Index

AAK (Alliance for the Future of Administrative transitional authority. Kosovo), 245 See also International interim Abacha, Sani, 205 government model Abdullah, Abdullah, 292, 305 Doyle on, 219–220 Abu Ghraib prison scandal, 331 interim government in Cambodia Abusive practices as, 227 international intervention and Afghan National Army, 302, 303, 305 ending of, 352 Afghanistan of local community power holders, benefits of international 44, 49 intervention in, 352 Academic area specialists, on the Bonn Agreement and political Balkans and Bosnia, 265 reconstruction in, 289–291 Accountability civic education by Tribal Liaison citizen conceptions of positive Office in, 50 peace and, 46 constitution of, 300–302 construction of political elites elections and distribution of power through interim sharing in, 64–65 governments, lessons elections under Bonn Agreement learned on, 70 in, 303 in democracies, international ethnic dimensions of loya jirgas, interim governments and, post-conflict stability and, 221 297–299 government, elections in state expatriate presence in, 38 undergoing transition and, external actors and sovereign 23 authority of interim regime international intervention and, 351 in, 66–67 nation-building and levels of, 43 forecast for imposed nondemocracy for past abuses, peace process in in, 117–118 Afghanistan and, 44 imposed democratic regime in, 96, of president in Indonesia to 100 legislature, 157–158 insurgency as political challenge of UNMIK in Kosovo, 17 in, 103 Accra Comprehensive Peace interim administration Agreement, 83, 206–207, 209–210 administrators/ministers, Aceh, Indonesia 293–295 (table) Megawati’s relations with military interim and transitional authorities and conflict in, 166–167 in, 291–292, 295–297 military and mass graves in, 159 interim government after foreign separatist movement in, 160, 161 invasion in, 29n, 30 separatist movement in East Timor interim power-sharing and separatists in, 226 arrangements in, 67, 68 Wahid’s weak control of military internal rivals to Karzai’s central and conflict in, 166 government in, 25 Ad Hoc Commission, El Salvador, 134, as international administration 138 model of interim Adebajo, Adekeye, 202 government, 11, 31 Adim, Abdel Aziz, 84

365 366 Interim Governments

Karzai’s handling of elections in, stronger–weaker party interaction 303–305 in recent power-sharing legislative elections of 2005 in, 306– agreements in, 83–85 307, 310–313 African Mission in Burundi (AMIB), legitimacy of transitional regime 182–183 in, 13 African Union (AU) lessons learned in, 314–321 assistance to Liberia, 207, 210, 217 local conflict resolution system of, International Committee in 42–43 Support of the Transition majoritarian rule and protection of (CIAT) in the DRC and, 185 rights in, 41–42 peacekeeping mission in Burundi, optimistic forecast for imposed 174, 182–183 democracy in, 115–116 Ahtisaari, Martti overview of post-conflict political Kosovo status negotiations and, 250, transition, 288 253, 254–255, 256, 258–259 peace agreement and transitional proposal for Kosovo status government in, 32 settlement by, 264n peace and security conceptions Aid agencies. See also Humanitarian aid study in, 45–47 in Afghanistan, perceptions gap on pessimistic forecast for imposed peace and security and, democracy in, 116–117 46–47 presidential elections of 2004 in, as expatriate presence, 38–39 305–306 Aimaks, in Afghan population, 298n rights of citizens and peace process Akashi, Yasushi, 227 in, 43–45 Albanians in Kosovo security sector reform in, 302–303 Ahtisaari negotiations and, selection of interim government 258–259 elites in, 60, 61 Ahtisaari proposal for Kosovo studies on U.S. state-building in, 7 status settlement and, 264n study of transitional regime in, 5–6 divisions with Serbs, and UNMIK UNDP’s PEACE program in, 48 legitimation and U.S. war against Taliban and nation effectiveness, 244–245 building in, 325 Eide on prospects of Serbs’ voting by province in 2004, 308– integration with, 250 309 (table) ethnic cleansing by Serbs of, 242 warlords and local transitional on independence for Kosovo, 241 government viability in, perspectives on Kosovo’s future, 15–16 250–252 Africa. See also specific countries riots of 2004 and, 246–247 executive power-sharing systems UNMIK and, 239 in, 75 Alcelor Mittal Steel, 217 Great Lakes region, violence and Algeria, as revolutionary model of atrocities in, 175–177 interim government, 11 insights from executive power- Allawi, Iyad, 336, 337, 338, 338n sharing systems in, 90–92 Alliance for the Future of Kosovo Mano River basin instability, 196 (AAK), 245 power sharing patterns of Ally formation, as motivation for experience in, 77–82, 86 imposed regimes, 101 regional support for Arusha Al-Qaeda, 217, 314 process and, 181 American Colonization Society, 197 Index 367

American Firestone Company, 197 Bedie, Henri Konan, 80 AMIB (African Mission in Burundi), Belgium 182–183 International Committee in Angola Support of the Transition armed support of Kabila’s DRC (CIAT) in the DRC and, 185 government by, 177 pressure on DRC belligerents by, elections prior to demilitarization 184 in, 22 Bemba, Jean-Pierre, 90–91, 177, 181, International Committee in 189, 192 Support of the Transition Berat, Lynn, 99 (CIAT) in the DRC and, 185 Between States (Shain and Linz). See peace agreement for DRC and, 179 also Imposed regimes; Political peace agreement with the DRC and challenge Uganda and, 180 on application of interim Annan, Kofi, 9, 91, 248, 249, 263 government model, 221 Anocracies, instability of, 4 on deadlock and instability, 158 Apodeti (East Timor political party), 223 on domestic power structures, 12 ARENA. See National Republican government structure collapse and, Alliance 13 Armed forces. See Military forces implications for international Army of the Republic of Bosnia- dimension of, 118–119 Herzegovina, 270 on incumbent caretaker model, 148, Arnault, Jean, 142 149, 153, 154, 159 Arusha Peace Agreement, 79–80, 83, interim government models 84–85, 173, 177–179 described in, 10–12 Arusha process, 181–183 international administration model Arzú, Alvaro, 132, 143 of, 15, 321 ASEAN states, 225, 226 on outcome of transitional regimes, Ashdown, Paddy, 257 24 Ashkali community in Kosovo, riots on preserving functioning state of 2004 and, 246 institutions, 16 Ashley, David, 233 revisions to models in, 34 AU. See African Union on revolutionary provisional Austin, Dennis, 239 governments, 94, 96, 97–100 Australia, East Timor and, 223, 224, 226 Beyond Plunder: Toward Democratic Authoritarian regimes Governance in Liberia (Sawyer), conditions for transitions from, 214 221–222 BINUB (United Nations Integrated domestic opposition to, 30–31 Office in Burundi), 183n in Indonesia, 147 Blaney, John, 79 justification for, 9 Bonn Agreement in post-transition Burundi, 188, 195 Afghan transitional process under, in post-transition DRC, 195 292 (figure) Azarya, Victor, 78 Afghanistan’s peace process, interim government, and civil war and, 287 Ba’ath party, Iraq, 320, 329–330 Afghanistan’s peace process and, Baluch, in Afghan population, 298n 32, 44, 67 Ban Ki-Moon, 264n on elections in Afghanistan, 303 Baskin, Mark, 32, 263 368 Interim Governments

Karzai appointment by participants selection of interim government in, 64 elites in, 59–60, 61–62 measuring success of, 320–321 study of transitional regime in, 5–6 political reconstruction in Bosniacs, 266n, 275, 279, 284 Afghanistan and, 289–291 Bosnian Serb Army, 270, 273 Bonn-Petersberg Conference and Bosnian-Croat Federation, 273, 275 Declaration, 277–278 Brahimi, Lakhdar, 44n, 296, 300, 334 Bosnia Bremer, L. Paul, III, 327, 330, 331, 334 academic area specialists on, Bruneau, Thomas C., 99 265–266 Bryant, Charles Gyude, 79, 206n, 209, civil war in, 29n 217 civil war legacies, 270–273 Buddhist Liberal Democratic party, 230 dilemma of local transitional Bukavu, DRC, fighting in, 190, 190n administrations sharing Bureaucracy. See also Institutions power with international in Cambodia, CPP shielding of actors in, 32 UNTAC from, 231 elections and distribution of power in Indonesia, changes to laws on sharing in, 63, 64, 72 political participation by, 156 EU-NATO and security in, 255 Burundi external actors and sovereign Arusha Process, 84–85, 178–179 authority of interim regime benefits of international in, 66–67 intervention in, 352 first transition, 268–270 civil war in, 29n, 172, 173 history and geography, 266–267 Convention of Government, 85 interim power-sharing ethnic conflict in, 175–176 arrangements in, 67 executive power-sharing patterns as international administration in, 78, 82 model of interim Global Peace Accords, 83–84 government, 31 lessons learned in, 192–196 international perspectives on peace agreement and domestic future of, 353 power-sharing interim international response to war in, government in, 30–31, 171– 263–264 172, 173 internationally driven transition at peace agreement and establishment Dayton for, 273–276 of transitional government legitimacy issues in, 26 in, 177–178 lessons learned in, 284–286 physical size of, 173n new type of intervention in, 281–286 power-sharing governance, policy-oriented literature on, violence, and legitimacy in, 264–266 186–188 power sharing in the absence of Pretoria Protocol, 83 consensus, 279–281 Bush, George H. W., 128 rights of citizens after transition Bush, George W. and administration process in, 41 assumptions on sustainability of rushed elections and hard-liners in, new Iraq government by, 23 323 security and power sharing in on democracy in Afghanistan, 289 absence of consensus in, on end of major combat operations 276–279 in Iraq, 320, 327 ORHA creation by, 322 Index 369

planning for post-conflict Iraqi Carothers, Thomas, 23 government by, 325–326 Carter, Jimmy, 203 on U.S. capture of Baghdad, 30 Casey, William, 128 Buyoya, Pierre, 84, 85, 176, 179, 181, 182 CDR (Coalition pour la Défense de la République), Rwanda, 80, 85 Center-periphery dynamic. See also Caan, Christina, 32, 95, 319–320 Local communities; Cambodia Perceptions gap benefits of international basic control of territory and, 24–25 intervention in, 352 conflict resolution system and, civil war in, 29n 42–43 conflict in, need for international dependency theory as descriptor community in, 14 for, 38–39 democratization and peace dualism as descriptor for, 39 building conditions in, 222– negative or positive peace and, 223, 224–225 40–41 external actors and sovereign ownership principle and external authority of interim regime or internal legitimacy, 42 in, 66–67 perceptions gap in, 43–45 interim power-sharing successful transitions and, 35, 37 arrangements in, 67 Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, 167 international administration in, 18 CEP (Community Empowerment and as international administration Local Governance Project), in model of interim East Timor, 48 government, 11 Cerezo Arévalo, Vinicio, 131, 132 lessons learned in, 236–240 CGDK (Coalition Government of local transitional government Democratic Kampuchea), 222– viability in, 16 223, 225 rights of citizens after transition Chad, armed support of Kabila’s DRC process in, 41 government by, 177 selection of interim government Chandler, David, 257 elites in, 60, 65 Chechnya, majoritarian rule and state capacity building difficulties protection of rights in, 41–42 for, 226–227 Chehabi, H. E., 99 study of transitional regime in, 5–6 China, stabilization in Cambodia and, suspended sovereignty in, 19 225 transitional processes in, 31 Chopra, Jane, 227 UN and interim government in, Christian Democrats (DCG), 226, 227–229 Guatemala, 131, 132, 143 UNTAC’s legacy in, 230–234 Christian Democrats (PDC), El Cambodian People’s Party (CPP), 227, Salvador, 126, 127, 128–129 230, 231–232, 233 CIAT (International Committee in Canada, International Committee in Support of the Transition) in Support of the Transition in the DRC, 185 the DRC and, 185 Citizens List Hour (ORA) Party, Capacity building. See also Kosovo, 252 Institutions; State building Civil society. See also Local international administrations on, 18 communities Caretaker governments. See continued violence due to ignoring Incumbent-caretaker model needs of, 192n Carl, Terry Lynn, 10n 370 Interim Governments

in Iraq, CPA and empowerment of, Coalition Government of Democratic 336 Kampuchea (CGDK), 222–223, in Iraq after removal of Hussein 225 and his supporters, 323 Coalition pour la Défense de la power-sharing in DRC and, 174, République (CDR), Rwanda, 180, 181, 192 80, 85 Civil wars. See also Conflict, internal; Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), Ethnic cleansing; Insurgencies; Iraq Separatist movements appointment of IGC by, 331, 332 in Afghanistan, Bonn Agreement fortification in Baghdad’s Green and, 290 Zone of, 333–334 in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 264, 267, governance under, 329–331 268–270, 273 implementation problems, 351 in Burundi, 172, 173, 182 reconstruction projects under, 335 in the DRC, 172, 173, 174, 188–192, recruitment to and distribution of 192–195 power of, 65 ethnic groups and state structure rivalry with U.S. military division in Afghanistan and, 298 commander powers by, 25 executive power-sharing systems as second phase of transitional after, 82 administration, 321, lack of credible commitment to 326–328 peace agreements ending, 88 selection procedures for, 59n legitimacy of transitional regimes state institution building under, after, 13 335–336 in Liberia, regionalization of, 196, transitional administrative law 201–202 approval and, 333 peacekeeping missions and, 18 Cohen, Lenard J., 31, 239 power-sharing arrangements after, Cold War, 98–99, 225, 348 76, 77–78 Cole, Beth, 32, 95, 319–320 in Rwanda, 172 Collier, Paul, 77, 92 in Sierra Leone, 196, 202 Community Empowerment and Local transitional regimes and, 7 Governance Project (CEP), in uncertainties after, 86–87 East Timor, 48 unreliable public information after, Community representatives. See 87 Political parties Civilian Self Defense Patrols, Comparative politics scholars, 7, 10– Guatemala, 132 12, 29 Clark, Ramsey, 201 Composite Indicator of National Class requisites, analyses of, 10n Capabilities data, 111 Clientelism Comprehensive Peace Agreement, in Kosovo, economic recovery and, between Sudanese government 245 and Sudan People’s Liberation power-sharing in DRC and, 191 Movement, 79 Clinton administration, 325 Conflict, internal. See also Civil wars; CNDD-FDD. See National Council for Ethnic cleansing; Insurgencies; the Defense of Democracy Separatist movements CNS (Conseil national de securité), acceptance of peace with power- Burundi, 85 sharing guarantees as end Coalition for Change, Bosnia, 280 to, 76 Index 371

center-periphery, internationally Congress of Bosniac Intellectuals, 266n supported peace plan and, Congressional Black Caucus, U.S., 201 39 Congressional Research Service, U.S., disarming and demobilizing rival 312n, 327 authorities, 25 Conneh, Aicha Keita, 83, 208–209 domestic regime change and, 97–98 Conneh, Sekou Damateh, 83, 90, 208 in the DRC, corruption, personal Conseil national de securité (CNS), enrichment and, 191n Burundi, 85 in the DRC, weak transitional Consociational democracy, 86n governance and, 188–192 Constitutional Court, Guatemala, 132 East Timor separatists and, 161–162 Constitutions. See also Elections or in El Salvador, early interim regime referendums and, 126 for Afghanistan, 43–44, 65, 300– in El Salvador and Guatemala, 302, 314–319 political instability and, for Bosnia, 275 127–128 drafting of, transition process and, elections in Afghanistan and, 304 40 evolution of UN interventions for El Salvador and Guatemala, 125, after, 14–15 140–141 government power after, 24 interim governments, political in Great Lakes region of Africa, elites and, 54 175–177 for Iraq, 321, 339–340 in Indonesia, between Christians for Kosovo, 244 and Muslims, 159–160, 162 for Liberia, 200, 200n, 214 in Indonesia, East Asian financial Constructivism, 9–10, 9n crisis and, 151–153 Contact Group, 254, 259, 270 in Indonesia, weak civilian control Conte, Lansanna, 209 of military and, 165–167 Contract and Monopolies interim governments, construction Commission, Liberia, 209–210 of political elites and, 55 Cooper, Robert, 218 in Iraq, governance and, 322 Corruption in Kosovo in 2004, 246–247 in Afghanistan, narco-money and, peace agreements and, 349 320 peacekeeping missions and, 17–19 in Indonesia, quality of governance power-sharing governance and and, 167–168 legitimacy issues in in Kosovo, economic recovery and, Burundi and, 186–188 245, 249 power-sharing systems and, 27, 33 in Liberia, 210, 212–213 proportional power distribution power-sharing in DRC and, 191 and, 70 two party states in Cambodia and, selection of interim government 233 elites and, 61 Côte d’Ivoire termination of protectorate status Liberian citizens’ economic ties to, for Kosovo and, 259 200 Conflict resolution system(s) Linas-Marcoussis Agreement, 85 international, two faces of, 37–38 Marcoussis power-sharing local or traditional, perceptions gap agreement for, 80–81 and, 42–43 power-sharing institutions in, 74–75 Congo. See Democratic Republic of the power-sharing patterns in, 78 Congo Taylor’s goals for Liberia and, 203 372 Interim Governments

Côte d’Ivoire Patriotic Movement Cuba, as revolutionary model of (MPCI), 81 interim government, 11 Council of Europe, 17 Currency crisis, global. See also East Countries and Their Cultures, 111 Asian financial crisis Coups d’etat transitional government in in Cambodia, 232 Indonesia and, 30 domestic regime change and, 97 Curtis, Devon, 30–31, 90, 171–172 in Liberia, 199, 200, 201 Cyprus Group, 289n threats against Cerezo in Czechoslovakia, Velvet Revolution as Guatemala, 131 power-sharing model of CPA. See Coalition Provisional interim government, 11 Authority CPP (Cambodian People’s Party), 227, 230, 231–232, 233 Daci, Nexhat, 251 Crime, organized. See also Warlordism Dar es Salaam, Burundi Global Peace in Guatemala, 133 Accords signed in, 83–84 Criminalized economies Darfur, Sudan, ongoing fighting in, 79, Afghan, democratic process and, 84 44–45 D’Aubuisson, Roberto, 128, 130 Afghan, opium production and, 45, Dayton Peace Accords (Agreement) 288, 319–320 Ahtisaari’s negotiations on Kosovo citizen conceptions of positive status and, 250 peace and, 46 coordination of police and, 277 peace process, center-periphery implementation of, 264–265 dynamic and, 41 international domination of, Cristiani, Alfredo, 129–130, 131, 140 273–276 Croatia, armed conflict in and power-distribution among elites independence declared by, 268 and, 63, 64 Croatian Defense Council, 269–270, power sharing formula under, 270n 279–280 Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), state building after, 285 Bosnia Tadic’s plan for Kosovo and, 253 OHR governance and, 284 DCG (Christian Democrats), post civil-war informal networks Guatemala, 131, 132, 143 and, 271 De León Carpio, Ramiro, 132 power-sharing under Dayton Demilitarization. See also Military Accords and, 275, 279–280 forces split of, 281 in Liberia under second interim tactics for governance in Bosnia, 283 government, 208–209 wartime goals and, 279 timing and conduct of elections Croats in Bosnia and, 22 conflict after independence and, Democracy. See also Democratization; 269–270 Elections; Imposed regimes; elections of 1990 and, 269 Rights of citizens history of, 266–267 conflict within new governments post-civil war informal alternative under, 8–9 networks and, 271–272 consociational, 86n power sharing, governance issues as governance objective, and, 283–286 international community on security goals, 280 consensus on, 348 Croissant, Aurel, 31, 217–218 as imposed regime, 350 Index 373

in Iraq, under transitional majoritarian rule and protection of administrative law, 332–333 rights in, 41–42 partial, as transitional government, peace agreement and domestic 144 (See also El Salvador; power-sharing interim Guatemala) government in, 30–31, 171– power-sharing arrangements after 172, 173–174 civil war as foundation for, peace agreement and establishment 78 of transitional government regional, imposed democracies and in, 177, 178, 179–181, 183–186 stimulation of, 116 peace agreements with Rwanda, relation of peace to, 4 Uganda and, 180 rights vs., 35–36 rights of citizens after transition selection of interim government process in, 41 elites and development of, Rwandan genocide and conflict in, 61 176–177 top-down processes and local selection of interim government engagement in, 52 elites in, 60, 65 universal recognition as standard study of transitional regime in, 5–6 for legitimate rule, 9–10 Taylor’s goals for Liberia and, 203 Democratic Convergence (El Salvador), Democratically-elected leaders, power- 131 sharing or caretaker regimes vs. Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK), reinstallation of, 15n 62, 242, 245, 252 Democratization. See also Democracy Democratic Party of Côte d’Ivoire analyses of, 10n (PDCI), 80 assumptions on Afghan and Iraqi Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK), 62, development of, 115–116 245 in Cambodia, strategic orientation Democratic Republic of the Congo of international community (DRC) and, 233–234 benefits of international construction of political elites intervention in, 352 through interim civil war in, 172, 173 governments and, 70 continued conflict and weak international intervention and, transitional governance in, 351–352 188–192 in Kosovo, OSCE and, 243 ethnic conflict in, 175 pressures in El Salvador for, 126–127 executive power-sharing patterns sequencing institutionalization in, 78, 84, 90–91 before, 8–9 external actors and sovereign shortcomings in Cambodia of, authority of interim regime 232–233 in, 66–67 through international interim factions fighting for control of state government, 220–221 in, 29n Dependency theory, as descriptor for Government of National Unity and center-periphery dynamic, Transition, 185 38–39 infrastructure and physical size of, Development Unity Party (Indonesia), 173n 151, 156 interim power-sharing Diamond, Larry, 10n, 28–29, 95 arrangements in, 67 Diarra, Seydou, 80, 81 lessons learned in, 192–196 Dobbins, James, 289 374 Interim Governments

Dodik, Milorad, 281 suspended sovereignty in, 19 Doe, Samuel K., 199, 200–201, 202 top-down programs in, 48 Domestic acceptance, 28–29. See also transitional processes in, 31 Legitimacy UN and interim government in, Domestic governance 226, 227–229 case studies, questions for, 28 UNTAET’s legacy in, 230, 234–236 control by external actors of, 219 EC (European Community), 268 Doyle on, 14–15 Economic Community of West interim regimes and, 13–14 African States (ECOWAS), 207, international relations scholars 208, 210, 217 neglect of development of, 8 Economic Community of West power sharing or international African States Monitoring administrations vs., 15–16, Group (ECOMOG) 32 development of warlordism in reestablishment of rule of law by, 24 Liberia and, 203, 204–205 regime change, Shain and Linz on, Nigerian troops in Liberia as, 83, 97–98 202 Donini, Antonio, 26–27, 33, 35–36, 187, protection of Liberian government 320 by, 217 Dostum, Abdul Rashid, 305, 306, 313 return to Liberia, 206–207 Doyle, Michael, 14–15, 219–220 on sovereignty and governance in DRC. See Democratic Republic of the Liberia, 214 Congo zone of, Sawyer’s use of, 203 Drnovsek, Janez, 256 Economic development. See also Drug economies. See Criminalized Socioeconomic reforms economies analyses of, 10n Dualism, as descriptor for center- divisions over role in Guatemala periphery dynamic, 39 on, 132–133 Duarte, José Napoleón, 128–129, 130 in East Timor, foreign aid and, 235 in El Salvador, 129, 130 in Guatemala, 134–135 East Asian financial crisis, 30, 147, 148, in Kosovo, EU and, 243 149–150 links between military power, East Timor political power, and benefits of international economic power and, 72 intervention in, 352 measuring degree of, 111 democratization and peace building political instability in imposed conditions in, 222, 223–225 regimes and, 113 expatriate presence in, 38 political repression in Indonesia five phases of interim government and, 150 in, 228 Economic Governance Action Plan, Indonesian-supported military Liberia’s, 210 atrocities in, 29n Economic issues. See also East Asian international administration in, 18 financial crisis lessons learned in, 236–240 in Afghanistan, opium and, 288 linear regime transition in, 41 civility in social conduct and, 78 separatist movement in, 160, 161–162 continued conflict in the DRC and, social mores of power relationships 190, 190n at local and community executive power-sharing systems levels in, 47 in Africa and, 92 study of transitional regime in, 5–6 Index 375

Indonesian interim government, presidential, of 2004, 305–306 regional conflict and, 163 Bosnia, 269, 280, 281 interim regime success and, 351–348 building democracy and timing of, 51 in Kosovo, 240n Burundi, 172, 173, 187–188 Liberian institutional management Cambodia, 230, 231–232 of, 209–211, 213 democratization in, 240 as motivation for imposed regimes, DRC, 172–173, 174, 181, 191–195 101 East Timor, 224, 225 political challenge potential in democratization in, 240 imposed regimes and, 106 El Salvador, 126, 134, 140 transitional processes and, 195–196 Guatemala, 126, 127, 140–141 in Yugoslavia during unraveling of Indonesia 1980s and 1990s, 264 changes to laws on, 156–157 Economist, The, 311 during East Asian financial ECOWAS (Economic Community of crisis, 151–152 West African States), 207, 208, Habibie’s preparations for, 210, 217 154–155 Eide, Kai, 248, 249–250, 252, 255 incumbent caretaker El Salvador government and, 148 benefits of international political instability and, 164–165 intervention in, 352 regional internal conflict and, capacity of old institutions to resist 162–163 change in, 137–140 regional violence and, 160 collapse of institutional military under Soeharto regime, 151 government in, 126–128 internationally supervised, constitutional reform in, 140 transition process and, 40 domestic opposition to Iraq authoritarian regime in, 29– assumptions on decline in, 125 30, 29n on constitution, 321, 339 lessons learned in, 143–145 CPA cancellation of, 329, partially democratic interim 330–331 government established in, Interim Iraqi Government and, 124–125, 128–131 334 party strength in Guatemala vs., for National Assembly, 340 135–136 for Transitional National peace process and final stages of Assembly, 338–339 transition for, 133–135 Kosovo, 240, 240n, 244, 245, 254 rebel strength and specificity of Liberia, 200, 205, 211, 212, 217 peace accords in, 136–137 peace agreements in post-conflict Stanley on transition in, 30, societies and dramas 123–124 regarding, 222 study of transitional regime in, 5–6 political elites, interim power- UN role in constitutional reform in, sharing arrangements and, 141–142 68 Elections or referendums power distribution, sources of Afghanistan party strength and, 71–72 assumptions on decline in, 125 role of, 20–24 Bonn Agreement on, 291 security, rule of law and, 42 legislative, of 2005, 306–307, for selection of interim government 310–313, 319 elites, 57–63 perceptions gap and, 45 social contract and rights vs., 36 376 Interim Governments

Electoral autocracies, 9 Karzai’s dismissal of Fahim and, Elites, political 305 assessment of structural effects on, Bosnia, 272–273, 280 69–72 internal conflict and, 29 in Cambodia after UNTAC in Iraq, transitional administrative departure, democratic law approval and, 333 decision-making and, 240 long term, interim power-sharing coup d’etat in Liberia and, 199 arrangements and, 77 expectations and strategies of, 67–69 nation building in post-colonial extending powers throughout societies and, 236 country and power-sharing premature elections and formation driven by, 33 of forces supporting, 22–23 external actors and sovereign proportional power distribution authority of, 65–67 and, 70 interim government lessons for, Ethnic identities 56–57 measures of, 111 interim governments and political challenge potential in construction of, 54–55 imposed regimes and, 105, international intervention and 111–112 power-sharing driven by, power-sharing in Burundi and, 174 351–352 recognition of indigenous cultures in Liberia, 197–198 in Guatemala, 134, 140 pacting among, analyses of, 10n, 27 representation on Iraq’s Interim power sharing, 63–65 Governing Council, 332 power-sharing in Burundi and, Ethnic structures, premature elections 187–188 and formation of sectarian power-sharing in the DRC, forces by, 22–23 continued violence and, 191 EUGene, 111 selection processes by interim Europe. See also specific countries governments of, 58–63, imposed regimes after World War 71–72 II in, 101 Empire Lite (Ignatieff), 218 European Commission, 276 Employment, as component of peace European Community (EC), 268, 270 and security, 45–46 European Stability Initiative, 264 Encyclopedia of the World’s Nations, The, European Union (EU) 111 Ahtisaari proposal for Kosovo Encyclopedia of World History, The, 108 status settlement and, 264n Enterline, Andrew J., 10–11, 27, 94–95, Arusha process leading to 218 transitional institutions in Ethiopia, as revolutionary model of Burundi and, 181 interim government, 11 assistance to Liberia, 207, 210, 217 Ethnic cleansing. See also Civil wars Bosnian readiness to join, 265 in Bosnia, 269 democracy as standard for new in Kosovo, 242, 246 members of, 9n Ethnic division Eide on Kosovo development role Afghan loya jirgas, political stability for, 250 and, 297–299, 298n EU Force (EUFOR) in Bosnia, 275 Afghanistan, 288 future security arrangements in Bonn Agreement and, 290 the Balkans and, 255 elections of 2004 and, 306 Index 377

International Committee in assumption of sovereignty and Support of the Transition governance by, 12 (CIAT) in the DRC and, 185 Burundi’s transitional government on Kosovo after termination of and, 174–175, 181–183 UNMIK, 263 disconnects between elite and peacekeeping mission in Burundi masses and, 33 and, 174 DRC’s transitional government Police Mission in Bosnia, 278 and, 174–175, 183–186 reconstruction and economic election administration by, 20 development in Kosovo eliminating internal rivals and, 25 and, 243 inappropriate protection for Serbia’s application for entry into, enacting peace agreements 253 from, 89–90 views on Kosovo’s future by interim government elites’ different members of, selection by, 56–57, 58–63, 255–256 70, 71–72 Executive power-sharing systems. See interim governments, construction also President of political elites and, 55 African patterns of experience interim governments in El Salvador with, 77–86 and Guatemala and, 125 in Burundi, 78–79, 82 longer-term character of conflict management and, 27, 33 government through in Côte d’Ivoire, 80–81, 85 influence on political elites’ in the DRC, 78, 84, 90–91 expectations by, 68–69 insights from African experience, perceptions gap between periphery 90–92 and, 37 lack of credible commitment for, 88 power-sharing transitional lessons learned from, 92–93 governments in Burundi in Liberia, 78–79, 83, 90 and the DRC and, 195 limits of reassurance with, 86–90 second Liberian interim overview and questions about, government and, 207–208 73–75 second wave of democratization peace agreements ending civil and, 6 wars and, 92–93 Shain and Linz’s model of in Rwanda, 79–80, 85, 90 revolutionary provisional short- and long-term implications governments and, 98, 119 for, 75–77 sovereign authority of interim in the Sudan, 79, 82, 84, 91 government and, 65–67 unreliable public information and, standards for success of 87 transitional regimes of, 24 Executive transitional authority. See Externally imposed regimes. See also International interim Imposed regimes government model Doyle on, 219–220 External actors. See also Imposed FAES (Salvadoran military), 138 regimes; International Fahim, Mohammad, 292, 296–297, 305 community/organizations; Failed states. See also State collapse International interim Between States on, 14n government model FAR (Forces Armées Rwandaises), 179 378 Interim Governments

Farabundo Martí National Liberation security sector reform in Front (FMLN) Afghanistan and, 303 civilian police in El Salvador and, support for Marionites in Lebanon 138–139 during mandate period by, competition with ARENA, 134 89 constitutional reform and, 140 Frank, Andre Gunder, 38n early transition to democracy and, Franks, Tommy, 322 129, 131 Freedom House, 244, 244n peace negotiations and, 136–137 Frente Revolucionara de Timor Leste UN Observer Mission in El Independente (Fretilin), 223, Salvador and, 142 236, 239 FARDC (Forces Armées de la FRG (Guatemalan Republican Front), République du Congo), 188 132, 133, 136 FARK (National Army of Kosovo), 242 Front for Democracy in Burundi Faruqi, Khaled, 312n (FRODEBU), 176, 179 FDLR (Forces Démocratiques de Fujimori, Alberto, 132 Libération de Rwanda), 189, 190 Fukuyama, Francis, 8n Fearon, James, 8 FUNCINPEC. See National United Federal systems, weak, proportional Front for an Independent, representation systems Neutral, Peaceful and functioning and, 21 Cooperative Cambodia Feinstein International Center, 302 FUSADES (Salvadoran Foundation for FMLN. See Farabundo Martí National Economic and Social Liberation Front Development), 129 FNL (National Forces for Liberation), Burundi, 78, 187 Forces Armées de la République du G7 (predominantly Hutu parties), 84, Congo (FARDC), 188 178–179 Forces Armées Rwandaises (FAR), 179 G10 (predominantly Tutsi parties), 84, Forces Démocratiques de Libération 178–179 de Rwanda (FDLR), 189, 190 Gabon, International Committee in Forces Vives, 180, 181 Support of the Transition in Foreign Broadcast Information the DRC and, 185 Service, 247n Gallup, Jeffrey, 232 Foreign invasion. See also Occupation; Garner, Jay, 322, 323, 326, 329 Wars Gbagbo, Laurent, 80, 81, 85 early analysis of interim German Bong Mining Company, 199 governments’ elimination Germany of, 12–13 Croatia’s independence recognized transitional regimes and, 7 by, 268 Framework Agreement for the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Republika Srpska on Police Technische Restructuring, 278 Zusammenarbeit, 276 France external roles in reconstruction and imposed regime after Napoleonic democratization after World Wars in, 100 War II in, 6 pressure on DRC belligerents by, imposed regime after World War II 184 in, 100 as revolutionary model of interim International Security Assistance government, 11 Force in Afghanistan and, 290n Index 379

security sector reform in partially democratic interim Afghanistan and, 303 government established in, Ghana, concerns about Taylor’s NPFL 124–125, 131–133 in Liberia in, 202 party strength in El Salvador vs., Global and All-Inclusive Peace Accord, 135–136 DRC, 84, 185 peace process and final stages of Golkar (Indonesian political party), transition for, 133–135 151, 152, 156, 164 rebel strength and specificity of Gorjão, Paulo, 225, 229 peace accords in, 136–137 Governance. See also Institutions Stanley on transition in, 30, 123–124 assumption by external actors of, 12 study of transitional regime in, 5–6 in Bosnia after Dayton Peace UN role in constitutional reform in, Accords, 282 141, 142–143 in East Timor, UNTAET and, 234 Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG), effective, ethnically heterogeneous 132, 133, 136 states and, 112 Guatemalan Revolutionary National effective, inclusiveness vs., 21 Union (URNG), 132, 134, 135, good, interim regimes and, 13, 14 137, 144 ineffective, in Iraq under ORHA, Guebuza, Armando, 178n 324–325 Guinea ineffective, interim government Liberian citizens’ economic ties to, structures and, 69–70 200 interim regime success and, 351–348 Liberian internal conflict and, 198– interim structure effects on, 71 199, 205 legitimacy, security and, 32, 351 Gusamo, Xanana, 235 quality in Indonesia of, corruption Guterres, Francisco, 235 and, 167–168 Gutiérrez Castro, Mauricio, 138 sovereignty of Liberia and, 213–214 Guttieri, Karen, 95–96, 321 top-down, explicit and implicit forms of occupation and, 38 Great Britain. See United Kingdom Habibie, B. J. Great National Alliance (GANA, democratic reforms under, 149 Guatemala), 136 formation of interim government Greig, J. Michael, 11, 27, 94–95 under, 152 Grieg, J. Michael, 218 as incumbent caretaker in Groupe spécial de sécurité Indonesia, 148, 154 présidentielle (GSSP), in the on limited autonomy for East DRC, 189, 192 Timor, 223 Guatemala power- and resource-sharing with benefits of international regional governments and, intervention in, 352 163 capacity of old institutions to resist regional separatists and, 161–162 change in, 137–140 on UN peacekeeping force in East collapse of institutional military Timor, 224, 225–226 government in, 126–128 understanding of domestic and constitutional reform in, 140–141 international legitimacy domestic opposition to authoritarian crisis scope by, 30 regime in, 29–30, 29n Habyarimana, Juvénal, 79–80, 85 lessons learned in, 143–145 Hakim, Ahmad Fahim, 320 Handicrafts Ministry, Rwanda, 81 Haq, Abdul, 291 380 Interim Governments

Haradinaj, Ramush, 62, 245 Hun Sen, 16, 230, 232 Harris, David, 205 Hussein, Saddam, 30, 62, 320, 323, 328 Hartzell, Caroline, 82 Hutus or Hutu-led parties Haysom, Fink, 178n conflict in eastern Congo and, 190 Hazaras. See also Shi’a Hazara ethnic conflict with Tutsi, 175–176 on form of state for Afghanistan, power-sharing arrangements in 298 Burundi with, 78, 83–84, 84– as percentage of Afghan 85, 186, 195 population, 298n power-sharing arrangements in voting province of, 302 Rwanda with, 79–80, 85 HDZ. See Croatian Democratic Union Herceg-Bosna, Croatian, 271 Hibbs, Douglas, 102 ICGL (International Contact Group on Hizb-e Islami (Afghan political party), Liberia), 207 312, 312n ICTY (International Criminal Tribunal Hobbes, Thomas, 94, 119 for the former Yugoslavia), 274, Hoddie, Matthew, 82 277 Holbrooke, Richard, 274 Identity-based politics. See also Elites Holkeri, Harri, 249 power distribution and, 72 Hotak, Haji Mosa, 312 Ideology. See also Political parties House of Representatives, Indonesia, as motivation for imposed regimes, 156–157, 159, 164, 165 101 Hughes, Paul, 32, 95, 319–320 Shain and Linz on revolutionary Human rights. See also Rights movements and, 98 in Cambodia, 230 IDPs. See Internally displaced persons in El Salvador, Duarte and, 128–129 IGC (Interim Governing Council), Iraq, exercising authority without 321 judicial review and, 16–17 Ignatieff, Michael, 218 in Indonesia, military reform Illegal Exploitation of Natural during transition and, 159 Resources and Other Forms of in Kosovo, 263 Wealth in the DRC, 190n peace process, center-periphery IMF. See International Monetary Fund dynamic and, 41 Imperialism, liberal or temporary, 218 power-sharing arrangements after Imposed regimes. See also International civil war as foundation for, interim government model 78 case study questions about, 28 UN role in building local capacity country list, dates, and political in El Salvador for, 142 type, 109–110 (table) Human Rights Watch, 247, 297 definition of, 96 Human security. See also Security effects on extending state authority citizen conceptions of positive and demobilizing internal peace and, 46–47 rivals on legitimacy of, definition of, 40 25–26 negative peace effects on, 41 examples and characteristics of, Humanitarian aid. See also Aid 100–101 agencies; Non-governmental external actors’ commitment, as organizations political challenge potential to Afghanistan, Bonn Agreement in, 106–107 on, 291 forecasts for Afghanistan and Iraq, transitional regimes and, 7 114–118 Index 381

implications for revolutionary domestic and international provisional government legitimacy crisis in, 30 model and, 118–119 elections and political instability nondemocracies or democracies, in, 164–165 stability of, 27, 33 incumbent-led transition in, 154–159 political stability and, 95, 97 interim government in East Timor research design, 108, 111 and, 226 research findings, 111–114 interim government legacies, state building and, 94–95 163–164 theoretical expectations for, lessons learned in, 168–171 102–108 liberation movement on East Timor time in power, political challenge against, 19, 29, 223 and, 112–114 Malley on incumbent-caretaker Imposed-regime-year, as unit of model in, 30, 147–148 analysis, 108 military reform in, 158–159 INC (Interim National Council), Iraq, origins of interim government in, 337 149–153 Inclusive decision making, as power- political reform in, 154–158 sharing arrangement, 74, 90–91 presidential system and, 157–158 Inclusive governments. See also Power regional separatism and communal sharing; Power-sharing model conflicts in, 159–163, 160n of interim governments study of transitional regime in, 5–6 effective governance vs., 21 Indonesian Democracy Party, 151 political stability and, 71 Indonesian Democratic Party- Incumbent-caretaker model. See also Perjuangan (PDI-P or PDIP-P), Indonesia 164 Shain and Linz on, 10, 11, 154, 219 Institute for War and Peace Reporting, Incumbents, wartime 264 interim governments, balance of Institutions. See also Bureaucracy; political power at end of Governance; State building wars and, 55 Afghan, Bonn Agreement and, 290 selection of interim government democratic, political challenges elites by, 58–63 during imposed regimes to, Independence movements. See also 103–104 Civil wars; Conflict, internal; economic and political, durable Insurgencies democracy-building and, 72 in East Timor, 223 imposed vs. indigenously grown, 4 interim governments following, 19, Kosovo 29 fragility of, 249 regional, in Indonesia, 159–161 OSCE and, 243 Indigenous cultures. See Ethnic local stateless, peace process identities; Tribal structures success and, 51 Indonesia political elites’ expectations and cease-fire then Operation Clean strategies and, 70 Sweep in East Timor and, power-sharing and, 33 224 protection of citizens’ rights and civil-military relations and regional building up of, 36 conflicts, 165–167 reconstruction by external vs. corruption and quality of internal actors of, 12 governance in, 167–168 382 Interim Governments

reform in El Salvador and extending powers throughout the Guatemala of, 125 country and, 33 sequencing establishment before external actors and sovereign democratization of, 8–9 authority of, 65–67 weak, expectations and strategies internationally created, theoretical of political elites and, 69 developments on, 7–12 Insurgencies lasting effects of various assumptions on Afghan and Iraqi mechanisms for, 56–57 decline in, 115 planning and training for, 350–351 interim governments in El Salvador political authority allocation in, and Guatemala and, 125 57–66 Iraq political outcome dependence upon governance and, 322, 328, 340 security in, 351–348 IIG and, 336–337 structures of, and political elites’ Iraqi security force and ending of, expectations and strategies 113 for, 67 as political challenge, 103 Inter-Institutional Coordinating secessionist, in Kosovo, 241 Councils, Guatemala, 131–132 strength in El Salvador vs. Internally directed change. See also El Guatemala of, 136–137 Salvador; Guatemala Integrated Regional Information in Indonesia, 147 Networks, 91 Internally displaced persons (IDPs) Interahamwe forces in the DRC, 179 in Bosnia, 270, 272, 275, 282, 285 Inter-Congolese Dialogue, 84, 91, 178, in Indonesia, 162 179–180, 183–186 International administration model of INTERFET (International Force for East interim governments. See Timor), 224, 225–226, 228, 239 International interim Interim Administrative Council, for government model Kosovo, 243–244 International Committee in Support of Interim Governing Council (IGC), the Transition (CIAT) in the Iraq, 321, 331–333 DRC, 185 Interim Iraqi Government, 321–322, International Community Office and 334–335, 336–338 Representative, Kosovo’s Interim National Assembly, Iraq, 334 future and, 259–263 Interim National Council (INC), Iraq, International community/ 337 organizations. See also External Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy, actors; Regional actors; United for Liberia, 210 Nations Interim regimes Bosnian conflict and response by, balance of political power at end of 263–264 wars and, 55n civil society in Bosnia and, 281–282 context for, 351–348 Dayton Peace Accords, transition cultivating local and international for Bosnia and, 273–276 legitimacy for, 348–349 definition of, 5 definition of, 5 elections for benefit of, 21 democracy as governance objective ethnic division in post-civil war for, 348 Bosnia and, 272–273 difficulties and uncertainties of, 350 increased power of, 12 evolution of, 6–7 interim government models, 15–17 interim regimes and, 33, 350 Index 383

partial democracy as transitional stabilization and government and, 144, 145 reconstruction by, 29 perspectives on Kosovo’s future, theoretical developments by, 7–10 254–256 International Security Assistance role in democratization in late Force (ISAF), Afghanistan, 290, 1990s and early 2000s, 7 290n, 291, 302 security in Bosnia and response by, International Stabilization Force, 276–279 Liberia, 208 state building by, 3–4 Iran, warlords in Afghanistan and, 297 state building in Bosnia and, Iraq 275–276 alternative choices for interim strategic orientation for government in, 341 democratization in benefits of international Cambodia and, 233–234 intervention in, 352 top-down programs or social Coalition Provisional Authority in, engineering by, 47–48 326–328 International Contact Group on CPA governance in, 329–331 Liberia (ICGL), 207 elections and distribution of power International Criminal Tribunal for sharing in, 63, 65, 72 the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), elections in, as benefit for U.S. 273–274, 277 policies, 21 International Crisis Group, 264, 297 explaining planning failures for, International Development Bank, 143 325–326 International Force for East Timor external actors and sovereign (INTERFET), 224, 225–226, 228, authority of interim regime 239 in, 66–67 International interim government external actors’ influence on model. See also Afghanistan; political elites and Bosnia; Iraq; Liberia constitution-making in, 69 Between States on, 10, 11, 99–100, forecast for imposed nondemocracy 219, 220 in, 117–118 in Cambodia and East Timor, Green Zone as expatriate presence 218–219 in, 38 case studies of, 31–32 imposed democratic regime in, 96, expansion of, 15–17 100 in Kosovo, 241, 263–264 insurgency as political challenge local transitional governments vs., in, 103 15–16 Interim Governing Council of, International legitimacy. See 331–333 Legitimacy interim government after foreign International Monetary Fund (IMF) invasion in, 29n aid to DRC government by, 184n Interim Iraqi Government of, assistance to Liberia, 207, 210, 213, 336–338 217 interim power-sharing constitutional reform in Guatemala arrangements in, 67 and, 143 as international interim International relations scholars administration model, 31 comparative politics scholars and legitimacy of transitional regime study of post-conflict in, 32–33 legitimacy-efficacy issues in, 26 384 Interim Governments

lessons learned in, 351–348 al-Jaafari, Ibrahim, 339 majoritarian rule and protection of Jackman, Robert W., 102–103 rights in, 41–42 Jalal, Masooda, 306 National Assembly of, 340–341 Jalali, Ali, 320 Office of Reconstruction and Jamiat-e Islami (Afghan political Humanitarian Assistance party), 296, 319 for, 322–325 Japan optimistic forecast for imposed external roles in reconstruction and Democracy in, 115–116 democratization after World overview of, 320–322 War II in, 6 pessimistic forecast for imposed imposed regime after World War II democracy in, 116–117 in, 100, 101, 111 power vacuum after foreign probability of potential challenge invasion in, 30 to post–World War II rights of citizens after transition imposed regime in, 114–115 process in, 41 security sector reform in selection of interim government Afghanistan and, 303 elites in, 60, 61–62 Jefferson, Thomas, 94 sovereignty transfer and elections Jessen-Petersen, Soren, 240, 249 in, 23 Johnson, Prince, 202, 203 sovereignty transfer planning for, Johnson, Thomas H., 32, 287 333–336 Johnson-Sirleaf, Ellen, 211, 212–213, studies on U.S. state-building in, 7 217, 218 study of transitional regime in, 5–6 Joint and Interim Administrative Transitional National Assembly of, Structure, in Kosovo, 243–244 338–340 Joint Verification Commission, DRC Iraqi expatriates, 325, 326, 337–338, 341 transitional government and, Iraqi Governing Council, 65 185 Iraqi National Assembly, 340–341 Jones, Bruce D., 80 Iraqi National Conference, 337 Jovic, Ivo Miro, 281 Iraqi National Guard, 26 JRG (Revolutionary Governing Junta), Iraqi security force, potential for El Salvador, 126, 128 political challenge and, 113 Judiciary Iraqis (Sunni political party), 339 in Afghanistan, 301 Iron triangles, in post-war Bosnia, capacity to resist change in El 270–271 Salvador vs. Guatemala of, Irredentist conflicts, 19, 29. See also 138 Civil wars constitutional reform in El Salvador ISAF (International Security Assistance and Guatemala of, 140 Force), Afghanistan, 290, 290n, in El Salvador, Duarte and, 129 291, 302 in Kosovo, UN or UNHCR control Israel, peace process and rights of of, 243 citizens of, 42 reform in post-civil war Bosnia of, Ittehad-e Islami Afghanistan, 319 277 Ituri region conflicts, DRC, 188, 190n weakness in the DRC of, 191–192 Ivorian Popular Front (FPI), 80 Izetbegovic, Alija, 273–274 Index 385

Kabila, Joseph, 84, 90–91, 180–181, drawbacks of UNMIK governance 188–189, 190. See also Groupe in, 31–32 spécial de sécurité Eide on determining future status présidentielle of, 249–250 Kabila, Laurent, 177, 179, 180 elections and distribution of power Kadege, Alphonse, 179n sharing in, 63 Kalimantan, Indonesia, elites’ selection for interim intercommunal violence in, 162 government in, 60, 62 Karadzic, Radovan, 269, 273, 280, 285 epilogue to interim government in, Karzai, Hamid 258–264 Afghan respect for, 46 external actors and sovereign appointment under Bonn authority of interim regime Agreement of, 64 in, 66–67 cabinet choices of, 299 independence movement in, 29n campaign for presidency by, interim power-sharing 304–305 arrangements in, 67–68 election of 2004 and, 305, 306, 319 from interim status to enhanced electoral law decreed by, 303 sovereignty, 240–241 emergency loya jirga and, 65, 295 international administration in, 18 influence of government under, 288 as international interim on opium and Afghan economy, 319 administration model, 31 Panjshiri politicking and, 297 international perspectives on on peace and justice, 44 future of, 254–256, 353 post-Taliban transition and U.S. Kosovo Albanian perspectives on, relationship with, 291–292 250–252 Provincial Council elections of lessons learned in, 257–258 2005 and, 312 peace and security conceptions warlord challenges to central study in, 45, 46–47 government of, 25 protectorate lite in, 256–257 KFOR revised implementation plan for alliance with Kosovo Liberation governance of, 247–249 Army, 242 riots of 2004 in, 246–247 riots of 2004 and, 246–247 Serbian perspectives on, 252–254 Khalilzad, Zalmay, 310 study of transitional regime in, 5–6 Khan, Ismail, 305 suspended sovereignty in, 19 Khmer People’s National Liberation UNMIK accountability in, 17 Front, 222–223 UNMIK and state building Khmer Rouge, 222, 230, 231–232, 234 obstacles in, 242–246 King, Dwight Y., 229 Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), 62, Kinyarwanda speakers of the DRC, 239, 241, 242 RCD-G and, 189 Kosovo Police Service, 247 Kivu, North and South, DRC, 188, Kosovo Transition Council, 243–244 189–190, 191n, 192 Kostunica, Vojislav, 253–254 KLA (Kosovo Liberation Army), 62, Kosumi, Bajram, 252 239, 241, 242 Kouchner, Bernard, 240, 257 Klein, Jacques Paul, 79 Krasner, Steven, 27, 53 Komsic, Zeljko, 281 Kromah, Alhaji, 202 Kosovo Kuperman, Alan, 80 citizens’ rights after transition Kurds, in Iraq, 69, 332–333, 339–340 process in, 41 386 Interim Governments

Lacina, Bethany, 14, 15–16, 61 authority and demobilizing Laitin, David, 8 internal rivals and, 25–26 Law and order functions. See also Iraq Police, civilian; Rule of law; after removal of Hussein and Security his supporters, 324 CPA’s dissolution of Iraqi military CPA, 328, 329–331 and security apparatuses Interim Governing Council and, and, 329–330, 331 331–332 resumption of, effective internal security environment and, sovereignty and, 24 351–348 LDK (Democratic League of Kosovo), ownership principle in local 62, 242, 245, 252 communities and external League of Communists of Yugoslavia or internal, 42 (LCY), 267, 269, 271–272 power-sharing governance and Lebanon, external actors and power- violence in Burundi and, sharing arrangements in, 89 186–188 Legislature(s) rights of citizens, popular Afghanistan, 301, 301n representation through a elections for, 303, 306–307, 310– transparent process and, 52 313, 319 Lenk, Georg, 178n voting by province, 308–309 LFF (Liberian Frontier Force), 197 (table) Liberal imperialism, 218 in the DRC, 181 Liberation movements. See Indonesia Independence movements People’s Consultative Assembly, Liberia 152, 155–156 Accra Comprehensive Peace Iraq Agreement, 206–207 Interim National Assembly, 334 assessment of Interim Government Transitional National Assembly, of National Unity, 203–205 322, 338–340 benefits of international Iraqi National Assembly, 340–341 intervention in, 352 Legitimacy civil war, regional intervention, of Afghan legislature, electoral and first interim rules and, 319 government, 201–203 of elections, mandate and, 20–21 civil war in, 29n external, transformation to internal deterioration under Doe, 199–201 form of, 40 elections for permanent governance, security and, 32, 351 government in, 211 interim regimes and, 13–14, 31, executive power-sharing patterns 348–349 in, 67, 78–79, 83, 90 interim structure effects on, 71 external actors and sovereign international and regional but not authority of interim regime domestic, of Burundi in, 66–67 transitional government, 183 factions fighting for control of state international or domestic, in, 29n transitional regime in Iraq Interim Government of National and, 32–33 Unity in, 195, 202–203 internationally imposed regimes legitimacy of internationally effects on extending state governed transitional government in, 31, 195 Index 387

lessons learned from, 196, 214–217 understanding of rights of citizens origins and seeds of state failure in, 50 in, 197–199 UNDP’s PEACE program in peacemaking in, 208–209 Afghanistan and, 48 reflections on second interim UN-led interim governments in government, 211–213 Cambodia and East Timor second interim government in, and, 218, 239 206–207, 209–211 Local legitimacy. See Legitimacy selection of interim government Local transitional governments. See elites in, 60, 61, 65 Domestic governance social mores of power relationships Lon Nol, 222, 223 at local and community Loya jirgas levels in, 47 Bonn Agreement on formation of, state, governance, and legitimacy 291 in, 213–214 constitutional, 300, 301 study of transitional regime in, 5–6 emergency, of 2002, 64–65, 295 Taylor government and ongoing ethnic dimensions of, post-conflict civil war in, 205–206 stability and, 297–299 withholding economic sovereignty manipulation by warlords, 15 in, 34 LURD (Liberians United For Liberian American Mining Company, Reconciliation and Democracy), 199 78–79, 83, 90, 205, 206 Liberian Frontier Force (LFF), 197 Lusaka Cease-fire Agreement, 178, 179 Liberian Petroleum Refining Corporation, 201 Liberians United For Reconciliation Macedonia and Democracy (LURD), 78–79, Albanian nationalism and, 246 83, 90, 205, 206 EU-NATO and security in, 255 Liebenow, J. Gus, 199 Macedonians in Bosnia, 267 Linas-Marcoussis Agreement, 85 Machakos Protocol, 84 Linz, Juan. See Between States Machiavelli, Niccolò, 4–5, 11 Local communities. See also Domestic Madison, James, 94 governance; Shuras Magaña, Alvaro, 128 abusive power holders in Magic, in Liberia, importance of, 206, Afghanistan and, 44 206n factors for not gaining better al-Mahdi Army (Iraq), 336–337 understanding worldviews Mai-Mai militias, in the DRC, 177, 180, of, 48–49 189n international intervention and Majoritarian electoral systems legitimacy issues for, 352 conflict prevention and, 21 internationally supported peace human security, protection of plan and tensions with, 39 rights and, 41–42 ownership principle, and external al-Maliki, Nouri, 340 or internal legitimacy in, 42 Malley, Michael S., 30, 147–148, 223 participation in peace processes by, Maluku, Indonesia 51 intercommunal violence in, 162 studies on perceptions in contested peace agreements among warring environments, 43n factions in, 167 top-down transitions and, 36 Mandate, legitimacy of elections and, 20–21 388 Interim Governments

Mandela, Nelson, 84, 178, 178n, 179, constitutional reform in El Salvador 181–182 and Guatemala on, 140 Manning, Carrie L., 23–24, 27, 53, 218, Guatemala, divisions over role for, 314 133, 134–135 Marcoussis, France, peace agreement Indonesia for Côte d’Ivoire negotiated in, adaptations by, 158 80 East Timor separatists and, Martin, Ian, 234 161–162 Marxist-oriented political regimes, 98, opposition to Habibie 101 government by, 154 Masire, Ketumile, 179, 180, 183–184 regional conflicts, civilian Masoud, Ahmad Shah, 296n control and, 165–167 Masoud, Ahmad Zia, 296–297 special session of People’s Mayer-Rieckh, Alexander, 234 Consultative Assembly Mbeki, Thabo, 184 and, 156 McKiernan, David, 327 split during Habibie’s interim Mediators, power-sharing government of, 152–153 arrangements and, 77 toleration of interim government Megawati Soekarnoputri by, 164 corruption under, 168 internal, bringing under civilian elections of 1999 and, 164–165 command, 24, 25–26 as government opposition leader, Iraq 151–152 after removal of Hussein and as Indonesian president, 165 his supporters, 323 regional conflict and military CPA dissolution of, 329 relations with, 166–167 government effectiveness and, special session of People’s 340–341 Consultative Assembly and, in Liberia under Doe, 200 155–156 national, protection of citizens’ Mejía Victores, Óscar Humberto, 131, rights and building up of, 36 143 power-sharing in DRC and, 174 Militarization Salvadoran Ad Hoc Commission measuring degree of, 111 evaluation of, 134 political challenge potential in Soeharto’s appointment to political imposed regimes and, 106 and bureaucratic positions Military forces. See also Incumbents, of, 150–151 wartime; Military regimes; two party states in Cambodia and Police, civilian; Security; Wars size of, 233 Afghanistan unification and power sharing in Bonn Agreement on, 290, 290n the new DRC, 188–189 reform of, 302–303 Military occupation assumptions on Afghan and Iraqi perceptions gap on peace and development of, 115 security and, 47 in Burundi, reform of, 187 UN trusteeships, international in Cambodia, UNTAC and administration of war-torn demobilization of, 231 polities and, 7n capacity to resist change in El Military regimes Salvador vs. Guatemala in, collapse in El Salvador and 138 Guatemala of, 126–128, 143–144 Index 389

in El Salvador, economic Nairobi Declaration on the Final development and, 130–131 Phase of Peace in the Sudan, legitimacy crises for transitional 79 governments with, 30 Naivasha Protocol on Power Sharing, social and political control in 84 Guatemala by, 131–132 Namibia Milosevic, Slobodan, 240, 242, 269, armed support of Kabila’s DRC 273–274 government by, 177 MINUGUA (United Nations as international administration Verification Mission in model of interim Guatemala), 141, 142–143 government, 11 Mladic, Ratko, 285 linear regime transition in, 41 Mobutu, Joseph Désiré, 176–177, 192 peace agreement for DRC and, 179 Mohaqiq, Haji Mohammed, 305, 306, Napoleonic Wars, 100 313 Nation building Monitor transitional authority. See also in post-colonial societies, creation International interim of ethnic conflicts and, 236 government model social transformation and, 52 Doyle on, 219–220 state building vs., 3n Montenegrins in Bosnia, 267 National Advancement Party (PAN), Montenegro. See Serbia and Guatemala, 132, 133, 136 Montenegro National Army of Kosova (FARK), 242 MONUC (United Nations Mission in National Assembly, in the DRC, 181 the Democratic Republic of National Civilian Police (PNC), El Congo), 184, 185, 188–189 Salvador, 138 Morgan, E. Philip, 31, 195–196 National Consultative Council, East Mouvement de Libération du Congo Timor, 229 (MLC), 90–91, 177, 180, 181, 190 National Council, East Timor, 229 Mouvement Révolutionnaire National National Council for the Defense of pour le Développment Democracy (Front pour la (MRND), Rwanda, 79–80, 85 Défense de la Démocratie) Movement for Democracy and (CNDD-FDD) Elections in Liberia (MODEL), Arusha Peace Agreement and 83, 90, 206 continued struggle by, 178 Movement for Justice in Africa elections of 2005 and, 188 (MOJA), 198 joins transitional government, 173, Mozambique 183, 187 International Committee in Nyangoma’s formation of, 176 Support of the Transition power sharing under Burundi (CIAT) in the DRC and, 185 Global Peace Accords and, linear regime transition in, 41 83–84 MPCI (Côte d’Ivoire Patriotic National Election Commission, Movement), 81 Liberia, 211 Museveni, Yoweri, 182 National Forces for Liberation (FNL, Muslims in Bosnia, 266–267, 266n, 269, Burundi), 78, 187 270, 283–286 National government, proportional Mutawakkil, Mawlawi Wakil Ahmad, representation systems 312n functioning and power concentration in, 21 390 Interim Governments

National interests. See also Domestic Bosnian readiness to join, 265 governance civil war in Yugoslavia and, 264 international administrations and, future security arrangements in 18 Kosovo and, 255 National Iron Ore Company, 199 Implementation Force for Dayton National Patriotic Front of Liberia Peace Accords and, 274, 277, (NPFL), 201–202. See also 277n Taylor, Charles International Security Assistance National Patriotic Party (NPP), Force in Afghanistan and, Liberia, 205 290n National Reconciliation Party (PCN), riots of 2004 and, 247 El Salvador, 128 Serbia’s application for entry into, National Republican Alliance 253 (ARENA), El Salvador Stabilization Force, 275, 282 constitutional reform and, 140 Natsios, Andrew, 42 dominance of, 134 Ndadaye, Melchior, 85, 176 early transition to democracy and, Ndayizeze, Domitien, 83, 179n 128, 129–131 Ndombasi, Abdoulaye Yerodia, 181 peace negotiations and, 136 Negative peace, 40–41 political experience of, 135 New Forces (Rwandan faction), 81, 85 U.S. shaping and moderation of, New Order (Soeharto’s regime), 149, 161 144–145 New Paradigm, in Indonesia, 158, 159 National Transitional Government of Ngoma, Z’Ahidi, 181 Liberia (NTGL), 207, 209–211, Nicaragua, as revolutionary model of 212 interim government, 11 National Union for Progress (UPRONA, Nigeria. See also Economic Tutsi party, Burundi), 78 Community of West African National United Front for an States Monitoring Group Independent, Neutral, Peaceful concerns about Taylor’s NPFL in and Cooperative Cambodia Liberia in, 202, 204–205 (FUNCINPEC) as power-sharing model of interim coalition government and, 232 government, 11 guerilla war with pro-Vietnamese Nkurunziza, Pierre, 83, 172, 188 Cambodian government Non-governmental organizations and, 222–223 (NGOs). See also Aid agencies international community as expatriate presence, 38–39 perceptions of strength of, Noriega, Manuel, 101 234 Northern Alliance political fractionalization of the Afghan constitution and, 301 army and, 233 Bonn Agreement and, 289, 289n, 290 UNTAC-led election to National Karzai’s cabinet choices and, 299 Assembly and, 230 on Karzai’s dismissal of Fahim, 305 National Unity and Progress Party post-Taliban transition and, 292 (UPRONA, Tutsi party, Northern Ireland, majoritarian rule and Burundi), 176 protection of rights in, 41–42 National Unity for Hope (UNE, Norwegian Refugee Committee, 162 Guatemala), 136 NPFL (National Patriotic Front of NATO Liberia), 201–202. See also alliance with Kosovo Liberation Taylor, Charles Army, 242 Index 391

NPP (National Patriotic Party), Operation Clean Sweep, 224 Liberia, 205 Operation Deliberative Force, 264 Ntarayamira, Cyprien, 85 Operation Enduring Freedom, 32, 287, NTGL (National Transitional 289–290 Government of Liberia), 207, Operation Iraqi Freedom, 320 209–211, 212 Opium economies. See Criminalized Nyangoma, Léonard, 176 economies Nyerere, Julius, 84, 177–178, 181 ORA (Citizens List Hour) Party, Kosovo, 252 Organization for Security and Occupation. See also Foreign invasion Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) explicit and implicit forms of, top- Bosnia after Dayton Peace Accords down transitions and, and, 276 38–39 democratization and institution international law of, 20n building in Kosovo and, 243 O’Donnell, Guillermo, 10n elections of 2004 in Afghanistan Office of Reconstruction and and, 304 Humanitarian Assistance governance in Bosnia after Dayton (ORHA), Iraq Peace Accords and, 62, 282 Bush’s options for administration minority rights in Kosovo and, 63n of, 326 Organization of African Unity (OAU), CPA governance and, 329 9n, 179 as first phase of transitional Organization of American States, 9n administration, 321 ORHA. See Office of Reconstruction implementation problems, 351 and Humanitarian Assistance U.S. Defense Department’s Ottaway, Marina, 14, 15–16, 22, 61 management of, 322–325 Ouattara, Alassane, 80 Office of the High Representative Ould-Abdallah, Ahmed, 75 (OHR) Ownership principle, 42 Dayton Peace Accords and, 274, 275 governance in Bosnia after Dayton Peace Accords and, 282 Paiman, Amanullah, 320 increasing authority in Bosnia of, 17 Pakistan, warlords in Afghanistan police reform in Bosnia and, 278 and, 297 on police vetting by UNIPTF, PAL (Progressive Alliance of 278–279 Liberians), 198–199 selection of interim government Palestine, peace process and rights of elites in Bosnia by, 59, 62 citizens of, 41, 42 tactics for governance in Bosnia, Palipehutu-FNL (Hutu faction, 283–286 Burundi), 84, 178 Oil-for-food scandal, UN’s, 341 PAN (Partai Amanat Nasional, Omar, Mullah, 311 National Mandate Party), Ombudsperson Institution, in Kosovo, Indonesia, 164 247, 263 Panama, U.S.-imposed regime in, ONUB (United Nations Operation in 100–101 Burundi), 183 Papua, Indonesia ONUSAL (United Nations Observer separatist movement in, 160, 161 Mission) in El Salvador, 123, separatist movement in East Timor 141–142 and separatists in, 226 Operation Artemis, 185 392 Interim Governments

Wahid’s weak control of military Peace and conflict in, 166 conceptions of security and, 45–47 Paris Accord (1991), 223, 227. See also negative vs. positive, 40 United Nations Transitional negotiations in El Salvador and Authority in Cambodia Guatemala, 125 Paroubek, Jiri, 255–256 relation of democracy to, 4 Partai Amanat Nasional, National Peace agreements Mandate Party (PAN), Bonn Agreement structure vs., Indonesia, 164 289–290 Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa, National center-periphery dynamic and, 41 Awakening Party (PKB), citizen rights and, 51–52 Indonesia, 164 coercive enforcement capability Parti du peuple pour la reconstruction and, 33–34 et la démocratie (PPRD), DRC, domestic power-sharing interim 180–181 governments and, 30–31 Participatory governance. See also for East Timor, 227 Democracy for El Salvador, 125, 131, 133–134, construction of political elites 136–137 through interim fears about autonomous power governments, lessons base by participants in, 90 learned on, 70 for Guatemala, 125, 132–134, international administrations on, 18 136–137 Partitioned decision making, as power- inappropriate external protection sharing arrangement, 74 for, 89–90 Party of Democratic Action (SDA), inclusiveness claims about, 90–91 Bosnia, 271, 279 lack of credible commitment to, 88 Party of Independent Social Democrats, lack of shared norms and Republika Srpska, 280 aspirations for, 91–92 Pashtuns for Liberia, 83, 206–207 on form of state for Afghanistan, 298 power-sharing arrangements and, Karzai’s cabinet choices and, 299 67–68 Karzai’s transitional administration Peace dividends after emergency loya jirga constraints in Africa on, 92 and, 296 expectations in Afghanistan for, 44 as percentage of Afghan population, transition process and, 40, 51–52 298n Peace Implementation Council (for post-Taliban transition in Bosnia), Bonn, 281–282 Afghanistan and, 292, 295 PEACE (poverty eradication and voter fraud among, 311 community empowerment) Pax Nigeriana. See Nigeria program, 48 PCN (National Reconciliation Party), El Peacekeeping missions Salvador, 128 civil strife, disrupted stateness PDC (Christian Democrats), El and, 218–219 Salvador, 126, 127, 128–129 internal conflict and, 17–19 PDCI (Democratic Party of Côte state sovereignty and, 19 d’Ivoire), 80 UN’s first and second generation PDI-P or PDIP-P (Indonesian of, 220 Democratic Party-Perjuangan), Peceny, Mark, 9 164 Pedram, Abdul Latif, 320 PDK (Democratic Party of Kosovo), 62, People’s Consultative Assembly, 245 Indonesia, 152, 155–156 Index 393

People’s Republic of Kampuchea, 223 Political challenge Perceptions gap commitment of imposing parties center-periphery dynamic and, and, 106–107 43–45 democratic polity type and, 103– Donini on social perceptions and, 104, 112 35, 36–37 duration of imposed regime and local conflict resolution system potential for, 112–113 and, 42–43 forecasts for imposed Tufts University study of peace and nondemocracies in security and, 45–47 Afghanistan and Iraq and, Peripheral areas. See Center-periphery 117–118 dynamic of international forces in imposed Persons indicted for war crimes regimes, 111 (PIFWICS), in Bosnia, 277, 285 interstate security and, 107–108 Peru, Fujimori government in, 132 as manifestation of political Peshawar Group, 289n instability, 102–103 Pettifer, James, 247 measures of, 108 Physical security. See also Security militarization and, 106 definition of, 40 optimistic forecasts for imposed Piombo, Jessica, 95–96, 321 democracies in Afghanistan PKB (Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa, and Iraq and, 115–116 National Awakening Party), pessimistic forecasts for imposed Indonesia, 164 democracies in Afghanistan Plattner, Marc, 10n and Iraq and, 116–117 Plavsic, Biljana, 26 political culture and, 104–105 Pol Pot, 222 prosperity and, 106 Poland, as power-sharing model of reinterventions and potential for, interim government, 11 113 Police, civilian. See also Security social fabric and, 105, 111–112 during and after civil war Bosnia, validation of model for, 114–115 276–279 Political culture capacity to resist change in El analyses of, 10n Salvador vs. Guatemala, political challenge potential in 138–139 imposed regimes and, corrupt, citizen conceptions of 104–105 positive peace and, 46 Political elites. See Elites, political in El Salvador, 134 Political instability. See also Political in Guatemala, 135 challenge international administrations and, in East Timor, economic stability 18 and, 235–236 in Iraq after removal of Hussein increased, with democratic and his supporters, 323 institutions in imposed in Kosovo, UN or UNHCR control regimes, 104 of, 243 in Indonesia, elections and, 164–165 recruitment and training in Indonesia’s transition to democracy Liberia, 212 and, 149 reforms in El Salvador, 129 political challenges vs., 102–103 women in Liberia appointed for, 213 sovereignty and governance in Policy-oriented literature, on the Liberia and, 214 Balkans and Bosnia, 264–265 394 Interim Governments

Political organizations as “regular modes” of political political elites, interim power- expression within a polity, sharing arrangements and, 102 68 Political systems. See also Regime type timing and conduct of elections lasting effects of various and, 22 mechanisms for interim Political parties regimes and, 56–57 Afghan constitution on, 302 Polity IIId data set, 108 in Afghanistan, legislative elections Portillo, Alfonso, 133, 136 of 2004 and, 307, 310–311, 313 Portugal in Afghanistan, public debate and, cease-fire in East Timor and, 224 319 interim government in East Timor in Bosnia, ethnic groups as basis and, 226 for, 280–281 Revolution of the Carnations in Bosnia, wartime goals and, 279 against, 223 in Cambodia, 232 Positive peace, 40–41, 42, 46 capacity to resist change in El Post-conflict environments. See Salvador vs. Guatemala, Conflict, internal 139–140 Power, transfer of, effective or in El Salvador vs. Guatemala, genuine, as outcome for interim governments and, transitional regimes, 24 135–136, 144–145 Power sharing. See also Elites; Executive executive power-sharing systems power-sharing systems and interaction with, 86 in the absence of consensus in formation in El Salvador and Bosnia, 279–281 Guatemala of, 125 definition and forms of, 73–74 in Indonesia, changes to laws on, distribution in interim governments 155, 156, 157 of, 63–65, 71–72 in Indonesia under Soeharto regime in the DRC, continued violence and transition, 151, 152, 154 and, 190–191 in Iraq, CPA and development of, Habibie government on, 163 336 interim governments, construction in Kosovo, nationalist politics of, of political elites and, 53, 245 54–55, 351–352 postwar, durable democracy- in post-civil war Bosnia, 278 building and, 72 representative democracy vs., 352 power-sharing in Burundi and, 174 security in the absence of consensus third, power-sharing arrangements in Bosnia and, 276–279 and, 76, 77 use of force, and distribution in weak, power-sharing arrangements interim governments of, 70 and, 75–76 violence and legitimacy issues in weakness of, in the DRC, 191–192 Burundi and, 186–188 Political stability Power-sharing model of interim in Burundi and the DRC, security- governments. See also specific sector reform and, 195 countries ethnic dimensions of Afghan loya Between States on, 10, 11, 219 jirgas and, 297–299 in Burundi and the DRC, 172–174, imposed regimes and, 95, 97, 101, 192–196 119 local transitional governments vs., interim structure effects on, 71 15–16 Index 395

peace agreements and, 30–31 Provisional Institutions of Self- PPP (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan, Government (PISG), Kosovo, Development Unity Party), 244 Indonesia, 164 Provisional model of interim PPRD (Parti du peuple pour la governments, Between States reconstruction et la on, 219 démocratie), DRC, 180–181 Public information, unreliability after Prabowo, Subianto, 152–153, 158 civil wars of, 87 Prebisch, Raul, 38n Punctuated equilibrium theory, 27, 53 Predetermined decision making, as power-sharing arrangement, 74 President. See also Executive power- Qanooni, Yunus, 292, 296–297, 305, sharing systems 306, 313 Afghan constitution on, 301, 301n Qwiwonkpa, Thomas, 200 in Afghanistan, elections for, 303 in Indonesia, accountability of, 157–158 Radio Television Libre Des Mille Press, in Indonesia, Habibie’s freeing Collines (RTLM), 85 of, 154–155, 159 Rally of the Republicans (RDR), Côte Pretoria Agreement or Protocol d’Ivoire, 80 Burundi civil war and, 78, 83, 183n Rambouillet conference (1999), 242 DRC civil war and, 84 Ranariddh, Norodom, 230, 232 Kabila’s obligations under, 189 Rassemblement Congolais pour le signing of, 180 Démocratie (RCD), 177, 188–189 transitional institutions in the DRC Rassemblement Congolais pour le and, 178 Démocratie–Goma (RCD-G), Progressive Alliance of Liberians 91, 184, 189–190 (PAL), 198–199 Rassemblement Congolais pour le Proportional representation (PR) démocratie-mouvement de systems liberation (RCD-ML), 180 conflict prevention and, 21 Rassemblement Congolais pour le distribution of power sharing and, démocratie-national (RCD-N), 63 180 ethnic division, power distribution Reagan administration and, 70 civil war in El Salvador and, in Indonesia, 156–157 126–127 for interim regimes, political elites’ Doe regime in Liberia and, 201 expectations and strategies Rebels. See Insurgencies and, 68 Reconstruction aid, to Afghanistan, single nontransferable vote system Bonn Agreement on, 291 vs., 310 Referendums. See Elections or Protectorate lite, in Kosovo, 256–257 referendums Provincial Councils, in Afghanistan Refugees elections for, 303, 307, 311–312 Bosnian elections and, 275 voting by province, 308–309 (table) civil war in Bosnia-Herzegovina Provincial Reconstruction Teams and, 270, 272 (PRTs), in Afghanistan, ISAF Regime memory, political challenge and, 302 potential in imposed regimes and, 104–105 Regime similarity measures of, 111 396 Interim Governments

political challenges to imposed Revolution of the Carnations, against regimes in Afghanistan and Portugal, 223 Iraq and, 117 Revolutionary Governing Junta (JRG), political stability of imposed El Salvador, 126, 128 regimes and, 114, 119 Revolutionary provisional Regime type. See also Political systems governments. See also Imposed measures of, 108 regimes; Political challenge Regional actors implications for international civil war in Liberia and Sierra dimension of, 118–119 Leone and, 202 Shain and Linz model of, 10–11, 94, development of warlordism and, 96, 97–100 204 Revolutionary United Front (RUF), interim regimes and, 350 Sierra Leone, 202 Liberia’s interim governments and, Rexhepi, Bajram, 246n 196 Reynolds, Andrew, 76 transitions in Burundi and, 173– Reyntjens, Filip, 179–180 174, 181–183 Rezaee, Abdul Reza, 312 transitions in the DRC and, 173– Rights of citizens. See also Human 174, 181, 190 rights Reilly, Ben, 76 in Cambodia, 230 Reinterventions, political challenge local understanding of, 43 potential and, 113 peace agreements and, 51–52 Religious structures, premature peace process in Afghanistan and, elections and formation of 43–45 sectarian forces by, 22–23 as precursor to democracy, 35 Reno, William, 197, 199 reconciling local realities, beliefs, Representation. See also Democracy; and aspirations with Proportional representation universalist principles of, systems 49–50 construction of political elites state-building imperatives and, through interim 37–38 governments, lessons UNDP’s PEACE program in learned on, 70 Afghanistan and, 48 Republika Srpska (RS), Bosnia. See also Ríos Montt, Efraín, 127, 131, 132, 143 Serbians in Bosnia Rival authorities. See Conflict, internal Dayton Peace Accords and, 275 Roberts, David W., 232 Framework Agreement on Police Rockhold, Marlin T., 328 Restructuring in, 278 Rohan, Albert, 259 OHR governance and, 284 Roma in Kosovo, 246 Party of Independent Social Rome Group, 289n Democrats in, 280 Rothchild, Donald, 27, 69, 73 post civil-war informal networks RS. See Republika Srpska and, 271 RTLM (Radio Television Libre Des Serb leadership on unification Mille Collines), 85 with, 269 Ruberwa, Azarias, 91, 181, 189–190, 190n Responsibility to Protect, The, 19 Rubin, Barnett R., 298, 310 Results Focused Transition RUF (Revolutionary United Front), Framework, for Liberia, 210 Sierra Leone, 202 Revolution. See Conflict, internal Rugova, Ibrahim, 242, 246n, 252–253, 254 Index 397

Rule of law. See also Law and order as head of Interim Government of functions National Unity, 203, 214–217 absence in Kosovo of, 249 on lack of compromise prior to absence in the DRC of, 191–192 elections of 2005, 209 construction of political elites Liberian Government Reform through interim Commission and, 212–213 governments, lessons on sovereignty of Liberia, 213–214 learned on, 70 Taylor, ECOMOG I and, 204 exercising authority without on Tolbert government in Liberia, judicial review and, 16–17 198 interim governments in El Salvador Sayyaf, Abdul Rasul, 312n, 313 and Guatemala and, 125 Schatzman, Christina, 103 interim regime success and, 351–348 Schedler, Andreas, 9 international intervention and, 351 Schmitter, Philippe, 10n in Iraq after removal of Hussein SDA (Party of Democratic Action), and his supporters, 323 Bosnia, 271, 280 programs for Iraq transition, 329n SDS (Serbian Democratic Party), reestablishment of, as outcome for Bosnia, 271, 280, 283 transitional regimes, 24–25 Second wave of democratization, 6 Rumsfeld, Donald, 23, 322, 324, 325 Sectoral structures. See also Ethnic Russia. See also Soviet Union division perspective on Kosovo’s future, 255 division among, internal conflict Rustow, Dankwart, 67 and, 29 Rwanda premature elections and formation Arusha Accords, 85 of forces supporting, 22–23 fighting in the DRC and, 190, 190n Security. See also Conflict, internal; Law genocide in, 175, 176–177 and order functions; Military Inter-Congolese Dialogue and, 184 forces; Police, civilian; Wars Kinyarwanda speakers of the DRC Afghanistan and, 189 Bonn Agreement on, 290 local conflict resolution system of, expectations for, 44 43 reform of, 302–303 peace agreement for DRC and, 179 Bosnia, absence of consensus and, peace agreement with the DRC 276–279 and, 180, 185 Burundi and the DRC, competing power-sharing patterns in, 78, 79–80 factions and, 192–195 UN forces protection for 1993 peace Cambodia, neutral political agreement in, 89 environment for assumption Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), 79–80 of power and, 231 East Timor, UNTAET and, 235, 236 El Salvador and Guatemala, al-Sadr, Muqtada, 336, 337 constitutional reform and, Salvadoran Foundation for Economic 140 and Social Development human, in Cambodia, 230 (FUSADES), 129 interim regime success and, 351–348 Sambanis, Nicholas, 14–15 interstate, political challenge Sankoh, Foday, 202, 205 potential in imposed Savimbi, Jonas, 22 regimes and, 107–108 Sawyer, Amos Iraq on Constitutional Commission in CPA dissolution of Iraqi military Liberia, 200, 200n and, 329–330, 329n 398 Interim Governments

inauguration of INC and, 338 post-civil war informal alternative for Iraq’s Interim Governing networks and, 271–272 Council, 332 power sharing, governance issues in Kosovo, NATO’s Kosovo Force and, 283–286 and, 243 on security goals, 280 legitimacy, governance and, 32, 351 Serbians in Croatia, 268 in Liberia, second interim Serbians in Kosovo. See also Serbian government and, 212 Radical Party peace conceptions and, 45–47 Ahtisaari negotiations and, perceptions in ethnically 258–259 heterogeneous states of, 112 Ahtisaari proposal for Kosovo physical vs. human, 40 status settlement and, 264n political outcome of interim regime divisions with Albanians, and and, 351 UNMIK legitimation and Sejdiu, Fatmir, 252 effectiveness, 244–245 Senate, in the DRC, 181 Eide on prospects of Albanians’ Separatist movements. See also Civil integration with, 250 wars; Conflict, internal; on independence for Kosovo, 241 Insurgencies Kosovo Albanians on, 251–252 in East Timor, 223 manipulation by Serbian regimes interim governments following, 19, of, 243 29 perspectives on Kosovo’s future, regional, in Indonesia, 159–161 252–254 September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 314 political process involvement by, Serb Autonomous Region, Croatia, 248 268, 269 riots of 2004 and, 246–247 Serb Autonomous Regions, Bosnia, 270 UNMIK and, 239 Serb Democratic Party, Bosnia, 268, 269 Serrano, Jorge, 132 Serbia and Montenegro Serufuli, Eugene, 189n Ahtisaari negotiations and, Services, access to, as component of 258–259 peace and security, 45–46 Albanian nationalism and, 246 Serwer, Daniel P., 32, 95, 319–320 international community and Set-aside seats, conflict prevention indicted war criminals in, and, 21 255 SFRY (Socialist Federative Republic of Kosovo as part of, 240 Yugoslavia), 264, 266, 267. See perspectives on Kosovo’s future in, also Bosnia; Yugoslavia 252–254 Shah, Ahmed [this is probably UN on Kosovo’s linkage with, 241, Masoud, Ahmad Shah], 298 242 Shahrani, M. Nazif, 304 Serbian Democratic Party (SDS), Shain, Yossi. See Between States Bosnia, 271, 279–280, 283 Shared norms, executive power-sharing Serbian Orthodox Church, 254 agreements in Africa and, 91 Serbian Radical Party, Kosovo, 254 Shi’a Hazara. See also Hazaras Serbians in Bosnia. See also Republika election of 2004 and, 306 Srpska; Serbian Democratic post-Taliban transition in Party Afghanistan and, 292 conflict after independence and, Shi’a in Iraq 269–270, 270n constitution-making process and, elections of 1990 and, 269 69, 339–340 history of, 266–267 Najaf insurgency and, 336–337 Index 399

transitional administrative law People’s Consultative Assembly approval and, 333 and, 155 Shinseki, Eric K., 329n performance legitimacy under, 150 Shoesmith, Dennis, 236 reelections of, 152 Shura-e Nezar (Afghan political resignation of, 153, 154 party), 296, 300 separatist movements and, 160 Shuras, 48, 64 understanding of domestic and Sierra Leone international legitimacy civil war in, 202 crisis scope by, 30 Liberian citizens’ economic ties to, Solana, Javier, 255 200 Somalia peace and security conceptions legitimacy of transitional regime study in, 45, 46–47 in, 13 warlord politics in, 196, 205 majoritarian rule and protection of Sihanouk, Norodom, 227 rights in, 41–42 Silajdzic, Haris, 281 Soro, Guillaume, 81, 85 Single nontransferable vote system South Africa (SNTV), in Afghanistan, 307, Burundian peace process and, 310, 312, 313 182–183 Sisk, Timothy D., 76 Inter-Congolese Dialogue and, 184 al-Sistani, Ali, 62, 333, 334, 337 International Committee in Slovenes in Bosnia, 267 Support of the Transition Slovenia (CIAT) in the DRC and, 185 armed conflict in and independence linear regime transition in, 41 declared by, 268 peace agreement between the DRC on Kosovo’s future status, 255 and Rwandan governments Social contract, as precursor to and, 180 democracy, 35, 42 as power-sharing model of interim Social Democrats, Party of government, 11 Independent, in Republika Sovereignty Srpska, 280 assumption by external actors of, 12 Social fabric in democracies, international measuring characteristics of, 111 interim governments and, political challenge potential in 221 imposed regimes and, 105 economic, in Liberia, 34, 195–196, Socialist Federative Republic of 217 Yugoslavia (SFRY), 264, 266, effective internal, as outcome for 267. See also Bosnia; Yugoslavia transitional regimes, 24 Socialist Republic of Bosnia- effective internal, Indonesia’s Herzegovina, 266–267. See also transition and, 149 Bosnia governance of Liberia and, 213–214 Socioeconomic reforms in Iraq, planning transfer of, in El Salvador and Guatemala, 134 333–336 in Guatemala, 135 for Kosovo, UN on, 241 in Kosovo, UNMIK’s difficulties legitimacy of interventions and, with, 245 19–20 Soeharto organizing an international regime East Asian financial crisis and, 147, vs. resumption of 148, 149 governance with, 34 400 Interim Governments

partial democracy as transitional Sulawesi, Indonesia, intercommunal government and, 144 violence in, 162 suspension of, state-building and, 4, Sultanistic systems 20n in Indonesia, East Asian financial timing and conduct of elections and, crisis and, 152 22 Shain and Linz on domestic Soviet Union. See also Russia regime change and, 97–98 ethnic groups in Afghanistan and Sun City Agreement invasion by, 298 implementation problems, 188, 189 imposed regimes in Eastern Europe on power sharing in the DRC, after World War II by, 101 190–191 People’s Republic of Kampuchea signing of, 173, 178, 180, 184, 185 and, 223 Sunnis in Iraq stabilization in Cambodia and, 225 constitution-making process and, superpower rivalry with U.S. during 69, 339 Cold War, 98 CPA’s de-Ba’athification process Spain, as incumbent caretaker model of and, 330 interim government, 11 elections to National Assembly Spoilers. See Abusive practices and, 340 Stanley, William D., 30, 123–124, 147 Iraqi National Conference and, 338 State building. See also Bureaucracy; transitional administrative law Institutions; Judiciary; and, 333 Legislature(s) voting for Transitional National contradictions and difficulties of, Assembly by, 338–339 4–5 Supervisory transitional authority. in East Timor, UNTAET and, 234, See also International interim 239 government model externally imposed regimes and, Doyle on, 219–220 94–95 interim government in East Timor in Guatemala, taxation measures for, as, 227 143 Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE), El in Kosovo, obstacles to, 242–246 Salvador, 139 nation building vs., 3n Surroi, Veton, 247, 247n, 252 State collapse. See also Failed states Syria, support for Muslims in Lebanon legitimacy of transitional regimes after Ta’if Agreement by, 89 after, 13 State control. See also Conflict, internal competition for, 29 Tadic, Boris, 253–254 conflicts over, 19 Ta’if Agreement, 89 extending authority throughout the Tajiks territory and, 24–26 Bonn Agreement and, 289n, 290 Sudan election of 2004 and, 306 armed support of Kabila’s DRC on form of state for Afghanistan, 298 government by, 177 Karzai’s cabinet choices and, 299 executive power-sharing patterns in, on Karzai’s dismissal of Fahim, 305 78, 79, 82, 84, 91 Karzai’s transitional administration Sudan People’s Liberation Movement after emergency loya jirga (SPLM), 79, 84 and, 296 Sukarno, 155 as percentage of Afghan population, 298n Index 401

post-Taliban transition and, 292 Transitional regimes. See Interim voter fraud among, 311 regimes voting province of, 302 Transitology school, 10n, 12 TAL (transitional administrative law), Transparency International, 167 in Iraq, 332–333, 339 Tribal Liaison Office, Afghanistan, 50 Taliban Tribal structures Bonn Agreement for peace process civic education in Afghanistan and, in Afghanistan and, 44, 50 289–290 indigenous, recognition in defeat of, Bonn Agreement and, 289 Guatemala of, 134, 140 Karzai’s invitation to join political internationally supported peace process and, 304 plan and tensions with, 39 9/11/01 terrorist attacks and U.S. premature elections and formation attack on, 314 of sectarian forces by, 22–23 opium production and, 45 True Whig Party, Liberia, 197, 198 Provincial Council elections of Trusteeship, international 2005 and, 312 administration vs., 18 U.S.-supported warlords in Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Afghanistan against, 25 in Liberia, 207, 213, 218 voter turnout for 2005 provincial TSE (Supreme Electoral Tribunal), El elections and, 311 Salvador, 139 Tanzania, Burundian peace process Tshisekedi, Etienne, 91 and, 182 Tubman, William, 197–198, 213 Taylor, Charles Tudjman, Franjo, 268, 269, 273–274 awaiting trial for international war Tufts University, peace and security crimes, 212 conceptions study by, 45–47 civil war in Liberia and, 201–202 Turkey, International Security development as warlord, 203 Assistance Force in election as Liberian president, civil Afghanistan and, 290n war and, 205, 217 Turkmen in Afghanistan, 298n exile deal with international Tutsi or Tutsi parties community and, 83 ethnic conflict with Hutus, 175–176 Tentara Nasional Indonesia (TNI), 225 perceived Mandela views toward, Thaqi, Hashim, 245, 251, 254 182 Third parties. See also Political parties power-sharing arrangements in power-sharing arrangements and, Burundi with, 78, 83–84, 76, 77 84–85, 186 Third wave of democratization, power-sharing arrangements in internal factors and, 6 Rwanda with, 79–80, 85 Timorese Democratic Union (UTD), 223 Twa people of Burundi, 175 Tito, Josef Broz, 267 Two-track strategy, power sharing in Tolbert, William R., 198, 199 Rwanda and, 80 Top-down processes of post-conflict reconstruction, 26–27, 35. See also Center-periphery dynamic Uganda Transitional administrative law (TAL), armed support against Kabila’s in Iraq, 332–333, 339 DRC government by, 177 Transitional National Assembly, Iraq, Burundian peace process and, 182 322, 338–340 fighting in the DRC and, 190 peace agreement for DRC and, 179 402 Interim Governments

peace agreement with the DRC General Assembly, UN Verification and, 180, 185 Mission in Guatemala and, UNAMET (United Nations Mission in 142 East Timor), 224, 228 governance in Bosnia after Dayton UNDP (United Nations Development Peace Accords and, 282 Program), 47–48, 256n, 263, 301n on Indonesia’s invasion and UNE (National Unity for Hope), annexation of East Timor, Guatemala, 136 223 UNHCR (United Nations High Inter-Congolese Dialogue and, 180 Commissioner for Refugees), interim governments in Cambodia 243, 276 and East Timor and, 226, 227 União Nacional para a Independência legitimation of international Total de Angola (UNITA), 22 administrations by, 18 Union of Liberian Associations in the Liberia’s Interim Government of Americas (ULAA), 201 National Unity and, 203, Union pour la démocratie et le 204 progress social, DRC, 91 mediation in El Salvador, 131, UNIPTF (United Nations International 133–134 Police Task Force), 275, 277–279 mediation in Guatemala, 133–134 United Iraqi Alliance, 338 panel on Illegal Exploitation of United Kingdom Natural Resources and Department for International Other Forms of Wealth in Development, 276 the DRC, 190n International Security Assistance peacekeeping mission in Burundi, Force in Afghanistan and, 173, 174 290 peacekeeping mission in the DRC, Iraq’s Coalition Provisional 174 Authority and, 327 protection for 1993 peace security sector reform in agreement in Rwanda by, 89 Afghanistan and, 303 rule by, 19–20 United Nations. See also External state building by, 3 actors; International studies on state-building efforts of, community/organizations; 7–8 specific offices, departments, suspended sovereignty and rights commissions, and missions and obligations of, 20n on Afghan constitution drafting transitional administration in Iraq and ratification, 300 under, 341 Bonn Agreement and, 289, 291 on voter eligibility and registration cease fire in DRC and, 179 in El Salvador, 139 cease fire in East Timor and, 224 withdraws mission from Iraq, 333 civil war in Bosnia and, 270 United Nations Administrative conflicting accountability for Mission to Afghanistan, 301n interim governments led by, United Nations Charter, 19, 20, 37, 221 49–50 on corruption in Indonesia, 168 United Nations Commission on East Timor referendum and, Global Governance, 19 161–162 United Nations’ Department of evolution of administrative Peacekeeping Organizations, missions, 14–15 243 Index 403

United Nations Development Program United Nations Security Council (UNDP), 47–48, 256n, 263, 301n Bonn Agreement and, 289n, 290n United Nations High Commissioner for civil war in Bosnia and, 270 Refugees (UNHCR), 243, 276 on Coalition Provisional Authority United Nations Integrated Office in (CPA), Iraq, 327, 334 Burundi (BINUB), 183n ECOMOG and, 202 United Nations Interim Mission for economic stability in Liberia and, Kosovo (UNMIK). See also 212 Kosovo elections in Iraq for Transitional Ahtisaari negotiations and National Assembly and, termination of, 259–263 338–339 Eide’s reports and revised interim government in East Timor implementation plan for, and, 225 247–249 international conflict resolution lessons learned from, 257–258 system of, 37 as protectorate structure, 240, 240n Mission to Burundi, 85 riots of 2004 and, 246, 247 peacekeeping in Liberia and, 211 stasis, power struggles and, 244–246 on peacekeeping mission in the state building and, 242, 243–244 DRC, 185 United Nations Interim Mission in resolutions, human rights issues Kosovo (UNMIK) addressed in, 50–51 accountability of, 17 on timetable for Iraqi transition to Albanians vs. Serbians and, 239 democratic government, drawbacks to interim governance 334–335 by, 31–32 UN Observer Mission in El United Nations International Police Salvador and, 142 Task Force (UNIPTF), 276, on violence in East Timor, 225 277–279 United Nations Transitional United Nations Mission in East Timor Administration in East Timor (UNAMET), 224, 228 (UNTAET) United Nations Mission in Liberia capacity building for democracy (UNMIL), 208, 212, 217 and, 218 United Nations Mission in Support of established by UN Security East Timor (UNMISET), 228, Council, 223 234, 240 as interim government phase, United Nations Mission in the 228–229 Democratic Republic of Congo legacy of, 230, 234–236 (MONUC), 184, 185, 188–189 as pre-constitutional monarch in United Nations Observer Mission sovereign kingdom, 227 (ONUSAL) in El Salvador, 123, World Bank administrative 141–142 approach vs. administrative United Nations Office in Timor-Leste approach of, 48 (UNOTIL), 228, 240 United Nations Transitional United Nations Office of the Special Administration in Eastern Envoy for Kosovo (UNOSEK), Slavonia, 277 258–259 United Nations Transitional Authority United Nations Operation in Burundi in Cambodia (UNTAC) (ONUB), 183 as administrative authority, 227 United Nations Protection Force balance of power, democratic (UNPROFOR), in Bosnia, 270 procedures and, 239–240 404 Interim Governments

elections and, 228 planning for Iraq transition and, incumbent regime and, 16 351–348 legacy of, 230–234 policy on Indonesia, East Timor, 223 Paris Accord and establishment of, pressure on DRC belligerents by, 223 184 UNTAET vs., 229 pressure on Salvadoran military to United Nations Truth Commission, 138 change, 138 United Nations Verification Mission regime change and, 3–4 (MINUGUA) in Guatemala, removal of military leadership in 141, 142–143 El Salvador and, 134 United States. See also specific stabilization in Cambodia and, 225 departments and agencies State Department on drug trade and Afghan National Army training by, Afghan government, 320 303 superpower rivalry with Soviet alliance with Kosovo Liberation Union during Cold War, 98 Army, 239, 241, 242 warlords in Afghanistan and, 297, assistance to Liberia, 207, 210, 217 297n Bonn Agreement and, 289 United States Agency for International civil war in El Salvador and, Development, 129, 276, 281 126–127 United States Department of Defense, civilian police in El Salvador and, 322, 325, 326, 329, 329n 139 United States Department of State, Croatia’s independence recognized 322, 326, 329n by, 268 Universal Declaration of Human democracy promotion by, 9 Rights, 9n, 37, 49–50 El Salvador’s initial transition to University of Central America, 131 democracy and, 128 UNMIK. See United Nations Interim financial and military support for Mission for Kosovo Liberia by, 200 UNMIL (United Nations Mission in financial assistance to Afghanistan Liberia), 208, 212, 217 by, 291 UNMISET (United Nations Mission in imposed regime in Panama by, Support of East Timor), 228, 100–101 234, 240 interim government in East Timor UNOSEK (United Nations Office of and, 226, 240 the Special Envoy for Kosovo), Iraq’s Coalition Provisional 258–259 Authority and, 327 UNTAC. See United Nations Joint Verification Commission, Transitional Authority in DRC transitional Cambodia government and, 185 UNTAET. See United Nations Karzai’s campaign for Afghan Transitional Administration in presidency and, 304 East Timor Kosovo’s priorities for the future UPRONA. See National Union for and, 249 Progress; National Unity and Liberia and Taylor’s ties with, Progress Party 201–202 URNG (Guatemalan Revolutionary military assistance to El Salvador National Union), 132, 134, 135, by, 131 137, 144 perspective on Kosovo’s future, Ushtria Clirimtare E Kosoves (UCK), 254–255 251 Index 405

UTD (Timorese Democratic Union), 223 Warlordism. See also Incumbents, Uzbeks in Afghanistan, 292, 298, 298n, wartime 306 Afghanistan Bonn Agreement and, 290, 297, 314 Vance, Cyrus, 268 local transitional Venegoni, Andre, 245 government viability and, Venice Commission, 17 15–16 Veto power, 61 rights of citizens and, 44–45 Victores, Mejía, 131, 143 supported by U.S. to fight Vieira de Mello, Sergio, 333 the Taliban, 25 Vietnam citizen conceptions of positive invasion of Cambodia, 222 peace and, 46 stabilization in Cambodia and, 225 international intervention and, 351 three-party coalition in Cambodia in Liberia, 203, 204, 205–206 and, 223 in Liberia and Sierra Leone, 196 Violence. See Conflict, internal peace process, center-periphery Voters dynamic and, 41 eligibility and registration in El Wars. See also Civil wars Salvador of, 139 balance of political power at end of, eligibility and registration in interim governments and, Guatemala of, 139–140 55n in Iraq for Transitional National international intervention in, 350 Assembly, 338–339 interstate, assumptions on Afghan legislative elections of 2004 in and Iraqi and, 115 Afghanistan and, 306–307, interstate, peacekeeping missions 311 and, 18 presidential elections of 2004 in interstate, Shain and Linz on Afghanistan and, 304, 306 regime changes and, 98–100 timing and conduct of elections and political challenge to imposed education programs for, 22 regimes and, 114 Voting districts, Afghan constitution Washington Post, 320 on, 301–302 Weah, George, 211 Weber, Max, 25, 42, 52 Welfare, as component of peace and Wahid, Abdurrahman security, 45–46 corruption under, 168 Westminster model, power-sharing elections of 1999 and, 164 arrangements vs., 76 as government opposition leader, Wiranto (Indonesian army general), 151 152–153, 158 as Indonesian president, 165 Women regional conflict and weak control Afghan, democratic process and, of military by, 165–166 44 special session of People’s in Afghanistan’s legislature, 301, Consultative Assembly and, 301n 155–156 governmental appointments in Wallerstein, Immanuel, 38n Liberia for, 213 Walter, Barbara F., 69, 76, 77 proportional power distribution Wardak, Roshanka, 312 and, 70 406 Interim Governments

World Bank UN resolution on Kosovo as part assistance to Liberia, 207, 210, 217 of, 242 constitutional reform in Guatemala unraveling during 1980s, 264 and, 143 loan to DRC government by, 184 reconstruction in Bosnia and, 276 Zadran, Padsah Khan, 299 top-down programs or social Zahar, Marie-Joëlle, 90 engineering by, 47–48 Zahir Shah, Mohammed, 289n, 291, World War II 295–296 imposed regimes after, 101 Zaire. See Democratic Republic of the Shain and Linz on regime changes Congo after, 98–99 Zakaria, Fareed, 23 transitional regimes after, 6, 6n Zambia, International Committee in Support of the Transition in the DRC and, 185 Yanaway, Mark, 332 Zimbabwe al-Yawar, Ghazi, 336 armed support of Kabila’s DRC Yaya, Thomas Ninely, 90 government by, 177 Yudhoyono, Susilo Bambang, 165 peace agreement for DRC and, 179 Yugoslav National Army (JNA), 268 Zubak, Kresimir, 274 Yugoslavia. See also Bosnia; Kosovo; Zuma, Jacob, 182 Serbia and Montenegro Zuppi, Matteo, 178n NATO’s war with, 240