban square (Sites 3 and 4), street with variables with respect to the correlation between ral’, ‘usual’, ‘steady’, ‘pulsating’, ‘far’, ‘narrow’, than others while Site 8 represented the lowest small traffic (Sites 5 and 6), city stream (Site 7), and the overall impression and contexts was differ- and ‘reverberant’. A pair of descriptive adjec- rating. Site 9 also showed the highest rating for city park (Site 10). This indicates that perceptions ent across Groups A–C. In the case of Group A, tives defined for the semantic words were used, acoustic comfort and Site 7 was evaluated as the of urban spaces included in Group A were not sig- visual image and acoustic comfort were included with 12 words on the right and antonyms on the urban soundscape with the lowest acoustic com- nificantly different in terms of contexts. Group B in the regression model, and standardised regres-
left. On a 7-point scale, three points mean that fort. Sound pressure levels (LAeq,3min.) measured contains two shopping streets with heavy traffic sion coefficient for visual image was larger than the impression of the soundscape is very strong. at each site were highly correlated with results of (Sites 1 and 2) and a pedestrian road with heavy for acoustic comfort. This indicates that the con- The last section dealt with demographic data (age acoustic comfort (R2 = 0.72, p < 0.01), whereas traffic (Site 8). The reason why Site 8 was catego- tribution of visual image to overall impression and gender), dwelling type, frequency of visiting the correlation between sound pressure levels and rised into Group B is that sound from small stream was dominant. Regression models of Group B and noise sensitivity, which were evaluated by us- overall impression was not statistically significant. of Site 8 was rarely heard, thus road traffic noise and Group C contained only acoustic comfort and ing an 11-point numerical scale. This indicates that the perception of urban sound- was likely to be as dominant as at Sites 1 and 2. daylighting, respectively. The results of regres- scape is not dependent on sound pressure level, Site 9, green space, categorised into Group C, sion analysis represent that the dominant factors A total of 300 individuals participated in this and is affected rather by visual contexts. Site 9, was distinguished from other urban soundscapes affecting perception of urban soundscape are dif- study; 30 individuals, of which almost an equal green space, was evaluated as the best urban showing the highest subjective responses to the ferent according to classified groups. number were males and females, were selected at space in terms of every context, whereas Site 2 most contexts. each site. The age distribution of the participants with heavy road traffic and high-rise buildings Soundmark, derived from ‘landmark’, refers to a ranged from young people to the elderly, but the was chosen as the worst urban space. Correlation coefficients between overall impres- community sound which is unique, or possesses highest proportion, 40%, of participants were age sion and evaluation results on the contexts for qualities which make it specially regarded or no- 30–40. All the surveys were conducted in the af- Classification of urban soundscapes was carried Groups A–C are listed in Table 1. In the case of ticed by people in that community. As shown in ternoon (13:00–17:00) based on the assumption out through hierarchical cluster analysis on the ba- Group A, acoustic comfort and daylighting as well Figure 3, sound sources chosen as soundmark col- that outdoor activities are most frequent during sis of evaluation results on the contexts, as shown as visual image were highly correlated with over- lected from the surveys were classified into two this period. in Figure 2. The result is represented by a tree in all impression. Acoustic comfort and daylighting groups: natural and man-made sounds. In the case which leaves correspond to 10 urban soundscapes, were also highly correlated with overall impres- of Group A, the percentages of natural and artificial and the three groups (Groups A–C) were chosen. sion in the case of Group B. However, overall sounds were almost same, whereas in Groups B Table 1. Correlation Coefficients Between Overall Impression and Contexts. From the soundscape point of view, Group A can impression of Group C was correlated only with and C, either artificial, or natural soundmarks were Acoustic Visual Day- Fragrances be regarded as ‘designed soundscape’ with trees daylighting. dominant. This result indicates that the character- Comfort Image lighting and Odors Reverberance and various water features, while Group B is con- istics of classified groups also can be explained in Group A 0.37** 0.55** 0.36** 0.18* 0.22** sidered as ‘design target’. Group C is a natural In order to calculate the effects of contexts on terms of soundmark. Group B 0.44** 0.21* 0.31** 0.16 0.14 Group C 0.35 0.32 0.54** 0.00 0.36 landmark with large green area, thus it has to be overall impression, multiple regression analysis planned through urban planning approach. was conducted using a linear combination of con- *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01
32 33 Photography by Östen Axelsson 34 consider the spatial aspects as a context of urban of context a as aspects spatial the consider to necessary is it However, 2. Component than soundscape urban of differences the explain to useful more is 1 Component the 2. that shows This Component in those 1 than larger Component much were in groups between differences while The aspects. variation, spatial the represents 2 temporal Component and loudness fort, com- the to variance, related is 1 Component respectively. total the of 15% and 2 64% and explained 1 Components 2. Component into rised catego were ‘wide’) the ‘far’, of (‘steady’, adjectives three Only ‘pulsating’. and verberant’, ‘re- ‘usual’, ‘natural’, ‘unpleasant’, ‘disturbing’, ‘loud’, ‘noisy’, ‘uncomfortable’, adjectives: nine included 1 Component analysis. factor components through two into grouped were twelve adjectives adjectives, using soundscape urban on test differential semantic the of results the From -
scape. also contributed to the perception of urban sound- aspects spatial and soundmark, by characterised be can groups classified that found was it more, Further daylighting. – C Group and comfort; tic acous- – B Group comfort; acoustic and image al different across classified groups: Group A – visu- were soundscape urban of impression overall ing affect factors dominant the that observed was It groups based on the evaluation results of contexts. that urban soundscapes can be classified into three shows results The soundscape. urban the classify to and soundscape, of perception on contexts of effect the investigate to order in questionnaire by evaluated were soundscapes urban study, this In Component 2waslessthanthatof1. soundscape even though the explained variance of ■ - - Towards an Aural Urbanity? of Department Architecture, College PHLHasselt, University Belgium ofDesignSciences,Department College University Antwerp, Belgium Maria Leus including new toolsandanew architectural language. creating asenseofplace. An auralurbanitydemandsnew approaches, a combinationofseveral senses. For example, soundsare in important Presently architecture ismainly visual, whereas experienceofspaceis subject, existing out of differentrela of and out existingsources subject, dynamic a of concept the to refers ‘scape’ frequency… while hardness, loudness, like rameters pa- acoustic physical and psychological resents ‘Sound’rep- listening. by experienced space a of life the is it activities: dynamic to connect people complex system that provides the means by which a is soundscape a 2008), Blesser, also see (2007; mental evaluation. Referring to Blesser and Salter Soundscape plays an important role in the environ- ax, 2001,p.18). the acoustic environment through listening” (Tru- understand whole a as society and individual the how to refers It communication. acoustic of term basic a as but environment’, ‘acoustic for nym syno- a as just ‘soundscape’not term the used “I Soundscape andUrbanity and layerscancreateanewurbanism. spheres Aural place. of sense loci’—the ‘genius ies. Soundscape is also a striking indication of the ties and the underlying historical layers of the cit activi components, different the emphasise and enhance to helps which aspects, visual the to able avail information additional makes Soundscape esses. both visible and invisible aural products and proc- of result a is Urbanity spaces. public with dealing of way new a for demands urbanity aural ess. An proc- design the during senses aural by inspired 2001; Pallasmaa, 2005). Only a few architects are (Rasmussen, senses of combination a as users by evaluated are however, qualities, (Cross, Spatial 1982). oriented visually purely almost is tion educa architectural in spaces urban Designing - - - - - sciousness isill-defined”. con- of language cognitive “The spaces. aural of process design the in consciousness acoustic of lack the for reason the is language inadequate an that state 12) p. (2007, Salter and Blesser ment. environ- built the in qualities acoustic corporate in- to process design the during applied be which can language architectural an in parameters design aural develop and describe to is aim The Aim p. 17). 2009, (LaBelle, connotations psychological and emotional with charged relations provides that medium communicative a as act and meanings of voices the are Sounds experience. and emotions, behaviour human influences space and sounds of combination The 33). p. 2004, (Soneryd, ing see- from distraction a as than rather living, of emotion. Soundscapes recognise hearing as a way with reason connects it as spaces urban public of soundscape the design to how to approach the in role important very a plays experience sensorial multi- A architecture. and space materials, with dealing when element compositional important an be also can experience sensory a as listening However characteristics. visual to related mostly are spaces public in life of quality the increase that methods Strategic life. of quality the to tant impor is stimulated, is encounter interpersonal the where places, public urban in sounds of ence experi the Especially senses. all of interaction an through embodied are particular in spaces Urban and spatialityofthespace. materiality the by determined are relations These (Cain sources these between tions , 2008). al., et - - 35 The following questions arise: How can we create The application of semiotic instruments like use of the site, the presence and closeness of ob- conscious background experience” (Pallasmaa, tools to communicate to architects, urban planners icons, metaphors and concepts which focus on trusive sound sources, the size on the site, and so 2005, p. 50). and the public? Which sounds do we want to pre- the process of meaning makes the design proc- forth. Each space has its own soundscape (Barrett serve, encourage or duplicate? How can we de- ess more transparent. An icon represents the re- & Miller, 2004, p. 2). Each city has its own reso- Sound is a three-dimensional experience that im- scribe the soundscape of an urban space in order lationship between what is recorded and what we nance which depends on the pattern and the di- merses the listener into an aural context where to capture its character and meaning? see as a resemblance. Ionides and Howell (2005) mensions of streets and squares and the architec- source, architecture and aural space are assem- stress the urgency to encourage designers and ar- tural styles and materiality of the buildings. The bled into a whole. The composition of numerous Yet, communicating on soundscape is limited chitects to include sensory icons in their projects. resonance of a Renaissance city is different from surfaces, objects and geometries in a complicated to means such as text, pictures, symbols and A metaphor, as a mediator, expresses directly or the resonance of a Baroque city. The instrumental environment, creates an aural architecture. diagrams. Conventional physical notation of- indirectly the meaning by a form of identification. dimension of the urban space requires research fers relatively little visual information about the “A metaphor provides a model for the two-way and reflection. Firstly, no sound phenomenon The acoustic space is generally stipulated by reso- soundscape. This information is only accessible interaction of commensurability and heterogene- should be isolated from the spatial and temporal nation, absorption, reflection and the resulting for those who are trained and can decode these ity, similarity and difference” (Cook, 1998, p. 81). conditions and the distribution of its physical in- reverberance. A difference can be made between images. Recording is difficult due to the complex- A concept is a guiding principle for the investiga- dicator. Secondly the subjective value depends on source and signal parameters. Five parameters, ity and changing of the soundscape. Neuhoff et tion of a deeper cultural meaning. It gives an intel- the aural capacity, the attitudes and psychology namely direction, loudness, pitch, timbre and al. (2002) pointed out that a lack of orthogonal- lectual dimension and an additional value to the and culture of the listener. There is no universal duration of sound are determined by the source ity of a single auditory stream is the reason for idea. Ever since Plato stated that behind the world method for listening. Each individual, group and of the sound. The signal-parameters, as defined the problems of mapping acoustic data. “Wherein of material objects there exists a world of ideas or each culture listens in its own manner (Torgue & by Ashby and Johnson (2009, p. 15) in their re- changes in one variable may influence the percep- concepts that represent the real thing, the use of Augoyard, 2009, p. 129). search experience of materials in product design, tion of changes in another variable. Changes in concepts has become widely popular. are muffled, dull, sharp, resonant, ringing, low- any of these perceptual dimensions can influence By recording a place, the reverberations and reso- pitched and high-pitched. perception of changes in the others” (Neuhoff et A pattern language can be an instrument in which nances are more important than making pure re- al., 2002, p. 17). the picture language can act as a stimulator for the cordings of sound sources (Bryden, 2010). The The acoustic perception depends on the organisa- design concept and process. These images must sound artist Justin Bennett experiences noise as tion and architectural, spatial configuration. Both Acoustic Research by Design, reveal the complex objective and subjective data the basic energy of the city. In Bennett’s work forms and dimensions, as well as the composition a Challenge for Designers? of soundscapes. The pattern language developed ‘Sundials’ he tries to set out the sonic identity of and texture of the material play a central role. The Urban designers and architects use drawings and by Alexander is a guideline for architects and ur- several cities and places. The direction of vectors acoustic design parameters are described, coloured models to represent design concepts and to simu- ban planners. The patterns show reflections and in graphic representations shows the character of and tuned by spatial and material characteristics. late future performance. To improve the synergy risks to design topics and offer solutions in a gen- the acoustic environment and the way sounds are Architectural, spatial characteristics consider the between acoustic research and urban and archi- eral, abstract and timeless way in order to com- transmitted in the public space (Bennett, 2009). way in which the configuration of the place takes tectural design, tools must be created to add aural municate the ideas and objectives (Alexander, part in the aural layout of the environment. Pal- information to the visual concept by representing 1979). The aural space can be conceived in a physical lasmaa (2005, p. 49) argues that hearing structures sonic information. and conceptual way. The physical perception re- articulate the experience and give an insight into All these instruments can grow in the direction of fers to the materiality of the walls and the pave- the space. Concerning the acoustic description, Research by design requires not only a problem- aural design parameters, which are described in a ments because they influence on the reflections, the material characteristics must be examined si- solving, but also problem-defining attitude. The pattern language; this will assist designers in the dispersions and changes in the spectral content. multaneously with the spatial configuration. Ma- determination of the conceptual variables defines conceptual process of designing or redesigning The conceptual way deals with the story, the his- terials give an identity to the sites through their the main idea of the design and communication urban spaces with better acoustic qualities. tory of the place and the interaction between peo- texture and reflection. Different textures—smooth strategy. Akin (2002, p. 410) argues that “concep- ple. Soundscape, which is triggered by special or in relief—clarify the structure and the layout tual variables are the schemata that provide the Recording a Soundscape of aural fragments, an ephemeral field, allows new of the built environment. Material parameters like underlying order and structure for an aspect of an an Urban Space interpretations through a temporal scenographic porosity, weight/masses and texture have an im- architectural design”. “Despite the proliferation of noises that are very concept. A scenographic concept provides the op- portant influence on the sound parameters. The much alike, every city still has its own distinct portunity to develop a stronger mental image of challenge for designers is to implement these pa- First we have to define acoustic design parameters acoustic environment, or soundscape. The vari- the city (Leus, 2010). Each public space, squares rameters towards a well-balanced aural urbanity. and translate them into an architectural language ous means of transport, apparently similar eve- and streets, has its own acoustic image. Listening to incorporate acoustic qualities in the built envi- rywhere, in reality produce different worlds of to the city can generate another way of seeing. Conclusion ronment. As Reymen (2001, p. 55) states: “De- sound. There are differences between the sounds The embedding of acoustic design parameters signing is the activity of transforming the state of produced in one city and the same type of sounds Spatial and Material Characteristics of in the ‘architectural language’ has the potential the product being designed or of the design proc- in another city” (Zardini, 2005, p. 168). Aural Urban Spaces of contributing to a more liveable built environ- ess into another state towards the design goal”. “A space is understood and appreciated through ment. How a public space sounds, depends on several its resonance as much as through its visual shape, factors, such as the historical layout, the current but the acoustic percept usually remains as un un-
36 37 The recording, the prediction and the planning of architecture. This change in attitude among de- The Zadar Sea Organ is an award-winning urban, architectural installation sonic performance is complex, in the same way as signers will influence future design projects with a using sea waves to produce quasi-musical sounds. The site has become a architecture itself can be situated in between the shift in mentality from aesthetics to ethics. place for relaxation, contemplation and conversation while listening to an field of analytical-descriptive scientific research The designer, who is a mix of both an architect and endless concert of mystic harmonies of the “Orchestra of Nature”. and the intuitive insight of an indefinable artistic a mentor, will create an inspiring vision of sustain- kind. The attitude of designers towards an aural ur- able future urbanism regarding an acoustic sense Hrvoje Domitrovic and Kristian Jambrosic banity needs to change into an acoustic approach, of place. ■ Department of Electroacoustics, University of Zagreb, Croatia rather than towards aesthetic configuration and
References Akin, Ö. (2002). Case-based instruction strategies in architec- Ionides, J., & Howell, P. (2005). Another Eyesight: Multi- The Zadar Sea Organ ture. Design Studies, 23, 407–432. Sensory Design in Context. Shropshire, UK: The Dog Rose Press. The Croatian coastal town Zadar has almost Configuration of the Sea Organ Alexander, C. (1979). A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, th Construction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. LaBelle, B. (2009). Other acoustics. OASE: Immersed, Sound 3000 years of urban tradition. It is the 5 largest The coastal line at this location is stretched & Architecture, 78, 15-17. city in Croatia, with one of the most propulsive southeast–northwest. Among all winds, the most Ashby, M. F., & Johnson, K. (2009). Materials and Design: The Art and Science of Material Selection in Product Design. Leus, M. (2010). Silence and tranquility areas, the extreme economies among the cities alike. Positioned in wave-energizing come from south and southwest. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. periphery of the in-between cities. In Proceedings of PLiC - the middle of the Croatian Adria coast, Zadar has A 4–5 km wide sea channel separates the penin- Public Life in the In-Between City, 6–10 June, 2010, Haifa, ambitions to be a flagship in tourism, especially sula from the nearest island, Ugljan. The maritime Barrett, D., & Miller, H. (2004). Urban Soundscapes: What Israel. Haifa, Israel: Israel Institute of Technology. Should a Public Space Sound Like? Boston, MA: Miller & taking into account its rich historic and archaeo- traffic through the channel is quite busy and in- Hanson inc. Neuhoff, J.G., Kramer, G., & Wayand, J. (2002). Pitch and logical resources and the qualities of its natural cludes ferries, fishing ships, even sometimes large loudness interact in auditory displays: Can the data get lost Bennett, J. (2009). The City Amplified. Den Haag, Nether- in the map? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, surroundings. A very specific advantage in many cargo ships and tankers. Their cutting waves can lands: Stroom. 17–25. respects is its location on a natural peninsula. cause the sea to motion at this site in a consider- Blesser, B. (2008). Aural architecture: The missing link. Jour- Pallasmaa, J. (2005). The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and able part of time. While the Adriatic Sea is a deep nal of the Acoustical Society of America, 124, 2525–2525. the Senses (2nd ed.). London, UK: Wiley. Recently the city adapted the peninsula’s out- bay of the Mediterranean Sea, the tide amplitudes Blesser, B., & Salter, L-R. (2007). Spaces Speak, Are You Lis- Rasmussen, S.E. (2001). Experiencing Architecture. Cam- ermost pier for accepting modern multi-storey seldom exceed 40 cm. On the other hand, quiet tening?: Experiencing Aural Architecture. Cambridge, MA: bridge, MA: MIT Press. cruising ships. This enables the cruiser passen- weather conditions—with ‘dead sea’— with long MIT Press. Reymen, I. (2001). Improving Design Processes through gers to disembark literally downtown, in the very inertia waves are frequent. Bryden, I. (2010). The Place of Improvisation: The Improvisa- Structured Reflection: A Domain independent Approach heart of Zadar. As part of this development the tion of Place Access. Retrieved August 25, 2010, from: www. (Ph.D. Thesis). Eindhoven, Netherlands: Technical University land2.uwe.ac.uk/symbryden.htm Eindhoven. Croatian architect, Nikola Bašić, implanted a Figure 2 presents the promenade with stairs. The coastal promenade with an attractive staircase position of the staircase is fairly close (55 m) to Cain, R. et al. (2008). Sound-Scape: A framework for charac- Soneryd, L. (2004). Hearing as a way of dwelling: the active terising positive urban soundscapes. In Proceedings of Acous- sense-making of environmental risk and nuisance. Environ- made of traditional stonework in the closest vi- the nearest apartment building. This was taken tics ’08 Paris, June 29 – July 4, 2008 (pp. 3261–3264). Paris: ment and Planning, 22, 737–754. cinity of the cruiser quay (Figure 1). Moreover, into consideration when the project group dis- Société Française d’Acoustique. Truax, B. (2001). Acoustic Communication (2nd ed.). Westport, he meditated on how the sound of sea waves cussed the risk of causing noise annoyance to the Cook, P.R. (Ed.) (1998). Music, Cognition, and Computerized CT: Albex Publishing. could be enriched by some melodious sounds closest residences. Sound: An Introduction to Psychoacoustics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Zardini, M. (2005). Sense of the City: An Alternative Approach that the wave energy could generate. In search to Urbanism. Montréal, Canada: Canadian Centre for Archi- for the right solution Mr. Bašić engaged Ivan Cross, N. (1982). Designerly ways of knowing. Design Stud- tecture. ies, 4, 221–227. Stamać, a well known Croatian acoustician and musical composer, to develop this idea into a feasible product. They agreed that the use of organ-like pipes for this purpose would be a logi- cal choice. That is how the Zadar Sea Organ was conceived. Mr. Bašić formed a task group, which included Mr. Stamać, Prof. Vladimir Andročec for hydraulics, and the organ builder Tomislav Faullend Heferer for the design of organ pipes. The Zadar harbour and city authorities accepted the case study and the overall design of the Sea Organ in early autumn 2004. The Zadar cruiser pier, including the Sea Organ, was opened by a ceremony on 15th April 2005 and has been a growing touristic attraction since. Figure 1. New cruiser quay on Zadar’s old town peninsula. Courtesy of Zadar Tourist Board (http://www.tzzadar.hr).
38 39 to increase the velocity of water inside. The up- nate chords. The sequence of chords g–c6–g–c6– per part, containing the air, bends to the horizon- g–c6–g was chosen to tune 7 sections from NW to tal and enters into the service corridor under the SE. This combination of tones sounds pleasingly promenade where it connects to the organ pipe’s even under extreme circumstances of perpendicu- foot. The pipe’s resonator further transverses the lar waves when all the 35 pipes may sound simul- channel horizontally and protrudes into the lateral taneously. In all other circumstances, Sea Organ tunnel which houses it. will perform monophonic, biphonic and/or poly- phonic tone series, much in the way mouth-organ Stopped flue pipes (pipes with mouths – labiums players perform. and with tuning stoppers) have been used because of their ‘rounded’ timbre as well as of their minor The Grand and Small musical octaves (frequen- sensibility to the aggressive sea environment, in cies between 65 Hz and 250 Hz) were chosen. The contrast to the reed organ pipe. All the pipes are flue pipes emanate their noblest sonority in these
Photography by Kristian by Jambrosic Photography made of inox square profiles. octaves. Their sound resembles the human male Figure 2. Stone promenade and the Zadar Sea Organ. voice, which is needed for the ambiental demands Figure 4. Greeting to the Sun installation next to the Zadar Sea Organ. The total of 35 tube-pipe tandems are built and as noted. The pipes are tuned to chord tones as Courtesy of Zadar Tourist Board (http://www.tzzadar.hr). distributed into 7 sections along the scalinade, follows: D, G, d, g, h (odd sections) and C, G, c, The promenade is 70 m long and divided into 7 each section housing 5 pipes tuned to a musical e, a (even sections), respectively. sections. Viewing the promenade from the main- chord. The service corridor embraces all the 35 el as the stone-paved waterfront in the shape of a land, the rightmost section contains 8 stairs. The pipes, and all the pipe mouth units are accessible The Sea Organ is not a church or a concert hall circle with a diameter of 22 m. Under the glass lowest one is submerged under the average sea inside it. The organ sound is allowed to emanate organ. There is good reason to allow its under- conduction plates there are photovoltaic solar level. Each successive section is 1 stair shorter out into the surroundings through a series of aper- ground sound to be mysterious. Further, the vari- modules through which symbolic communication than the previous one. So the leftmost section has tures at the vertical plane of the uppermost steps ations in sea forces, and consequently in loudness with nature is made, with the aim to communi- only 2 stairs. The sound source is located under along the entire length of the scalinade. The aper- of played tones, positively exceed the expected cate with light, just like the Sea Organ does with the stone pavement. The vertical planes of upper- tures are sea-oriented to direct the sound mainly sound level variations from sound standing waves sound. most stairs have apertures towards the sea, for the to visitors walking or sitting at the stairway, and to in the enclosure under the promenade. sound to emanate. reduce the sound levels at the nearest residences. Simultaneously with the “most beautiful sunset The architect also thought that it looks better. Initially the creators were prepared to abate the in the world” the lighting elements, installed in a One end of a suitable plastic tube is partly im- sound levels the Sea Organ produced. However, circle, turn on and, following a particularly pro- mersed under the sea surface while the other end Musical and Acoustical Aspects until now, after more than 5 years, this has not grammed scenario, produce a marvellous, excep- that contains the air is attached to the ‘foot’ of an Intending to be a real urban musical attraction for been necessary. No serious complaints have been tionally impressive show of light in the rhythm of organ-type pipe. The moving water inside the tube people walking along the Sea Organ, it had to play raised against the organ. the waves and the sounds of the Sea organs. The presses the air column which then forces the pipe pleasing and harmony sounds. Further, the Sea project itself is a unique example of connecting to sound. This basic configuration is shaped to fit Organ had to reflect a local urban musical tradi- Awards and Additions to the Project the use of renewed energy sources, energy effi- the stair construction and physically optimised for tion. In this part of Croatia the prevailing musical The Sea Organ project has received a number of ciency and city space arrangement. hydraulic, pneumatic and acoustic parameters. tradition is the spontaneous four-voice male sing- awards over the years. In 2005, the project re- ing, with melodies and chords conformed to the ceived the Bernardo Bernardi Award, UHA; in Conclusion Figure 3 presents a typical construction detail of Europe’s autochthonous diatonic major scale. 2006 the D!BEST Award of the Croatian Design The installation of the Sea Organ was completed this configuration. The system begins under the Centre, the National building award CEMEX, the at the end of March 2005, a fortnight before the average sea level with a horizontal entry tube, As noted, the installation’s 35 flue pipes are European award for a public urban space, CCCB, opening ceremony. Since then, the pipes have coated by an anti-vegetative layer and located be- grouped into 7 successive sections. The 5 pipes of Barcelona, and the Cemex international building been active night and day. The site is a blend of low the lowest step. The tube then rises obliquely, each section are arranged with ca 1.5 m spacing. award, Monterrey, Mexico. It also was awarded human ideas and skills, and the energy of the sea, with an increasingly narrower diameter in order One listener, standing or sitting on a chosen point the Mies van der Rohe Award in 2007 in Barce- waves, tide and flood. on the scalinade, should be able to hear the 5–7 lona. nearest pipes (i.e. mainly those housed inside the The attractiveness of the Sea Organs, for which SOUND PROMENADE APERTURE relevant section). After the success of the Sea Organs, Zadar has the esteemed Zadar architect Nikola Bašić has added another installation. Next to the famous Sea received numerous international and national FLUE PIPE Thus a logical choice is to tune a whole five-pipe- Organs shines the Greeting to the Sun, created by awards, has charmed not only Zadar and Croatia, section to one chord. This chord shall contain the same architect, Nikola Bašić (Figure 4). but the entire world. There is no doubt that Zadar SEA LEVEL SERVICE tones out of the said diatonic major scale. Further, has acquired a new and excellent attraction with TUBE CORRIDOR it seemed appropriate to alternate along the whole The Greeting to the Sun consists of three hundred its Sea Organ and its unique and already world- scalinade two different but the harmonically cog- multi-layered glass plates placed on the same lev- wide recognised soundscape. Figure 3. The tube-pipe system, located under the promenade. ■
40 41 The soundscape is fundamental in establishing a sense of place and gies such as energetic or informational masking; needs to be clarified in those terms. Sounds must be considered in their and if core underlying issues of soundscapes were proper context and not as isolated units. Sounds of transportation are emerging or whether the discourse was still fo- an integrated part of the modern urban environment. cused on treating symptoms. Martin Gold Transportation and Planning Overview School of Architecture, University of Florida, USA Enrique Penalosa asks us, as a form of inquiry to advance both our expectation and investment, to address the question of how we want to live (Mau, 2004). A challenging, multidimensional Planning for the Soundscape of and temporal inquiry generating debate over re- corded history and through multiple phases of Transportation cultural struggles. Vitruvius (1960) suggested in his De Architctura1, in the first century B.C., In response to the developing discourse on the The Mobility Management session contained two that our world should be ordered yet tempered ‘soundscape’, I am grateful to Östen Axelsson’s papers: Planning for the Soundscape of Trans- by our collective expectation, resources, physi- allowance to provide this paper post mortem, portation by Martin Gold and Sonotope Analysis cal context and technological capabilities. His both as an assessment of, and a contribution to, – Characterising Sonic Landscapes for the Swed- architecture (which includes the city) depends on the soundscape body of work being developed ish Transport Administration by Rikke Thiirmann ‘arrangement’—eurhythmy, symmetry, propriety by researches in the European Union (COST, Thomsen and Per Hedfors. Sonotope analysis was and economy—conceptual strategies to negotiate 2008). Firstly, comments will summarise the is- presented as the early development of a lexicon contradictory forces within a synthetic philosoph- sues of this session, framed within the discourse of sonic experiences toward qualification of both ical position. of the conference. Secondly, the narrative will descriptive and emotive character. Research in- focus on phenomenological concepts and emerg- tends to explore the relationships between quali- Historically, there has been limited ‘choice’ re- ing responses, through historic changes in urban tative evaluations by multiple individuals that garding urban forms as they have primarily re- and transportation planning in the United States might lead to a measurement tool linking de- sponded in reaction to natural resources, geog- and responses to these forces by the Florida Com- scriptive and emotive perception for a range of raphy, pedestrian proximity, and the ability to Urban Village morphology alternatives. munity Design Center in the form of two urban sounds one might encounter in urban and natural secure a civic domain. Since about the year 1900 master plan projects. environments. Comments from session partici- that has been changing in both North America and the world’s population lives in cities supported by pants focused on the specifics of the ‘definition’ Europe—is still evolving in India and Asia—and and formed by mobility infrastructure. Gunnar Söderholm, Head of Stockhom’s Envi- and if subjects would be primed or if the defini- only in the last 50 years are we beginning to as- ronment Department, in his review of progressive tions would emerge from the study. There were sess the cultural implications of urban organisa- New hospitals in cities with less than one million initiatives and Stockholm’s no comments regarding the tion (Mumford, 1961). Modern mobility has liter- people in the US are not located in proximity to substantial accomplish- “We cannot talk about urban planning for soundscape ally transported humanity into an age where urban concentrations of inhabitation anymore, but rather ments, set an ambitious and transport until we know what paper, which was presented morphology is as much a cognitive choice as it is are located near Interstate interchanges follow- broad reaching agenda to first with questions held to a response to outside forces. Air-conditioned cit- ing the lead of national retail (big box)—a model move toward the ‘sustain- type of city we want. The the end. ies such as Las Vegas and Abudabi can exist in exported to Europe and expanded in the form of able city’. Jian Kang elabo- important questions are not remote deserts, and formerly almost unpopulated ‘power centres’ that agglomerate multiple, and rated on the COST mission about engineering but about It is imperative to com- fishing villages in China now sustain over 10 mil- sometimes competing big box retail served by the and the interdisciplinary ways to live.” ment on the closing panel lion people—supported by transportation enabled automobile. The expansion of residential sprawl importance of soundscapes discussion to frame the fol- trade, manufacturing and tourism. Trains, ships, has been documented and expounded upon to the Enrique Penalosa, former Mayor of in particular. Professor Lex Bogota, Columbia (Mau, 2004). lowing discourse. Sound vs trucks, planes, buses, cars, carts and bicycles link point that many consider it self-evident (Kunstler, Brown introduced the ‘plan- Noise—the aestheticising our urban centres to farmland, coal fields, and 1993)2. Of course, this automobile infrastructure ner’s perspective’ and it was of the wanted and unwanted fisheries, and refuse repositories sometimes half- begets new roads, road expansions at collec- clear from his presentation that, even though the sound—seemed to trigger debate centred on rec- way around the world. As of 2008, more than half tor arterials, which become ‘prime’ locations for sonic ‘resource’ paradigm of the soundscape ini- ognising the ‘soundscape’ in opposition to iden- tiative has been established, much of the research tifying solutions to specific problems. Questions and application in urban soundscapes remains raised delved deeper into those issues in terms of Notes focused on ‘noise control’ with typical responses theory/practice gaps; the condition that research 1. Vitruvius is referred to as the first engineer. Here the work is referenced to convey the lineage of design as a synthetic process focusing on direct reduction, noise barriers or questions are still emerging; the qualification of of inclusion and measure which is imbedded in the soundscape mission statement.
masking strategies. open or ‘natural’ space in relation to organised 2. Kunstler’s (1993) novel format is directed at non-professionals who recognize the problem and are looking to engage the or build space; appropriateness of specific strate- discourse.
42 43 dependent on the scale, capacity and connectivity ing counterpuntal advances to re-pedestrianise with particular interest on the precision of the lo- of the road than any other single factor3. Other ad- and increase residential density in urban fabric. cation and quantification of events occurring over jacencies will temper the use, influence the scale To effect changes in urban morphology, the trans- time—important from an analysis perspective but of the building and dictate the building location or portation planning organisation must be willing to wanting in terms of strategy. What seemed to be required specific buffers on the site, but the trans- participate and take a lead role. Finally, as new missing from the general discourse was a quali- portation infrastructure is primary in determining electric and perhaps hydrogen-powered vehicles fication of the urban soundscape in more general components of use and form. Furthermore, quali- are being implemented, the symptom of cars that and abstract terms, that might begin to explore ties of ‘blight’ and the concentric development are too quiet seems to have emerged revealing an- the soundscape of place or ‘sonus loci’ in an open and decline radiating out from urban centres with other opportunity to contour the soundscape. ended yet precise manner—even with the focus urban, exurban and suburban fabric has been fa- of mobility. This line of inquiry seemed to be em- cilitated by transportation expansion embraced “The cars hiss by my window, like the bedded in the emerging ‘sonotope’ methodology as ‘improvement’ among other factors including waves down on the beach.” of qualifying soundscape emotively as presented boom and bust economic cycles. in the Mobility Management session discussed Jim Morrison4 above. Phenomenologically, the soundscape, in In a study conducted by architecture students from particular with regard to transportation, is fun- the University of Florida using Google Earth map- Soundscape and Mobility damental in establishing the sense of ‘place’ of a ping and measurement tools, the allocation of land It is important to qualify the momentum and im- place and needs to be clarified in those terms. For area for multiple commercial morphologies in the pact of mobility on urban form in the 20th Centu- example: southern United States was measured. Evaluation ry. Lewis Mumford, in his essay, What is a City?, sites included linear ‘strip’ development along ar- makes the following characterisation of urbanity: Very early one morning, while attending this conference I was awak- terial roads; ‘village’ development at interstate in- en to the distant bellow of a passenger ship making way through a dense fog. Barely awake, I was immediately ‘placed’ in Stockholm terchanges; traditional suburban shopping malls; “The city fosters art, and is art; the city as theater, while lingering to listen to the formation of the sound, its linger- urban shopping malls; traditional town centre that man’s more purposive activities are focused, ing in the landscape, and its repeat. Pulling back the shade to look commercial districts; new urbanist commercial and worked out, through conflicting and cooper- out the window, I was amazed to find the fog so dense that the Soundscape and land use overview with proposed transportation en- interventions; a new urbanist transformation of ating personalities, events, groups, into more sig- window was just a milky surface. In the distance however, the scale hancements for automobiles (multi-way boulevard and square-back), a former suburban mall; and the ‘themed’ down- nificant culminations” (Mumford, 2000). of the ship and marine landscape remained measurable from only transit line (with arrows) and transit stops (dots). town Citywalk at Universal Studios in Orlando, the sound. Do the ships horns blow only during the fog, and thus signify the event for those who need not look to see? Or, is this a Florida. Although the distribution of destination Mumford, also a staunch advocate of Ebenezer common artifact of the harbor soundscape? When in Gainesville, programs (type of commercial) varied in content Howard’s ‘city green’ philosophies, dedicated about once a week around 11:00 pm, the local research hospital’s commercial businesses that rely on automobiles, and proportion over the studied sites, the parking much of his energy to keeping highways out of emergency helicopter flies directly over our house. It can be annoy- which increase trips that require road expan- footprint occupied 50% to 75% of the total devel- the city as the best strategy to protect the “city ing. But, it suggests that someone is getting needed attention and is sions—the accelerating process is quite clear and oped land area associated with the retail—parking as theater”. Also interesting in Mumford’s char- on the way to the hospital, of which I have an array of images in my rarely avoidable. was equal to or greater than the actual commer- acterisation of the “theater” are the inherent, em- mind and just that quickly, for an instant I am transported there as well. Are these moments of experience unwanted? cial area. This has a tremendous impact on urban bedded and interrelated sensual components of Martin Gold Urban Morphology – form—beyond the roads. Alternatively, there is a urbanity—sight, sound, touch, smell. Attendees Land Use and Mobility great opportunity here to organise the storage of of the Designing Soundscapes for Sustainable To develop a property in the US for more than automobiles to support strategic principles em- Urban Development conference in Stockholm The work of the Florida Community Design Cent- six dwelling units, it must be connected to a road bedded in the urban soundscape. presented papers contributing to robust discus- er, which is a collaboration of professors, students that typically meets Association of State Highway sions regarding the assessment of sounds asso- and intern architects, was presented in the Mo- and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) speci- Mobility infrastructure and the associated vehicles ciated with transportation which were generally bility Management session of the conference as fications, which have been adopted by almost that use it have become the primary determinants considered unwanted—traffic noise. This is un- Planning for the Soundscape of Transportation. every municipal and state government agency. of urban form in the post war American land- fortunately quite common, for example, Randall The work extends a phenomenological lineage The allowable development on the site, scale of scape. In Europe, this trend is evident in suburban Thomas’ compilation of projects published as of thought through very practical assessments of commercial activity or intensity of use, is more development even though urban centres are mak- Sustainable Urban Design: An Environmental soundscape conditions, considerations for trans- Approach, which has been widely circulated, ad- portation initiatives and the commercial and resi- dresses sound as noise to be attenuated, masked or dential development associated with it. In some Notes buffered (Thomas, 2003). Conference presenta- cases, the strategy is to buffer, in other cases to 3. This relationship is based on ‘concurrency’ (development transportation impacts must be accommodated by existing capac- tions also demonstrated core research and strate- emphasise and celebrate, in some cases to elimi- ity at the level of service established by the county), the typically low levels of service currently in place and reviews of the fairly generic land development codes applied throughout the US by the Municipal Code Corporation (http://www.municode. gies for both energetic and informational masking nate and in other cases to insert. com/). of transportation ‘noise’ with alternative sources
4. The Cars Hiss By My Window, from the L.A. Woman record, Electra Records, 1971. The album is partly a critique of L. A. ranging from fountains to birds. Other presenta- The first of two projects presented, Urban Vil- culture in the transitioning 70 decade which includes city with transit removed in favour of the automobile. tions focused on the documentation of sounds lage: 250 acre master plan for a mixed-use urban
44 45 node adjacent to the University of Florida, will modate very high volumes at low speeds—less gional arterial road that provides the primary truck road. Strategically pulled-back from the main ar- transform an ecological transect and marginally noise. route for the city of 250,000 and secondarily by the terial and served with a low-speed street with a developed area into a high residential density ur- municipal airport to the north of the site. Counter- diffused parking configuration, the pedestrian ac- ban node with associated commercial, retail and The site hydrology includes wet catchments that posed to the transportation impacts are areas of cess is vibrant yet not overwhelmed by the inten- transit. Project strategies were developed from percolate directly to the aquifer offering oppor- recreation and wetlands teaming with indigenous sity of the arterial and is easily accessed from the analysis of hydrology/geology (water and asso- tunities for natural bio swales and green spaces. flora and fauna. The residential neighbourhoods neighbourhood. The commercial service area is ciated natural areas), transportation forces—as a Soundscape strategies that call for quiet spaces are bisected by the main road are well established and joined in an alley configuration with high-density new arterial road was planned for the area—and aligned with innovative phyto-remediation storm residents feel the character is being degraded by low-rise residential (row house configuration) to the soundscape as a methodological tool to evalu- water purification strategies that suggest water recent development and road ‘improvements’ that provide a secondary buffer and to oppose residen- ate and make design recommendations that inte- gardens that also support habitat expansion. Ur- have been done in the recent past. tial with residential in terms of land use. The other grate planning and transportation concerns. ban form that buffers these spaces from the more side of the arterial is a linear greenway for inter- intense commercial areas provides spatial, sonic Core strategies included the development of a sec- mittent bus rapid transit (BRT) that is expected Soundscape analysis included physical measure- and habitat diversity. Urban node morphology al- ondary commerce street to separate local traffic to evolve into light rail and a dedicated multi-use ments at various locations around the site and ternatives were explored in the forms of a large from the arterial forming a multi-way boulevard; path (bicycles and pedestrians). Development on qualitative assessments of the acoustic environ- central park, diffused pocket parks, transportation provide square-back morphology at the auto-dom- the greenway side will be set back from the arte- ment that include keynote sounds, sound signals, aligned linear parks and recombinant variations of inated regional intersections (pedestrian oriented rial with the exception of major intersections. the acoustic horizon, soundmarks and acoustic those types. In this fashion, the core synthetic de- commerce on the square, rather than the intersec- events5. For example, there was an Interstate at sign strategies were applied resulting in a subjec- tion); and transit and cycle infrastructure along a It is not the intention, in any of the projects to nec- some distance that was clearly audible as a ‘key- tively parametric analysis/synthesis. Each strat- greenway with dedicated transit stops. This large essarily ‘abate traffic noise’ but rather to moder- note’ sound yet not so intrusive that local sounds egy included all of the core elements yet different project area was studied in more detail through ate sounds and to provide a variety of opportuni- such as wind in trees, birds and local traffic were aspects were optimised as a result of opportunities natural districts that emerged based on land use, ties for a rich and diverse acoustic environment. not audible and sometimes primary. Wind in the derived from the different forms. density, connectivity, historic significance and The work attempts to draw out the inherent phe- trees and birdsong would also be considered key- proximity to existing infrastructure. Recommen- nomenological qualities inherent in the climate, note sounds. Soundwalks were conducted through The second project presented, Designing the Wal- dations for changes in use, residential density landscape, soundscape, mobility infrastructure, the project area of approximately 14 acres result- do Road Corridor: Plan East Gainesville Imple- and detailed mapping of the multi-way boulevard market potential and to advance both traditional ing in the identification of 5 primary acoustical mentation Strategies for the Gateway to Gaines- were also conducted but are not shown here. In and emergent sustainability strategies. The work zones. Long-term average and sonic events were ville and the University of Florida, was developed terms of sonic responses, the conceptual approach phases have both analytically dominated and syn- measured at multiple times throughout typical through a two year analysis, workshop and design was to develop an acoustical transect to contour thetically dominated modes of activity with keen days during a one-week period. Measurements proposal process that included multiple oppor- the soundscape based on the arterial road as the attention to not focusing on one to the exclusion were related to the sounds heard through graphs tunities for community engagement. The project primary sound source. The transect would change of the other. The projects have very long timelines and qualitative narrative. intention was to provide implementation strate- in response to the district conditions as one moves and the Waldo Road Corridor is now on the pri- gies for development along 3.5 miles of an im- along the roadway and gaps would be strategi- ority list for transportation improvements for im- Results suggested that adding commercial pro- portant regional arterial road. The scope of work cally located and designed for programs that pro- plementation of the first phase of the multi-way gram elements would require an urban form that included locating future transit nodes and transit vide a transition from the neighbourhood street to boulevard. The Urban Village project has fos- can buffer out-of-doors social activities from line; civic infrastructure such as a hospital and the active commerce—acoustic markers such as tered a developer who has engaged the concepts existing residential areas. The design must also recreational facilities; increased residential den- outside dining or playgrounds to draw pedestrians presented, purchased various parcels for unified enhance buffering of residential areas with new sity at a variety of market rates; improved neigh- through the buffers could be located at the gaps. development, and the municipal planning depart- construction. Vertical distance could be utilised bourhood cohesion and character; and improved ment has issued a dramatic increase in residential to provide acoustic separation between new resi- connectivity across the arterial—now viewed as Important strategies for the residential district in- density in the area to allow the project to move dential and a more active commercial street. Ur- a significant barrier. Core strategies were drawn clude new commercial construction as a primary forward as conceived. It will likely be on hold for ban parks could be utilised to provide separation from the unique hydrology of very poorly drained acoustic buffer between residents and the arterial another 5 to 7 years based on the economy. ■ between higher intensity transit (busses/light rail) lands and the need for municipal storm water fa- and residential units. A key transportation strategy cilities; the opportunity for that infrastructure to References is to provide a fine-grained gridded street system become recreational area, pocket parks and buffer COST (2008). Memorandum of Understanding [COST Action Mumford, L. (2000). What is a city? In R.T. LeGates & F. Stout TD0804]. Brussels, Belgium: COST. (Eds.), The City Reader (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge. coordinated with a low-speed high-volume arte- zones; and the opportunity to leverage key loca- rial that includes traffic circle intersections and tions through planned transit stops. Kunstler, J.H. (1993). The Geography of Nowhere: The Rise Thomas, R. (2003). Sustainable Urban Design: An Environ- and Declin of America’s Mand-Made Landscape. New York, mental Approach. London, UK: Spon Press. in-street light rail. This integrated strategy allows NY: Simon & Schuster. traffic to diffuse during peak times to accom- The existing soundscape is dominated by a re- Vitrivius, M. (1960). The Ten Books on Architecture [De Ar- Mau, B. (2004). Massive Change. London, UK: Phaidon chitectura] (M.H. Morgan, Trans.). New York, NY: Dover Press. Publications.
Notes Mumford, L. (1961). The City in History: Its Origins, Its 5. The Soundscape study was conducted by Doctoral students Youngmin Kwon and Pattra Smitthakorn under the supervision of Transformations, and Its Prospects. New York, NY: Harcourt Professor Gary W. Siebein. Brace Jovanovich.
46 47 Soundscape is not just a question of how loud sounds are, but what There is no one ideal soundscape—no unchang- scape. Land use mixing is conventionally seen as meaning they convey. At the same time there is no one ideal soundscape. ing sonotopia. People’s needs change continuous- enhancing urban vitality and diversity. However, The best approach is probably to consider human activities in order to ly through the day, week and year, according to if planners mix housing too closely with, for ex- build consensus on what constitutes a good soundscape. their activities and factors such as mood. Human ample, late night eating, drinking and entertain- experience is generally multi-sensory. In particu- ment, sounds of the latter must be ‘sealed in’, so Max Dixon lar, what you see can influence how you hear and street soundscapes are less rich. Independent consultant, formerly adviser to Mayor of London, UK vice-versa. Also important are environmental and social context, and comparisons between place Soundscape is best considered from the outset— types, including the effect of moving between one in plan-making at urban and regional spatial soundscape and another. scales, district-wide regeneration and in indi- Urban and Regional Planning: Introducing the vidual projects. Environmental Noise Directive Soundscape Planning Approaches 2002/49/EC requires preparation of noise map- Soundscape Approach Soundscape quality merits specific promotion to ping and action plans for large urban areas, ma- compensate for a historic over-concentration on jor roads, railways and airports. The first round ‘Soundscape’ is a concept that many planners and annoy, impose a cost on the organism. This is not the visual in planning and architecture. However, is currently being reviewed by the Commission. architects grasp readily—the aural equivalent of just a matter of individual preference or amen- a tyranny of the ear should not replace that of Could the process be more integrated with urban townscape or landscape. More precise definitions ity. ‘Hard-wiring’ implies wider implications for the eye! If a noise screen is used to enhance lo- and regional planning? How could responsible include “the totality of all sounds within a loca- health and wellbeing2. cal soundscape, it also needs to ‘work’ in terms authorities take account of soundscape? Should tion with an emphasis on the relationship between of visual design, personal security, and so forth. authorities identify, protect and enhance areas of individual’s or society’s perception of, under- Most relevant research has been on human re- Evidence on how to balance one aspect of human high soundscape quality, use the extent of audibil- standing of and interaction with the sonic envi- sponse to individual noise sources. Recognition perception with another is currently limited, but, ity of key ‘soundmarks’ as popular indicators of ronment”1. is growing that it is not just a question of how for example, high visual quality may be more ca- soundscape quality, and promote land use swaps loud it is, but what meaning sounds convey. For pable of offsetting the impact of poor soundscape between areas of good and poor soundscape? Why then are soundscapes treated with less care example, when traffic noise was reduced in Lon- quality than high soundscape quality is of offset- than cherished townscapes or landscapes? The an- don’s Soho district, some residents became more, ting the impact of poor visual design. Planners Techniques for including soundscape quality in swer may be in how our aural sense has evolved. not less, annoyed. Sounds of drunken party-goers and designers are, of course, accustomed to bal- Environmental Impact Assessment need to be leaving late night clubs and bars became more au- ancing needs qualitatively, where factors are not developed, such as in landscape characterisation. During millennia of evolution, from hominids, dible as the background drone of traffic noise fell. currently quantifiable. Supportive soundscapes should become part of say 5 million years ago, to the spread of humans More of the audible sounds had meanings, sug- Health Impact Assessment. Different methods of out of Africa from about 100,000 years ago, an gesting danger and loss of control. ‘Good’ versus Sceptics may argue that sound perception is assessing soundscapes have differing advantages ever-open auditory channel, on ‘stand-by’ for ‘bad’ soundscape is not the same as ‘quiet’ versus subjective, that ‘one person’s music is another’s and disadvantages—using more than one method fight or flight, was essential to survival. City liv- ‘noisy’. noise’. However, subjective does not mean ran- may be best. A soundscape inventory is likely to ing only appeared in Mesopotamia between 3,000 dom. Human listening can be broadly categorised be useful, perhaps just from a simple soundwalk. and 3,500 years ago; industrialisation only a few The activity and level of engagement of people into three ‘states’ (see Table 1). These broadly cor- generations ago. experiencing a soundscape are key issues in their respond with certain activities and land uses. In Securing effective soundscapes in more of our perception. In terms of level of engagement, the the current state of knowledge, an activity-based public spaces will require popular support. Citi- For aeons, the world spoke to us in diverse voices, UK Positive Soundscapes Project3 made a dis- approach appears to offer the best scope for build- zens may be invited to nominate sounds of local rich with meaning. Now most of us live within tinction between noise control professionals, se- ing consensus on what constitutes a good sound- interest, and identify areas of special soundscape a global mega-machine that hums in meaningless rious listeners and general users. ‘Noise control- flat-line drones. Most of the time, urban sound- lers’ want hard and fast criteria for assessment. scapes give us little of value. We have moved ‘Serious listeners’ may be excited by culturally Table 1. Listener State, Typical Activity and Land Use. from hunter-gatherers ‘learning through listen- significant sounds, preservation of rare features, ing’, to living largely in a ‘learnt unlistening’. We or may find in the environment what other peo- Listener State4 Listening Mode Typical Activity, e.g. Urban Use Current Policy cope by ‘switching off’ or ‘tuning out’. We are ple mainly find in music—listening to sound as alienated from our sound worlds. sound, its qualities rather than its meanings. The In Search Engaged, receptive Walking, recreation, Park, street, square, Soundscape design term ‘soundscape’ is, indeed, also used to describe events, shopping… market, shops… Many of us spend much time in mental rather than music which incorporates environmental sounds In readiness In flux Conversation, routine Kitchen, restaurant, Noise and soundscape physical activity. Parts of the brain evolved to or has especially immersive qualities, such as tasks… bathroom… process sound on a stand-by basis are now used in in film sound design. For ‘general users’, sound tasks needing short term memory, such as reading typically influences the perceptions they form of a Distracted Detached, ‘tuning out’ Reading, writing, learn- Library, classroom, Noise control and writing. ‘Sound’ becomes ‘noise’—unwanted place, even if they did not consciously rate sound ing, watching TV… bedroom, living intrusions which, even if they do not consciously when choosing to use it. room…
48 49 tional masking’ is sufficient—a counterpoint to and expresses processes within the ear. Each sec- the drone, maybe with stochastic characteristics, tion of the proposed sonic array would affect dif- maybe at frequencies higher than the dominant ferent frequency bands, for listeners at relevant low frequency flatline typical of urban areas. focal points. A mobile variant, ‘Organ of Corti’, resembling a small fairground organ, would ‘re- In the current state of knowledge, we need to be cycle’ existing sounds in other sound-saturated cautious and selective about adding sound electro- settings, such as near a motorway or during the acoustically, only after other soundscape-related City of London Festival. interventions outlined above have been consid- ered. Creative use of added sound may at present Future steps in soundscape management are likely be best used in the context of experiments to im- to include: prove understanding of perception and behaviour. It should be site-specific, in terms of place and • More account of listener states and activities, function, and responsive to changing ambient sound qualities and meanings, conditions through time. Some people may still • Automated source identification and new object to the principle of putting the acoustic envi- soundscape quality indicators, ronment on ‘electro-acoustic life support’! • Incremental adjustment of standards, regula- tions and guidance, Artists do, however, have license to experiment • Protection, unmasking, enhancement of posi- Liminal’s “Cochlea Unwound” sonic crystal array. in ways not available to planners or landscape tive soundscape characteristics, designers, stretching popular imaginations. Limi- • More use of auralization in decision-making, nal’s recent work, winning the UK PRS New • Demonstrating and evaluating soundscape in- quality, perhaps using applications like Google- room on ‘quiet side’, acoustic balconies), Music Award 20105 ‘sculpts’ soundscape—not terventions, mapping and AudioBoo. Audiotrails can be devel- 7. Relocate paths, seats. adding more sound energy, but filtering out sound • Interactive personal listening augmentation, oped to show soundscape richness, such as where at specific frequencies. An ‘acoustic tube’6 was • New approaches to sharing acoustic space us- sounds are highly intermittent. Mobile audio is Generally, it is prudent to reduce ‘negatives’ be- explored, but the chosen means was a ‘sonic crys- ing ecological principles. often seen as part of the ‘switch off’ problem, fore enhancing ‘positives’. Acting at source wher- tal’ in the form of a ‘Valencia Sonic Lens’7. This but new applications can encourage engagement, ever possible accords with the ‘polluter pays’ array of long cylinders could attenuate or enhance Climate change, the century’s greatest challenge, such as with sound frequencies at the upper end of principle in first considering the responsibility of sound at specific frequencies, depending on cylin- demands that we live in greater harmony with normal hearing range. those introducing fresh impacts. der diameter and spacing. Liminal’s proposed art- other living things. Reconnecting with our sound work ‘Cochlea Unwound’ at a weir on the River worlds could play a pivotal role in the cultural How should planners and communities decide on Pragmatically, it also focuses attention on the Severn in Worcester, next to Diglis island, reflects transformations this will require. ■ prioritising planning and design of soundscape- sound quality of machines, where product regu- related interventions? We are a long way from be- lation needs improvement. In particular, the shift ing able to quantify costs and benefits properly. from petrol and diesel engines towards hybrid and Notes However, a broad hierarchy could provide rough full electric vehicles offers a ‘one-in-a-hundred- 1. Payne, S.R., Davies, W.J., & Adams, M.D. (2009). Research into the Practical and Policy Applications of Soundscape Con- guidance on priorities: year’ opportunity to improve soundscapes. Some cepts and Techniques in Urban Areas (NANR 200). London, UK: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DE- FRA). vehicle makers want to add sound back in, not just 1. Improve sound quality at source (e.g., reduce for safety, but for attracting certain types of driver. 2. Effects of noise on people include annoyance, disruption of speech and other communication, disturbance to rest and sleep, use of cars, aircraft, improve product regula- Without assessment of the soundscape mix, could and stress. There is growing evidence on the health effects of long term noise exposure, for example, cardiovascular risk. tion), ‘product differentiation’ give us a ‘streetful of 3. http://www.positivesoundscapes.org/ 2. Use land use, design and conservation to influ- ringtones’? 4. Three listening states are an approximation. Perception may in practice be more of a continuum. Barry Truax described ‘listen- ence soundscape (e.g., avoid too fine a land ing in search’ as a form of analytical listening, where the individual is focused upon hearing sounds relating to their activity. use mix so that work and leisure sounds do not Planners, architects, landscape designers and ‘Listening in readiness’ is the intermediate listening state, where the individual is listening to certain aspects of the soundscape need to be ‘sealed in’ to protect residents, re- others need to work with sounds already being but is also alert for other sounds that provide the individual with important information. ‘Background listening’ can also be termed distracted listening, as the individual is focused on something that does not need acoustic cues, such as reading a book, tain popularly-valued ‘soundmarks’), produced by activities, and influence how these so they are ‘tuning out’ the sound. 3. Enrich biodiversity (e.g., birds, insects, wind propagate and are ‘coloured’ by built form, sur- 5. http://www.prsformusicfoundation.com/newmusicaward/winner.htm. Liminal is composer David Prior and architect Frances in trees), faces, vegetation and other elements. The sounds Crow, http://www.liminal.org.uk/. 4. Modify pathway (e.g., barrier, ground model- of birds, insects, wind in vegetation, re-natu- ling, absorption, lowering receptor), ralised watercourses, street markets and other 6. A tube lined with material which absorbs sound at certain frequencies. Freestanding sound absorptive walls appear in the work of Bruce Nauman, for example. 5. Semi-natural masking/mix (e.g., fountain, sounds, which may have positive associations in weir), context, do not need to literally ‘mask’ traffic or 7. Inspired by work by Hakansson and Sanchez-Dehesa of Valencia Polytechnic, and developed with help from Valencia Univer- sity and Professor Keith Attenborough of the Open University. 6. Self-protecting layout/design (e.g., at least one air-conditioning plant. In many cases, ‘informa-
50 51 The Environmental Noise Directive’s demand to protect quiet urban areas creates an important opportunity to implement the soundscape approach. At the centre is quality of life, which includes considering how citizens experience the urban environment. Miriam Weber DCMR - Environmental Protection Agency, Schiedam, The Netherlands
Quiet Urban Areas in Rotterdam: Enhancing Soundscapes?
The European Directive 2002/49/EC (EC, 2002), The Environmental Noise Directive recognises commonly known as the Environmental Noise the positive effects of these areas as well. Howev- Directive (END), requires authorities to delineate er, whether the acoustic quality of an area is good, ‘quiet areas’ in cities. Article 8 END requires cit- depends not only on the loudness of the acoustic ies to aim at protecting these ‘quiet’ urban areas; environment, but also on the people experiencing although leaving it up to the respective authorities it. Therefore the focus of environmental sound re- on what criteria to define a ‘quiet’ urban area and search has recently shifted from noise pollution to what steps to be taken to protect these areas. a broader perspective on acoustic environments, including its positive aspects (see e.g., the World Evaluation of the implementation of the END rev- Soundscape Project initiated by Murray Schafer ealed that only a limited number of cities has im- in the late 1960s; Schafer, 1994). plemented these requirements. For example about 10% of the Dutch municipalities identified ‘quiet’ The concept of soundscape refers to the percep- Rotterdam noise map. urban areas in their noise action plans; and even tion and understanding of acoustic environments less than 10% defined actions to be taken to pre- by an individual. This means that various factors serve or improve these areas. have to be considered in analysing soundscapes, well as by ‘where, when and how is heard’. An tors, such as low air quality and noise, which have such as sound sources and characteristics; per- example from Rotterdam is the following; office negative health impacts. Nowadays this dilemma Noteworthy, as well, is that many municipalities sonal characteristics and environmental factors. workers regularly having lunch in a nearby park is addressed by integrated approaches based upon identified ‘quiet’ urban areas using acoustic pa- This approach is supported by many studies (e.g., will perceive sounds from traffic, construction ac- the concept of quality of life. Physical characteris- rameters, for example, average noise levels below Schulte-Fortkamp, 2002) confirming that noise tivities or passersby different from a resident who tics of quality of life are, for example, the quality 40 dB. But how do citizens perceive and appraise exposure data in certain cases, or areas, do not recently moved to an apartment in the city centre of the dwelling, environmental quality such as air these ‘quiet’ urban areas? And which physical match with exposure response of citizens, and that from a small village and who is looking for an quality and noise levels, and quality of the living and psychological indicators are relevant for the correlation between noise annoyance and physi- open place for enjoying the sun and a book. area itself such as the availability of green space characterisation and evaluation of these acoustic cal factors varies between 20 and 30 percent. The and public transport. environments? existing practice of noise policy and noise surveys Soundscape research aims, among other things, is addressing (negative) effects like annoyance to develop a conceptual framework for assessing Improving quality of life has been addressed in Quiet Urban Areas: A Soundscape and sleep disturbance due to (high) noise levels. soundscapes (e.g., Axelsson, Nilsson & Berglund, many policy plans of Rotterdam, for example, the Approach for Municipalities? Parameters applied in these noise annoyance sur- 2010; Brown, Kang & Gjestland, 2011). The sub- noise action plan 2009, and the recent Frame for ‘Quiet’ urban areas provide an interesting concept veys address noise sources and the annoyance sequent challenge is to disseminate this knowl- Quality of Life in which noise is one of the key or approach for noise policy and spatial planning these sources cause when staying at home, and do edge to municipalities and translate soundscape elements. As a consequence future noise actions at local administrative level. Since years the im- not consider other situations, activities and com- approaches into practical instruments. will be based on three pillars: (1) prevention of portance of quietness for health and well-being is bination of sounds experienced by the human be- noise annoyance and negative health impacts, (2) known from academic research (e.g., GR, 2006). ing. In surveying and assessing soundscapes, on Rotterdam: A Positive Turn to improving the overall acoustic climate of the city, Providing ‘quiet’ green parks and inner courts in the other hand, such other parameters are added Noise Abatement and (3) integration of noise in spatial planning. As residential areas or city centres provides daily to the acoustic measured or modelled parameters A major economic hub, Rotterdam and its har- such (technical) noise abatement measures, for ‘refuge’ from high noise impacts to the citizens. like loudness, frequency and duration of the noise. bour, regularly experience the dilemma of com- example, constructing noise barriers or applying The challenge for municipalities, thus, is to pre- This is to be understood from the fact that human peting ambitions from industry, infrastructure and low noise road surfaces, are complemented with serve and improve existing ‘quiet areas’ and de- responses to sounds (positive, negative or neutral) recreation. As such citizens are—highly and con- ‘positive’ approaches improving acoustic envi- sign similar areas in (re)construction spatial plans. are not only explained by ‘what is heard’ but as stantly—exposed to various environmental fac- ronments.
52 53 In addition, in order to be able to describe and study will search for ‘linkages’ with these ongo- Concluding: Missed Opportunities Turned characterise the ‘quiet’ urban area from a sound- ing projects and involve relevant groups and citi- Into Enhancing Soundscapes! scape perspective, other factors need to be ad- zens in the soundscape analysis and definition of Recent studies underpinnes the added value of dressed in the interviews as well. These factors area-specific policy proposals. broadening the scope from noise to soundscape can be defined as external environment factors approaches (e.g., Botteldooren et al., 2008; and psychological factors. Examples of the first An interesting example is the action programme Brown, 2010). The concept of soundscape ex- are meteorological factors and visual factors, like of Overschie, a residential area of Rotterdam plicitly refers to sound variations experienced in architecture surrounding the park, greenery, water, which has high levels of air pollutants and noise space and time, grounded in the topography of the and other natural elements in the park. Psycho- due to two highways. Since 2008 national authori- built-up area and different sounding sources. As logical factors are for example the expectations of ties, the municipality and the residents are work- the so-called non-acoustic factors are widely ac- the park’s visitors, their reasons for visiting the ing on various projects improving the quality of cepted in explaining peoples response to acoustic park and their emotional state. All factors, finally, life, for example, green inner courts, green oases (and other sensorial) surroundings, the ‘human’ define the perception and appreciation of the ‘area and green noise barriers. One of the selected parks should be central in the process of characterising as a whole’, or the perceived tranquillity, well- for the ‘quiet’ urban area pilot is located in Over- ‘quiet’ urban areas. In the pilot study on ‘quiet’ being, or (negatively) annoyance. The advantage schie, and enables us to use existing organisation urban areas in Rotterdam, linguistics and psy- of addressing these factors is that this approach structures, contacts and knowledge in the sound- chology and other disciplines will be integrated in Measuring sound levels in a ‘quiet’ area. partially resembles recent quality of life research scape research. order to (1) develop soundscape surveys, and (2) and as such supports integrated decision making define verbal indicators characterising the various in the municipality. Lessons learnt in the pilot research will be im- soundscapes assessed. The latter can be added to These policy ambitions are now translated in sev- plemented in policy- and decision-making proc- the acoustical parameters that are applied by ac- eral pilot projects on quality of life and ‘quiet’ ur- The challenge, on the other hand, is develop- esses, for example, urban spatial planning and ousticians, administrators and politicians and, as ban areas. Regarding the latter, three parks have ing questionnaires that are—linguistically and landscape planning. As literature revealed (for a such, broaden the discourse on ‘quiet areas’ and been selected based upon a noise map and a sur- psychologically—fit for assessing perceptions concise overview see Brown & Muhar, 2004), ur- spatial planning. vey on quality of life, where citizens were asked and soundscapes. Noise annoyance surveys have ban and landscape architects until now create and to nominate ‘quiet areas’ in Rotterdam. been in place since many years; instruments and design ‘visually’ and do not take auditory percep- In applying a soundscape approach, and more questionnaires have been improved and standard- tions into account. Therefore civil servants from specifically a verbal approach, the involvement of The pilot project on ‘quiet’ urban areas is designed ised internationally. Therefore in the pilot study various municipal departments will be involved in citizens might be facilitated as well. The identifi- as follows: in Rotterdam one of the main goals is designing the pilot project; specifically in the definition and cation of ‘quiet areas’ and the designing of policy soundscape questionnaires, based upon a recent implementation of possible measures focussing at on these areas are typical activities in which citi- 1. Permanent noise measurements, study on quietness in large nature areas in the enhancing existing soundscapes. zens can play an important role. The pilot study, 2. Field survey on categorisation of sounds and province of South Holland as well as academic therefore, aims to provide empirical examples on characterisation of the ‘quiet area’, cognitive research. citizen participation in ‘quiet areas’ and the inte- 3. Analysis of opportunities and threats, gration of soundscape approaches in the identifi- 4. Recommendations on the specific area as well Another aim of the pilot study is to involve citi- cation and characterisation of ‘quiet’ urban areas. as the general approach to be applied in future zens; not only as visitors to be interviewed on ■ projects. soundscape of the specific area, but as ‘decision- makers’ as well. Stakeholder involvement will References The aim of noise measuring is to grasp the varia- enhance decision-making and adoption and im- Axelsson, Ö., Nilsson, M. E., & Berglund, B. (2010). A prin- design of outdoor space. Journal of Environmental Planning tion in the sounds of the selected pilot area, that is, plementation of local level policy by combining cipal components model of soundscape perception. Journal of and Management, 47, 827–842. intensity, duration, frequency, variance and time necessary actors, that is, local administration and the Acoustical Society of America, 128, 2836–2846. EC (2002). Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament of the day and season. In addition, sound records citizens. When involving knowledge and percep- Botteldooren, D., De Coensel, B., Renterghem, T. van, Dekon- and of the Council of 25 June 2002 relating to the assessment will support characterisation of the various typical tions of citizens, as many authors claim, local inck, L. & Gillis, D. (2008). The urban soundscape, a different and management of environmental noise. Official Journal of approach. In G. Allaert & F. Witlox (Eds), Sustainable Mobil- the European Communities, 45, 12–25. and non-typical sounds, for example, during day, level decision making will be more effective and ity in Flanders: The Livable City. Gent, Belgium: University evening and night and during working days and efficient. of Gent. GR (2006). Stille gebieden en gezondheid [Quiet Areas and Health]. The Hague, The Neterlands: The Health Council of weekends. These records can be used in addition Brown, A.L. (2010). Soundscapes and environmental noise the Netherlands. to the field surveys; citizens visiting the area will Recent initiatives on stakeholder participation management. Noise Control Engineering Journal, 58, 493– 500. Schafer, R.M. (1994). The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environ- be asked to identify typical characteristics of the in Rotterdam, for example, reconstruction of ment and the Tuning of the World. Rochester, VT: Destiny area’s acoustic environment (e.g., keynote sounds, residential areas, nature and park projects, and Brown, A.L., Kang, J., & Gjestland, T. (2011). Towards stand- Books. signals and soundmarks; cf. Schafer, 1994). As environmental education programmes, have un- ardization in soundscape preference assessment. Applied Acoustics, 72, 387–392. Schulte-Fortkamp, B. (2002). How to measure soundscapes: such physical acoustical measurements can be derlined the importance and positive effects of a theoretical and practical approach. Journal of the Acoustical correlated with soundscape indicators. designing and implementing projects with various Brown, A.L., & Muhar, A. (2004). An approach to the acoustic Society of America, 112, 2434. [Abstract] groups of citizens from the specific area. The pilot
54 55 Characterising soundscapes is particularly important in environmental analyses. The focus of research is the identity of There is a lack of basic data for the existing sound impact assessments. The authors aim to develop a method for describing landscapes, the everyday landscape, and meth- qualities, which means that it is impossible to existing soundscapes, which would make it possible to compare existing ods for user participation. The outcomes of our know what features in the acoustic environment and planned situations. research project on sounds are intended to fit in will be masked. This in turn, means that it is not these broader guidelines. possible to know what information, mediated by Per Hedfors sounds, might be lost to those staying in the land- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden Sound Quality – Beyond Noise scape. In addition, the landscape identity (at least Rikke Thiirmann Thomsen The meaning of ‘noise’ in acoustics and the trans- those parts mediated by its sound identity) is af- Tegnestuen Schul Landskabsarkitekter Aps, Copenhagen, Denmark port sector is ‘unwanted sounds’ (e.g., Anders- fected at very low dB-levels (Kariel, 1980; Hed- son, 1998). The concept of ‘sound quality’ is fors & Berg, 2003). By developing consciousness more appropriate to landscape analysis and for about the sounds’ societal and social meaning the description of landscape identity, as it offers (e.g., Corbin, 1998; Truax, 2001) it is possible to a neutral standpoint and does not value sounds more easily propose road and railway paths in so- Sonotope Analysis: Characterising Sonic into pleasant or unpleasant (Hedfors, 2003, 2008; notopes which are considered to be less sensitive. Hellström, 2003; Hedfors & Westerlund, 2004). Place-relatedness is crucial in our research and a Design and Management Strategies Landscapes for the Swedish Transport site specific type of acoustic environment is there- To humans, sounds work as messengers—we un- fore called sonotope (Hedfors, 2003, 2008). derstand sounds. This is not the case with techni- Administration cal equipment. As we add technical data of fre- The ephemeral character of landscapes shaped by soundmarks becomes significant in the definition In Sweden, there is a lack of proper environmen- quency distribution to the data of intensity, we are sounds has significance for preservation, protec- of the acoustic community that encounters aurally tal impact assessments (EIA) of noise in road and still hardly capable of recognising the sources of tion and design. Sounds and soundscapes are char- historical phenomena. Entire gardens, parks, and railway projects, as the analyses of existing sound- sounds by the technical measurements, and it is acterised by their continuous shifts and long-term other cultural landscapes contain sonotopes with scape conditions have been neglected. To come up even harder to figure out what the sources might change, quite apart from any static view. The au- specific sonic patterns which is beneficially- ar with a proper EIA there is need for a documenta- have ‘on their mind’. ditory realm constitutes an ever-present character ticulated in a new pattern language of urban man- tion of existing situations to evaluate the effects in the landscape reflecting the changes of cultural agement. and consequences of alternative propositions for The broadened repertoire of representation of processes, such as urbanisation, densification, and new roads or railways. The entire realm of sounds sound, ought to be integrated with the representa- so forth, to be implicated in the management of A method for the systematised semantic descrip- at a site have to be documented for the analysis tion of the total appearance of site (e.g., Pallas- landscapes. The considerations in spatial planning tion of existing sonotopes is presented as a key of which sounds that might be masked, distorted maa, 2005; Thiel, 1996). The task is to grasp the and design of sounds that are generated and heard stage in planning and design. The purpose of our or disrupted by influence of an additional feature, atmosphere (Böhme, 2000) of a result of landscape in outdoor environments challenge the traditions project is to facilitate the analysis of soundscape like a road in the landscape. The aim is to develop architecture, like for instance a park or a garden, of visual thinking in landscape architecture and characteristics in the landscape for the transport a method to describe the existing soundscape and and to partly avoid the prevailing hegemony of other disciplines involved in urban design. In sector. A method for sonotope analysis is tested as which in the future makes it possible to compare vision, as our thinking and intellectual work will many cases, the concept of landscape analysis is a support in spatial planning, outdoor design, and existing and planned situations. become profoundly limited if exclusively refer- used for the description of the visual character of environmental impact assessment. ring to information that have to qualify for the a landscape. A broader meaning includes all the The analyses of existing situations carried out sense of sight and be possible to be seen (Thom- senses in different perceptions to describe the Background in Sweden until today are limited to noise levels sen, 2009). character—the total appearance of a landscape. Landscape analysis and strategies for design are from 55 dB(A) and above. This means that only of growing importance in the transport sector. The those sounds that originate from sources con- The societal benefits of promoting listening and In our study, a theoretical framework based on primary purpose of our project is to include the nected to the road or the railway activities that are gradually increasing the aural awareness (Pratt, visual thinking is confronted by listening habits analysis of existing qualities of sounds in methods considered to be annoying are being described, Henson & Cargill, 1998) are associated with is- and sonotope design, which offers new frames of landscape character assessment. The research such as, sounds of vehicles in the road transport sues of human health. If we all recognise the of theory. As taking the soundscape of a site—a is related to Historic Landscape Characterisation sector. The planned proposals for the future are sounds that we generate instead of discriminating sonotope—as a starting point for the analysis of (HLC), Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) presented similarly limited to the assumed noise them, we would reinforce a more respectful rela- a landscape, the acoustic spaces seem to be ex- and the landskabskaraktermetoden in Denmark propagation. Consequently, the only comparisons tion to the auditory realm and how that influences posed differently compared with territorial space; (LKM). Thereby, it aims at ensuring the quality of of the soundscape are those of different propaga- ourselves and others. If we start to use our ears their boundaries and transitional zones have to be landscape analyses in road and railway planning. tions of ≥55 dB generated by transportation that with greater sensitivity, we would become more considered differently. One type of sonotope can are considered as unwanted sounds. This is a seri- intimate with the surroundings—the proximity, as work as auditory refuge for a certain party of in- A parallel research project is carried out in Sweden ously limited part of the entire soundscape at a Granö (1997) puts it—and as the amount of in- terest. Additional key features in the landscape oc- named ‘Better landscape analysis for the trans- site (Thomsen, 2009). formation decreases we would be more capable cur such as the chime of the church bell or prayer port sector’. The intention is to generate results of handling former stressful situations (Ipsen, from minarets. The sound propagation of such to guide planners in how to carry out landscape 2002).
56 57 Table 1. Examples of Description of Keynote and Event, According to the Sonotope Syntax Model (School Yard Setting). tions of different options of change for the future. interested parties, and thereafter be adjusted in ac- The method can be compared to the before-after cordance with the intersubjective result of these Duration Technical Mimicry Direction Metaphor Source Emotional Meaning technique that is presented by Repton (1982) in dialogues and with rich representations of the re- sounds like ... valued as ... tells about ... (proposal) the early 19th century. The descriptions ought to latedness of site and place. ■ be criticised in dialogue between designers and Keynote Continuous ...... polytonal ... of chatting, ... from all ... of playing ... valued as ... that tells and varied shouting and directions ... children ... lively and about life, mix ... screaming ... positive ... happiness References and activity. Andersson, J. (1998). Akustik & buller [Acoustics and Noise]. Hellström, B. (2003). Noise Design: Architectural Modelling Stockholm, Sweden: Svensk byggtjänst. and the Aesthetics of Urban Acoustic Space. Stockholm, Swe- den: Royal Institute of Technology - KTH. Event Occasional ... unrythmic ... of swish- ... in a specific ... of modern ... valued as ... that tells Arnheim, R. (1974). Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology repeated ... fade in and ing ... distant sec- trains ... subordinated about mo- of the Creative Eye. Berkeley, CA: Univiversity of California Ipsen, D. (2002). The urban nightingale: or some theoretical out ... tor ...... dernity. Press. considerations about sounds and noise. In H. Järviluoma & G. Wagstaff (Eds.), Soundscape Studies and Methods (pp. Note: A structured sentence for key note and sonic event emerges on respective line from the left to the right. Böhme, G. (2000). Acoustic atmospheres: A contribution to 185–197). Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Society for Ethnomusi- the study of ecological aesthetics. Soundscape - Journal of cology. Acoustic Ecology, 1, 14–18. Kariel, H.G. (1980). Mountaineers and the general public: A Theory is built on a model of communication sonotopes are described within the spatial limits Corbin, A. (1998). Village Bells: Sound and Meaning in the comparison of their evaluation of sounds in a recreational en- Nineteenth-Century French Countryside. New York, NY: Co- vironment. Leisure Sciences, 3, 155–167. (Truax, 2001). Sources and listeners use the land- of each case and the sound propagation area is de- lumbia University Press. scape as arena and simultaneously they constitute fined. Critical positions for listening and interpre- Pallasmaa, J. (2005). The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and Dawson, K.J. (1988). Flight, fancy and the garden’s song. the Senses (2nd ed.). London, UK: Wiley. parts of the same arena; they contribute to the tation are selected. The quality of keynote and the Landscape Journal, 7, 170–175. continuous concert that we can call the sound- sound events are strictly described according to Pratt, G., Henson, M. & Cargill, S. (1998). Aural Awareness: Granö, J.G. (1997). Pure Geography. Baltimore, MD: Johns Principles and Practice. New York, NY: Oxford University scape (Schafer, 1994). Theory is also built on a Sonotope Syntax Model (Table 1). The dimen- Hopkins University Press. Press. the concepts of figure-ground (Arnheim, 1974) sions described are: duration, technical character, Hedfors, P. (2003). Sonic tools for landscape architecture. In Repton, H. (1982). Fragments on the Theory and Practice of developed in the visual realm. Sound events in a mimicry, direction, metaphor, source, emotional Acoustic Ecology, Melbourne, Australia 19 23 March 2003. Landscape Gardening. New York, NY: Garland. sonotope are considered as figures, which stand character, and alternative meanings. The purpose Melbourne, Australia: Australian Forum for Acoustic Ecol- ogy/World Forum for Acoustic Ecology. Schafer, R.M. (1994). The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environ- out with various prominences to the relatively of systemisation is to make comparisons possible. ment and the Tuning of the World. Rochester, VT: Destiny long-standing keynote sound that corresponds to The approach offers a possibility to interpretively Hedfors, P. (2008). Site Soundscapes: Landscape Architecture Books. in the Light of Sound. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag the concept of ground. The place-relatedness of investigate proportions between the sounding ele- Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft. Available from http://diss-epsi- Thiel, P. (1996). People, Paths, and Purpose: Notations for a sounds and the site theory significant to landscape ments, and their counterparts, and the articulation lon.slu.se/archive/00000325/ Participatory Envirotecture. Seattle, WA: University of Wash- ington Press. architecture are addressed by Dawson (1988) who of them within the sonotope. Hedfors, P., & Berg, P.G., (2003). The sounds of two landscape discusses bio-geographic keynotes that exist eve- settings: Auditory concepts for physical planning and design. Thomsen, R.T. (2009). Stille Rum i Byen: Mulighed eller rywhere and vary from place to place. The Sonotope Syntax Model facilitates a body Landscape Research, 28, 243–261. Utopi? [Quiet Space in the City: Possibility or Utopia?]. Co- penhagen, Denmark: University of Copenhagen. of an onomatopoetic adjective which is preceded Hedfors, P., & Westerlund, C. (2004). Hur ska parken klinga? nd Supplementing approaches by words for temporal and technical characteris- Gröna Fakta No. 6. [How should the park sound? Green Facts Truax, B. (2001). Acoustic Communication (2 ed.). Westport, No. 6]. Uppsala, Sweden: Movium - Swedish University of CT: Albex Publishing. The conceptualisation by putting words to what tics. After these grammatical stages, the descrip- Agricultural Sciences. can be heard is a way of making the auditory tion turns away from the sound itself via meta- world a bit more comprehensible to the designers phors addressing what the sonic element ‘sounds themselves, as well as to the stakeholders. Wine- like…’, and to an information about the source of tasting can serve as a good example of developing sound. The experience is that there are benefits of one’s ability to put words to sensations; gustatory mentioning the source in the latter part of the de- in this case. Decibel measurements, recordings, scription as the focus of the sonotope description simulations, and vocabulary have to be consulted should be on the sounds themselves and not on simultaneously and be seen as complementary their respective sources. The emotional character- methodologies to get a multitude of representa- istics follow together with final proposals of the tions, which invite and engage people and make meanings conveyed within the sonic element. the site specific information available and under- standable to many more concerned, compared to a These semantic exercises aim obviously at the situation where only a few representations are in conceptualisation of the capacity, use and po- use, such as dB-measurements. tentials of acoustic phenomena in the design of outdoor environments. At the same time they pro- Method of description in sonotope design mote listening habits for the management of urban The research project is based on three case stud- landscapes. The method can be applied in descrip- ies of road and railway landscapes. The existing tions of existing conditions, as well as in prescrip-
58 59 Odours play an important role in experiencing and perceiving urban environments, contributing to a sense of place. Built environment professionals may elaborate on enclosure, planting, water-features, and Soundscape of European Cities and Landscapes topography to influence the smell environments of public spaces. Victoria Henshaw School of Environment and Development, The University of Manchester, UK
Trevor J. Cox and Andrew Clark School of Computing, Science & Engineering, University of Salford, UK
Smell and the Urban Environment Much has been said in recent years about the in its research, management and design relating dominance of the sense of sight in the design and to its physiological function and sensory charac- If environments of high acoustic quality is the question, management of the urban environment. Other teristics. Odours are detected through olfactory soundscape planning and design is the answer sensory modes are far less likely to be consid- receptors, enabling the average person to differ- ered, resulting in what Rodaway (1994, p160) entiate between approximately 10,000 different terms, “a kind of hyper-realisation of vision”, odours (Hirsch, 2006), although usually identify being reflected in the design of towns -and cit only around 50% of them (Engen, 1987) and on Environments of high acoustic quality are an increasingly scarce resource ies and the buildings and public spaces within occasion, through the trigeminal nerve creating that must be protected, creatively planned and designed. High-quality sound- them. However, interdisciplinary research is tingling, hot or cold sensations when odours such scapes promote sustainable urban development, as well as, health and well- providing insights into experiences and percep- as paint, petrol and traffic emissions are detected. being among our citizens. They are essential to society, as they help to reduce tions of soundscapes, highlighting positive and Odours detected through the trigeminal nerve are social costs. In addition, soundscapes provide endless opportunities to the negative effects that the aural sense can provide more likely to be considered in negative terms creative mind. (e.g., Davies et al., 2007; Kang & Yang, 2003). than those are not (Doty et al., 1978). All odour In contrast, few dedicated studies have exam- preferences are learnt, based upon our individual, ined the role that the sense of smell can play in social and cultural experiences (Engen, 1977) and environments, although on rare occasions, it has therefore are likely to vary from place to place. been explored as part of wider sensory studies Memories of odours are less likely to be retained (see e.g., Southworth, 1969, as well as the theo- in the short term by individuals than those gained retical writings of Sennett, 1994). In part, this through the sense of sight, however are more like- may be due to little being known about the sense ly to be retained over much longer periods (ibid). of smell prior to Buck and Axel’s groundbreak- Described by Dove (2008, p17) as “the pathway ing paper in 1991. From the perspective of the to the memory of a person”, smell therefore plays built environment professional (including urban an important role in recollections of place, and designers, architects, planners and city manag- through its relationship with memory, allows peo- ers), important questions are raised concerning ple to traverse space and time. detection of smell in the environment, before any potentially positive roles for the sense are likely Sensory Research to be taken seriously: What odours are common- This article draws from research carried out in place in town centres? How are they perceived? 2009 in the northern English town of Doncaster, What is the relationship between smell and place South Yorkshire, investigating the role of smell perception? And, what tools are available to built in the sustainable design of towns and cities. The environment professionals when designing ol- study incorporated semi-structured interviews and factory environments? smellwalks with fifty-two research participants, including built environment professionals, bar The Sense of Smell licensees, retailers, market traders and residents. The sense of smell presents a number of spe- The study also draws from fieldwork and data on cific opportunities and issues to be considered urban environmental quality, collected as part of
Poster Presentations 61 Photography by Victoria Henshaw © 2009 62 Figure 1. Smellwalk locations. • • • into thefollowingbroadcategories: grouped detected, were odours of range wide A Odours Detected and earlyevening. up to 24˚c, and on all days of the week in daytime of weather warmer much to through -1˚c of tures tempera and snow including weather, of range a in undertaken were Walks experiences. odour of range a for opportunities provide to selected was route street. The shopping primary a (6) and, large,area a market (5) historical neighbourhood, business and residential diverse ethnically an (4) route, bus busy a on businesses economyevening of strip a (3) precinct, shopping outdoor ondary sec- a (2) development, use mixed owned vately pri- a (1) as characterised and 1) (Figure areas of fol- smellwalks lowed a pre-identified route incorporating a range The 2005. and 2004 between London Clerkenwell, and Manchester Sheffield, of cities English the in Project Vivacity2020 the (fresh andstale) (grease), street vendors, café’s, coffee, alcohol outlets food fast and restaurants food, ciated asso- ethnically vegetables), and fruit meat, fish, (including Markets Beverages: and Food toirs, sewageworks abat factories, Breweries, Odours : Industrial cleansing machines street and buses cars, from those Including Emissions: Generated Vehicular - - each of these odours, concerns about health and health about concerns odours, these of each of case the In vomit. and urine smoke, tobacco etc), abattoirs, works, (sewage emissions dustrial the walk were those of traffic emissions, some in- disliked odours experienced and described during most The emerged. themes strong some odours, different of perceptions individual participants’ between variation significant was there Although Odour Perception fish market,distinctiveinitsstrength. emitted from specific factories or the odour of the odours industrial the of some as such sites ticular par with associated specifically more were ers Oth- environments. the of all in reoccurred food, with associated or emissions vehicular smoke, Some of these odours, such as those from tobacco • • • • • • • • Non FoodItems: Cardboard,leather wood, constructionsites tarmac, dust, Drains, Odours: Environmental fresh airandwaterways. planting, flowers, Trees, Nature: of Odours Artificial Odours:Perfumes flatulence, smell ofthesmoker perfumes, odour, Body People: and human)vomit (animal faeces urine, litter, Dustbins, Waste : cleaning fluid lemon bleach, Toilets, Materials: Cleaning ciga rettes, cigars,pipeandmarijuana roll-up and Filtered Smoke: Tobacco Poster Presentations - - Poster Presentations self preservation and hedonism, as identified by identified as hedonism, and preservation self model was developed drawing from the factors of a place, of impacts related and model perception smell to order In out. them sought frequently they them, detect immediately didn’t participants when and area markets the in being of perience ex- overall the of part as accepted and expected both were fish of Odours (D04). place…” this of smell defining a it’s smells… strong quite smell to expect do you here around and place of the sense to adds all it think I smell… strong a quite it’s but fish fresh of smell the like quite do I but fish of fan a not I’m see “…you commented,pant onepartici As of context. out fish of smell the towards attitudes their of irrespective place, ket mar the in being of experience the enhanced it suggested and market fish the at sold being fish from odours detected many example, For odour. ple stated that they normally liked or disliked that peo- whether to as regardless could dramatically, vary enjoyment odour detected, were odours where places the on Depending other. the upon were perceived with each factor impacting in turn the overall smell of places and the way that places between inter-relationship an found research The Odour andEnvironment found tochangeandbecomemoresensitive. an illness when smell preferences were frequently and when participants positive, were pregnant or suffering as from smells such perceive to likely more were hungry were that those where odours also important and particularly in the case of food was individual the of state bodily The erences. background appear to play in a role in odour pref- gender, smoking habits, ethnicity and professional age, as such characteristics social and Individual varied significantly. sneezing) as (such detection to reactions ological fumes, individual preferences and reported physi- example in the case of artificial scents such as per negatively by different groups of participants. For extremely and positively extremely sometimes considered mixed, were groups odour other of Perceptions health. for good thus and effect, tive restora- a having as viewed being group latter the with water), and air fresh trees, as (such nature to food such as fruit and odours considered as related of types some coffee, were odours liked most the contrast, In perception. negative their for reasons the qualities of the odour itself were mentioned as - - - fruit and vegetables in an the outdoor market, but market, outdoor the an in vegetables and fruit or shop flower a outside flowers of smell the tect de- to expecting as such observations mundane seemingly includes This made. judgements lated re- and places those within undertaken activities places, similar of experiences their place, that of experiences prior own their upon based erably consid- varied expectation odour walking, were participants where places the upon Depending (see Figure2). impact of environment upon the odour perception the show to possible is it market, fish the of nario sce- the in model the applying By (1991). Engen Figure 2. Impactofenvironment onodourperception. Environment Impact of Negative without Environemnt Disliked Odour Positive enjoyment Negative Positive Hedonism
Self-preservation 63 Positive
Photography by Victoria Henshaw © 2009 One major challenge for sustainable urban development in third world countries is the historic expansion of space economy of developed nations. They must support third world countries through financing and technology to pave the way for equitable, global urban development. Hooshmand Alizadeh Department of Architecture and Planning, University of Kurdistan, Iran
Photography by Victoria Henshaw © 2009 by Photography The Challenge of Sustainable Urban Development in Third World Countries also included expectations about ‘run-down’ areas bus stops and traffic lights to reduce odours from smelling of traffic fumes, grease, smoke, urine and vehicular emissions, with buses and HGVs releas- The twenty-first century has been marked bya which led to unsustainable urban development vomit and those areas dominated by the evening ing more as they make up-hill starts. significant shift, a new urban revolution (Toep- in third world countries. It also reviews the role economy expected to smell of smoke, beer, urine fer, 1999, p. 2) with more than half the world’s of developed nations in promoting development and vomit, even when such odours could not actu- Conclusion population living in towns and cities. In the north, and delineating some possible directions for the ally be detected in some of these areas. In real- While some odours are preferred more than oth- though, the demographic shift to a majority ur- future through enhancing the capacity of develop- ity, odour experiences in such places could vary ers, odour preference is highly variable. Therefore banised state was reached before 1950, but in the ing countries to manage their own resources in a significantly from expectations, influenced by although the more detailed and frequent consider- South, this is expected to be reached before 2020 sustainable manner. factors such as cleaning and maintenance regimes ation of odour is advocated as part of mainstream (UN, 2007). In the south, however, the trend of and other activities occurring in the area. A range urban design practices, it must be treated with urbanisation is very fast so that the urban con- The Roots of Uneven and Inequality in of built environment features were found to in- caution. However, the study found that the odours tinuously outgrowing the rural (Keivani, 2009), Global Urban Development fluence smell detection that present opportunities detected in urban environments play an important (Figure 1). Today, the largest urban agglomera- Although, agenda 21 gradually became a base for for built environment professionals to influence role in experiencing and perceiving those environ- tions in the world are mainly in the South. More most of governments around the world and for the smell environments of public spaces. These ments. Despite difficulties in designing with odour importantly, Based on the UN-Habitat, cities in the major conferences on world environment, it included the use of enclosure in increasing odour in mind, there are some ways in which odour ex- the developing world will absorb 95% of urban has not yet solved the world’s problems. This is strength, encouraging wind-flow through the built periences could be enhanced given smellscapes growth in the next two decades (UN-HABITAT, mainly due to the uneven development resulted form in reducing concentrations, planting and are found to be such an important part of the sen- 2006). This growth is mainly in line with meg- from the logic of capitalism which pursues the water-features as a means of air purification, con- sory urban experience. ■ acities, where major consumers of energy and highest rate of profit. This view is more in line sideration of topography and the positioning of generators of pollution were resided. Within with Marxist analysis of capitalism. According to these cities, the major problem of developing Marxist, “a major contradiction of capitalism is countries is the division between rich and poor the simultaneous emergence of concentrations of References which continue to widen. One in six people live wealth and capital, on the one hand, and poverty Buck, L., & Axel, R. (1991). A novel multigene family may Engen, T. (1991). Odor Sensation and Memory. New York, in disgraceful conditions in overcrowded urban encode odorant receptors: A molecular basis for odor recogni- NY: Praeger. tion. Cell, 65, 175–187. slums (UN-HABITAT & EU, 2004). “Crucially Hirsch, A.R. (2006). Nostalgia, the odors of childhood and so- as many commentators have noted, the primary Davies, W.J., et al. (2007). The positive soundscape project. ciety. In J. Drobnick (Ed.), The Smell Culture Reader. Oxford, 6000 In Proceedings of the 19th International Congress on Acous- UK: Berg. concern of the poor is to earn a living rather than tics, 2-7 September 2007, Madrid. Madrid, Spain: Sociedad look after the environment” (Keivani, 2009, p. 5000 Española de Acustica. Kang, J. & Yang, W. (2003). Sound preferences in urban open public spaces. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 8). For this reason, the approach to sustainable 4000 Doty, R.L., et al. (1978). Intranasal trigeminal stimulation 114, 2352. urban development should put the perspective from odorous volatiles: Psychometric responses from anosmic Urban of poor and marginalised sectors at the centre 3000 and normal humans. Physiology & Behavior, 20, 175–185. Rodaway, P. (1994). Sensuous Geographies. London, UK: Rural Routledge. of its vision (Mahadevia, 2001). This is in line 2000 Dove, R. (2008). The Essence of Perfume. London, UK: Black with main promise of Rio-de Janeiro action plan Dog Publishing. Sennett, R. (1994). Flesh & Stone: The Body and the City in Western Civilization. London, UK: W.W. Norton & Company. in 1992, popularly known as Agenda 21. At this, (millions) Population 1000 Engen, T. (1977). Taste and smell. In J.E. Birren & K. Warner 172 countries signed up to an agenda for sustain- Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Ageing. New Southworth, M. (1969). The sonic environment of cities. Envi- 0 York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. ronment and Behavior, 1, 23. able development, promising to work towards social equity, protection of the environment and 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 Engen, T. (1987). Remembering odors and their names. Amer- Year ican Scientist, 75, 497–503. economic stability. To pursue the root of this challenge, this paper will summarise the proc- Figure 1. Estimated projected urban and rural population in the world ess of marginalisation and influencing factors (1950-2030). Source: UN (2002).
64 Poster Presentations Poster Presentations 65 and oppression, on the other hand” (Gottdiener & rying capacity (Rees, 1996). This along the role Table1. Carbon Emissions in China, India, Europe, Japan, and USA, 2004, and Increase, 1990–2004. Budd, 2005, p. 166). This was expressed spatially of central governments in more investments in in terms of inequalities and increased the polarisa- central cities led to the formation of prime cities Country Carbon Carbon Emission Carbon Emission Increase in Carbon or Region Emission Per Person Unit of GDP, PPP Emission, 1990–2004 tion between those places that are poor, popularly in most of third world countries which changed (million tons) (tons) (tons per million dollars) (percent) known as third world (the south) and those that the urban system to unsustainable one. In this re- China 1,021 0.8 158 +67 are thriving as developed world (the north). For gard, due to the fast growing attention of the cen- India 301 0.3 99 +88 Henry Lefebvre, this also expressed spatially in tral governments to the constructions, it should Europe 955 2.5 94 +6 terms of inequalities in residential pattern and in be added the matter of unsustainable investment Japan 338 2.7 95 +23 USA 1,616 5.5 147 +19 the provision of urban services within the urban in development, “where states let their vision of areas. rapid transformation run wild” (Shechter & Ya- Source: (Starke, 2006), http://www.worldwatch.org/node/3866 cobi, 2005, p. 185). 1 Considering the Brundtlandt report which in- In this regard, “the rate of growth of the world’s compete with primate city or major cities due to spired the Rio Earth Summit, especially the point Based on the view of Nanavati, following quo- urban population estimated at 2.24% is roughly unequal access to financial base and technology in relation to the lifestyle enjoyed by the citizens tation, there are major differences between west equal to the rate of growth of slums estimated at in specific (Oduwaye, 2006, p. 202). Therefore, of the north as environmentally unsustainable and east concerning the rural to urban migration 2.22%” (Keivani, 2009, p. 8). This process can be the internal dynamics of globalisation are in such mode, the major challenge of world urban sus- phenomena which arose as a result of past colo- recognised “as urbanization without growth” (Fay direct confrontation with the task of maintaining tainable development can be related to the logic nisation and its adverse consequences on space & Opal, 2000, cited in Keivani, 2009, p. 5). liveable cities in general. of capitalism was first initiated by the flow of co- economy. lonial policy which had a lasting impact on the Effects of Globalisation Furthermore, this structural shift, especially the level of inequalities and its adverse consequences “In the developed countries of the West, the rural Alongside with rapid urbanisation and its chal- growing desire of third world countries to com- on space economy across the world. In the era of to urban migration and the urbanization are asso- lenge, the wave of globalisation and the result- pensate the problem of underdevelopment through colonisation, “new local elites and European busi- ciated with a vertical shift in the labor force from ing trade liberalisation led to the major structural hard products, and the current impacts of climate nessmen translated wealth earned in trade into the agricultural sector to the urbanized-industrial changes in the cities. In this change, a new divi- changes, has become a major justification for de- novel districts, often inspired by European/Co- sector, whereas in the developing regions as In- sion of labour has been emerged across the world, veloped nations to slow down the trend of devel- lonial styles” (Shechter & Yacobi, 2005, p. 184), dia, Brazil and Iran, migration is from rural agri- “whereby economic activities move around in opment in these countries. Due to “a constant or “where islands of high income modernity coexist cultural sectors to urban informal sectors. These search of higher productivity and lower costs”. As slightly increasing trend in the carbon intensity with shanty towns and slums” (World Bank 1991, displacements are not due to structural changes a result, the countries of the south are emerging of energy (carbon emissions per unit of energy) quoted in Gottdiener & Budd 2005, p. 105). First, within the labor force as seen in the West, but as as international business and industrial nodes, at- over recent years”, they usually blame them as this spatially represented binary oppositions, old a dislocation of uprooted workers and peasants tracting much of the relocated lower value-added the main causes of global warming and the result- and new, which then brought forth the wave of from the marginalized countryside to involuted industries while advanced economies are shifting ing impacts (Spratt et al., 2010). For this reason, modernisation leading to unexpected matter of urban centers” (Nanavati, 2004). out of manufacturing toward a new economic role “rich nations have done little within the Kyoto urbanisation. This trend “has released large num- as “centers of innovation and control, as well as Protocol2 to reduce emissions by any meaningful bers from the countryside, which no longer could For this reason, rural to urban migration combined exchange and consumption” (Madanipour, 2006, amount, while they are all for negotiating a follow support the surplus population, and has enlarged with rapid population growth has transformed the pp. 175–176). In London, for example, between on treaty that brings more pressure to developing the population of cities to unprecedented levels” urban system from a highly monocentric system 1971 and 2003 the contribution of the manufac- countries to emissions targets” (Shah, 2009). (Madanipour, 2006). Certainly, large cities as of cities toward a new polycentric one as the main turing sector to the city’s economy reduced from Cairo, Tehran, Bombay, Mexico City and Rio de nuclei (Cohen, 2004). This pattern created a kind 25% of total employment to about 6%, whereas In fact, the climate change impacts mainly relate Janeiro attract large numbers of rural–urban mi- of unbalanced growth of urbanisation which in- the shares of business and financial services in- to the actions of the industrialised nations as they grants seeking education, jobs, or better access dicates “a lack of economic, political and social creased from 16% to 33% (Harris, 2006). Al- have emitted large amount of greenhouse gases to basic services (Cohen, 2004). According to a integration in any given system of cities” (Gottdi- though, this structural shift gave an opportunity to for years without any restrictions to meet their World Bank report, these numbers have more mi- ener & Budd, 2005, p. 105) so that its resulting so- some developing countries as China and India to social and development needs since the Industrial grated than could be absorbed (World Bank 1991, cio-economic concentration contributed to prolif- pave the way for development, it more increased Revolution (Table 1). As Rees (1996) pointed out, quoted in Gottdiener & Budd 2005). It means that eration of slums and an acute housing shortage in the concentration of population and wealth in “the wealthy (nations) already appropriate car- the number of migrated people is out of cities car- mega-cities of the south (Omran & Roudi, 1993). some major cities. This brought about this idea rying capacity and increase their own ecological that globalisation would increase the level of in- footprints” through the power of industrial revo- equality, pollution and slums in major cities due lution and the relating trade opportunities but in Notes 1. This report is also known as Our Common Future, was the result of World Commission on Environment and Development to such concentration—one out of every three city expense of poor countries as they reduced the established by UN in 1987 to institutionalise sustainable development among its members. dwellers (UN-HABITAT, 2006). It also “gener- ecological space available to them. Based on the ate greater disparity and more poverty in devel- World Watch Institute, “global ecosystems and 2. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. Based on this protocol, developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere oping countries as these regions are not at equal resources are simply not sufficient to sustain the as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity. For this reason, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed levels and positions to compete with developed current economies of the industrial West and at nations under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities.” countries” in general and even their cities cannot the same time bring more than 2 billion people
66 Poster Presentations Poster Presentations 67 into the global middle class through the same re- developed nations in expansion of their ecologi- source intensive development model pioneered cal footprint through prevailing terms of commer- by North America and Europe” (Flavin & Gard- cial trade and later on technology since the start ner 2006, quoted in Ziegler, 2006, pp. 320–321). of modern colonisation, Industrial Revolution and Clear example of this inequality in ecological car- wave of globalisation. For this reason, developed rying capacity is the energy consumption between nations face the biggest responsibility and bur- the countries of the north and south. The United den for action to address the unbalanced mode of States, where the population is roughly above 300 development in these countries. Therefore, they million, has about ten times the per capita energy have an important role to play in helping them. consumption of China where the number of popu- They must support them through variety of ways, lation is four and half times of The United State notably financing and technology transfer to pave (Ziegler, 2006). the way for equitable development. Apart from these, “increasing access to needed investment Concluding Remarks flows and markets and more effective develop- This paper has examined the diverse rhythms and ment co-operation programs can help developing characteristics of unsustainable urban develop- countries, especially the poorest ones, build their ment associated to developing countries. In this own capacity to attract private investment, protect discussion, it was made clear that the challenge the environment and reduce poverty, and to better of sustainable urban development in the countries integrate their domestic and global development of the south is mainly rooted from the action of goals” (OECD, 2001, p. 6). ■
References Cohen, B. (2004). Urban growth in developing countries: A Rees, W.E. (1996). Revisiting carrying capacity: Area-based review of current trends and a caution regarding existing fore- indicators of sustainability. Population & Environment, 17, casts. World Development, 32, 23–51. 195–215.
Gottdiener, M. & Budd, L. (2005). Key Concepts in Urban Shah, A. (2009). Climate justice and equity. Global Issues. Studies. London, UK: Sage Publications. Available from http://www.globalissues.org/article/231/cli- mate-justice-and-equity Harris, N. (2006). City development strategy: A training course. Unpublished paper presented at workshop on CDS, Shechter, R. & Yacobi, H. (2005). Cities in the Middle East: 5–13 July in Tehran. Ministry of Housing and Urban Devel- Politics, representation and history. Cities, 22, 183–188. opment. Spratt, S., Simms, A., Neitzert, E., & Ryan-Collins, J. (2010). Keivani, R. (2009). Introduction: A review of the main chal- The Great Transition. London, UK: nef (the new economics lenges to urban sustainability. International Journal of Urban foundation). Sustainable Development, 1, 5–16. Starke, L. (Ed.) (2006). State of the World 2006: Special Fo- Madanipour, A. (2006). Roles and challenges of urban design. cus: China and India. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute. Urban Design, 11, 173–193. Toepfer, K. (1999). Editorial. Habitat Debate, 5, 2.
Mahadevia, D. (2001). Sustainable urban development in In- UN-HABITAT (2006). State of the world’s cities 2006/7. Nai- dia: An inclusive perspective. Development in Practice, 11, robi, Kenya: UN-HABITAT. 242–259. UN-HABITAT & EU (2004). Creating a world of sustainable Nanavati, S.S. (2004). Impact of rural–urban migration on the cities: Research for sustainable urban development and land sustainability of cities. Vision. Available from http://wscsd. use. Luxembourg, Belgium: Office for Official Publications of org/category/vision-journal/page/10/ the European Communities.
Oduwaye, L. (2006). Effects of globalization on cities in de- UN (2008). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revi- veloping countries. Journal of Social Sciences, 12, 199–205. sion. New York, NY: United Nations. Available from http:// www.un.org/esa/ OECD (2001). Sustainable Development: Critical Issues. Paris, France: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Ziegler, E.H. (2006). China’s cities, globalization, and sustain- Development. Available from http://www.oecd.org/datao- able development: Comparative thoughts on urban planning, ecd/29/9/1890501.pdf energy, and environmental policy. Washington University Glo- bal Studies Law Review, 5, 295–322. Omran, A.R. & Roudi, F. (1993). The middle east population puzzle. Population Bulletin, 48, 2–39.
68 Poster Presentations Partners and Sponsors
Designing Soundscape for Sustainable Urban The conference received financial support from EUROCITIES – Working Group on Noise Policy Development was organised in cooperation the City of Stockholm, the COST Action on The Working Group supports EUROCITIES implementation of the requirements of Di- between the City of Stockholm, the COST Action soundscape, the Swedish Research Council for members with the implementation of European rective 2002/49/EC of the European Parlia- TD0804 “Soundscape of European Cities and Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial directives relating to the assessment and manage- ment and of the Council of 25 June 2002 Landscapes”, EUROCITIES’ working group on Planning (Formas), and the Swedish Research ment of urban noise. relating to the assessment and management noise policy, Swedish Association of Architects, Council (VR). Stockholm University administrated of environmental noise, and the Swedish Society for Town and Country the research grants of the conference. Östen working group objectives • exchange experience and knowledge about Planning. Stockholm University represented the Axelsson at Decorum Communications managed • monitor and respond to European policy de- noise, preventing and reducing noise among COST Action on soundscape as local organiser, the conference on behalf of the partners. Special velopment, associated cities. ■ and was responsible for the scientific programme thanks go to the Swedish Museum of Architecture • support EUROCITIES members with the of the conference in collaboration with KTH - for inviting us to the exhibition “Architecture for Royal Institute of Technology, and University the Senses”. ■ College of Arts, Crafts and Design in Stockholm. Swedish Association of Architects Swedish Association of Architects is a profes- ests of its members. The aim is to strengthen the sional organization for architects, interior archi- architects’ role in the planning, construction and The City of Stockholm – The first European Green Capital, 2010 tects, landscape architects, and spatial planners. management process. ■ On February 23, 2009, the European Commission glorious local countryside. It is a rapidly growing The organization’s mission is to protect the inter- chose Stockholm as Europe’s first Green Capital, city with 800,000 inhabitants. The City of Stock- commending its long-term focus on environmen- holm has outlined an overall, long-term vision – tal issues. Stockholm, the largest city in Scandi- Vision Stockholm 2030 – for sustainable growth Swedish Society for Town and Country Planning navia, is a meeting place for people of different and development. By 2030, Stockholm is to be a The Swedish Society for Town and Country uphold the principle of planning as a democratic cultures, a gateway for new ideas and a centre for versatile and dynamic city, one which promotes Planning is a non-profit organization for people instrument of control. At the same time, we apply culture, sports and entertainment. It is one of the innovation and growth, and one which belongs to interested in planning. The society was founded a critical eye in scrutinizing planning results and world’s most beautiful cities, with excellent pub- its citizens. ■ in 1947 in connection with the introduction of the quality of planning work. The society works lic services, an enviable waterfront location and a new instruments for planning and housing policy both nationally and locally to pursue issues of in Sweden. We now have some 1,200 members professional development, discussion and debate, around the country in six regional branches. Our response to governmental proposals, organization COST Action – Soundscape of European Cities and Landscapes aim is to promote an exchange of ideas about plan- of conferences and study trips, creating meeting The main aim of the COST Action on soundscape dinated international and interdisciplinary efforts. ning’s goals, methods, and fields of expertise. We places, and other activities. ■ is to provide the underpinning science for sound- The action will promote soundscape into current scape research and make the field go significantly legislations, policies and practice, aiming at im- beyond the current state-of-the-art, through coor- proving/preserving our sonic environment. ■
70 Partners and Sponsors Partners and Sponsors 71 Stockholm University Formas – Swedish Research Council for Stockholm University organises higher education sities in Sweden and one of the largest employers Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning and leading international research in humanities, in Stockholm. People of many different nationali- Formas, the Swedish Research Council for Envi- and interdisciplinary approaches within its area law, the natural and social sciences. With more ties, with contacts throughout the world, contrib- ronment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Plan- of responsibility. The Research Council provides than 50,000 undergraduate and master students, ute to the creation of a highly international atmos- ning, is a governmental research-funding agency mechanisms for the communication of research 1,800 doctoral students and 6,000 employees, phere. ■ related to the Ministry of the Environment. For- results and stimulates the public debate on issues Stockholm University is one of the largest univer- mas encourages and supports scientifically signif- of concern, originating from or related to research icant research related to sustainable development, for sustainable development. ■ and stimulates activities aiming at cross-sectoral KTH Royal Institute of Technology KTH organises higher education and research in ate students and nearly 3,000 full time equivalent The Swedish Research Council natural sciences, all the branches of engineering, employees KTH accounts for one-third of Swe- as well as, architecture, industrial engineering den’s technical research and engineering educa- The Swedish Research Council is an authority vestment, and promote communication between and management, urban planning, work science tion capacity at university level. In addition to the within the Ministry of Education and Research researchers and different academic areas, as well and environmental engineering. With a total of research carried out by KTH’s Schools, a large that allocate funds to all scientific disciplines and as, between researchers and society otherwise. just over 13,000 full-year equivalent undergradu- number of national and local Competence Centres aim to increase the understanding in Sweden of It also promotes multi- and interdisciplinary re- ate students, more than 1,500 active postgradu- are located at KTH. ■ the importance of basic research to society. The search and international collaboration, and makes council identify research areas for strategic in- research results accessible. ■
Konstfack – University College of Arts, Crafts and Design The university college of arts, crafts and design gramme, or independent courses. The majority of in Stockholm is the largest school of higher edu- the teaching staff works part-time at the college cation in the arts in Sweden. Each year approxi- besides their own practice in the arts. Internation- mately 900 students participate in bachelor and ally the college collaborates with approximately master programmes, the teacher’s training pro- 60 universities in more than 25 countries. ■
72 Partners and Sponsors Partners and Sponsors 73 www.international.stockholm.se