SOVIET CULTURE REVIEW

------SECOND YEAR OF PUBLICATION =

An illustrated monthly published by the Soviet Union Society for Cultural Relations with foreign Countries (VOKS). THE SOVIET CULTURE REVIEW is published in three languages, English, French and German.

THE SOVIET CULTURE REVIEW contains facts, figures and documents characterising the economic and cultural development of the Soviet Union on the base of the realisation of the first and the drawing up of the second Five-Year Plan.

THE SOVIET CULTURE REVIEW provides its readers with full information on the activities ! carried on by the social, scientific, and artistic instihi- I tions in the USSR, publishes theatre and cinema notes, book reviews, and miscellaneous items. A prominent place is reserved to the problems of Soviet culture and to the cultural relations with foreign countries.

THE SOVIET CULTURE REVIEW informs its readers of the visits paid to the USSR by foreign scientists, artists and politicians.

Each number comprises not less than 32 pages with many illustrations. Annual subscription rates: individual subscribers— $2.00; institutions, I organisations and booksellers—$ 1.60. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the editorial and publishing I office, Moscow 69, Trubnikovsky pereulok 17, Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries (VOKS, per cheque or konto no. 244 at the State Bank of the USSR.

I A specimen copy is posted on demand.

V. LENIN J. STALIN

XYth Anniversary of the October Revo­ lution

STRUGGLE AND VICTORIES

15 years... From the point of view of for creative competition in labour, for col­ great historical periods this is an insigni­ lectivism in everyday life, for the intro­ ficant space of time. However, in the course duction of the latest technique in all of these 15 years the appearance of an branches of economy, for the triumph of enormous country has altered so as to ren­ the planning principle in economics, for der it irrecognisable, a radical change the raising of the material wellbeing and has been effected in the conditions of work for the genuine freedom of individual spi­ and existence of one hundred and sixty ritual growth of every toiler. million men and women inhabiting the On the fifteenth anniversary the great enormous territory of the former empire results of the October Revolution stand of the tsars. out with special clarity. This Revolution For the first time in the history of man­ opened a new period in the history of kind there has been established a social human development. Eleven years ago regime not based on private property in Lenin described in the following words the means of production, without exploit­ the economic state of Soviet Russia: “ Look ation, without industrial anarchy, crises at the map of the RSFSR. Boundless and unemployment, which are firmly hold­ spaces are stretching to the north of Vo­ ing the masses in capitalist countries in logda, to the south-east of Rostov-on-Don, their grip and keeping them on the verge to the south of Orenburg and of Omsk and of starvation and destitution. to the north of Tomsk. And throughout A free Union of Soviet Socialist Repub­ these vast spaces there reigns patriarchal lics has been formed, a union uniting on system of economy, semi-savagery and down­ the basis of full equality and fraternal co­ right savagery..." Lenin asked: “ Is it con­ operation many nations, which hitherto ceivable to pass on from this patriarchal ism, formed an object of the worst colonial from these pre-capitalist economic regimes oppression by the reigning clique of land­ to socialism?" and replied: “ Yes, it is lords and capitalists. conceivable, but only provided one con­ The regime of proletarian dictatorship dition is observed — provided there is was won in the battles of October. It became electrification, the re-establishment and de­ consolidated and justified itself in a histor­ velopment of heavy industries, which are ical sense before the face of all the toilers the foundation of socialist construction." of the world. It is now a genuine democracy Lenin’s plan, the plan of a genius, is for millions of people and has brought the being carried out with the hands of millions country to the eve of a classless society. of toilers. These enormous changes in economics, For the first time in history the recon­ politics and culture are the result of a struction of the economic and cultural re­ fifteen-year ceaseless strenuous struggle, gime of an enormous country, inhabited conducted under the guidance of the Party by numerous nations, which formerly dif­ of Lenin and Stalin. This was a struggle fered enormously as regards the level of against the resistance of the old capitalist their economic development, is being car­ world, against the corrupting habits of ried out according to a scientific plan, in petty-bourgeois individualism, against the which millions of people are called upon patriarchal system and uncivilised methods to take part. of work, in short, against the painful histor­ On the fifteenth anniversary of the Oc­ ical heritage, bequeathed to the proletar­ tober Revolution the workers have to their iat and to its Party by many years of pre­ credit such a historic victory as the start­ datory methods of management practised by ing of the Dnieper Power Station--one of the landlords and capitalists. This struggle the gigantic constructions which crown was conducted for a new labour culture, Lenin’s plan of the electrification of tlie country. During the last few years the The ranks of the working class have grown total electric power of the Soviet Union has in numbers and in strength. In 1928 there increased by several million kilowatts: in were 11,552,000 workers and employees, 1928 — by 200,000 kilowatts, in 1930 — by in 1931 their number increased to 18,590,000. 000,000 kilowatts, in 1931 — by 1,100,000 The successes of industrialisation and of kilowatts. the reconstruction of agriculture have fin­ The lights of Dnieproges (the Dnieper ally put an end to unemployment, the Power Station) now illuminate a large accursed heritage of the past. In 1928, at number of gigantic industrial works which the beginning of the Five-Year Plan, there arc cither completed or in construction. were 10,991,000 members of trade unions, in To the north of the city of Lenin, in regions 1932, the last year of the Five-Year Plau, plunged in the darkness of polar nights, their number increased to 16,504,000. These apatites are being extracted in Khibiny, min­ figures clearly show the improvement in erals fertilising the fields of collective and the organisation of the working class, State farms. To the east of Moscow, near the headed by the Communist Party, which city of Gorky (Nizhny-Novgorod), the former embodies “ the best, the most vigorous in­ capital of the merchants’ barbarism, the telligence of the toiling people of the buildings of the automobile giant plant are Union of Soviets” (M. Gorky). stretching, and further to the east in the The successes in the development of the Ural mountains the blast furnaces of Mag­ national economy and the improvement in nitogorsk— the second metallurgical base of the material wellbeing of the toiling masses the country — are blazing. To the south of have brought about enormous achieve­ Saratov, out of the gates of the Stalingrad ments in the field of cultural construction. plant come tractors which together with The growth of literacy and the introduction the tractors of the Kharkov and the Puti- of compulsory education, the wide spread lov works and the agricultural machines of polytechnical schools, the increasing of the Rostov plant are mechanising pri­ number of students from among the work­ mitive Russia, breaking the back of pat- ers and the collective farmers, the rapid riarchalism and savagery, referred to by development of the press, the development Lenin. To the south of Orenburg and of and strengthening of the socialist forms Omsk a new industrial Kazakstan is aris­ of labour (four million shock-workers in ing. Only yesterday it was inhabited by 1932), the drawing of the masses into State backward nomads, now it has constructed administration, into the work of the Soviets, Turksib, Karaganda and other strongholds etc., finally the reconstruction of every­ of socialism. day life — such are those enormous chan­ The fundamental assets of socialist in­ ges which in the words of Lenin constitute dustries have more than doubled during the the cultural revolution. first Five-Year Plan — from 5,7 milliard The mass campaign of the toilers for the in 1928 to 13,1 milliard on January 1, mastering of technique, for the creation of 1932. The Soviet Union has established their own technical intelligentsia, capable many new industries which in the domain of coping with the tasks of present-day of technique play a decisive role in secur­ science and technique, a campaign inaugu­ ing our economic independence: Soviet rated in response to J. Stalin, the leader electric turbines, Soviet Diesels and high of the working class, is one of the most voltage transformers, Soviet bloomings, important moments of the cultural revo­ Soviet crackings etc. lution, of the construction of socialist In the sphere of agriculture we now have culture. an absolute preponderance of the socialist Indeed, socialism means an extraordinar­ sector — collective and State farms — ily high development of science and tech­ over the individual sector. A considerable nique, which actually becomes the patri­ quantitative extension of the sown area in mony of all the toilers. The first phase comparison with the pre-war period has of the socialism creates all the necessary been achieved. The technical reconstruc­ prerequisites for tlic solution of the problem tion of agriculture has already placed on of destroying the contrasts between phy­ socialist fields over 100,000 tractors. sical and brain work. In order to illustrate Thus a foundation of socialist economics that process we can cite, for instance, the has been constructed, and a new technical increase in the number of mass workers’ basis has been created for the completion inventions in the Soviet Union - - 700,000 of the reconstruction of the entire socialist workers are members of the All-Union economy during the second Five-Year Plan. Society of Inventors. All the best scientists and scholars are culture and civilisation, are turning more beginning to collaborate with the working and more into resolute and open sympa­ class. Science is becoming stronger and thisers and assistants of the Union of the develops itself on the basis of an organic Soviet Socialist Republics. This is proved connection with the tasks of socialist con­ by the speeches and writings of such pro- struction. minant men#as Romain Holland, Henri Let us quote only one figure for purposes Barbusse, Theodore Dreiser, Bernard Shaw, of comparison: under tsarism the Chief Martin Andersen Ncxo, Upton Sinclair, Geological Board had 12 geologists on its Andre Gide and many others. Ever larger staff. Now this institution forming part of numbers of intellectuals are becoming the People’s Commissariat of Heavy Industry aware of the fact that the socialist con­ has under its control dozens of specialists struction of tlie USSR opens up unlimited of world reputation and tens of thousands possibilities to art and technique at the of geologists carrying exploration work. present time and still grander prospects In the single year of 1931 the number in the near future. of industrial scientific research institutions On the other hand it is well known that (institutes and branches in industrial areas) the light of socialist construction attract­ has increased from 141 to 205; the number ing to the Soviet Union the symphaties of scientists working in industries increas­ of the best minds of the present age is at ed from 6,000 to 12,500, the latter figures the same time hateful to all the dark forces containing a larger proportion of workers. who imagine that the salvation from the The latest decision concerning the second­ world economic crisis in capitalist coun­ ary and higher schools as well as the or­ tries lies in a new war, and above all in an ganisation of higher agricultural schools attack on the Soviet Union, “ that country means an important step forward in the which prevents a new war to be engineered ” matter of training cadres. “ We have al­ (Stalin). Maxim Gorky wrote recently of ready carried out most important tasks the economics of the Soviet Union: “ The from the point of view of construction — enemy’s strength lies in human stupidity, little remains for us to be done — to study which for centuries the enemy has knock­ technique, to master science.” ed into the heads of the working people.” The cultural revolution is a whole epoch However the enemy relies also on the strength including a manysided work of reconstruc­ of munitions, worships and airplanes, tion of economics and of the consciousness which the fog of “ imperialist pacifism” of human beings. In this sense the import­ (Stalin) constantly rising over the lake of ance of the second Five-Year Period cannot Geneva can neither conceal, nor destroy. be overestimated, since its task is “ the final Therefore on the 15th anniversary of the elimination of capitalist elements and October Revolution the slogan of all friends classes in general, the overcoming of the of peace, of all friends of the Soviet Union remains of capitalism in the economics is the campaign for the spread of true and the consciousness of human beings, the information to the whole of toiling mankind transformation of the entire working popul­ to all the best sections of the intellectuals ation of the country into class conscious about the achievements of the Soviet and active builders of a classless socialist so­ Country, about the justice of its cause and ciety” (theses of the second Five-Year Plan). its great cultural power. This is the best On the 15th anniversary of tlie October means of combating that “ stupidity” with Revolution it is not only the working which the enemy is operating when in­ masses of the USSR that will look back fluencing public opinion. This struggle on the past period. A new mankind is being is conducted in order that the country born before the whole world covering one in which new mankind is arising could sixth of its area. Therefore it is difficult quietly continue its gigantic work and to imagine another country, another section should not be forced to turn the mighty of the globe, which could attract to itself forces of millions of people from peaceful such attention as does the Soviet Union. persistent work to fights in defence of these It is not only the toiling masses of the peaceful conquests from foreign attacks. whole world naturally leaning towards Long live the 15th anniversary of the the Land of the Soviets as the fatherland October Revolution! of the working humanity, who are the faith­ Long live the Union of the Soviet So­ ful friends of our country. The greatest cialist Republics — the fatherland of the representatives of the present age, men workers of the whole world, the centre of who are the foremost representatives of new life and culture of new humanity! THE STRUGGLE FOR PEACE AND THE FIRST FITE-YEAR PLAN By G. Zand

In the light of the international events At the same time it is fully conscious of which have taken place in the last few the fact that the masses of the people in years, the enormous importance of the all countries, who have suffered from tin* policy of peace of the Soviet Union stands hardships of imperialist war, are most out with striking clearness. The well- anxious to fight against the possibility known French newspaper “ Le Temps” of future wars and for the preservation of almost in each issue since the signing of peace. While fighting for peace the Soviet the Versailles Peace Treacly has treated government was fully aware that in this its readers to a column of data of inter­ struggle it enjoyed the sympathy, and national life under the significant heading found support not only among the toilers “ L organisation de la paix” (The organ­ of the USSR but also among the exploited isation of peace). If we examine closely masses of the population of the capitalist the essence of these facts which are treated countries and their colonics. The conscious­ under that head we find that the “ organ­ ness of this support and the certainty of isation of peace” is understood by the organ the historic justice of the cause of socialist of French imperialism to mean the conso­ construction enabled Soviet diplomacy to lidating of the inequality between nations overcome the greatest difficulties, which were and States, the securing for some powers placed in its path, and if this alleged propa­ of all political and economic means at the ganda consists in the desire to weld together expense of others, the relentless race in all forces of present-day society who are armaments, the creation of material pre­ sincerely desirous for peace in struggle against requisites for a recrudescence of imperial­ militarist bedauclies, then the Soviet Union ist expansions. The organisation of peace is quite prepared to take up this challenge has in fact come to mean the opposite of and declare that no force on earth will be what the term implies — namely the organ­ able to divert it from such “ propaganda” . isation of war. And no one has so decisively and clearly The Soviet government pursuing its outlined the path which must be followed policy of peace has always been persistently by all governments in order at least to and consistently fighting and is still fight­ lessen the danger of new’ wars, as did the ing against this attitude so typical of representatives of the Soviet Union. militant imperialism. As early as 1927, i. c. immediately A great deal has been said and written after the Soviet Union was enabled to take in the world press about the policy of peace part in the preliminary commission for of the Soviet government. Most of the state­ disarmament called in Geneva, the Soviet ments made in this connection were unfa­ government introduced a programme of vourable to the Soviets. Enemies of our complete and all-embracing disarmament. country and of socialist construction have The fate of the Soviet proposal is known tried to insinuate that the policy of peace to all. The inspirers and leaders of the of the Soviet Union is dictated by the League of Nations, who in their declar­ desire to overthrow the capitalist regime ations appear as champions of peace, una­ and that all the manifestations of this nimously rejected this plan of disarmament. policy arc mere propaganda which igno­ During the years 1927— 1932 many people res entirely the practical realisation of peace. gained an insight as to just where the Soviet public opinion which expresses obstacles to peace were to be found, and the view of the millions of toilers of the who had prompted the actions capable USSR and the Soviet government itself of subjecting humanity to the tragic test has never concealed its deep conviction of new bloody wars and slaughters. that the capitalist system harbours in itself The struggle of the Soviets for disar­ the root causes of armed conflicts. mament, which is an important item in the

We don't want to lie a hammer for weak nations or an anvil ior the strong. — We are striving for peace. Stalin.

4 struggle for peace, was of decisive import­ capital. No one had a better understanding ance in this connection. By introducing of the purely declaratory nature of this a supplementary plan of partial disar­ pact than the Soviet Union. Yet the USSR mament the Soviet government has shown was one of the first States which recognised that it proposes to take advantage of every the provisions of the Kellogg Pact as bind­ possible opportunity to remove one of ing on itself. The reservations made by the most formidable factors of the war the Soviet government when endorsing the menace — the existence of huge armaments, Paris Pact, unlike those made by the other and the tendency of their constant increase. governments were intended to widen the Every attempt made by Soviet diplomacy scope of the pact and to extend it to all to raise the question of disarmament and possible cases of hostile activities which of reduction of armaments in a concrete would thus be outlawed. Thus the Soviet fashion has resulted in failure, owing to government expressed itself in favour of resistance by the representatives of the prohibiting all kinds of wars, all military capitalist governments. But though in occupations, all blockades and interven­ Geneva the upper hand was gained by forces tions. The very breaking off of diplomatic which threaten to involve the nations in relations, which hampers the settlement new catastrophes, the speeches of the So­ of disputes in a peaceful way and which viet representatives stiffened the resistance increases the danger of armed conflicts, to the adventurous policy of the ruling sec­ should in the opinion of the Soviet govern­ tions of the capitalist class on the part ment have been prohibited under the Kel­ of the broad masses of the toilers. logg Pact. With regard to relations between the Developing its peaceful “ offensive” , the USSR and bourgeois countries, Soviet Soviet government took upon itself the ini­ foreign policy has always maintained the tiative of immediately carrying the Kellogg standpoint that in spite of the inevitable Pact into effect. Without waiting for antagonism between the capitalist and this pact to come into force after its socialist systems nothing should stand in ratification by all the participants, the the way of establishing and preserving Soviet government proposed to its immediate normal and businesslike relations between neighbours to recognise at once its binding the USSR and the rest of the world. From nature. The so-called Litvinov protocol the time the famous thesis was advanced was signed on February 9, 1929. However, at the International Economic Conference it took more than a month before the full in 1927 about “ a peaceful co-existence” acceptance of the offer made by USSR an of both systems — capitalist and social­ offer which had for its object only that of ist — and down to the proposal made at obtaining the signatures which had already the end of 1931 by the People’s Commissary been offixed to the pact, prohibiting wars, for Foreign Affairs, M. Litvinov, for conclud­ could be secured. ing pact of economic non-aggression, Soviet With a number of countries. (Turkey, policy has consistently laid stress on the Persia, Afghanistan) and also with Germany fact that the basic interests of the domestic and Lithuania, the Soviet Union had pre­ creative activities of the Soviet Union viously to this signed treaties of neutrality demand the preservation and strengthening and non-aggression. Unlike the treaties of of peace. “ friendship” which became so fashionable There has not taken place a single event among capitalist States in the post-war in the domain of international policy capable, period, the Soviet type of agreement did even if only morally, of strengthening not harbour any secret coalitions or secret peace tendencies at the expense of militar­ military alliances and served the genuine ist inclinations which did not call forth purpose of strengthening peace, for it did from the Soviet Union the expression of not contain any obligations to support, one readiness to support the initiative in that State against another. On the contrary, direction. Everyone knows the practical these treaties are framed in such a way as value of the so-called Kellogg Pact, about to cast the obligation on each of the con­ giving up war as an instrument of national tracting parties to abstain from hostile policy. In our days people arc especially activities — political and economic— in re­ struck by the utopianism of those who gard to the other and preserve neutrality imagine that such a pact would be able to in case one of the parties is attacked by relegate to the past one of the sharpest a third party. These treaties do not contain forms of imperialist policy, one of the mighti­ a single clause, which provides for any est ‘weapons of the expansion of monopoly assistance to be given in case of diplomatic

5 or military complications and which would the Soviet Union began to refashion its therefore facilitate a party to the agreement backward economy, to transform the USSR taking such decisions as would entail mi­ from an agrarian appendage into a power­ litary conflicts. It goes without saying that ful socialist industrial world. Social chan­ in spite of the repeated declarations of ges were organically bound up with the the Soviet government about its readiness construction of socialism. The stamping to conclude such treaties with any State out of the remnants of capitalist elements maintaining diplomatic relations with it, in cities, the elimination of the kulaks none of the imperialist countries or Stales as a class, on the basis of the all-round that are virtually their vassals responded collectivisation of the village, and from to this appeal by the Soviet government. this arising, the sharpening of the class Only those governments assumed a policy struggle against the remnants of the exploit­ of an agreement with the Soviet govern­ ing classes, secured enormous successes in ment, which set as their task the defence socialist construction, being at the same of their territorial integrity and of the time the consequence of these successes. economic independence of their country During the period of crisis, the capitalist and which realised that it is to their own world more than ever before felt the abs­ advantage to consolidate peace and to ence in its system of the territory now occu­ conduct a struggle for its preservation. The pied by the Soviet Union. Thise huge official endorsement of the peace policy market of consumption with a population of the Soviet government by the correspond­ of 160 millions, the enormous natural ing countries not only increased the im­ wealth, the inexhaustible potential re­ portance of the peace aspirations of the sources of the Soviet country, were missed USSR in international relations, but proved by the bankrupt bourgeoisie. Even form­ conclusively that the main champion of erly the capitalist class could not very well peace was the USSR, with which every reconcile itself to the existence of an inde­ government interested for one reason or an pendent socialist State and organised inter­ other in the preservation of general peace, vention against the USSR. Now with the should seek an understanding. gradual disappearance of their last ally From 1929 the capitalist world has enter­ within the USSR, the interventionist circles ed on an era of deepening cataclysms. of bourgeois countries began to prepare The era of “ prosperity” , of a relative sta­ with special favour for the forcible annex­ bilisation of capitalism gave way at first ation of the Soviet Union to the fold of to depression, then to economic crisis. capitalism. Developing on the basis of a universal cri­ The Soviet policy of peace was confronted sis of the capitalist system the industrial with a truly gigantic task of fighting for crisis of overproduction and the world peace in conditions of increased danger agrarian crisis produced far reaching chang­ of the capitalist bloc attacking the USSR. es within that system. The growth of so­ The aggressive activity of the ruling cial contradictions within capitalism found circles of the capitalist world used all its reflection in international relations. kinds of methods in order to create The decrease of purchases in the home mar­ a favourable political situation capable ket as a result of the destitution of the of furthering the realisation of schemes masses of consumers, compelled the ruling of invasion against the Soviet Union. It class to seek foreign markets. At its own became necessary at all costs to make the frontiers it was met by the stream of commo­ USSR appear as though undermining the dities coming from other countries whose economic well-being of capitalism. To markets were exhausted by the crisis. make it appear responsible for all the Conflicts of interests are growing and these sufferings which are experienced by the constitute the primary cause of political toiling masses of the capitalist world complications. In this ever-increasing tangle resulting from the ever increasing economic of contradictions, political jobbers of all crisis. To make it appear in the eyes kinds find fruitful soil for international of the petty-bourgeois masses and the back­ combinations that contain in themselves ward sections of the working class as a tra- the threats of new wars — in this manner ducer of religious feelings and in that way are the bourgeoisie trying to find a way out to instil anti-Soviet feelings among the of the crisis. masses of the population abroad. The 1929 was the first year of the Five-Year dirtiest methods of agents-provocateurs Plan in the USSR. After developing a played an important role in the arsenal tremendous enthusiasm for construction, used by politicians in their anti-Soviet campaigns. The notorious campaigns of capitalist countries. From past experience alleged Soviet “ dumping” , “ forced labour” , they well know what are the results of “ religious persecutions” , were only one the activities of general staffs. They could of the forms of preparation for the rupture not fail to sec — the struggles of the So­ of peaceful relations between the capitalist viets for peace helped them in this — that and the socialist systems. the ruling circles of the bourgeoisie were Not a single international conference preparing a new, a second intervention. was held, such as were particularly plenti­ The crisis forced the bourgeoisie to seek ful at the height of the economic crisis, a smoke screen for its militant activity. which in one aspect or another was not 1931 witnessed a number of appeals issued directed against the Soviet Union. Every­ to the USSR by various countries, including one remembers the attempt made by French France, proposing to resume the negoti­ imperialism to exclude the USSR from ations concerning the non-aggression pacts nations invited to take part in the pan- which had made no headway since 192G. European Commission. France explained True to its policy of peace, the Soviet Union its viewpoint by the consideration that accepted these proposals. The course of the presence of the USSR could not fail the negotiations proved that only the pres­ lo handicap the plan of an economic boy­ sure of the changed political situation cott of the Soviet Union, which was en­ prompted the ruling groups of the bourgeoi­ gaging, the attention of the ruling circles sie to make a show of its “ peaceful” ten­ of France, which country at that time headed dencies. They kept their daggers concealed the anti-Soviet elements of world capitalism. but in readiness. Only three States — Fin­ The boycott was to serve as a preliminary land, Latvia and Estonia — fully ratified stage for the preparation of a military their treaties with the USSR. With other attack on the USSR. The seizure of the border countries and with France the agree­ Chinese Eastern Railway by Chinese gene­ ments have not yet been signed owing rals carried out with the blessing of the to some pretext or other advanced by them. imperialists was a provoking action against The international situation is still ex­ the USSR, which if successful, would have tremely tense. Peace has been broken in plunged the world into war. The USSR several localities, and armed struggle had to fulfil one of the most difficult of proceeds at the very frontiers of the Soviet tasks — the preservation of universal peace. Union. Soviet policy is today even more An enormous amount of self-control and than before a most important factor in iron logic was necessary in order, in the the preservation of peace, so necessary for face of numerous provocative actions, to be toiling humanity. Having achieved enorm­ able ceaselessly to expose the real essence ous successes in the building of socialism, of the anti-Soviet slanders and actions, standing on the threshold of the second and also to be able to preserve peace. The Five-Year Plan, which pursues the task shots fired by Stem and Gorgulov at the of building a classless society, the toilers official representatives of capitalist States of the Soviet Union know how to value prove that the imperialists and their agents the importance of peace. But they are were losing all hope of provoking the So­ not less able to value the conquests of the viet Union to action or to cause it to sur­ October Revolution, which has overthrown render peaceful relations. They pursued the oppression of capitalists and which the object of inciting the other party to has opened up before the exploited classes assume a more hostile attitude in its re­ new historic perspectives. But if anyone lations with the USSR. It is not their tries to attack the cause of the working fault that’ the desired results were not class, if anyone tries to wrest away be it attained. even “ an inch of ground” of Soviet terri­ Everything possible was done by elements tory, to restore on it the domination of hostile to the USSR and the cause of peace the bourgeoisie, if in spite of the peaceful to bring about these results. It is owing policy of the USSR, peace will be broken only to the ceaseless and active work on by the imperialists — the toilers of the the part of the Soviet Union to preserve Soviet Union will know how to protect peace and owing to its exposure of the anti- their cause against any attempts ma le by Soviet plots of the imperialists and their the class enemy. Let the imperialists agents, both in the USSR itself and abroad, blame no one but themselves if their inter­ that peace was not broken. The trial of ventionist adventure will turn out to be the “ Industrial Party” could not but a stick which in the end hits him who alarm the widest masses of the toilers in takes it up.

7 FROM THE PRISON OF NATIONS TO THE UNION______OF SOVIET REPUBLICS By Z. Ostrovsky

“ The attempts of the capitalist world As far back as 1894, in his book entitled for the last decades to solve the problem “ Who are the friends of the people” , of nationalities by means of combining V. Lenin indicated the main lines of the free development of nations with a sys­ those methods which later were practically tem of exploitation of man by man proved followed in order to solve the national fruitless” (from the declaration on the form­ problem on the territory of the former ation of the USSR). tsarist Russia. At the second Congress of This has been very strikingly illustrated Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party by the many years’ practice of the League held in 1903, “ the right to self-determin­ of Nations. Even the congress of bourgeois ation for all nations making part of the representatives of the national minorities State” was recognised in a special para­ of Europe, which was held in 1928, was com­ graph of the Party programme. pelled to admit that “ the confidence of After the October Revolution this pro­ the forty millions, belonging to the nation­ gramme began to be put into effect. al minorities, in the League of Nations In tsarist Russia, which comprised a as a guarantor of the minority rights, has great number of nationalities speaking been thoroughly undermined. Hitherto the different languages, national oppression League of Nations, owing to the methods was so strong that Russia was justly term­ it used to follow, did nothing serious in ed “ the great prison of nations” . regard to the solution of the national mi­ The national policy of tsarism was only nority problem” . serving its imperialist aspirations. The At the present time, just the same as seizure of the best land in the conquered before, the world war, numerous colonies borderlands, the reckless exploitation of supply raw material for the industries of the most accessible natural wealth, such capitalist countries; they are the sources as fuel, mineral ore, and various kinds of surplus profits, enormous markets for of raw material; the colonisation of the the sale of manufactured articles... At the outlying districts by “ reliable” people present time, as before, an altogether bra­ from among the Russian Cossacks, kulaks zen national oppression prevails in capi­ and high officials; the enlisting of the na­ talist countries along with class oppres­ tive exploiters, the nobles and the clergy sion and the least manifestations of protest to the side of the oppressor — such was the on the part of the toilers of the oppressed practice of Russian imperialism. At that nations are cruelly and pitilessly quelled. period the policy was to effect such mea­ A totally different state of things we wit­ sures as would kill “ any beginnings of ness in the USSR, the only country in the national movement among non-Russian world where the national problem has peoples, to suppress their national culture, been settled not partially or formally, to restrict the use of their language, to but completely and in point of substance. maintain their inferior status, and finally This is explained by the fact, that “ the to russify them as far as possible” . Soviet rule is a new form of State organ­ The colonial regime of tsarism left a isation, different in principle from the old painful heritage in the shape of an extra­ bourgeois-democratic and parliamentary ordinary economic and cultural backward­ form, a new type of State, adapted not to ness of these numerous peoples and of very the tasks of exploiting and oppressing the hostile relations between the various na­ toiling masses, but to the task of their tional minorities. This backwardness and complete emancipation from all kinds of national hostilities were purposely fostered oppression and exploitation, to the task by the exploiting classes in order to be­ of the dicratorship of the proletariat” cloud the class-consciousness of the toilers (J. Stalin). belonging to different nationalities and to The radical solution of the national prevent their unification for the purpose problem in the USSR constitutes one of of fighting their oppressors. the most brilliant victories of Leninism — After destroying the regime of the tsar the militant programme of revolutionary and of the landlords, the proletariat destroy­ struggle and socialist construction. ed also its economic, social and juridicial S vl. Ka inin, President of 'he Central executive Committee of the USSR

V. Molotov, Preside»' of the Council of People s Commissaries of the USSR

M. Litvinov, People’s Commissary lor Foreign Alfairs

w. Voroshilov, People’s Commissary for Army and Navy

STATE POWER STATION (DXIEPROGES)

dnm Grozny. Boring towers

Mngnitostroy líase. Instead of the tsarist “ single and each other by their racial characteristics indivisible” prison of nations, a powerful but which are on most diverse levels of and free Union of the Socialist Soviet Re­ economic and cultural development. publics was formed. The USSR comprises seven allied re­ The main lines of the policy of the Soviet publics, which in their turn include fif­ rule in regard to the national question teen autonomous soviet socialist republics, amount to the following: a) the absolute one Soviet Socialist Republic founded by abolition of all privileges hitherto enjoy­ special treaty, seventeen autonomous re­ ed by some of the national groups; equal gions and thirteen national districts. rights of all nations; colonies and subject The Soviet government, the moment it nations are granted the right to complete came into power, stated before the whole self-determination, including even seces­ world in a special declaration issued on sion; b) a thorough abolition of the remains November 3, 1917 and signed by V. Lenin of national inequality in all spheres of and J. Stalin: “ There is no return, nor can social and economic life, and above all, there be a return to the shameful policy a planned spread of industries in the outly­ of tsarism; henceforward it must be replac­ ing districts; in this connection, it is ed by a policy of voluntary and honest proposed to develop the economic and cul­ alliance between the nations of Russia.” tural life of backward nations at a more The first political union of the nations rapid rate than of other nations; c) giving inhabiting the former Russian Empire was the utmost assistance to the labouring formed immediately after the October Revo­ masses of nations other than the Great-Rus- lution, under the title of “ Russian Social­ sians — in the first place, in the matter ist Federative Soviet Republic” . This of developing and strengthening of the alliance of separate Soviet States and auto­ Soviet regime in forms which are in har­ nomous regions existed in its original mony with national habits and customs form for over four years. During these of these nations; secondly, in furthering years the Soviet Republics had to hold courts, administration, and economic bo­ their own in a long and steady struggle dies, using the native language and com­ against all the counter-revolutionary forces, posed of local people familiar with the life which fought the Soviet country with and customs of the native population; the full assistance of world capital, that thirdly, in furthering the national press, found its expression in the blockade, in schools, theatres, and other cultural and arming and supplying the White-Guardist educational institutions using the verna­ armies and in the direct intervention from cular. Thus the nations of the Soviet Union north, west, south and east. Most of the are now able to build up their own culture national Republics and regions took final “ national in form and socialist in content” shape only after the termination of the (J. Stalin). Apart from this, the policy civil war, i. e. twelve years ago. of the Soviet government is directed to­ In December 1922, at the Constituent wards the training of skilled workers, Congress of Soviets in Moscow, the Union Party functionaries, Soviet officials, bu­ of the Soviet Socialist Republics was form­ siness managers and educationalists from ed. J. Stalin, in his speech at the Congress among the national minorities. said: The Party and the Soviet government “ This is the day of an important change; are in everyway promoting a rapprochement it marks a boundary line between the old, between the proletarians and semi-prole­ past period when the Soviet Republics, tarians of the various nationalities, but though acting together, went each its own at the same time they are waging a ruthless way, and the new period, which has al­ war on national deviations and especially ready begun, when an end is put to the se- on the chauvinist deviation, which con­ p'aratc existence of the Soviet Republics, stitutes the main danger. The resolute and when the Republics are united in a single consistent carrying out of such a nalion- federal State.” al policy explains the fact that the USSR According to the Constitution of the is the only country in the world where USSR, the equality in rights and duties national or race problems do not exist. of the separate republics, both Union re­ The importance of these successes is the publics and autonomous ones, is fully more remarkable, since they have been guaranteed. For this purpose, a council achieved on the territory of an enormous of nationalities is set up in the Soviet country inhabited by hundreds of big and system, a special political body representing small nations, which not only differ from all the autonomous units without exception.

9 “ Since the formation of the Soviet Re­ amount was directed to the leading in­ publics the States of the world have split dustries — metallurgical, chemical and up into two camps: the camp of capitalism fuel-producting industries. The gross out­ and the camp of socialism. There, in the put in these autonomous units during the camp of capitalism, you find national hatr­ past period reached about 1,250 million ed and inequality, colonial slavery and rubles. chauvinism, national oppression and po­ According to the control figures for 1952, groms, imperialist brutalities and wars. the investments in the national economy Here, in the camp of socialism, you find and the social and cultural construction mutual trust and peace, national liberty of the RSFSR wrill amount to 10,826 mil­ and equality, a peaceful co-existence and lion rubles. Out of this sum, the share of fraternal co-operation of nations” (from the the autonomous republics and autonomous declaration on the formation of the USSR). regions is 1,650 million rubles or over At the present time, the USSR comprises 15% of the total. The expenditure on new the RSFSR, the Transcaucasian Federation, industrial plants and on electrification the Ukraine, White Russia, Uzbekistan, in the autonomous republics and regions Turkmenistan, Tadjikistan. The original reached last year 217 million rubles. treaty of 1922 was concluded only between The national policy of the Soviet govern­ the first four of the above named republics: ment is well illustrated by the following the remainingt hree joined the Union later. figures. The increase in the appropriations for the regions of the RSFSR in 1931 was 18.9%, in regard to the autonomous re­ The largest of the above mentioned seven publics it was 21.8%, and in regard to Union republics, the RSFSR, comprises the autonomous regions 26.4%. According 12 autonomous soviet socialist republics, the 1932 plan, the increase for the regions and 14 autonomous regions: Bashkiria, of the RSFSR will be 19,2%, for the auto­ Buryato-Mongolia, Daghestan, Kazakstan, nomous republics 21.1%, and for the Kirghizia, Karakalpakia, Karelia, Crimea, autonomous regions 34.1%. the Republic of the Volga Germans, Ta­ From the point of view of a proper rea­ taria, Chuvashia, and Yakutia; moreover, lisation of the leninist national policy the Checheu, Ingush, North Osset, Kabar- it is characteristic that the backward na­ dino-Balkar, Karachay, Tcherkess, Adyguei, tions are favoured so as to bring them as Kalmuck, Mari, Udmurt, Mordovian, Oyrot, soon as possible into line with the progres­ Khakass, Komi regions etc. sive ones. Therefore, the tempo for the eco­ The RSFSR is the largest and the most nomic growth in the national republics populated of all the Union republics and and regions is planned to be more rapid comprises also a larger number of nations than for other regions. The following table than any other. The 20 autonomous units illustrates this preposition (in %): of the RSFSR comprise over a hundred V) large and small nationalities. This circum­ C stance naturally made it enormously diffi­ £ 1 i 'J i o s (0 cult to carry out a correct national policy. £ IT. is? However, enormous successes were achiev­ £ ed in the economic and cultural life of General increase of invest­ even the most backward nations and these ments in 1932 ...... 134 148.1 Increase in sown area f jr 1932 . 104.6 106.6 successes were strikingly illustrated by Increase in expenditure on the results of the first Five-Year Plan. transport during the first 3lJ 2 This is the more remarkable, since an over­ years of the Five-Year Plan . 142 196 whelming majority of the national auto­ Increase in the appropriation for the cultural construction nomous republics and regions emerged from in 1932 ...... 27 33 the state of civil war much later than the Increase in number of hospi­ purely Russian districts. tals in 1932 ...... 14 31 If we turn now to the figures and facts Very great attention is being paid to in the domain of the economic and cultur­ the socialist reconstruction of agriculture al construction of the nations of the RSFSR in the autonomous republics and regions. we will find the following: Thus, in 1931 alone 180 million rubles In 16 autonomous units, the total sum were appropriated to thit end, and this of investments during the past 4 years of radically altered the very nature and ten­ the Five-Year Plan reach approximately dencies of agriculture in a number of for­ 445 million rubles. Of these, the greater merly backward districts.

IO A vast country like Kazakstan has been took from the Ukraine on an average 45% transformed already by the end of the third of its revenue. On the other hand, the Uk­ year of the Plan into a most important raine was also exploited by foreign capital region possessing many State and collect­ which took the lion’s share in the metal­ ive farms: suffice it to mention that by lurgical and coal industries of the country. August 1, 1931, there were 130 State farms The realisation of the Leninist national on the territory of Kazakstan, possessing policy secured a full utilisation of the 23.5 million hectares, and that 60% of enormous potential wealth of the Ukraine. farms belonging to poor and middle pea­ In 1913, the total production of metal was sants were collectivised. 2,600,000 tons, in 1932 it reaches 5,500,000 And as regards the growth of industries, tons. The reconstruction of the mines of the third all-Union coal base is being the Donets basin will already, by the end worked there — Karaganda, which exceeds of the first Five-Year Plan, enable us the Donets basin in point of quantity and to exceed two and a half times the pre-war quality of coal extracted. In the near fu­ level of coal production. In a relatively ture Karaganda will yield 2.5 million tons short period, the Ukraine was covered by of high-grade coking coal. In one year and industrial giant plants: Dnieprostroy, the a half an important railway line Turksib — Kharkov tractor plant, and a number of was constructed cutting through the whole most important enterprises for agricultur­ of Kazakstan from north to south, and al machine building, etc. stretching for 1.500 kilometres. The Ukraine has become collectivised The tempo of industrialisation in other to the extent of 100%. At the same time republics of the RSFSR is equally rapid, we observe an increase of mechanisation even in those which suffered most from in agriculture. In 1930, there were only the colonial regime of tsarism. 47 machine and tractor stations in the In Bashkiria the powerful Komaro-Zi- Soviet Ukraine, and these were covering gazin combinat is growing. In Daghestan an area of 952,000 hectares. In the summer a new glass works has been erected which of 1932, 448 machine and tractor stations Is the last word in technics, the best in were working in the Ukrainian fields and the USSR both as regards technics and were covering an area of 13,5 million hec­ capacity. In Crimea the Kerch metallur­ tares. gical giant plant is being completed. In The rapid economic development of the Karelia an enormous paper factory, the Ukraine brought in its train a considerable Kondopoga factory, lias been completed. cultural revival of the republic. In a country Equally great successes were achieved where, before the Revolution, the teach­ in the domain of culture in the autonomous ing in the native language was forbidden, republics and regions. there were 18,430 Ukrainian schools in In Chuvashia nearly 100% of children 1931. In 1914 there were only 1,648,000 per­ attend the primary schools, in Bashkiria sons attending all the schools in the Uk­ over 76%, in Tataria nearly 100%, in the raine, in 1931 this number increased to Crimean Republic 97%, in the Adyghei 4,071,000. In 1913, 22,533 persons were region 100%, in the Kabardino-Balkar studying in the higher schools of the Uk­ region over 98%, in North Ossetia 100%, raine, they were mainly sons of capitalists, in the Udmurt region about 100%, in the landlords and kulaks; in 1931, out of the Mordva region 97%, in the Komi region 92,493 students of the higher schools of 99%, etc. In the past year alone about the Ukraine, the majority were sons 2 million persons in the autonomous units and daughters of working men and pea­ learned how to read and to write and about sants. In 1923/24, there were 430 scientists 1—-l1/2 million were taught in special and 256 aspirants in the Ukraine, in 1931 schools for illiterates. the corresponding figures were 4,792 and 5,454. A similar attention is paid to the educ­ The republic which ranks next in import­ ation of the national minorities of the ance after the RSFSR is the Ukrainian Ukraine. In 3,328 schools for the children Soviet Socialist Republic. of these nationalities, tuition is given in Before the Revolution, the Ukraine was their native languages. In 1931, there were in fact a colony of tsarist Russia. The 347 Polish schools, 579 German schools, degree to which its national economy was 495 Jewish schools etc. Special higher exploited is incidentally shown by the schools, _ tcchnicuins and scientific research fact that from 1898 to 1910 tsarist Russia institutes were founded.

11 Prior lo tlie Revolution, Ihc Ukrainian Eour years ago, the White-Russian Academy press and Ukrainian books were banned. of Sciences was founded. In all these in­ Even in 1021 there existed only one news­ stitutions there are about 350 aspirants, paper in the Ukrainian language, with most of them workers and peasants by a circulation of a few thousand copies. origin. At the present time 330 Ukrainian news­ The White-Rnssiaii State Publishing 1 lou­ papers are published, with a daily cir­ se, together with the publishing depart­ culation of over 7 million copies. The ments of tlie various scientific institutions, total output of school text books in the has in the course of six years (1925 to Ukrainian language has reached 35 million 1930) published about 4,000 books, with copies in 1932. The output of the indus­ a total of 20 million copies. trial-technical literature in the Ukraine After the Revolution, the toilers of White will reach by the end of 1932 19 million Russia had to create anew their art-cul­ copies. ture and White Russia at the present time In 1923 only one art and literature ma­ possesses a number of theatres, among them gazine was published in the Ukrainian a Jewish theatre and a Polish theatre. language, at the present time there arc Last year an operatic studio was opened twelve of them. Many talented authors made and this year a White-Russian conserva­ their mark. There is now a large number tory will be founded. of literary men from among the workers and peasants. The successes attained by the Ukrainian Nowhere in the Soviet Union do we ob­ literature, theatre, painting and other serve such variety of nations on a relativ­ arts, are known far beyond the boundaries ely small territory, as in Transcaucasus. of the Soviet Union. In particular, many This circumstance was cleverly taken ad­ Ukrainian painters achieved fame by their vantage of by the tsar’s government, which works of art exhibited abroad. found it to its advantage to incite national

* hatred between various races and tribes. It is only under the dictatorship of the Equally striking are the successes at­ proletariat that this hostility has ceased, tained by the White-Russian Republic, and at the present time Soviet Trans­ which before the Revolution was one of caucasus represents a fraternal union of three the most backward outlying regions of republics and is the model of a peaceful tsarist Russia (in 1917 80% of the popul­ co-operation of nations. During the ten ation of White Russia was illiterate). years of its existence (the Transcaucasian Last year’s investments in industrial con­ Federation was formed in 1922), the re­ struction of that country form a sum which publics of Transcaucasus achieved great is twice the amount which was spent on successes in the domain of economics and industries in pre-revolutionary White Rus­ culture. Such constructions as Zages, Dzo- sia in the course of a whole century. About rages, Rionges and other power stations 100 million rubles were assigned to cultur­ are known not only in the USSR but also al needs during the present year, whereas abroad. The reconstruction of agriculture only 15 million rubles were spent in 1914— is progressing with gigantic strides. 260 1915 on the people’s education in the ter­ million rubles this year, as against 174.4 ritory of the present White-Russian repub­ million spent last year. The following fi­ lic. In 1929/30, the corresponding figure gures will illustrate the cultural develop­ was 50 million, and in 1931, 99 million ment of Transcaucasus. rubles. The Transcaucasian Federation consists illiteracy has almost entirely been eli­ of three republics: Georgia, Armenia and minated in White Russia. Universal prim­ Azerbaïdjan (for further details about So­ ary education has been introduced, for viet .Transcaucasus see the “ VOKS ' maga­ which purpose hundreds of new schools zine No. 1, 1932). were built and thousands of teachers train­ Prior to the October Revolution, the ed. A country which did not possess a average percentage of literacy among the single university, has now 12 universities nations of Transcaucasus did not exceed and 60 technicums of various specialities 35%. In 1930 it was 52%. ;j in which 40 thousand persons are studying. In 1928/29 the Transcaucasian Feder­ Moreover, White Russia possesses a large ation disposed of 11 higher schools and number of scientfic research institutes for 9 workers’ faculties; in 1930 the number various branches of economy and culture. of higher schools reached 32 and of work-

12 ers’ faculties — 31. Already in 1932 al improvement into the farms of the Georgia and Armenia were able to introduce backward Asiatic regions. In the fields universal primary education; next year of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tadjikistan it will be introduced in Azerbaïdjan. and Karakalpakia, where the primeval One of the most important reforms is the “ omach” (a very primitive plough) was the introduction of the new latinised script only agricultural implement used, there among the Turkic nations of the USSR are now thousands of tractors and other in place of the Arabic script. By means machines at work, and machine and trac­ of these measures, the bourgeoisie and tor stations are growing in number. A re­ the clergy of the Eastern nations inhabiting volution is being effected in agriculture. our country were deprived of the mono­ The natural resources of these republics poly of learning and culture, which they make it possible to develop their industries used in order to oppress the common by feeding them with local raw material. people. The broad masses of the toilers are Since the Soviet rule has been established now able to proceed along the path leading in the former tsarist colonies of Central to the greatest conquests of culture. Lenin Asia, the following new important branches called this reform “ the greatest revolution of industry have been introduced there: in the East” . cement, sulphur, the bulk of which is now * produced in Central Asia, the chemical industry, the textile industry — a number From the standpoint of the practical of big factories in Fergana, Ashkhabad, realisation of the Leninist national policy, Khodjent, Stalinabad and Cliardjuy, — an exceptional interest is attached to the and finally the sugar industry in Kirghizia. economic and cultural revival of the Asia­ The metallurgical, chemical and fuel-pro­ tic and Central-Asiatic republics, the ones ducing industries have been firmly estab­ which under tsarism were treated as co­ lished and there is every reason to expect lonies or semi-colonies. that they will be of enormous importance. The decisive factor in this connection A wide development of scientific research was the land and irrigation reforms, which and geological exploration work supplies undermined the economic base of the ex­ an enormous impetus to the industrialis­ ploitation of natives. At the same time, ation of the Central-Asiatic republics. far-reaching land-improvement schemes The total investments in the economic were effected, viz gigantic irrigation con­ and cultural construction of th^ Central- struction, such as the Tadjcnt dam and a Asiatic republics are growing from year number of canals and water-routes. The to year and have reached this year 1,173 local machine and tractor stations were million rubles. The total investments for supplied with special dredges, and this the four years of the first Five-Year Plan relieved the local peasants from the slav­ throughout the Union reached the colos­ ish labour of cleaning irrigation canals sal figure of 2,500 million rubles. by hand labour. The following figures show the excep­ Another measure of historic importance tionally rapid tempo of economic growth was the transformation of nomads and se­ of the Central-Asiatic republics: ^ mi-nomads into settlers. This was effected The area under cotton: 1914 — 013.6 first by means of collective and State farms thousand hectares, 1932 — 1,529 thousand and secondly by developing local indu­ hectares. stries, and attracting to them the native The cost of industrial production: 1914 — population, e. g. in two-and-a-half years 219.3 million rubles, 1932 — 950 million in Kazakstan alone, 145 thousand families rubles. abandoned their nomadic mode of life and The total power of electrical plants: became members of collective farms and 1914 — 3.6 thousand kilowatts, 1932 of cattle-breeding associations. It is inter­ 45 thousand kilowatts. esting to note that the former nomads have The sum total of investments in indu­ to such an extent mastered the art stries of Central Asia for the four years of of agriculture that in 1931 they produced the Five-Year Plan is over 640 million 2.5 million centners of grain and over rubles and for educational purposes about 630 thousand tons of hay for the market, 95 million rubles. and in the spring of 1932 they have cultiv­ In the second Five-Year Plan the sum ated over 5,000 hectares in their collect­ total of capital invested in the industries ive farms. The socialistic system of agri­ of Central Asia will be 5,500 million culture has introduced the latest teclinic- rubles. The capacity of the electric power

*3 stations in the Central-Asiatic republics in Tadjikistan, 70 million in Kirghizia will reach the level of the most progressive and 21 million in Karakalpakia. industrial districts of the Union. The instance of the socialist transform­ The cultural revolution in the Soviet ation of the former tsarist colonies in East is characterised above all by the Central Asia fully bears out Lenin’s thesis, spread of universal education. By the end (hat “ with the aid of the prolerariat of of the first Five-Year Plan, the number the most progressive countries, the back­ of pupils in the primary schools of the ward countries will be able to pass on to Central-Asiatic republics will reach 1 mil­ the Soviet regime and after passing certain lion and the number of students in the stages of development they will arrive at higher schools will be at least 25 thousand, communism, missing the capitalist stage in this connection it is noteworthy that of development’’. women are now entering the schools, in The officials in national regions are mostly spite of the difficulties that beset them, drawn from the native population, famil­ owing to the customs and habits of the East. iar with the language, customs and ha­ Among the students who graduated in bits of the corresponding nations. At the 1931, 18.5% were native women. present time, there exist 12,700 native The number of newspapers has trebled village Soviets, of which 93.5% consist and of journals doubled during the first of one nationality only. three years of the Five-Year Plan. At Such are the most important data and the present time, 71 newspapers and 40 facts enabling us to judge of the achieve­ journals are published in Central Asia, ments of the policy in regard to various most of them in the vernacular. The out­ nationalities followed by the Soviet Union put of the national publishing departments for the last 15 years. has increased from 587 to 3,000 different The October Revolution has secured books. for the toilers of all the nations of the USSR During the second Five-Year Plan, 500 not only a formal right but also an actual million rubles will be spent on cultural possibility of taking an active part in the construction: 257 million in Uzbekistan, great construction work of the Union of 72 million in Turkmenistan, 80 million the Soviet Socialist Republics.

FIFTEEN YEARS OF CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE USSR By D. Skomorovsky j

The October Revolution has solved in economy caused by the imperialist war, the j a new way the problem of culture, for it civil war and intervention could not hinder j has blasted the foundation upon which the creation of the many new cultural or- the power of landlords and capitalists ganisations and institutions. j resepod in tsarist Russia. It was the period of the most chaotic | October opened such tremendous sources collapse — the years 1918—1920 — that wit- j of creative cultural power that none of nessed the first wave of the building of < the social orders could even conjecture new pre-school institutions and universities. , their existence. For the first time in the A second such cultural wave on a far greater j history of humanity, in the place of the scale than the first coincides with the pe- j privileged social stratum which monopol­ riod of socialist reconstruction of industry i ised culture, millions of souls have come and agriculture. The first successes of freely forward as the creators of new values socialist industrialisation and agricultural 1 not only material, but intellectual as well. collectivisation have created a concrete October has made public education truly basis for the solution of the problems of the business of the masses. From the first cultural development. years of the Revolution there began to The particularly rapid tempo of cultural appear in all quarters of the immense ter­ evolution during the years of the first ritory of the USSR new cultural institutions Five-Year Plan was logically brought about from kindergartens to universities. The by the necessity to put an end to this educational enthusiasm of the masses was lagging behind the tempo of economic con­ so great that even the collapse of national struction.

14 And in fact the Five-Year Plan, which ties of the first few years after the Revolu­ gave the USSR victories on the fronts tion, more than 200 thousand children of industry and agriculture, is character­ were organised in pre-school institutions. ised at the same time by successes in re­ The system of pre-school instruction grew volutionising culturally tens of millions concomitantly with the restoration and of toilers, active participants in the new reconstruction of national economy, and order. Compulsory elementary education to such an extent that by the beginning for children and adults has been introduced of the first Five-Year Plan it embraced on a national scale; a system of pre-school about 400 thousand chil

2 a 17 of illiterate adults and it is expected that in this regard issued in 1930 70 million by the end of the first Five-Year Plan the copies of new books. The USSR during USSR will become a country of almost the same year published more than 400 mil­ entire literacy, since already more than lions of copies. 90% of the entire population from 8 to The following table reveals the growth 50 years of age have received a primary of the book and magazine output for the education. Significant progress has indeed last few years (in millions of printed sheets): been realised during the past few years. Up to the year 1928 merely 10 millions 1929 1930 1931 had been tought to read and write, while 2,240 3,950 5,242 in a single year, 1929/30, this number amounted to 10.5 millions. During 1930 31 For two years there was an increase 15 millions more were given primary in­ of two-and-one-half times. struction and during 1932 over 25 million The book in the USSR is a powerful workers and peasants are being instructed. means of diffusing the Marxist-Leninist The Soviet Union is becoming one of theory and technical education among the the most advanced countries from the stand­ masses; it is a means of enlightening the point of its level of literacy. toilers and mobilising them for the task Alongside the tremendous cultural growth of economic and cultural construction. of the masses is the wide development of In according with these tasks mass li­ the presse. The press in the USSR is one terature occupies the first place in book of the most important weapons of the cul­ output. In 1927/28 mass literature consti­ tural revolution. The output of the press tuted 20°/0 of the entire production; it in spite of its immense growth over preced­ leapt to over 50% in 1930. Some books ing years is still insufficient to satisfy of a mass character were distributed in the demands of the toiling masses for print unheard-of numbers of copies. Such were ed matter. This phenomenon one can rightly the pamphlets by J. Stalin, “ Giddiness consider as a proof of the unusually rapid from Success” and “ The Tasks of our Bu­ economic and cultural development of siness Managers” of which 18 millions the Soviet Union. The active participation and 7 million copies respectively were sold- of the most diverse strata of the population The fulfilment of J. Stalin’s motto of in the socio-political life of the country mastering technique found its expression is ample testimony of this fact. During in the production of the technical book. the fifteen years of the existence of the In 1930 we had 153 million sheets of new Soviet government, the Soviet Union has technical subjects, during 1931,310 millions, not only equaled in the amount of printed and in 1932 we must print 578 millions of matter produced, but far surpassed the mosi printed sheets. advanced countries. During the fifteen years of the Soviet government there has been issued approxi­ Number of titles mately 4 billion book copies. This data 1929 1930 1931 certainly indicates the tempo of our cul­ tural growth. USSR...... 40,000 49 900 56,500 The introduction of general compulsory Germ any...... 28,000 25,000 — U.S.A...... 10,027 10,312 - education for children and adults, the tre­ England . . . . — 15,393 14,688 mendous network of factory schools, the F ra n ce...... 11,542 9,829 higher technical schools, universities, and technical institutes and the organisation of According to these figures the USSR a system of education for workers and col­ even as early as 1929 had far surpassed lective farm peasants were directly respon­ the press output of Germany and the sible for the unbelievable increase in edu­ United States of America. In 1930 we cational literature. had almost doubled the printed production The supply of textbooks is still behind of Germany, about five times that of the demand, for they are being consumed the United States and France, and three- three times much as before. The limited and-one-half times as much as England. production of printed matter is caused The Soviet Union has attained the first mainly by the conditions existing in the place in the world not only in number of paper industry which is developing slower issued titles but also in point of copies. than other branches of industry. This is why Thus Germany which occupied first place the improvement of paper manufacture among Western countries and America is receiving so much attention. l8 There is yet another indication of the the creation of a new technical base for rise of culture and of the political conscious­ all branches of national economy. ness of the toiling masses. This is the These two fundamental tasks determine increase in the number of Soviet newspa­ the character and content of the second pers. We occupy second place in the world cultural Five-Year Plan, in so far as the after the United States in regard to the re-education of the entire toiling popul­ number of newspaper copy, and at the ation of the country and the training of a present moment are beginning to leave huge army of highly skilled technicians America behind. requires a gigantic cultural work. The number of dailies issued was the The creation of an intelligentsia of following (in million of copies): engineers and technicians recruited from among the workers and peasants is the U.S.A. USSR most important element in the cultural 1929 ...... 39,425,615 12.500,000 revolution and in the successful construc­ 1930 39,589,172 22,000,000 tion of socialism in the USSR. 1931 ...... 38,761,187 32 000,000 The growth of big State-owned agricul­ tural enterprises and the equipment of In 1932 the number of copies of our news­ the State and collective farms with the most papers is approaching 40 million. In two up-to-date mechanical devices are trans­ yearc our circulation has increased more forming agricultural labour into a branch than two-and-one-half times. The number of industrial labour, they create conditions of issues of our central newspapers, “ Prav- for the complete elimination of all the da” and “ Izvestia” , have been growing contrasts between town and country. In particularly rapidly. In 1929 “ Pravda” this connection the tempo of cultural de­ published 661,000 copies. By 1932 the num­ velopment in villages and in separate na­ ber had reached 2,350,000. For “ Izvestia” tional districts must be especially acce­ the respective figures are 426,000 and lerated in order to bring them into line 1,600,000. with the cultural level of the industrial Tsarist Russia couldn’t even dreem centres. of such accomplishments, of such figures. These fundamental tasks determine the programme of the cultural revolution in the second Five-Year Plan. During the T he tasks of the second cu ltu ra l first Five-Year Plan the two crucial pro­ Five-Year Plan blems of cultural work were the elimination of illiteracy and universal school educ­ The fifteenth anniversary of the October ation. During the second Five-Year Plan Revolution coincides with the completion the following problems arise: pre-school of the first Five-Year Plan and the prepar­ education and the training of cadres. Uni­ ation for the second Five-Year Plan. versal pre-school education will be fully The programme of cultural construction realised and in this connection it will for the first Five-Year Plan has been ex­ become necessary to establish an enormous ceeded. However the conditions of life network of pre-school institutions to pro­ demand an even more rapid rate of advance vide for 25 million children (from the age on the cultural front. This is necessitated of three to the age of seven). by those grandiose tasks, which the USSR The first Five-Year Plan settled the sets itself during the second five-year question of universal primary instruction period. and partially also of the seven-year school. These tasks are: in the field of politics The second Five-Yar Plan will bring about the final elimination of the capitalist ele­ the universal introduction of seven-year ments and classes in general; a complete school throughout the whole country. This elimination of conditions producing class measure affects particularly the villages differences and exploitation; the aboli­ and the backward national areas. In in­ tion of the remnants of capitalsm in the dustrial centres, cities and big State farms economic system, and in the consciousness two to three years will be added to the of men; the transformation of the entire seven-year schools. working population of the country into During the first Five-Year Plan princip­ conscientious and active builders of a al attention was turned to the maximum classless socialist society. In the sphere development of school construction; the of economics: the completion of the re­ task was to embrace the maximum number construction of the entire national economy, of children of school age.

l 9 The new Five-Year Plan will enable us rooms, red corners, theatres, cinema and to build up the polyteclinical school on radio sets must be expanded so as to ex­ a new technical basis and to improve it tend political and educational work to qualitatively. The struggle for quality the whole of the adult population. will be the main issue. At the same time Circulation of daily newspapers will the decision of the programme of the Com­ be so increased as to enable each citizen munist Party concerning universal compul­ having a copy. The question of the person­ sory polyteclinical instruction of children nel will constitute the main problem in up to 17 years of age will in the main be the second Five-Year Plan. Until the final realised. working out of the second Five-Year Plan, In view of the task of abolishing the con­ it will be difficult to give even an appro­ trasts between town and country tile pro­ ximate figure of the skilled workers need­ grammes of village and town schools will ed in all branches of the national economy. be made uniform. Tn order to carry into effect the second Mass political-educational work will oc­ cultural Five-Year Plan an additional per­ cupy a particularly important place in the sonnel of several million new workers programme of the second cultural Five- will be required. This will involve the Year Plan. The strengthening of the ma­ creation of numerous new educational estab­ terial basis will enable us to develop this lishments, Communist Universities, So­ work on an enormous scale. viet-Party schools and courses. The educational level of the adult popul­ The total expenditure on cultural con­ ation in the cities will be raised to that struction in the first Five-Year Plan amount­ acquired at the seven-year school, and in ed to 15,514 million rubles. In the second the villages to that acquired in the prim­ Five-Year Plan the sum appropriated will ary school. be several times larger than this enormous This task is closely connected with figure. In the second Five-Year Plan the that of mastering technique. The network Soviet Union will increase its construction of institutions such as libraries, clubs, of cultural institutions to such an extent as houses of socialist culture, huts-rcading to render it unparalleled in the whole world. Maxim Gorky’s Fortieth Literary Anni versary

TO MAXIM GORKY Dear Alexey Maximovitch! I greet you heartily, and firmly grasp your hand. I wish you long years of life and active work to the joy of the toiling masses, and to the fear of llic enemies of the working class. J. Stalin.

Dear Alexey Maximovitch! On the occasion of the 40-year jubilee of your glorious literary and militant-revolutionary activity we send you our heartiest comradely bolshe­ vik greetings. We hope that for long years yet to come you will raise millions of masses in struggle tor the complete triumph of communism. Kalinin. Molotov. Kaganovitch. Ordjonikidze. Kuibyshev. Andreev. Rudzutak. Postyshev. Mikoyan. Bubnov. Enu- kidze. Pyatakov. Yakovlev, Lyubimov.

GREETINGS FROM VOKS

Dear Alexey Maximovitch! May the name of Gorky be a call to all lhose in foreign countries who hold as dear The All-Union Society for Cultural Re­ the real genuine culture of mankind, — the lations with Foreign Countries sends you, socialistic cu lure, which today has already our great writer and revolutionary, our achieved gigantic success in the USSR under warmest greetings. the leadership of the All-Union Communist May your revolutionary pen, which has Party. created great cultural treasures, continue VOKS wishes you for long years yet to for many years in the future to serve as come to serve as a flaming example of a mighty weapon lifting the enthusiasm of literary perfection and youthful vigourousness the toiling masses for socialist construc­ in social and political activity, and of social­ tion. istic cu’turc in your literary creations. May the might of your written word con­ May the fiery voice of yours, our great tinue to pierce all enemies of the USSR artist and revolutionary-proletarian f'ghtcr, and mercilessly expose all those that hide resound as a bugle-call throughout the en­ behind the lying mask as defenders of ‘‘cul­ tire world. ture” from bolshevik “ barbarians” . Board of Directors VOKS.

On the occasion of lhe -10 111 anniversary dressed to him on September 2dth not only of the literary debut of Maxim Gorky in the USSR but throughout the whole, whose first story “ Makar Choudra” ap­ world. peared in September we are happy The great proletarian writer of the to join our voice to the innumerable con­ USSR, one of the most sincere and affec­ gratulations and greetings that were ad­ tionate friends and defenders of the inter­ national proletariat, as well as one of the To the great proletarian fighter, to the most irreconcilable enemies of the imperial­ great literary genius, to the indefatigable ists anil capitalists of all countries, Maxim teacher of new generations of proletarian Gorky is a man of genius whose intellectual writers, we express our most deep and cor­ force, revolutionary spirit and infinite dial wishes, that he remain for many years devotion to the cause of all toilers could to come in the front line of socialist con­ not and cannot be affected by any re­ struction as invincible and unyielding as actionary attacks of hateful demonstr­ ever. , ations. Editors of VOKS publications.

THU GREAT PROLETARIAN WRITER By A. K li a la t o v

Gorky’s life is extraordinarily colourful and rich in events. Therefore his works contain much that is autobiographical and Today Gorky is an active participant renders his books so fascinating. The auto­ in the great socialist construction in the biographical novels: “ Childhood” , “ In Ser­ land of the Soviets, a participant in the vice”, “My Universities”, will forever re­ great struggle, for the USSR is still sur­ main the important documents of the pe­ rounded by enemies. Gorky is fighting in riod and will appeal to toilers by their the ranks of the proletariat and is castigat­ high qualities of artistic truth. ing the enemies and traitors both at home The various and important social events and abroad. Gorky’s words about our con­ connected with Gorky’s books always found struction, about new life and about the a truthful reflection both in his works and grandiose achievements of the first Five- in his life. The literary activities and the Year Plan, brush aside lies and slanders biography of the author reveal the incessant and find a ready response in tile hearts growth both of liis personality and of his of the workers and of the toiling masses creative talent. of the whole world. In 1910, at the time when Gorky wrote Gorky was one of the initiators of the “ Mother” and “ Enemies” Lenin wrote: World Anti-War Congress which assembled “ M. Gorky is undoubtedly the greatest in Amsterdam in August 1932. He was representative of proletarian art, who has unable to deliver his speech at the Congress, done much for it and is able to do still because the scared reactionaries did their more.” best to prevent the arrival of the Soviet Such is the evaluation made by Lenin. delegates. However, his speech, though Gorky is not only a great artist, he is it was not delivered at the Congress, will also a revolutionary fighter. reach the toilers of the West. Everyone knows of the events of past Gorky’s faith that there is no power on years, illustrating the revolutionary activ­ earth capable of turning backwards the ities of Gorky both in Russia and abroad. wheel of history is unshakeable: “ We are We quote here the words of Lenin about now passing through the beginning of a Gorky’s connection with the revolutionary hurricane which will destroy the old world, movement. In 1909, when the bourgeois and this hurricane has been set in motion press circulated the lie about Gorky being by your energy, Comrades.” expelled from the social-democratic party Gorky on his forty years’ jubilee is dis­ and about his having broken with the re­ playing enthusiastic energy. His work volutionary movement, Lenin wrote the proceeds along three lines: art produc­ following in the “ Proletari” : “ It is in vain tions, literary criticism, and publicist that the bourgeois newspapers are giving activity. themselves so much trouble. By his great The last mentioned is not new to Gorky. art productions Comrade Gorky has bound He is a past master in it and weilded this himself up too closely with the labour weapon on former occasions, — suffice movement in Russia and throughout the it to recall his propaganda in Western world, to reply to this imputation other­ Europe against tsarist loans and the article wise than by contempt.” “ On Cynicism” published as early as 1908, which was quoted recently by Gorky him­ epic, a grandiose summary of Gorky’s self. forty year litcrarary life, a picture of the Gorky reacts very rapidly on the various epoch lived through by the author. burning questions of social life from the Gorky’s creative work was always rich most important problems to such which at in intiative, when creating new literary first sight appear quite insignificant. Rich values, which rallied the best forces in material is opened to him by his sharp art and science around the burning questions power of observation as a writer and by of contemporary life. Suffice it to recall letters sent to him by an enormous number a series of journal and other publications of workers from every corner of the Union. issued under his guidance. They all regard him as “ their” Gorky. This initiative of Gorky’s extended enor­ Gorky’s activity as a publicist is very mously under Soviet conditions, especially varied, it is always full of a militant ap­ during the period of general socialist con­ peal to work and is imbued with hatred struction. for the old world and its monstrosities, As early as 1928 a magazine entitled for everything that is hostile to the victor­ “ Our Achievements” was founded by Gor­ ious proletariat. A ruthless struggle must ky. He took a very active partin the found­ be conducted against all these evils. ing of “ The USSR in Construction” It is to such ruthless and persistent and “Abroad” . Gorky’s idea of the neces­ struggle that he appealed in his article sity of an everyday struggle for the raising ••if the enemy does not surrender, he must of the literary mastery of new authors was be destroyed” , — an article of immense expressed in founding “ Literary Study” , forcefulness. “ We arc opposed by every­ a journal published under his editorship. thing that is obsolete and has lived beyond It is almost impossible to enumerate all the period assigned to it by history. This his activities in this field. Foremost among gives us the right to regard ourselves in them are “ The History of Civil War” a state of civil war. Hence follows the na­ and “ The History of Factories and Works” . tural conclusion: if the enemy does not It is difficult as yet fully to estimate surrender, he must be destroyed.” the importance of Gorky in our present- Gorky regards himself as being connected day literature, his importance in training by strongest bonds with the toiling masses, new authors and in directing their work. which are full of the militant energy He is the progenitor of proletarian art. of builders. He wrote the following in a For many years past Gorky has been letter addressed to the educationalists of corresponding with young and budding Orekhovo-Zuyevo: “ It is easy to work authors, with writers from .among the people, when you know that your work is being never failing to respond to any of their esteemed by the energetic builders of a letters or appeals. Many of the most pro­ new life and a new culture” , — and in the minent Soviet authors have openly stated end he laid special stress, that he himself that “ Gorky helped them immensely” serves as an “ echo of the victorious march and that “ they owed everything to their of the workers and peasants in the USSR — interviews with Alexey Maximovich” . a march to the great aim which they set The forty years jubilee of Gorky’s li­ themselves” . terary activity, which is now being celebr­ During the 15 years following the Oc­ ated by the wide masses of the Soviet tober Revolution, Gorky gave us a number Union and by the toilers of foreign coun­ of new art productions. “ The Artamonov tries, is an instance of the closest communion Case” and “ Klim Samgin” arc most im­ between the revolutionary fighter and his portant literary achievements. The third audience, which includes many million volume of “ Kilm Samgin” appeared this people. This communion constitutes an year. Now Gorky is working on the fourth inexhaustible source of Gorky’s future volume. “ Klim Samgin” is a majestic work. Culture and Life

SOVIET ACHIEVEMENTS IN TIIE FIELD------OF PUBLIC HEALTH DURING THE PAST FIFTEEN YEARS

By J. T r a c h t m a u

T h c legacy of the tsarist who had no means of transportation to r e g i in c convey them to the hospitals often located at a distance of twenty, thirty, or even The achievements of the USSR in the forty kilometres. The investigations of care of public health arc usually considered the “ Zemstvo” or country doctors showed in comparison with the care given to pub­ that even a distance of ten kilometres very lic health in tsarist Russia just prior to greatly reduced the attendance of the po­ the World War. This is not quite just, for pulation of a given district. Soviet medicine has sprung up under condi­ Medical attention for workers in towns tions immeasurably worse than the wretch­ was in an embryonic state. The social in­ ed slate of public health under tsarism. surance law was passed in 1912, only five It was born in a country exhausted by four years before the Revolution. The hospit­ years of sanguinary imperialist carnage, al budgets provided miserly sums for panting in the clutches of post-war dis­ medical service of the insured. order, famine and fatigue. Epidemics, Only in large industrial centres such breaking out as a result of all this, rolled as Moscow, Leningrad and Kharkov, exist­ like waves over the country. The interven­ ed a few workers’ insurance medical cen­ tion, blockade, and Civil War required tres. To this may be added primitive little new sacrifices from the toilers who had dispensaries set-up by proprietors to con­ overthrown the yoke of tsarist oppression form with the requirements of the law. and the power of capitalists and landlords. Institutions of a prophylactic character — What then were the means at the dis­ sanatoriums, special hygiene centres, hos­ posal of Soviet government for fighting pitals for tuberculosis, for venereal disea­ epidemics, for developing the work of ses and narcotism, maternity institu­ public health? The material basis left tions and nurseries, — all these, both from tsarism was insignificant and was in town and country, were cither non­ as much destroyed by war as any other existent or very fe\v. branch of industry or national economy. Such was the material basis with which In order to appreciate the accomplish­ the Soviet government began the recon­ ments of the Soviet Union in this field struction of medical organisation. during the past fifteen years we must review, however very briefly, the princip­ T h e C i v j 1 W a r peri o d al historical stages of its development. The care of public health under tsarism The gigantic tasks which confronted the lay in the hands of more than twenty dif­ working class of Soviet Russia from the ferent departments, the work of which was first days when it took power, required directed by the class interests of the bour­ immediate measures against epidemics, geois and landlord regime. A police bu­ measures for public health and for the reaucracy dominated everyone of these strengthening of fighting capacity of the departments. Red Army. In the village there was a very insigni­ The People’s Commissariat for Public ficant network of medical centres organ­ Health was organised in July 1918, after ised by the “ Zemstvos” , or elective district a short preparatory period, which lasted councils of pre-revolutionary Russia. With but a few months. Its work was carried the impassable Russian roads and with the out under extremely difficult conditions. lack of means of transportation this sys­ Having inscribed on its banners: “ The tem was hardly accessible to the widely care of the health of the toilers is in their scattered peasant masses, and furthermore, own hands” , the Commissariat for Public it was quite unobtainable for the poor, Health started its organisation with an M. Gorky and J. Stalin

IFnri Barbusse arriving to Moscow. From lrfi sident of VOKS H. Lorner, H. Barbuss *, Hca« of VOKS L. Cherniavsky A kitchen-factory in Moscow

/ Xew public librar u Voznes sc ’•*

Home for painters in Moscow

Radio-station of thejlC er Palace of Culture in Sormovo Trade T’nionJíH Pushkin square in Moscow

in lvanovo- sk

Workers sell lenient in I ami na'ract

Central Council of p n Moscow “ liotel of lhr' Soviets" in Xovosihi* Woman shock brigadT of a coll c'ivc Farm (Central Black-Earlh region) extensive hygienic campaign among the 1913 1927 broadest masses of workers, peasants and Venereal disease dis­ pensaries .... 159 Red Army men. In factories, dwellings Venereal disease sta­ and in the Red Army they created “ health tions ...... 144- nuclei” , sanitary commissions, workers’ Consultations for commissions for promoting cleanliness, children in towns 6 461- Consultations for etc. “ Cleanliness weeks” , “ Rathhouse children in villa­ weeks” , “ Water-supply weeks” were organ­ ges ...... 7 268- ised throughout the country. Lying in homes Instruction on matters of hygiene were (number of beds) 5,280 12,910 Hospitals excluding furthered on a large scale. In the mean military (number time, even in that early period, the of b e d s)...... 146,381 2C6.414- foundation was being laid for a new net­ .Stations for emer­ work of institutions unknown to old Rus­ gency help . . . 4 992 First-aid stations . a lew 1,064 sia: public dispensaries, infant consult­ Stations for home ations, free nurseries and other prophylactic attendance .... 16 457- agencies. Phy s i o - them peut ic institutions . 4 S42 T h e restoration p c r i o d a n d Vilb ge medical sta­ the beginning of the recon­ tions ...... 2,732 4,3973 struction era Here we must poi lit out that the care With the victorious termination of the of public health in the Soviet Union is Civil War and the strengthening of the a function of the new social-economic Soviet government, a new period began and political relations; it is a result of in the field of public health. The .epidemics the entire socialist construction. Therefore, were greatly reduced at once; the death- in order to understand the work of these rate decreased, and the working class be­ health organisations, it is necessary to gan to heal their battle wounds and to Lake into consideration those social upheav­ direct their energies to the economic front. als in the Soviet Union which play a decis­ Upon the new economic basis, which ive role in improving of sanitary conditions. became more firm as time ment on, the In this sense Soviet labour legislation care of public health rapidly developed: is of the utmost importance: the full non- it expanded qualitatively establishing more contributary insurance for every hired indelibly the predominant prophylactic ten­ worker; the introduction of the eight-hour dencies through new methods of work and working day, and later of the seven-hour modern types of institutions. working day; the graning of two-week The Party programme formulated this holidays with full pay; women receiving four problem of public health in following: months’ holidays during child birth (two “ As a foundation of its activity in the field months before and two months after); the of public health the Party holds the de­ abolition of child-labour and the limiting velopment of wide sanitary and prophylactic of working hours for youths, etc. The socio­ measures paramount.” cultural construction has a no less favour­ The following table gives an idea of able influence on the health of the toiling the wonderful growth of public health masses: new houses, the development of work during this period: communal kitchens, the growth of cultural institutions; the organisation of rest for G r o w t h of th e system of p u b l i c health institutions in the the toilers, and a widespread “ physical culture” movement. In the plan of so­ R S F S R cialist construction, the public health or­ 1913 1927 ganisations occupy a particularly important Bacteriological in place. st itutions .... 12 1 37 -icteriolcgic >1 la­ boratories . . . . 29 1 189 Victories of l h c F i v c-Y e a r .Jilarin stations . . - 102 P 1 a u Pasteur stations . . 19 1 50 Tuberculosis dispen­ We are unable to present in this article saries ...... a ftw 243 a resume, however brief, of the achievements 1 Figures taken in 1914. of the first Five-Year Plan in the field 2 ,> „ „ 1925. of economic progress in relation to the :t » » » 1926/27. workers and peasants of the Soviet Union.

-5 The rapid rate of national industrialisation: feetious diseases shall be entirely eliminated the fulfilment of the Plan in four, three, while others shall be sharply lessened. and even in two-and-a-half years in the most important branches of national ceo- Nu m her of i n oculalions e s t i m- a t e d for t h e y c a r 1932 nomy; the speedy growth of the collectiv­ isation of the village and the liquidation Vaccinations .... . 52,001,009 and suppression of the kulaks as a elass on For enteric fever . . . . . 8,159,000 the basis of all-round collectivisation: For scarlet f e v e r ...... 2.426,000 For d ip th eria...... 2,628,000 the introduction of the five-day week and the seven-hour day in industry; the im­ The participation of large masses of work­ provement of the material and housing ers in the task of public health has recently conditions of the workers (the liquidation taken the form of social sanitary inspection. of unemployment, the increased number Workers who take this job do not leave of employed persons within the family, their jobs in the factories. This form of housing, communal kitchens and eultural social work is known as “ socialistic plural­ accommodations etc.)— such is the found­ ity of offices” , that is holding two or more ation influencing tremendously the active positions. According to the very insufficient efforts to improve the sanitary conditions figures for the 1st of May, 1932, there of the population. We have also achieved existed more than 9,000 such “ social sa­ a further lessening of diseases and mortality, nitary inspectors” . the disappearance of prostitution, a decided diminishing of the so-called “ social disea­ a 1 s l a l i s l i c ses”—tuberculosis, venereal diseases etc. ccCM CO On the background of the economic, i>T CMro <*M C i successes of the Soviet Union, which have o> i932 [931 already earned world-wide recognition and Beds: arc of tremendous historical significance, a) in towns 111,095 142,845 139,594 162,366 outstanding in the history of mankind, b) in villa­ let us consider the achievements of Soviet ges . . . 43,599 63,440 67,908 82,009 public health work during the first Five- From this table we see that the estimates Year period l: of the Five-Year Plan with regard to hospital Sanitary organisations accommodations have already been ful­ filled during the fourth year. In reality 00 CO ÇN CO CM hospital facilities for workers have been Ol CNCO o>CO considerably improved due to a more ra­ CT> o> 1 tional use of the number of available beds. Beds for con­ The increase in the number of beds is con­ tagious di­ siderably greater in villages than in towns. seases . . 19.500 32,000 32.650 40,554 Laboratories . 189 360 357 575 N o n - h o s p i t a 1 forms of m e d i e a 1 Disinfection attention in town and in i n d u s- stations . . 13 44 49 68 trial centres Disinfection points . . . 56 184 243 592 Sanitation do­ ctors .... 1,289 1,954 1,989 3,846 Number of doe The speedy development of medical organ­ tors’ reeep isations is stipulated by the task placed lions . . . 9,823 12,943 19,885 22,610 Medical sta­ before these organisations by the Soviet tions . . . 1,120 2,280 1,775 3,980 government: in the near future many :n- Doctors for home help . 1,330 2,080 2,801 3,582 1 In all tables given below we give data the RSFSR: for 1927/28 — figures of Non-hospital forms of assistance in towns actual achievements; for 1932/33 — the figu­ and industrial centres have more than res given by the Plan; for 1931— prelimin­ ary figures of fulfilment, and for 1932 — fulfilled the quota called for by the Plan. estimated figures. The Five-Year Plan is We must particularly point out the rapid calculated according to the budget year, rate of increase of medical points in factories. from October to October. The figures of The care of workers, the decrease of forced actual completion relate to the calendar year beginning from January, which is now absences, the decrease of the sick list, and used for all planning and calculations. of the industrial accidents, are attained

26 hrough tile active participation of the Medical a c e o in m o d a l i o n vorkers themselves in striving for the im- rural districts irovcment of the working eonditions, also hrough a rationalisation of industrial fC iroccsseS and the development of sanitary- CT> cultural endeavours. Number of ho­ Together with emergency assistance, the spital beds nedical points are carrying an enormous in villages . 43,590 63,440 67,908 82.009 Number of me­ imount of prophylaetical work in factories. dical dist­ \ccording to the data of insurance statistics ricts .... 4,667 6,012 7,125 7,962 he decrease in the sick rate of workers can The greatest tempo, quite exceptional le shown by the following figures: and unprecedented not only in the practical work of the public health organisations, 1" h e n u in her of days of illness but also in the practical work of a wider for 100 insured workers range of Soviet institutions, are shown by the growth of the number of beds in 1925/26 ...... 891 permanent and seasonal creches. 1929 ...... 875 1930 ...... 838 T h e creche system (in I li o u s a n (I s 1931 ...... 812 of beds) 1932 730 — eg The following table indicates the decrease CT>CO O

G r i) w l h of beds in villages (taking 1927 as 100) 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 Number of beds in perma­ nent c r e c h e s...... 100.0 88.8 144.4 972.7 3,803.7 12,200 Number of beds in seasonal creches...... 100.0 368.3 582.3 1,533.3 3,100.0 11,686.0

youth care doctors lor these years are respectively: have been greatly developed. The number 1,730, 2,16(5 and 3,223. of beds for children has increased from Health resorts before the Revolution 5,800 in 1927 '28 to 13,315 in 1931, and were absolutely inaccessible lo workers will reach 23,510 in 1932. The number of and peasants,* but now the Soviet govern-

-°7 meat lias organised a wide network of low level of culture, are now being raised health resorts for the workers. The number with regard to medical service to the average of patients and the number of beds in the figures of some of the principal republics health resort sauatoriums are steadily in­ and perhaps even to surpass these. creasing with caeli year. The following shows the relative growth of the medical system in the national re­ Health resort statistics publics as compared to the regions in the Number of beds in sanatoriums, excluding RSFSR: those of Social insurance and other depart­ ments Ol CN OiCO T o W II S CN CO CO CO Oï Cï C> CT> Hospital beds: a) in districts and Of all-Union regions ( f the importance . 11,277 13,500 18,250 21,431 RSFSR ...... 100 120.1 143.7 Of local im­ 1>) in national repub­ portance . . 8,887 10,336 14.763 17,580 lics ...... 100 143.6 174.4 The supply ol medicine has been improved Doctors’ receptions: quantitatively as well as qualitatively. a) in districts and There has been a complete revision of phar­ rrgions of the macy methods on a new technical basis. RSFSR ...... 100 200.1 212.1 Many pharmaceutical factories have been b) in national repub­ lics ...... 223.8 270.0 opened in principal cities. The general 100 growth of this line of activity reveals Medical stations: the following figures: 1027/28 — 1,0-1-1; a) in districts and 1031 — 3,047; 1032 — 3,881. regions

2S cultural development of the previously the grants from industries should be 17 oppressed nationalities. million rubles in 1932 33, when in reality Of extremely far reaching development they will be 41.4 million rubles in 1932. is the method of scientific research institutes The Plan provides no appropriations from in the field of public health. The Commis­ funds of State or collective farms, but al­ sariat for Public Health directly controls ready in 1932 11.7 million rubles have .‘15 scientific institutes covering every phase been allotted from the State farm balance, of medical research. 10fi more work under and 15.3 million from the cultural funds the supervision of local public health de­ of collective farms. partments. The per capital average expenditures In conclusion, let us consider the budget of public health departments has increased of the public health organisations. This by three times during the years of the first fund consists of State grants, appropriations Five-Year Plan. from local budgets, social insurance funds, The second Five-Year Plan will bring to and other sums including grants from indu­ the Soviet Union new victories and achieve­ stries. In connection with the rapid growth ments and will raise even further the of the working population, the social in­ level of the workers and of the peasant surance funds in the budgets of the public masses. Public health service will be con­ health centres have already in 1932 surpassed fronted by even more difficult tasks in the funds planned by three and a halftimes. the future that will he fulfilled with Thus, according to the Five-Year Plan merit.

HOUSING ANI) 3IUNICIPAL CONSTRUCTION - IN THE USSR FOR THE LAST FIFTEEN YEARS By S. IT a r t

The living conditions of the working Duma” of 1902 the conditions of life in masses in pre-revolutionary Russia deprived houses where cots were let, could not millions of workers of any opportunity conceal the terrible state in which the work­ to lead a cultured or even simple humane ers were compelled to live, tie wrote: existence. “ In spite of unattractive conditions of According to the 1912 census, 327,000 life of the cot-tenants, especially those men were living in 24,500 apartments who occupy only half a cot, there exists of a dormitory type on the outskirts of a group of persons who arc in even worse Moscow. This figure represents 20% of conditions. That are those who, though the total population of the city at that time. they pay rent, have no fixed place to live, In St. Petersburg in 1912 the number but nightly occupy any place, at the dicta­ of so-called “ corner-lodgers” occupying tes of the landlord: today on the oven, to­ only a part in the room exceeded 150,000, morrow in a vacant single col, then on the while 03,000 persons were living in cellars. floor in the corridor, or sharing a cot with V ¡2 to 2 square metres — such used to be some one. Such boarders usually receive the average space occupied per person no bed linen, no change of underwear or in the cellars of llie capital. other garments, and sleep in their clothes.” However, even these figures fade into Workers’ dwellings were usually wretch­ insignificance when compared with those edly dirty. They lacked light, water and illustrating the housing conditions of the sewerage. The unpaved streets of the workers in the Donbass coal district. workers' suburbs were bare of lighting. There is data which show that in a single Such were the conditions under which district of Donets Basin - Bakhmul (now (lie workers had to live in tsarist Russia. Artyomovsk) - out of 1,033 workers’ It was only the October Revolution that houses 30% were without a ceiling and transformed municipal economy from a 70% had earthen floors. 40%of the work­ means of suppl ineiitarv exploitation of the ers dwellings in this districts consisted of workers into an organisation catering to dilapidated mud lulls. their material and cultural needs. liven the bourgeois statistician, Werner, During the years of imperialist war, describing in llie “ News of the Moscow intervention and civil war, the municipal

29 economy of landlord-bourgeois Russia, lopment of heavy industry, producing' which had always been very backward the means of production. ! even apart from these factors, sank into During the first years of the Five-Yean still lower depths. Plan, when industry was in the process' The losses sustained by the municipal ( f thorough reconstruction, municipal eco­ economy (luring these years are estimated nomy was only just being restored. i at over 2 milliard rubles 20% of the total Municipal, and in particular housing number of dwelling houses were destroyed construction entered its real building pe-i or made entirely unfit for habitation. riod only in 1931. In the first Fivc-Yeai In 1910 the housing fund of Moscow Plan special attention was paid to the de­ reached about 14 million square metres; velopment of housing construction. Ac­ in 1924 it was only 9.8 million. A decrease cording to Five-Year Plan estimates, the by over 30%. Similar losses were incurred expenditure on housing construction in in the principal cities of Ukraine — Odessa. the socialised sector of the national economy Kiev, etc. of the country was fixed at 4 milliard For almost seven years from the beginning rubles. However, already, in the first three of the imperialist war to the end of the years of that period about 2 milliard were civil war, no new houses were built in any invested, and so the proposed sum of in­ of the towns of the Soviet Union. vestment has been more Ilian fulfilled. However, even after the civil war, and Taking into consideration the control fi­ intervention for some years the country gures of investments for 1932, w e find was unable to start the restoration of its that during the four years of the Plan municipal economy. 3,876 million rubles are being invested The Soviet government had first of all in housing construction, i. e. the Five- to restore its industries and agriculture Year Plan is being almost entirely ful­ in order to build thereon the socialist recon­ filled (96%) in four years. struction of the entire national economy. In order to illustrate the increase in L. Kaganovich, in his speech at the expenditure on housing construction during plenum of the Central Committee of the the first Five-Year Period, it is necessary All-Union Communist Party in June, 1931, to compare the above facts with the figures quoted a few instances which show clearly illustrating the expenditure on housing what the October Revolution has done construction during the year preceding to improve the housing conditions of the the Five-Year Plan. workers: In 1923 only 136 million rubles were “ Here is a case which was investigated invested in new constructions, for restor­ by us. Mikhail Yakovlevich Bubentsov, ation and reorganisation, for current and a carpenter and shock-worker of the “Geo- capital repairs to dwelling houses. In the physica” works, age 36; formerly he used next year— 1924 — the expenditure reached to shift from cellar to cellar. Since 1920 he 280 million rubles; in 1925 — 423 million, has, settled down in an aristocratic house and in 1926 — 520 million rubles. in Khlebny pereulok. Before the Revolu­ During all these years 5 million square tion this house was inhabited by a retired metres of living space had been built and general — Vassiliev, the British Consul repaired, while during the first three Lockhart, a mining engineer Penin and years of the Five-Year Plan 16.2 million other capitalists and idle rich. Now it square metres of living space has been is wholly inhabited by workers.” newly built. And in 1932 alone a similar Statistical data show that in Moscow spaceage, i. e. 16.1 million square metres, alone, during the first years after the Re­ will be constructed. volution, more than half a million workers The main item of expenditure is the moved from working class quarters and building of new houses in the principal suburbs, from cots and miserable rooms, working class areas, located in the regions into well-appointed houses which had of the key-industries — the Ural-Kuznetsk formerly belonged to a handful of money­ Combined Enterprises, the Donets Basin, bags. Moscow, Leningrad, Baku, etc. Until 1926, the Soviet government had II is interesting to note that by 1932 to strain all its energies and resources to 3.9 million square metres of living space restore the ruined industries. In the sub­ will be built in the Ural-Kuznetsk Com­ sequent years the task of constructing the bined Enterprises alone, making 16% foundation of the socialist economy required more than was built in 1929 for the whole special attention particularly to the deve­ of the Soviet Union.

30 715 thousand square metres of living In 1932 three times more was spent on space was built for the workers of the coal the laying of new sewerage than in areas in 1926. In 1931 these same coal 1930. worke s received 2,379 thousand square Before the Revolution, of the cities metres of newly built housing space. which are situated in the present territory Along with tile construction of new of the USSR, only 61 were electrified: houses, there proceeds also the development now there are 393 cities electrifie 1. of the municipal economy, the founding of The working class suburbs, which for­ new cultural institutions, such as creches, merly in the evening were plunged in day-nurseries, mechanised laundries, public darkness, are now brilliantly illuminated. dining rooms, workers’ clubs, cinemas, Suffice it to glance at the figures represent­ theatres, libraries, etc. ing the expenditure for lighting and electri­ 1,108 million rubles have been invested fication during the last few years. In 1930 in the municipal economy during the first only 2.5 million rubles were spent on street three years of the Plan. The corresponding lighting, in 1931 - 5.6 million, in 1932 sum invested in 1932 will be 950 million 10.4 milliou rubles. rubles, i. e. a 120% increase over the 1931 Although baths and laundries are some­ figure. what lagging behind in comparison with The greatest sums were appropriated to other aspects of municipal construction, the municipal economy of Moscow, Lenin­ still even here there is marked pro­ grad and Nizhny-Novgorod. In these three gress. Thus, 29 million rubles were appro­ cities the increase in the sums invested in priated in 1930 for the construction of baths 1932, in comparison with 1931, is approxi­ for the whole of the Union, in 1932 the cor­ mately 355%. In Moscow 250 million rubles responding figure is 50 million. The same have been assigned for municipal economy in regard to laundries: appropriations have construction in 1932, and 150 million rubles increased from 8 million in 1930 to 27 mil­ for Leningrad. lion rubles in 1932. How are these sums expended? What im­ During the second Five-Year Plan Period provements in workers’ housing conditions it is proposed that State laundries will are we able to note on the 15th anniversary cater to not less than 50 to 60% of all the of the October Revolution? requirements of the population. In 1932 In 1911, out of 1,063 cities each with 125 new mechanised laundries and about a population of over 10 thousand, only 300 new baths will be built. 219 had a public water supply. More and more money is being invested The the existing system of water pipes each year in planting trees and shrubs mainly served the central bourgeois residence in industrial towns and in the workers’ quarters of the city; the factory, districts, the settlements. 4.5 million rubles were assign­ outskirts of the city and the working class ed under that head in 1930, and in the suburbs were without even this element­ last year of the Plan 18 million rubles is ary necessity. to be appropriated for this purpose. By 1926 283 cities of the USSR had their Prior to the Revolution, trees and public water supply and by the end of shrubs were planted only in the central 1931 this number increased to 335. In city districts. In 1931 in Moscow alone 1932 water supply will be extended in those such planting was carried out at 77 facto­ towns where it already exists while pip­ ries and works, in 218 streets, on 108 ing will be laid in 25 cities more. boulevards and squares, in the summer The consumption of water per head of and autumn of the present year (1932) population has accordingly increased very 1 million shrubs and 30 thousand trees considerably, -from 61 litres of water be­ were planted in Moscow. The correspond­ fore the Revolution to 120 litres at the ing figures for the pre-revolutionary years present time. average 20 thousand and 5 to 6 thou­ There is an equally rapid progress in sand. regard to sewerage. Because of lacking space we are unable In 1917 there were only 18 cities with here to give an account of the exceptional sewerage; in 1931 50 cities of the USSR successes achieved in the sphere of city possessed sewerage, wliille in 1932 there transportation and in the improvements will be 70. Moscow, which before the Re­ of roads, construction of heat and gas pipes, volution had only 31(i kilometres of sewerage etc. pipes, increased this length by 600 kilo­ The cities of the Soviet Union are chang­ metres during the first three years of the Plan. ing their appearance. The industrialisation of the country en­ volution the urban population has increased tails an exceptionally rapid growth of the to 25 million. urban population. In pre-revolutionary It is natural that the increase in the num­ Russia the total population in all the cities ber of town dwellers requires a corresponding of the empire amounted to 20.7 million. development in the municipal services, In 192G, by the end of the period of industrial improving the living conditions of the toilers. reconstruction, the urban population in­ 'I'llis task lias been recognised as one of creased to 2G.3 million. Now on the eve the most urgent and important in the second of the loth anniversary of the October Re­ Five-Year Plan.

public feeding in the soviet union

B y S. Gincvsk y Lenin regarded public feeding as one 13,100 enterprises are served by this of the most important necessities for pas­ system. In the last 3 years the Soviet sing from individual petty household eco­ Union has spent 200 million rubles on ca­ nomy to big collective economy. pital construction in this field. Though Public feeding has no pre-revolutionary these achievements are considerable, they history. It was newly created after October are, of course, inadequate in view of the and has now become a powerful factor in enormous increase iu the requirements raising the productivity of labour, in car­ of the toilers. The need of the day is a rying out the economic plan of the Union, gigantic development of the system of pu­ in refashioning everyday life on new so­ blic feeding. According to the plan, within cialist principles. the next two or three years the number of In the complex of measures passed by workers, office employees, and their de­ the Soviet government, — measures direct­ pendents covered by the system, will be ed towards a steady improvement in the doubled. 25,000,000 — such is the number wellbeing of the toilers, — the strengthen­ of the toilers who at that period will be ing and development of the system of pu­ served by the various institutions in the blic feeding takes a most important place. system of public feeding. Moreover, the .1. Stalin in his directives referring to plan foresees hot meals to school children the improvements in the living conditions and to children in pre-school institutions. of the toilers assigns a very important The social idea underlying this system, role to the development of public feeding. which takes care of the material and liv­ In August 1931 a decision was passed on ing conditions of the toilers, is exception­ the setting lip of a system of public feeding. ally profound. Public feeding takes a pro­ This decision lays down a definite programme minent place in this system. of reconstruction in this most important Roth as regards its idea and its structure, branch of the food industry. the Soviet system of public feeding is un­ “The decisive successes in the field of equalled anywhere else in tile world. the economic construction of the USSR, At the first stage of its development the the cultural growth of the masses and the main type of the system was a dining room attraction of members of workers families to which hot food was delivered cooked to industries, in connection with the com­ from a distributing centre. plete elimination of unemployment, sets The enterprises of the public feeding before the consumers’ co-operatives the system did not yet use comblicated machin­ task of a gradual shifting of the food supply ery, they possessed no transport of their from the forms of individual consumption own and their methods of production were to public feeding” (resolution of the Ple­ primitive. num of the Central Committee of the CPSIJ, Now, in view of the great extension of December 1931). new enterprises, the methods are changed 5 million workers, 3,880 thousand other and food is no longer brought from distri­ toilers in the cities, 3 million school child­ buting centres. ren represent the total number of consum­ Al the present time the system is based ers covered by the system of public feed­ on a factory producing semi-manufactured ing in 1931. articles and delivering them to a network

3* of dining rooms at enterprises (factories, For example in llie Northern Region where offices, etc.), thus securing the supply of last year there were only 48 enterprises warm and tasty food. of public feeding, there arc now 148. In The plan for 1932/33* foresees the con­ the Western Region the corresponding fi­ struction of not less than 250 to 300 such gures are 152 and 317, in the Central Black- factories with a network of 3,000 dining Earth region 231 and 332, in the Urals rooms at factories and works. 131 and 417. This great growth of the sys­ Great results have been achieved by the tem of public feeding of course of had its system since its reconstruction in 1931. effect on the fulfilment of the economic The most important industrial areas arc plan of the Union, on raising the product­ served by a special association attach­ ivity of labour, on improving the material ed to the People’s Commissariat for Sup­ wellbeing of the toilers, on hastening the ply of the USSR, called “ Soyuznarpit” , refashioning of everyday life. (Chief Department of public feeding). It is in the national republics that the This association was formed a year ago role of public feeding as a powerful lever and now embraces 11 trusts. Since January for collectivisation in everyday life is 1, 1932, 1,437 enterprises were added to particularly striking. Public feeding con­ Soyuznarpit, in other words, the total tributes to a rapid industrialisation of number of enterprises increased 20.4%. distant national districts and to their cul­ 9 kitchens-factorics, 427 dining rooms, tural development. 173 distributors, 701 buffets, 28 restau­ Owing to the “ reconstruction” of every­ rants and 99 cafes and tea rooms illu­ day life, woman is able to become a full strate the growth of Soyuznarpit in a very participant in socialist construction. In short period. the Tadjik republic alone, where last The number of consumers growrs corres­ year there were only 64 dining rooms, pondingly. On January 1, 1932, Soyuz­ there are now as many as 281. In the Trans­ narpit catered to 3,900,000 toilers, of caucasian Federation the number of dining which 2,248,000 were industrial workers. rooms increased three times. Public feed­ By August this number had increased to ing relieves woman from petty cares in the 4.768.000. kitchen and household, allows her to devote Soyuznarpit fulfilled its yearly plan by her time to study, so as to master the ele­ 105%. ments of culture and technique, and thereby It is possible to differentiate these total enrols as new labour in industries and figures. Thus, the number of students agriculture. served by Soyuznarpit in 1931 was 276,000, The system of public feeding takes into in 1932 it is 357,000. 636,000 school child­ account the specific interests and conditions ren were served with meals in 1931, now — of separate groups of consumers. Public 652.000. Special dietetic meals were given feeding is extended first of all to the lead­ last year to 20,000 persons, now7 to 57,000. ing enterprises and constructions. Workers Public feeding of engineers and technic­ in dangerous trades are given preference. ians wras inadequate last year. At the pre­ Every branch of economy is served in ac­ sent time special dining rooms serve meals cordance with its industrial peculiarities. to 168,0*0 engineers and technicians. We can cite as an instance the organis­ H owt are the industrial workers served? ation of public feeding in transport. In The first place is assigned to the chief de­ order to secure the efficient working of tachment of the workers in a country which transport, especially the fulfilment of the is rapidly becoming industrialised, — the traffic schedule, the leading groups of rail­ machine-huildcrs; then follow workers in way men, engine-drivers and repair workers, building trades, coal miners, workers in arc served first. ferrous metallurgy, w’orkers in chemical The increase in the network of public trades. feeding in transport — the most important The above refers only to the system of of national economy — proves that this Soyuznarpit. task has been successfully carried out. There is another important netw'ork of This year 1,460,000 transport workers are enterprises fo public feeding controlled by served by the system of public feeding, as the consumers’ co-operatives, namely “ Vse- against 1,140,000 in 1931. koopit” (the All-Union co-operative so­ Food departments have become an in­ ciety of public feeding). tegral part of the industrial enterprises. Great success was also achieved by this They assist in carrying out the industrial association. tasks. 3 a 33 At a number of giant works of socialist genuinely industrial enterprise of public construction, big kitchcns-factorics have feeding. been set up with a network of branches Thus at the • above mentioned kitchen- in departments, with hundreds of buffets factory 45,000 persons are served with spread throughout the works or construc­ meals. Apart from these, over 25,000 din­ tion sites. ners are served by the branches of the fac­ Public feeding plays an enormous part tory. A simple calculation will show’ that in raising Soviet industries and in speeding such a factory can fully serve a fairly large up the tempo of construction. city and relieve its entire population from Exceptionally interesting new forms of the kitchen smell, of pots and primuses. catering were introduced in this domain. Such a factory consumes daily 4 tons of The workers’ cafes in the departments meat, 5 tons of fish, and over 15 tons of of the Kharkov Tractor Works and the vegetables. 150 machines of various kinds Kharkov Locomotive Works, in the de­ are used in the factory. partments of the Hall-Hearing Plant, of In the evening two workers’ cafes are “ Red Proletarian” . “ Trckhgornaya Ma- open at the factory, which constitute ge­ nufaklura” (Moscow), the workers’ cafes nuine cultural centres of the district. at kilchens-factories — such arc examples The kitchen-factory at the Kharkov of the new forms of organisation for com­ Tractor Works is the largest enterprise munal feeding. It is easy to perceive that for public feeding in the whole of the this catering is of immense importance USSR. The entire equipment: electrical not only to industry but also as regards vegetable peelers, machines for stoning culture. fruit, machines for cleaning fish, etc., has The task that is being pursued is to sa­ been manufactured in the USSR. This tisfy the requirements of the toilers which giant factory works on a conveyor system. have become infinitely greater than they An enormous system of transportation were before, to enable them to live and within the factory has been established: work under decent conditions, to enjoy the noiseless autocars, etc. 2 million rubles advantages of an organised rest. have already been spent on this construc­ The level which the Soviet Union has tion. set itself to reach in this domain is so high, Such giant factories will become the main the requirements grow so rapidly, that we factors of the whole system. Today there naturally can not be satisfied with the re­ arc dozens of them, tomorrow they will sults obtained. In spite of considerable be reckoned by the hundred. successes, they will appear small in the next few years when the gigantic construc­ * tion of the second Five-Year Plan will Special forms of public feeding arc being be developed. However, every impartial set up specially for agricultural areas: observer is struck by what has been dining places in the open fields, etc. achieved so far. Newr ..cultural and everyday conditions The Belgian workers’ delegation which are being created for the toilers engaged in visited the First kitchen-factory in Moscow field w’ork. gave the following appraisal of its work: It is interesting to note also the “ volunt­ “ It was with the greatest interest that we ary” form of public feeding organisation: inspected the kitchen-factory, which, we dining rooms at the workers settlements, believe, is the best enterprise of the kind at co-operative organisations, at housing in the whole world.” co-operatives, — they all serve the same It is natural that foreigners not only purpose. appraise but try to understand the reasons Let us point finally to such forms of for the success of public feeding in the USSR. public feeding as floating dining rooms Therefore, the opinion of Professor Max for fishermen wdien they are traw’ling, etc. Seipel of Magdeburg is of special interest: The Soviet system of public feeding is “ Russians were able to establish such en­ becoming more and more industrialised. terprises only owing to new social conditions The toilers become more and more aware which further the development of new liv­ of its part in construction work and in ing conditions.” private life, its enormous importance for This is quite correct. The USSR has in the socialist reconstruction of everyday fact created a new7 type of an enormous and life.

34 Public Education

15 YEARS OF POLITICO-EDUCATIONAL WORK ------RSFSR By Cj. R 0 III a II () V

An insignificant number of libraries, fields of mass political education. N. Krup­ people’s homes and Sunday schools for adults skaya in her article “ On the Sixth Anni­ and a few “people’s universities” — such versary” wrote: “ The principal task in the was the heritage obtained from tsarism period of restoration has become the im­ by the Soviet system of mass education. buing of the entire work by a new content, After the October Revolution work among by new methods which bring it into close adults was entrusted to the special extra- contact with the requirements of today.” school Department of the People’s Commis­ The following plan of politico-education­ sariat for Education, which from the very al work wras laid down at the 10th anni­ first set itself the task of making education­ versary of the October Revolution: al work serve ideological aims and of 1. The elimination of illiteracy among developing it as widely as possible through the adult population — in villages of all the activity of the masses themselves. inhabitants under 20, in towns of all Then civil war broke out. The front re­ under 35. quired live agitational cultural activity. 2. The creation of mass elementary The number of Red Army clubs grew ra­ schools to give reading and writing in­ pidly. Propaganda leaflets and slogans were struction to all not proficient in these. distributed in hundreds of thousands. 3. The creation of mass literature: “ By Exhibitions and travelling orchestras were the 10th anniversary we must create a solid organised, the network of travelling librar­ kernel of popular literature for workers ies was developed and detachment after and peasants” . detachment of agitators and cultural work­ 4. The working out of a plan and methods ers were formed. of making books more accessible to the In cities and villages away from the mass of the readers. front went on the process of the accumul­ 5. The organisation of a big network ation of new’cultural values. Clubs, univer­ of travelling libraries. sities, libraries, reading rooms, musical, G. The transformation of reading rooms art and dramatic studios, schools, etc. into centres around which there should were founded all over the country, some be grouped schools of literacy, primary of them quite spontaneously. Agitational schools for adults and travelling schools. trains and steamers were created, which This plan advanced as one of the most at one time played a very important role. important tasks the training of a corres­ Such was the origin of the politico-educ­ ponding staff. ational institutions of all types. After the The struggle for the quality of mass termination of the civil war the centre educational work, its organic connection of growth of educational work was shifted with the current economic and political to study methods. The latter was centered tasks meant a new and decisive advance in in libraries and schools, but at the same this sphere. time this did not stop the growth of clubs, As the country became economically reading rooms, people’s homes and stronger the network of politico-educational theatres. In one of her articles N. Krup­ institutions began to steadily grow. By the skaya wrote: “ At that time (1920—21) there 10th anniversary of the October Revolu­ wTere more theatres in the Yaroslavl Pro­ tion w’c had already: 22,500 schools for vince alone, than in the whole of France.” illiterates, 527 schools for adults, 213 So­ The entire educational work was deepened viet and Party schools, 13,228 libraries, and systematised in the years 1922—1927. 14,188 reading rooms, 2,861 clubs, 1,212 If wc examine the w'ork of the congresses peoplcs’s homes and 25,525 “ red corners” . and conferences one would be instantly The politico-educational work proceeded struck by the amount of attention devoted in the following directions: an explanation lo the content and methods of work in all of all questions dealing with the interna-

3 * (ionai situation, war danger and the spread The results of the “ cultural campaigns” of military sciences, the organisation of show that during this period almost twice sanitary education, agricultural propaganda, as many people were taught to read and assistance extended by reading-room huts write as during the whole of the proceeding to libraries and other cultural institutions, period following the October Revolution. assistance to public organisations (volun­ 'Plie movement extended also to other tary societies etc.), the explanining to the kinds of mass education. Thus the propa­ broad masses of all the principal measures ganda of agriculture sciences assumed the adopted ly the Party and by the Soviet form of a mass movement of so-called government (the industrialisation of the “ agro-campaigns” . Hundreds of thousands country, socialist construction), the win­ of collective farmers entered the circles ning over of farm labourers and poor an for agricultural literacy, mastered agricul­ middle peasants to colhoz, co-operative tural technique and applied their know­ and other circles. The politico-education ledge in the actual reconstruction of their institutions play an active part in the own holdings. It is easy to grasp the im­ socio-political and economic campaigns, portance of this movement for the socialist (elections to the Soviets, sowing campaigns, reconstruction of the village. The cultura- grain collections), in organising revolu­ army is growing with extraordinary rapid tionary festivals etc. One of the main tasks itv. It consists of voluntary workers who of this work has been and still is the struggle give their free time gratis to the cause against antiquated ideas and habits, a of mass political education. struggle for new forms of life. Already Formerly only paid teachers (the so- on the 10th anniversary of the October called liquidators) were working on the Revolution very many facts in the field anti-illiteracy front. There were only a of economics and of everyday life were few thousands of them. Now, since 1929/30, proving the efficacy of the work of political a body of voluntary workers has been education. Suffice it to mention the growth formed who have taken up enthusiastically of various politico-educational circles, the the work of stamping out illiteracy, and opening of new schools, of reading rooms, who thereby are carrying out Lenin’s pre­ of people’s homes, of libraries. Ever increas­ cept: “ He who can read and write must ing masses are drawn into the activity teach one who cannot.” of the politico-educational institutions. These enthusiasts are numbered by hund­ The enormous experience gained during reds of thousands in various regions. In the first ten years after the October Revo­ the whole Union there are 4 million such lution made it possible for the politico- voluntary workers engaged in the various educational workers to tackle the tasks spheres of cultural construction. of the period of reconstruction. The indu­ Thus by the 15th anniversary an enorm­ strialisation of the country, the collecti­ ous body of individuals is fighting on visation of agriculture, made it imperative the front of cultural revolution, fighting to raise the socio-political and cultural for the spread of general and political level of the broad masses of the toilers, literacy and also for technique, culture to render them more familiar with tech­ and a new life. nique. During the period of reconstruction By the 15th anniversary of the October on the basis of the decisions of the XVtli Revolution we shall have about 40 thousand Party Congress there developed a wide move­ village reading rooms and colhoz clubs and ment embracing millions of toilers for the over 20 thousand libraries in cities and carrying through of the cultural revolu­ villages. tion, for the reconstruction of everyday The results of mass work of political life. One of the most brilliant forms of this education in national regions and republics movement was the “ cultural campaigns” are particularly striking. organised upon the initiative of the Young The Kalmuck Region, whose population Communist League, which were carried before the October Revolution numbered out on a huge scale according to plans only . 5% of literates, will on the 15th an­ worked out beforehand. The results soon niversary be well on the way towards a made themselves felt. In 1927 28 only a 100% literacy. little over a million illiterates were taught Adygea, where previous to the October to read and write, in 1928 29 this number Revolution literacy did not exceed 3 to increased to 2l 2 million and in the follow­ 4%, has now become one of the most pro­ ing years 1929/30 and 1930/31 to tens of gressive national regions which already millions (over 10 million in 1930/31 alone). by the beginning of 1932 has introduced 100% literacy. In this region, which quite luntary cultural army consisting of 4 mil­ recently was utterly uncivilised and back­ lion fighters for culture. ward, we observe the growth of a network In the Soviet Union a network of primary of schools in Ihe sovhozes and colhozes. cultural institutions (red corners) has been New libraries are being founded, the native established which extend their influence press is growing. to tens of millions of toilers. In the North, in the remote regions There have been also created centres of among the most backward nationalities socialist culture in towns, in the national there is now a written language for each regions and republics, worker’s clubs, excel­ of them, universal instruction is being lently equipped, fully enabling a worker gradually introduced for children, illiter­ to rest, and to develop culturally. acy among adults is being eliminated, In the columns of the district papers, travelling politico-educational institutions on the screens of cinemas, both stationary are being organised. These nationalities and travelling, the culture and technique are taking active part in the general con­ of socialism is now penetrating to the most struction of socialism. remote corners of the land covering one At places where there were no schools sixth of the earth. There is a mighty deve­ and no libraries, big centres of socialist lopment in the network of schools in which culture have been built, centres which millions of industrial and sovhoz workers, serve entire regions; in a number of auto­ and collective farmers without abandon­ nomous regions and republics some districts ing their employment are raising their have been fully electrified and radios in­ qualifications and becoming highly skil­ stalled, the number of radio sets is growing led workers. The number of books published very rapidly, new national theatres are is increasing by leaps and bounds. Pamphlet being built, self-activity theatres, orche­ written in popular style and classical stras, choirs, etc. are being created. At authors, scientific and socio-political liter­ the same time the network of special ature in all languages reach to the remot­ schools training the personnel of various est corners of the Soviet Union. trades from among the native collective And at the same time, as a result of farmers is being extended. this enormous cultural development, even Summing up the results achieved on the the huge circulation of newspapers and eve of the loth anniversary, it is possible books is proving inadequate. Such is the to state: the land of the Soviets is becom­ present demand for culture, such is the ing a country of all-round literacy. great thirst for learning shown by the broad The Soviet Union for the first time in masses of the toilers in the Soviet the history of mankind has created a vo­ Union.

THE SYSTEM OF WORKERS' EDUCATION By E. Linkcvich

Alongside with the factory apprentice­ and chemistry, the elemcntaries of Marxism ship schools which represent the principle and Leninism, and to better his technical means of preparing industrial workers, abilities without leaving his job. a great importance is attached to the sys­ The different parts of this whole pro­ tem of training specialists without their gramme are linked together so as to enable leaving the factory. This method has the the worker to raise systematically both his twofold purpose: cultural level and his industrial qualific­ 1) To prepare workers of varied qualific­ ation. Thus he may, beginning with the ations, to communicate to them a defi­ preparatory courses, without leaving his nite amount of polytechnical knowledge factory complete his education in the and to raise their socio-political level. most advanced technical schools and even­ 2) To raise the standard of technical tually become an engineer. qualification, and so develop the polylech- These preparatory courses are the first nical, social, and political level of the tech­ link in the workers’ factory educational nical personnel. system. They are obligatory for every fac­ This system enables the worker to study tory newcomer, whether worker or em­ his native language, mathematics, physics ployee. They initiate him into the technical,

3 37 economic, social and political life of his qualified workers and practical experts factory, and acquaint him with the tools holding medium technical posts and who and methods of production. In the classes have a general educational rating equal the worker becomes familiar with the his­ to that of the seven year-school; tory of his factory, with the role it plays 2) Highest school for training engineers in the revolutionary movement, and with and raising the theoretical qualification those problems that are placed before it of practical workers, occupying the posts by the general plan of socialist construction. of engineers. Attached to this institution In conjunction with this the courses as­ is a workers faculty for workers who re­ sist the worker in understanding the inner quire general education. life of the factory, they further his acquaint­ All the links of this factory-education­ ance with the production-financial plan, al system constitute the so-called “ edu­ the activities of shock-brigades and with cational combine” . social competition, and they teach him to Only two years have elapsed since the realise his own role in the industry, the introduction of this system of training workshop and at the workbench. specialists without their leaving the fac­ The preparatory course includes from six tory. to twently lessons. The next step in the In the work of the educational system system comprises polytechnical courses there are many difficulties. Many of the which are designed for those workers whose educational combines arc not adequately general education level is below that of­ provided with housing facilities, nor with fered by the four-year school, and for workshops, laboratories, necessary text­ those who have no industrial qualification. books or paraphanalia of vital importance. These courses arc divided into three parts: This shoptage, naturally, is reflected in the Part “A" embraces persons who can read quality and tempo of the instruction re­ and write but who have no industrial ceived. At the present time many factories qualification. Its aim is to increase their are building specially equipped houses with practical aptitudes; workshops and study rooms. Part“ B” consists of semi-literate workers That considerable progress has been made who happen to be technically qualified. is acknowledged by factory managements, It liquidates the semi-illiteracy (to pro­ by the workers themselves and the general vide training equal to that of the four- public. year elementary school) and at the same The phenomenal growth of the student- time furthers the industrial qualification. body in all of the schools for workers may Part “ C” is for qualified workers who serve as sound proof that the method is are semi-literate. It aims to abolish semi­ successful. Thus in the school-year 1930/31 illiteracy (raise the cultural level). the workers’ universities, schools for adults Thus the production-polytcchnical courses and schools for young workers through­ graduate a contingent of students rather out the RSFSR had an enrollment of equal as to knowledge. These are work­ 101,444 students, while in 1931/32 128,000 ers of mass-qualification with training students were embraced in Ivanovsky Dis­ on a par with that of the four-year basic trict alone. In the North-Caucasian region school. 118,000 students took advantage of the The next educational link built on the new system, and in the city of Moscow, foundation of the workers’ knowledge excluding the outlaying districts, 120,000 acquired from the industrial-polytechnical were entered. In the Lenin District of Mos­ courses, is the labour polytechnic school cow the system of workers’ education in­ and analogous to this the school for work­ cludes 25% of the workers. The Molotov ing youth, the latter organised where factory in Leningrad boasts 50%. there is a large number of young people. In many of the industrial centres, and These schools prepare the lower technical in factories now in the process of recon­ personnel: brigaders, workers who arc in struction, a considerable portion of the charge of repair work, assistant foremen personnel (tens of thousands of workers) and foremen. The course is from two to were trained without their leaving the fac­ two-and-one-half years and offers general tory. For example the educational combine training equal ot the seven-year school. of the Stalin motor-car factory, and “The The highest links of the system are the Hammer and Sickie factory” , “ Dynamo”, following: and many others. 1) Technician, for preparing the middle In many factories the educational system technical personnel from among highly functions on the shift system with the same number of shifts that exist in the factory they became assistants, foremen, workers proper. Thus workers of every shift are in charge of repair and effieney experts. enabled to study. Classes function 18 days Lenin said: “ We must endeavour to each month, with four academic hours make of every factory, of every power (of fifty minutes each) per day. plant — a place of education.” Most of Thanks to this educational system the our Soviet factories have already begun worker receives not only productive skill the realisation of those words. necessary for limited qualification, but During the second Five-Year Plan the also a Marxist-Leninist outlook and the­ system of preparing specialists withou oretical knowledge to further liis study. their leaving the factory will embrace Students make excellent progress in their millions of workers. factories; in the “ Dinamo” factory 80% The raising of the technical and cultural of the students have been promoted, while level of the toiling masses which facil­ at the Putilov factory out of 812 workers itates the growth of new produetional- 000 were advanced. In the textile facto­ technical intelligentsia will create ideal ries of the Ivanovsky District it was pos­ conditions for a still more powerful deve­ sible to promote many students even be­ lopment of the national economy and fore they had completed the course. Thus culture of the Soviet Union.

THE TEACHERS OF THE USSR FIFTEEN ” YEARS AFTER THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION By A. G i 1c n s o n

“The people’s teacher must be placed of the teacher, to heighten his cultural in our country on such a level as he has level, and to facilitate his responsible never attained in the present or past and and highly grateful task: “ to further w’ork, never can attain in bourgeois society. We to awaken thought, to fight against pre­ must work for it systematically, undeviat- judices, which still persist among the ingly and persistently, work on his spirit­ masses ’(Lenin). ual uplifting, and on his general training What is the total number of teachers for his truly lofty vocation” (Lenin). in the USSR? Who are these teachers? The importance of the role of a Soviet Is we take the last three years, we can teacher is due to the enormous proportions judge of the increase in the number of which the c iRural work among masses is teachers in the Soviet Union. In 1929 there assuming in the Soviet Union. If the school were 391,000 teachers, in 1930 their number is the most important factor in the cultur­ reached 479,000, and the corresponding al uplifting of the country and in its figure for 1932 was already 052,000. socialist transformation, the teacher be­ About 60% of teachers are women; the comes the principal factor in scholastic life. overwhelming majority of teachers arc The President of the Council of People s proletarians and peasants by birth. Commissaries of the RSFSR stated the Not only is there absolutely no unem­ following at the second session of the All- ployment among the teachers, but there Russian Central Executive Committee: “ The is a great shortage of them, in spite of further growth of our schools and also the a very rapid increase in their numbers. growth of our culture is largely dependent The country lacks at least 70,000 teachers. on the teacher. This we must note in order The teachers arc trained in the numerous to place the teacher in most favourable secondary and higher normal schools, at conditions.” various courses, etc. And indeed, throughout the fifteen years The following are the figures illustrating of construction in the domain of education, the increase in salaries of teachers during the teacher has always been the object of the last few years (this refers to teachers constant care on the part of the Soviet in the elementary schools only): 1928- government and of all the social organ­ 51 rubles, 1929 — 58, 1931 — 71, 1932 — isations of the USSR. From the very first 90 rubles. years of the Revolution, a number of The salaries of the teachers in secondary measures were taken to raise the authority schools increased from 100 rubles in 1928

39 to 130 rubles in 1931. The salary of a head­ provides special credits for the construc­ master is now 170 rubles. It is necessary tion of houses for teachers and confers to bear in mind, however, that the actual the same privileges on the housing co­ earnings of a teacher arc much higher, operatives of teachers as on lhe co-operat­ for teachers usually work simultaneously ives in which workers form a majority. It in several schools. Relatively few hours proposes to organise by 1933 on the south­ of work — 4 hours in the elementary ern shores of the Crimea houses of rest schools and 3 hours in the secondary and sanatoria exclusively for teachers and schools — make it possible for the teach­ provides that the teachers are to be sent ers to work in two or more schools at there on the same basis as the industrial the same time. In order to determine the workers. actual earnings, it is also necessary to take Labour legislation fully applies to the into consideration other factors affecting teachers. A number of supplementary gua­ the wellbeing of a Soviet teacher. These rantees arc laid down for them in accord­ include bonuses from a special fund, which ance with the specific nature of their work. in all amounts to 8 million rubles, the This refers to special rules governing the supplying with manufactured articles and dismissal and transfer of teachers and the food stuffs on the same basis as the indus­ rules concerning their leaves of abscnsc. trial workers, a wide use of the sanatoria Under the law of July 15, 1929, the and health resorts, both through the trade teacher may be transferred from one place ufrion of educational workers and the so­ to another only at the end of the school cial insurance and public health depart­ year. Dismissal on account of unfittedness ments, free medical service, etc. Thus the may take place only if there is a report by actual wages of a teacher are considerably a competent commission to the effect that higher than the nominal figures quoted the teacher is professionally unfit. Such above. a commission must include a specialist When mentioning the salaries of the in the particular subject of the teacher. Soviet teachers, it is necessary to bear The term “ unfittedness has been defined in mind also the law on periodical increases with the greatest precision. in wages of July 11, 1927, by virtue of The duration of leave, which usually which teachers, in respect of every 5 years coincides with the vacations, may not of service, obtain an increase amounting be less than two months on full pay, paid to from 60 to 150 rubles a year, i:i ac­ in advance, when leave is granted. The cordance with the education they received period of leave granted to pregnant school and the type of school in which they teach. mistresses is four months — two before According to a special scheme drawn up and two after childbirth. for this purpose teachers with a 20 years’ We must also dwell here on the question experience will get by 1936/37 four periodic of pensions. According to the law of April 23, increases. In other words teachers of 1931, 25 years’ work entitles a teacher 20 years’ standing will be in receipt of to a life pension. This perio 1 of 25 years very considerable increases, — 600 rubles includes not only the actual work as teach­ a year. Additional privileges have been er, but also the time spent in prison or granted to teachers working in rural dis­ in exile for political offences prior to the tricts. The law of June 10, 1930, lays October Revolution, and also the periods down that at least once in every three years when the teacher is holding an elective every teacher must be sent to special office or is ill or unemployed. Owing to courses so as to improve his qualifications. this favourable interpretation of the 25 years He is to be paid his full salary during that required for a pension, there is a very period. A certain number of beds in sana­ considerable number of pensioners. A pen­ toria and health resorts are reserved for sion in no way precludes a teacher from village teachers. They arc given free medic­ continuing his work. al aid in the nearest city. Finally they It is obvious that teachers who have obtain at the place of their service a free become incapacitated, either through vo­ apartment with light and heating. cational conditions of work, or owing to The decision of the Central Committee general causes, arc entitled to pensions of the Communist Party published on under the general laws applicable to all August 31, 1932, deals with “ the improve­ the toilers. ment of the housing conditions of teachers Such arc the main characteristics and in elementary and secondary schools and the practical working of the laws which securing them rest and cure ’. This decision for the last 15 years have governed the

4° The school-combine «at lhe new ball-bearing planl in Moscow

iddren making posters for the leischool in Moscow. Children .piId's room at the Moscow n ilway Station Red Army men at study

A red mariner at the parade status of teachers in the USSR. Apart educationalist, who, however, is free from from legislation and administrative mea­ those elements of formalism and schola­ sures calculated to improve the conditions sticism which formed the characteristic of teachers, the Soviet public organisations traits of the narrow-minded pedantic teach­ have always taken a very keen interest ers who belonged to the old pre-revolu­ in this matter. Many articles have appear­ tionary “classical ' schools. ed in the press, many pamphlets have - On the 15th Anniversary of the October been published and meetings and confer­ Revolution, the teacher, in common with ences held on the question of teachers, all the toilers of the USSR, can say with as the principal factors in introducing confidence: “Fifteen years of work in the general education, people who perform field of culture and enlightenment have their work creditably, of whom the country not been spent in vain.” An increadible may be proud. thirst for knowledge, an enormous growth The historic decisions of the Central Com­ in the network of cultural and educational mittee of the Party, dated September 5, institutions, the elimination of the remains 1931, and August 25, 1932, mark a definite of illiteracy, the final abandonment of improvement in the organisation of primary the old ways of life by many millions — and poly technical schools and indicate a such are the successes in which the teacher series of new measures for the improvement occupies the foremost place of honour.” of the status of teachers in regard to daily It would of course be an exaggeration life and rights. The decision lays stress on to say that the enormous tasks confronting the ever-increasing role of the teacher as the teachers of the USSR, have been fully a fighter for communist education of the realised. In the future they will have to new generation. And, indeed, the Soviet do a colossal work, both in the school teacher is an active citizen of the country, itself and in its social environment, and a class conscious participant in political they will also have to work as before to­ and economic campaigns, a professional wards the raising of their own level.

FIFTEEN YEARS OF STRUGGLE FOR CADRES By M. B o r d u k h 6 v

The building of a socialist economy was then put on an entirely new basis, demanded imperatively the development and went along at a speed unheard-of until of scientific and technical knowledge in then. the country. In the degree as industry Just recently — in September 1932 — progressed in the USSR there arose an ever the Central Executive Committe of the growing need for education in general, USSR passed a decree specially dealing for professioual-technical instruction, for with the qualitative preparation of train­ the training of new cadres of specialists ing cadres. and the raising of the qualification of the This decree will no doubt have the de­ workers, already engaged in industry. sired effect and ensure the complete solu­ The plan for developing the people s tion of the problem of cadres, which at the education thus became an integral and present time is the central problem of so­ organic part of the general plan of indu­ cialist construction. strialisation. Let us consider for a moment what Rut the rate, at which the new cadres had been done before the Revolution for were being prepared, was much too slow the training of scientific and technical for the actual requirements of the national workers. economy, the position becoming especially The number of technical schools in acute after the termination of the recon­ tsarist Russia was insignificant, being struction period and the passing to the strictly limited by the general state of period of construction, i. c. to the fulfil­ backwardness of the country and the weak ment of the first Five-Year Flan. development of industry. The technical 1928—1929 marked the turning point and professional schools catered lor not when a carefully thought out plan for the more than 207,000 and 125,000 students education of new technical cadres was respectively. Only a very small percentage drawn up. The work of training cadres of children, belonging to the privileged

41 classes, sons of londlords, bourgeois, of 1 lit ion there were 91 universities with the higher and middle State officials, and 125,000 students; in 1927/28 there were of the clergy were admitted to the higher 129 universities with 158,000 students. educational institutions. The network of institutions for the mass The October Revolution has brought training of cadres embraced by that time about a complete change in the sphere of ■1,954 schools catering for 418,000 stud­ professional-technical education which is ents. Rut even this rate of development did now based on strict planning and is closely not correspond in any way with the tre- linked up with the requirements of social­ menduous pace of economic construction, ist construction. Industrialisation and its the resulting difference causing a consider­ development called into life the most able disproportion between the require­ varied methods of training workers — ments of national economy on available apprentices’ brigades, factory schools, cour­ skilled labour capable of satisfying them. ses for raising the professional standard The socialist reconstruction of the coun­ of workers, evening classes of cvcrp kind. try imposed upon the whole system of Politically conscious workers, the active professional-technical education entirely participants in the socialist up-building new tasks and demands. of the country, are being trained in these In 1928, the Central Committee of the institutions. Of great and special import­ Communist Party of the Soviet Union ance are the factory schools which arc the considered the question of the complete basic channel for training skilled workers re-organisation of the universities, higher for industry. technical schools and workers’ faculties The preparation of workers of medium on to specialised branches of study, and qualification is taking place in techni- their transfer to the various People’s eums, in the universities and in the higher Commissariats and respective industrial technical schools. bodies, subject to a unified programme and Even before the end of the civil war, administration. The question of cadres at a special meeting on matters pertaining was discussed in detail at the XVItli Con­ to public education, the question of the gress of the Party and at the XVIIth Party reorganisation of the universities and the Conference. In its resolutions on the second establishment of workers’ faculties was Five-Year Plan, the XVIIth Party Con­ discussed. ference pointed out that the realisation of The workers’ faculties, attached to the the tasks for the complete technical recon­ universities, have become the basic chan­ struction of national economy demanded nel for preparing young workers and pea­ of our industrial cadres the mastery of sants for the higher educational institu­ technique, it furthermore demanded the tions. This form of preparatory work, creation of large cadres of our own technic­ which is carried on inside the university, al intelligentsia from among the workers has become extremely popular. On Septem­ and peasants, and also the raising of the ber 15, 1919, the Commissariat for Educ­ cultural standard of the broad masses of ation issued a decree ordering the .establish­ workers. ment of workers’ faculties in all univers­ In the very significant resolutions of ities and higher technical schools. the Central Committee of the Communist The re-organisation of professional-tech­ Party on primary and secondary schools, nical education in accordance with the special attention is paid to the question basic tasks of socialist construction neces­ of cadres. Of no less importance arc the sarily led to a radical re-organisation of decisions on the question of cadres con­ the educational plans, methods of instruc­ tained in a number of recent documents: tion, of the whole structure of technicum the decision of the Central Committee of and university education. the Communist Party of August 25, 1932, As a result of the reconstruction, the on educational programmes and on the number both of technical schools and of regime in elementary and secondary schools, their students has considerably increased. and the decision of the Central Executive In 1920, for instance, in the whole of the Committee of the USSR of September Soviet Union the number of technicum 19th on educational programmes and the did not exceed 585 with a total of 70,000 stu­ regime in the universities and techni- dents, whereas in 1927/28 the respective cums1. figures were 1,038 and 185,000. A consi­ derable increase is also to be noted in the 1 A special article on this question will number of universities. Prior to the Revo- be printed in an early issue of our review.

42 It is pointed out in the latter decision “ The re-organised universities” — we read that as a result of certaiu measures “ the further in the resolution — “ by trainiug training of specialists has reached the scientific cadres on a mass scale are stand­ standard required by the ever growing ing in the first ranks of the fighters for socialist economy” . In the higher technical the rebuilding of science, for the technical schools the number of students in 1929 revolution. Their work should consist in was 106,000, in 1931 — 394,000, in 1932 — deep theoretical analyses and scientific 548.000. In the technicums for the same experiments in order to find ways and years: 303,000, 855,000 and 970,000. In means for the technical reconstruction the workers’ faculties there were 229,000 of socialist industry, agriculture and the students in 1930, 325,000 in 1931, 450,000 defence of the country. The work of the in 1932. In the factory schools during universities is directly connected with, same years: 514,000, 1,099,000 and the and dependent on the training of cadres, 1.080.000. which should possess a wide and all-ein- In comparison with 1928 the number bracing scientific outlook and an university of students in the universities and higher education.” technical schools has risen more than By their re-organisation, the universities threefold, and in the technicums more have ceased to be many-faculty institutes, than fourfold. The total number of students they are no longer separated from industry, in the universities and higher technical no longer are they bereft of a unified guid­ schools in 1932 exceeds 1,500,000. ing principle. The universities have been The number of specialists in the national converted into higher educational insti­ economy of the USSR has increased to tutions for ther training of scientific re­ a very appreciable extent. In 1929 the search workers and university teachers Soviet Union counted 57,000 specialists of the highest qualification, along strictly whose professional education was fully specialised lines in a given industry. completed, and 55,000 who had not yet The basic difference between the new completed their education, while in 1932 universities and the higher technical schools there are already 216,000 and 288,000 such lies in the fact that whereas specialisation specialists respectively. The composition in the latter is founded on the study of of the students in the higher schools and a given technical branch, specialisation in the technicums has drastically changed: in the former rests on the study of the main in the industrial higher technical schools scientific problems connected with the the number of worker-students reaches essential demands of technique. Apart 70%, and in some instances even 90%. The from this, specialisation in the higher universities, higher technical schools, tech­ technical schools is chiefly obtained in nicums and workers’ faculties are attended factory shops and factory laboratories, in by many thousands of the best Party work­ the universities it is obtained, in scieutific- ers, young communists, and trade-union research laboratories. The higher technical workers. schools train technical managers and organis­ Of great importance for the training of ers of industry, the universities — research eonomic workers are the industrial acade­ workers of the highest qualification. mies and the courses for factory and works The quantitative growth of the network directors. At the present time there are of educational institutions and the increase 14 of these academies, and in addition in the number of students is naturally 8 academies are attached to the various accompanied by corresponding qualitative State departments, with a total attendance changes. of 5,955 in 1931, and 10,130 in 1932. The higher technical institutions are Worthy of mention is last year’s re­ closely linked up with industry. organisation of the State universities for the The brilliant successes of socialist con­ training of scientific and pedagogical work­ struction have led to a decisive change in ers in mathematics and natural sciences. the attitude of the large professorial circles This re-organisation, as pointed out in of specialists towards active participation the resolution of the plenum of the uni­ in the grandiose creative work of the .Soviet versity section of the State Pedagogical Union. Council, “ is directly called for by the The solution of the problem of cadres great interest towards scientific thought proceeds not only along increased attend­ caused by the general technical recon­ ances. The rapid growth of the number struction of the whole of our national eco­ of workers engaged in industry (21 mill, nomy” . in 1932 as against 18.0 mill, in 1931) has

43 called inlo life new forms for raising the The USSR is the land of such masterpieces qualifications of the workers. A real mass of contemporary technique as Dncprostroy, movement for mastering technique is de­ KusncLskstroy, Magnitostrov and other veloping. In this connection great stress giants of socialist construction. The USSR must be laid on the so-called “ workers’ is the land which is creating a “ .Magnilo- educationll combines” , where students arc strov of Art” , the land which is striving trained without being taken away from toward the unlimited development of all industry. These schools arc organised in the spheres of human creative endeavour. large factories and works and provide all 13y educating new cadres, the Soviet phases of education, from the elementary Union is educating new men and women, to special departments which train highly the conscious builders of a classless society. qualified specialists in definite branches of The type of a Soviet specialist is determin­ industry. ed not only by the knowledge lie has acquired, In a number of large factories al­ but also by his active participation in the most all the workers arc engaged in some social and political life of the country, by form or other of study, mostly of a technical the application in his work of the new nature. socialist forms of labour (socialist competi­ 7 million industrial workers and 10 mil­ tion, shock brigades). lion collective farmers arc studying tech­ - Work imbued with ideas, planning, nique in the USSR, be it in schools, cor­ width and clearness of perspective, character­ respondence courses, special circles, etc. ises the activities of the Soviet specialists, A powerful incentive to this movement not only of the younger ones, but also of has been given by J. Stalin at the first those, who belong to the older generation. All-Union conference of industrial workers, Such then are the conditions in which when he said: “ The bolsheviks must master new cadres are formed in the Soviet Union. technique” . This slogan addressed by J. Sta­ The history of the struggle for socialism lin to the vanguard of the toiling masses during the last 15 years has attracted the has been enthusiastically taken up in the deep interest of the whole world. And the USSR by many millions of workers, col­ pages of that history, relating to the struggle lective farmers, young people, the new for cadres, arc, undoubtedly, among the Soviet intelligentsia. most interesting and instructive. Masses Building Socialist Culture

AUTHORS FR03I THE FACTORY BENCH By P. Bankov

One of the most striking indications ing masses of the USSR, to master technique of the cultural growth of the working class urged the industrial workers of the USSR is the participation of the industrial workers to give more thought to technique. The in literature, a phenomenon which hitherto increase in the workers’ proposals for the has not been observed in any other country, improvement of socialist production, the and which has become possible only under greater activity of the production conferen­ conditions of Soviet life. ces at various works, the increase in the 1030 will go down in the history of pro­ workers inventions, the wide development letarian literature as a year in which, for of mass organisations for technical educ­ the first time, numerous books appeared ation were all portrayed in literature by written by authors direct from the factory these worker authors. benches. The old and skilled industrial workers This date is not accidental. The rapid are helping to train new strata. Not only development of socialist competition and do they train new workers in the process of shock-brigades was reflected likewise of work, but they sum up their experience in the sphere of literature. Socialist con­ and pass it on, through their pamphlets, to struction demanded and demands a wide thousands of workers in the Soviet Union. exchange of experience between its builders. A worker-inventor \vho is living and In a country where socialism is being built working in the Soviet Union makes no up, in which private property in the means secret of his invention. On the contrary, of production and the attendant competition after testing it at his enterprise, at the pro­ and industrial secrets have been abolished, duction conference, he hastens to pass it on the exhibition of the best examples of work to all the workers in his trade, he writes a by the greatest heroes of labour assumes book about it in order to make his achieve­ a colossal importance. ments the common property of the entire The first books by worker authors ori­ mass of workers, technicians and special­ ginated as an expression of the desire of ists. the exemplary workers to share their Cement-layer Kashkin, on the basis of experience with others, to help them to his personal experience, gives in bis book master the most rational and productive a description of the best methods of cement methods of work. work. “ This pamphlet is my first creative The foreman of the “ Dvigatel” works, effort on the front of proletarian literature. Malygin, and a moulder in the same factory In writing it I set myself the task of passing Alexandrov, have written a book on on to the workers of the Soviet Union the moulding for workers of medium qualific­ experience of the shock-workers of the ation. In the preface to his book, Maly­ Communist Department of the ‘Krasny gin writes as follows: “ With the develop­ Putilovcts* Works” .This is how the fitter ment of our industry, many more mould­ Naumov in the preface to his first book ers will be required and it will be useful “ The Heart of the mill ’ describes the mo­ for them to learn the methods of their tives which prompted him to enter the trade. I tried to expound as clearly as pos­ field of literature. A similar explanation sible, in the simple language of a worker, is given by other worker authors who arc the most essential problems of my special­ grouped around the Publishing Department ity, so important in our trade. 1 hope that of the All-Union Council of the Trade the items of information supplied by me Unions, the initiator of the appeal to will prove useful for the growing generation shock-brigaders to take up literature. of workers and will contribute to raising The task of overtaking and outstripping their qualification.'’ countries which are more progressive in These words aptly describe the tasks point of technique and economics, the which the workers, the authors of technical appeal of J. Stalin, the leader of the work- books, have set themselves.

45 The first books of worker authors serv­ The new worker writer, the new poet has ed as an impetus to a mass movement of introduced new subjects and new themes. the workers not only in the field of technic­ The freed and joyous labour which has al but also art literature. now become “ a matter of honour, of glory, Thousands of worker authors arc entering of valour, and of hcriosm” (J. Stalin), the field of Soviet literature. Their creative such is the “ leitmotif” in the works of efforts summarise the revolutionary ex­ the new writers. perience and the industrial achievements New socialist relations between indivi­ of the best workers. Their works have an duals, the newly created psychology, which enormous stirring effect on the masses. prompts people to solve the vital problems Metal workers, founders, engine-drivers, in a new way, such is the main content miners, shepherds, arc taking up the pen. of these books. There arises a new type of author hitherto This is shown even by their titles: “ Hc- unknown in the history of literature. A birth” by Alfcyev, turner of the “ Bolshe­ worker author, a shock-brigader, is above vik” works in Leningrad; “ The Fight for all an active participant in the everyday Metal” and “ Steel, Brand M” by Mikhai­ world struggle for the victories of the work­ lov, of the “ Hammer and Sickle” works ing class. Mikhailov, the author of the book in Moscow; “ We arc catching up” by Ta- ‘‘ In the Fight for Metal” , paper-layer rassevicli, worker at the Moscow Stalin at the 44 Hammer and Sickle” works; works; “ A Matter of Honour” by a locks­ Orovetsky, carpenter of the Panyutinsky mith in the combine assembly shop of the railway-carriage repair works, the author “ Sclmash” ; “ Foreman of Coal Barge of “ By Force of Example” ; Kotenko, No. 60” by Sagaidak, worker in a metal­ worker of “ Sclmash” , author of “ The Bri- lurgical works; “ Every Oil Gusher taken gader of the Hot Department” ; the poet in Battle” by Zinin, worker of the Grozny Biryukov, concrete worker of “ Sclmash- oil-ficlds, and others. stroy” ; Vodolazko, tractor-driver, author While actively taking part in their so­ of “ Meat Factories” , and thousands of cial organisation and keeping up their others are shock-workers, i. c. most active connection with industry, these new and progressive workers. They are members authors arc persistently working on the of the best brigades, they are in the front improvement of their literary productions. ranks of socialist competition, and shock Mikhailov has already published three work. All their writings are clinched with books (“ The Fight for Metal” , “ The Se­ hammer blows, every line is born of the venth Battery” and “ Steel, Brand M”), enthusiasm of free labour. of which the first named ran into three The success of the worker authors is editions, with a total circulation of 300,000. the most striking proof that in the Ryezchikov, a worker of the “ Ivauchuk” course of socialist construction boundaries factory, has published a whole collection between mental and physical work are of poems. swept away. The live incarnation of these Ihc worker authors arc gradually pas­ changes is the Soviet worker, the worker sing from small sketches and poems to author, he who after a hard day’s work big novels and long poems. It stands to rea­ at his factory begins to write a technical son that most of the shock-brigaders who book, fiction or poem. have entered the field of art literature are A worker author is not a lonely indivi­ still in the process of formation as artists. dual afraid of competition, he is above The overwhelming majority of them arc all a member of the collective. The habits beginners who must go through a long pe­ of collective work, which lie acquires at riod of training. The common defects of the works, he transfers to his literary pro­ many productions by worker-writers and ductions. None of the worker writers and poets is the addiction to standardised forms, poets dispense with the discussion of their inability to handle the material. The So­ work with their mates and fellow-members viet Publishing Houses pursue the task of the literary circle. They all read their of raising the political and literary quali­ manuscripts at general meetings of their fication of these young authors, to help mates. them master literary technique. * Many Publishing Houses have set up li­ terary consultations or bureaux of worker What do these worker authors write authors. The beginner may obtain there about? Where do they take their theme, the advice of a specialist, a trained writer their subjects? or poet, he con also obtain special litcr-

46 ature which will help him to work on a de­ poems, satire, are all mobilised in the finite theme. The literary bureaux organise struggle for the Plan, for the tempo and for various courses, seminaries, evenings, group the quality of work. consultations for authors, special station­ The large publishing houses possess their ary- and travelling exhibitions, showing own staffs of writers from among the work­ to the worker author how to draw up the ers. Thus the Publishing Department of plan of his book, how to gather material, the All-Union Council of the Trade-Unions how to work out a theme, etc . (“ Profizdat”) attracts worker authors and Literary evenings, held once in ten days, essay writers, the Association of Worker- specially for the worker authors, are of Authors of Technical Literature (“ Marat”) great importance in training the new is closely connected with the Technical authors. The reading of manuscripts in Publishing House and Red Army authors literary circles, at the meetings of the are connected with the Literary Associa­ worker editors of Publishing Houses make tion of the Red Army and Navy (“ Lo- the authors more critical and train them kaf”). to evaluate more justly their own and other In spite of its youth, the mass literary people’s production. movement has already drawn to itself The shock-brigaders who are authors several thousand writers and poets. Thus of fiction are most of them connected with more than 800 authors are connected with the Association of Soviet Authors. At all the “ Profizdat” . the important enterprises of the USSR there It is difficult to estimate the enormous exist literary circles consisting of worker number of publications put out by worker writers and poets. These circles guided by writers and poets, spread over thousands the social organisations of the factory, and of local factory papers and wall-newspapers, assisted by the Association of Authors, in the pages of the numerous magazines for organise systematic courses for the new literature, art and technics. authors, helping them to improve their Fifteen years of Soviet rule have trans­ work, to connect it with the entire cycle formed a backward country into a country of tasks of socialist construction, to enrol of powerful industry and the biggest agri­ their creative efforts for the solution of cultural production in the world. From ruin tasks confronting the given enterprise, to Magnitostroy -— such has been the path as well as the entire working class. The of socialist reconstruction in our country. creative efforts of our worker writers are From illiteracy to the Magnitostroys of indissolubly connected with the life of literature — such is the path of the cultural their respective factories: the slogans, revolution.

THE WORKERS ARE WRITING ------THE HISTORY OF THEIR FACTORIES AND WORKS By P. N o v i i a n s k y

The compilation of the “ History of ses, along with the most prominent men Factories and Works ’, which has been in politics, literature and science, also started all over the Soviet Union on the the representatives of the biggest Soviet initiative of Maxim Gorky, is regarded factories and works. as one of the most striking manifestations The appeal to the workers issued by Ma­ of the cultural revolution. Its significance xim Gorky and the Editorial Board found lies in the fact that it is being written not immediately a ready response, which shows only by scholars, writers or individual that there existed already a desire among participants ifi the various events, but by the masses to use the events familiar to the broad masses themselves. them as material for wTiting the history The compilation of that “History” as a of the revolutionary movement and of mass movement of the toilers began at the the struggle for socialism in the USSR. end of 1931, when the Central Editorial In the course of the first few months Board of the “History of Factories and editorial boards were formed at more than Works” was appointed under the editor­ a hundred big enterprises of the USSR. ship of Maxim Gorky. This board compri- They drewr to themselves writers from

47 among (he workers, contributors to the Many works practice talks with the workers factory newspapers, members oi literary and their families at home, make lists circles. Tens of thousands of old and young of old workers, collect proposals on the workers started to write the history of questions of methods of compiling the their works, of their lives, of their revolu­ history of the works. tionary struggle, of their participation in Finally, socialist competition was inau­ (he construction of socialism. gurated for the composition of the best vo­ '1'his movements is daily extending to lume on the history of the works. Entire new and most diverse enterprises — works, factories are competing, as well as the factories, power stations, mines, railways. brigades working on the "History ’ and the 'File work is assisted by historians, writers, individual workers writing their memoirs. economists, engineers, journalists, artists. Such arc the diverse forms assumed by Plans of books arc being worked out, the mass movement for the creation of enormous archives are being examined. the “ History of Factories and Works” . The workers taking part in the compil­ This has now become the concern of the ation of this “ History” converse with the whole working class and is particularly old bolsheviks, study the material in the well expressed in the letter of the Nadczh- museums, the pre-revolutionary press, etc. dinsky workers (in the Urals) addressed At the “ Hod Putilovets ' works in Leningrad, to Maxim Gorky: a society has been founded to assist the “ Today at the Xadczhdinsk works hundred compilation of the “ History". It com­ oldest workers gathered at a family evening prises three hundred of the oldest workers, organised in connection with the task of whose average period of work in industry compiling a history of our works. Our total is twenty five years. A Moscow Society age is 5,237 years and we have a total of old Putilov workers has also been found­ of 3,117 years of trade experience. Our ed; similar societies exist at other enter­ oldest member is 80: thirty six arc over 00. prises (the Moscow “Trekhgornaya Manu- Many of us came here to the Northern faktura” , the Izliora Works, etc.). At the Urals at the end of last century, when the Lenin Works in Leningrad, a cell of the place occupied now’ by the works was all society of Marxain historians has been covered with woods and bogs and thou­ set up and the workers are working out in sands of men lived in huts dug in the earth, a seminar the material referring to the w’lien thousands of them died of scurvy, various periods in the history of their various epidemics, and underfeeding. The works. greater part of our lives w’crc spent under At a large number of enterprises (the conditions of capitalist oppression, of humi­ Dzerzhinsky works in the Ukraine, the liation of human dignity, of monstrous Liubertsy and Izliora works, the “Trekhgor­ exploitation. Many of us fought, rifle in naya Manufaktura ' in Moscow’ and others) hand, in the field of revolutionary battles. an exhibition of historical documents has We remember our comrades, killed in been organised, as well as consultations the struggle, tortured to death in llie on questions of the history of the labour torture chambers of the tsar and Kolchak. movement, the Communist Party and of We arc happy that many of those gathered the given wrorks. Mass excursions are being here to-night continue to work at the mill, organised to those places where militant holding the most important posts at the gatherings of workers took place in the blast furnaces, open hearth furnaces, and pre-October period (“Electrozavod’ ,“Trekh­ rolling benches, at a time when these gornaya Manufaktura” ). An historical sec­ aggregates work for socialism, for a happy tion was founded at the Cabinet of Party future of mankind... At the present time Work in the “ Hammer and Sickle ' factory we are all of us working together on the in Kharkov. At the Moscow’ “Hammer and compilation of the history of our w’orks. Sickle” a special “Victorina” 1 was organ­ We are all of us taking active part in this ised. A collection of diaries, letters and w’ork, pensioners as well as members of photos referring to the history of the works the Young Communist League. Let the and of the labour movement, to the everyday new’ generations of the working class know life of the workers etc., was arranged. how the working class has growns ia size and strength, liow’ the Ilolshcvik Parly 1 “Victorina" is a game in which the was growing, how the edifice of capitalism partcipants have to reply to a series

48 to the appeal to write the history of the'r history of tlie works, has announced a works. Thus 220 of the oldest workers campaign for overfulfilment of the pro­ of the Moscow “Hammer and Sickle ’ fac­ duction-financial plan. tory took an active part in gathering recol­ An important part is played by the meet­ lections of 1905; 300 old workers of the ings of the workers dealing with the his­ “ Red Putilovetz ’ are working on lhe 2nd vo­ tory of the works. These meetings take lume of the history of their works. Along place under the sign of the assimilation by with old men, young workers and above the younger generation of bolshevik tra­ all Young Communists are enthusiastic­ ditions and the revolutionary experience ally participating in this work. of the old workers. The task of writing the “ History of Already at the present time reminiscences Factories and Works ’ has thus become of the workers have been put down in writ­ a method of study which trains the new ing and the historical material has been generation of workers-intellectuals, the fu­ collected and classified. This means that ture sociologists, writers, historians. the period of organisation is over, and that “The ‘History of Works’ gives a poli­ the creative work oil books has begun. tical education to new strata of the working The following manuscripts have already class ' (M. Gorky). been finished, and sent to the Central Edi­ “The History of Works” is not a dull torial Board: the history of the Lenin (Neva) academic chronicle of events, treated inde­ machine building works (about 200,000 pendently of the tasks of socialist con­ words); the history of the Moscow-Kazan struction and of contemporary life. The railway (about 200,000 words); the history creation of this “ History mobilises the of the Kolomna works in 1905 (about masses for a further struggle for socialism, 100,000 words); the second volume of the serving “ the cause of the development of history of the “ Red Putilovets ’ works, the revolutionary class-consciousness of the under the general heading “ Putilovets in proletariat, the cause of helping the masses three revolutions ’ (200,000 words); the to assimilate the ideas of Marx and Lenin history of the Volodarsky sewing factory (M. Gorky). in Leningrad (40,000 words). Moreover, The masses of the workers have found material lias been gathered for separate concrete forms of work linking up their chapters, and some of them have already participation in the writing of the “ History ’ been written on the history of the Moscow with the industrial and cultural life of “ Hammer and Sickle” factory; of the the works. Thus the history of the Moscow “Tf ekhgornaya Manufaktura : of the Izhora Tool factory is written under the slogan works: of “ Krasny T eugolnik (The Red of mastering technique. “ Our principal Triangle): of the Xadczhdinsk works in the aim is to show how the bolsheviks master Urals; of the Moscow tool works; of the technique.’ With this purpose in view “ Skorokhod ’ factory; of the Kharkov “ Ham­ social evenings are organised at the works mer and Sickle” works: of the Kharkov in order to acquaint the young workers locomotive building works: of Stalingrad with the industrial methods of the old tractor works ; and also a collection of evenings devoted to the development of articles on the history of the Lena goldfields. technique at the works in the past and at The first history of the series — the the present time. At the Trekhgornaya history of the Lenin (Neva) machine build­ Manufaktura the general meetings of ing works, will be printed on the 15th the workers investigated the material of the Anniversary of the October Revolution. archives and other material describing the The present progress of work of the role of labour discipline in the factory Editorial Board allows us to expect that at various historical periods — this will three more volumes will appear in the near help the new workers, unacquainted with future; the history of the Moscow Kazan the conditions of the pre-revolutionary railway, of the Stalingrad tractor works, factory regime, to grasp the importance, and the Volodarsky sewing factory. from the point of view of class, of labour What will the history of each individual discipline at a socialist enterprise, in a enterprise look like? The resolution of country where work has become a “ matter the Central Editorial Board states the fol­ of honour ’. lowing on this score: The main idea underlying the history “The gist of the programme must be a of the Moscow “ Electrozavod” is “ the comparison and a concrete juxtaposition factory as the initiator '. The Zinc Works of the two systems- the capitalist and in Rostov-on-Don, in connection with the tlie socialist.”

4 a 49 The fundamental themes of the history elimination of lhe conlrasts between phy­ of each works are the social-economic and sical and brain work, new forms of every­ the industrial-technical description of the day and family life, new forms of social works: the history of the labour and revo­ relations, the physical culture movement, lutionary movement at the works and the elimination of illiteracy, the linking the history of the Rolshevik Party; the up of factories and schools. questions of culture and of daily-life con­ The “ Hist ry will describe the organ­ ditions. isation and the reconstruction of the works The section referring to the last named on new socialist principles, new forms of question must show up those conditions administration and control, workers’ in­ in which the factory workers were forced ventions, the growth of the communist to live before the October Revolution and forms of work (shock-brigades, socialist also the life and customs of their masters — competition), the heroes of labour, the the capitalists. participation of the masses in planning. In the post-Octobcr history of the works, The abundant and colou fill material there will be a detailed description of makes it possible to render the narrative the cultural revolution, of the growth of the of the “ H.story ' both exhaustive in point working class, of the creation of the work­ of substance and accomplished in point ers’ intelligentsia in the course of the of literary style.

HOW THE HISTOKY OF CIVIL WAR IS «KING WRITTEN Ry I. D a n i 1 o v

The Civil War through which the Soviet Kolchak; Denikin; the fight for Petrograd Union went in the years 1917—1922 is a great and the intervention in the North; war on period in the history of the heroic defence the western frontiers; Wrangel; Civil War of the conquests of October from foreign in Transcaucasus; Civil War in Central and domestic foes. It settled the historic Asia; Civil War in the Far Fast; Anti- destinies of the country. The working class Soviet uprisings and mutinies towards the and all the toilers of the Soviet Union end of the Civil War; Intervention and its acquired in the Civil War enormous po­ international importance; the Party in litical, strategical and operative experience. the Civil War. The study of the Civil War, its investig­ The above mentioned 1G main volumes ation from the point of view of science of the “ History” will give a comprehensive, and art, the summing up of its experience, a strictly scholarly and consistent exposi­ and the transmission of the latter to new tion and description of the armed struggle generations of the toilers of the USSR is against the background of economic and therefore of extremely great importance. political events. The foremost historians The publication of the “ History of the and economists will work oil these volumes. Civil War” which was undertaken simul­ Though the exposition will be strictly taneously with the “ History of Factories scientific, these volumes will be written in and Works” and likewise on the initiative popular style intelligible to the broadest of Maxim Gorky — is attempting to solve masses of readers. this problem. In addition to the basic volumes the edi­ 'The “ History” covers all the most im­ tors will publish a scries under the general portant events of Civil War from the Feb­ title “ Collections of material on the history ruary Revolution 1917 down to the suppres­ of Civil War”. The collections will con­ sion of the last uprisings against the Soviet sist of documents and manuscripts by the government in 1922. The plan of public­ immediate participants in the Civil War ation published in the periodical press and (diaries, memoirs, chronicles, sketches etc.) in a separate pamphlet shows liow fully which in very large numbers were delivered and thoroughly the events will be covered. to the editors by former Red Guards, by It embraces the following volumes: Octo­ guerilla fighters, Red Army men, command­ ber; the first stage of Civil War; the first ers, political functionaries of the Red Army steps of the intervention and the break-up and of the works of the best Soviet authors of the “ respite” period; the Cossack Ven­ dealing with Civil War. Just as in the basic dée; Civil War in the Ukraine and in Crimea; volumes of the “ History” the material

5 ° published in the collections will be arranged his investigation the entire literature avail­ according to periods, regions, fronts; their able — art, science, history - books and publication will proceed simultaneously periodicals on the subject of the Civil with that of the main volumes. War. For this purpose, an annotated bib­ It is proposed to supply the “ History” liographical index of Soviet and foreign with abundant illustrations, photographs literature on Civil War is being compiled (100 ordinary and 8 colored illustrations as one of the forms of preliminary work. in each volume), schedules and maps. Nol only well known capital works arc being Each volume will contain an index of carefully taken note of in the index, but subjects, names and geographical places also the various publications which are as well as a list of books dealing with the in various regions, districts, national re­ events described in the volume. Fine- publics and separate military units. Thanks grade paper and binding, clear type, con­ to this the authors of the “ History” will venient form — all this will render “ His­ be able to investigate everything contained tory” highly accomplished from a technical in literature dealing with the themes they standpoint. Moreover, the price for the are investigating. whole “ History” will be so low that it will The enormous wealth of information be within easy reach of every worker and contained in the archives both central and peasant. local will be worked out and used for the The great social importance of this pub­ purpose of wirting the “ History” , in the lication, the fact that it can easily be ac­ archives the material dealing with Civil quired by the broad masses and the enormous War is examined and revised; documents interest shown to tile “ History of Civil are being selected which are of interest War” by the whole of the Soviet public to the “ History” and a card index is being forced the editors to issue it in an enormous compiled so as to fit in with the plan. number of copies (half a million copies Copies of some of the documents of the of each of the main volumes). archives will be sent to the editors to be The publication of the “ History” evoked used for the “ History” . However, the bulk a lively response in the whole country. of the documents will be studied in the Workers, collective farmers, intellectuals archives personally by the members ol' declare their willingness to take active the staff and the authors contributing to part in the creation of the history of the the “ History” , where they will be able heroic struggle of the workers and are to use the card index and documents re­ sending in a large number of manuscripts, ferring to separate volumes and chapters. etc. Under the terms of an agreement between All these facts enable us to assert that the (ventral Archives Department and the the publication of the “ History of Civil Secretariat of the Editorial Board the War” will be an outstanding event in the archives have already started their preli­ scientific and art literature of the USSR. minary work which is now drawing to a The first volumes of the “ History” close. will appear in 1983 and it will be com­ Finally the participants in and witnesses pleted in 1937. of Civil War arc invited to take part in At the present time a large amount of the preliminary work for the “ History” . preparatory work is being completed. They write their memoirs, historical no­ 'Hie greatest event was the elaboration vels and sketches, chronicles and supply of the plan of work. This plan will not separate items of information, describing only form the foundation of all the work certain events. Oral tales of Civil War in connection with the “ History” but is are also being recorded. The editors are in itself most important as a document, likewise collecting such works as diaries, which establishes the methodological prin­ documents, photographs which are in pos­ ciples of the study of Civil War, its divi­ session of individual persons. At the pre­ sion into periods, etc. The plan thereby sent time nearly 2,000 such manuscripts assists most materially the work of investig­ have been collected. They have all been ation and education dealing with the Civil examined and have been given a prelimin­ War subjects. ary scientific historical appraisal. The The “ History” will be a work on a le­ authors of the manuscrips arc mainly red- vel with present-day Marxian-Lcninist guards, guerilla fighters, Red Army men, theoretical thought. Everyone of the nu­ commanders, political workers, 'their works merous authors in working old his theme abound with most interesting political or chapter must include in the scope of military, psychological and other lads,

4 51 characterising life in those clays. Some of individual scholar. The authors for the these, after being worked up by the editors, first three volumes have in the main been will be published separately l, many will selected. Conferences arc already being form one of the scries of literature and art held of authors working on the same vo­ magazines, the remaining sections will lume, a division of labour is planned be­ be used as material in working up the tween them, also the connection between “ 1 listory” . various themes and chapters, and the or­ |A very important task is to select a nu­ der in which they are to follow. The me­ merous and capable staff of authors. Near­ thods of individual and collective work ly every chapter and every big theme in the of the authors writing in the same volume “ History” demand investigation by an arc being drawn up. In the nearest future the authors will start work on the “ History” itself. ri The editors of the ’’History of Civil War” propose to publish by the XVth The “ History of Civil War” will be anniversary of the October Revolution one not only an outstanding production of of these mss. in book form: ’ Against Wran- science, history and art literature, but gel’ ’ — a collection of letters written by Red also a specimen of collective authorship. Army men who took part in the taking of Perekop, selected by the political chief of And indeed it is being written by the very the regiment. masses, who have made history. Press and Book in the USSR

BOOK PUBLISHING DURING ------’ THE PAST 15 YEARS By A. K o 1 b a n o v s k y

The high aims pursued by the press in In 1919 was founded the State Publish­ the Soviet Union secure an unparalleled ing House of the RSFSR (“ Gosizdat' ). It development for the publication of books. was entrusted not only with publication act­ The' Soviet Union inherited from the ivities, but also with distribution of paper, bourgeois landlord regime few printing regulating of the publishing activities of works, a poor paper industry and a book- the various Peoples Commissariats etc. production industry reduced to one half The first Director of the Gosizdat was of the pre-war level (13,144 titles in 1913). a tried revolutionary and distinguished 20,009 books published in 1913 were man of letters — V. Yorovsky (murdered registered in the “ Book Annals’', with in Lausanne in 1922, while representing 99,879,000 copies. The pre-war books were the Soviet Union in a diplomatic capacity). chauvinistic in content, full of the great- At this period the prevailing type of nation obsession; out of the 20,069 books literature was propaganda publications, only 2,154 were in languages other than leaflets, agitational posters. They struck Russian (Church-Slavonic, Arabic, Hebrew at the principal enemy, the white bandits, and others) and even these were chiefly the kulaks and the counter-revolutionaries. monarchist propaganda and reactionary. The Soviet book, along with the rifle and The victorious proletariat, from the very machine-gun, served the cause of the first days, made it its task to familiarise working class, the defence of the country the workers and peasants with literature from counter-revolution and intervention. and culture. However, the existing condi­ tions rendered it very difficult to carry T h e period of restoration out this task for which is needed consider­ The victories of the Red Army over the able publishing activity. This was the interventionists and the whitc-guardist coun­ time of economic ruin, of civil war, of ter-revolution enabled the USSR to turn intervention; the ravages of the world to peaceful economic and cultural construc­ war was still evident. In spite of the efforts tion. The rapid economic restoration of of the workers’ State the absence of metals, the country, the consistent national policy, of fuel, of paper, etc. greatly hampered the energetic measures for the raising of the development of publishing activities. the cultural level of the nations of the Printing shops had to reduce their work USSR — all this gave an impetus to the and each year turned out a smaller and exceptionally rapid tempo of development smaller number of books: in 1918— 0,052 of book publishing. books, 77.7 million copies: 1919 — 3,739 and 51.6 million; 1920 — 3,320 and 28.3 o *0 o ~ CO million 1921 — 4,130 and 28.3 million. t2o'.2 2 55 âS t/) û, a *“• However, though in the grip of civil war, o5 o g . ¿ t- ° £ ~ under the attacks of international interven­ 1 ? o O ’Z* tion, the Soviet State published the works ¿ S Oh o o > of Russian and world classics, text-books 1922 7.843 37.9 million 37.9 and literature of a popular sciencctific 1923 10 810 67 0 69 1 1924 13.126 110 o %y 110.1 character, social-political literature etc. ln25 26,320 278.0 278.2 Publishing Houses were .established for 1926 28.100 206 0 .y 206 3 Party, Soviet and co-operative publications. 1927 32,664 221.0 » 221.2 The publication of classical authors was We take for 1913 99.879,000 cop cs regularised by the decree nationalising the although this f'gure is exaggcralad if taken works of classical authors. A State institu­ for purposes of comparison with the data tion for furthering the circulation of print­ supplied by the book chambers: we should h vc deducted from it all the numerous ed works (“ Tsenlropecliat’ ) has been calendars, music and plans, vhich arc not created. registered by the Soviet ’’Book Annals” . If we bear in mind thal in 1921 only important of them being “ Tile Education­ 1,120 tilles were published, we will observe alist” (“ Rabotuik Prosveshclicnia”), which that in 0 years Ihc book publication in the issues a considerable number of school USSR has increased almost 8 limes. and pedagogical literature. The pre-war level of circulations was The Publishing House “ Down with Illi­ exceeded already in 1021. This is explain­ teracy” , attached to the society of the same ed by the fact that Soviet books are adapt­ name, is doing splendid work in the eli­ ed to the needs of the masses and do not mination of illiteracy. appeal only to the elect. However, even The Publishing House “ Land and l'a - in point of the number of titles the Soviet lory” has specialised mainly in the public­ book has rapidly exceeded the pre-war ation of fiction and is increasing its pro­ figures. In 1025 the pre-war level was sur­ duction of books both by Soviet and fo­ passed with regard to variety and from reign authors. 1020 both the circulation and the number During this period there existed also of titles have been sleadily increasing. co-operative and private publishing houses. There is a greater variety in themes and The co-operative and some of the other a greater differentiation in the demand publishing houses specialised in fiction for books on the part of the millioncd and literature of a highly technical charac­ readers. ter. As the State publishing houses grew During that period the book trade deve­ in strength and number, the private firms loped along two lines. On the one hand were gradually ousted from the book the State publishing houses (Gosizdats) of market. the individual republics rapidly developed The leading role in the RSFSR is played especially those of the RSFSR (which by Gosizdat. Gosizdat issues the bulk of represents 45—50°,, of the total number) the school books, also literature covering and of the Ukrainian Republic. On the all branches of* science, classics and con­ other hand we observe a deeper intensific­ temporary writers, fiction, books for child­ ation of work on the part of special State ren, socio-political literature etc. In 1927 publishing organisations serving special Gosizdat published 549 titles for a total branches of science, culture and economics. amount of 108.8 million rubles. Gosizdat Of these special publishing houses the fol­ is also the biggest publisher of magazines lowing arc of particular importance: the (44 magazines in 1927 for a total value State Technical Publishing House (putting of 9.f> million rubles). out books on all branches of technics and Gosizdat already at this period publish­ economics), the State Publishing House ed an enormous amount of works by the of Agricultural Literature, the Publishing most important representatives of socio­ House of the People’s Commissariat of political thought and art. Tn 1929 it pub­ Public Health (medical literature), the lished 13 million copies of Lenin’s works, Law Publishing House (books on the theory 3.8 million copies of Stalin’s works, and practice of Soviet law). “ Transpeehat” 700,000 copies of the works of Marx and (books on questions referring to all kinds Engels, etc. The works of classical authors of transport) and a number of other publish­ of fiction are published in millions of co­ ing houses. pies: Pushkin, Tolstoy (4 million copies), Of the other big publishing houses the Chekhov, Korolenko, Saltykov-Slichcdrin, following are of special importance: “ Mo- Gogol, Nckrassov, Gorky (4 million copies) skovsky Rabochv” (“ The Moscow Worker”), and the latest authors. “ Pribov” (Leningrad) and “ Proletary” Mass literature was published by Gosizdat (Ukraine). These publishing enterprises issue in an enormous number of copies (as much not only social and political literature but as 70% of the entire production including also popular books on science, fiction and text books). At the same time books on special literature for children. science by the most important Soviet and important work is also done by the world scientists and scholars were publish­ “ Young Guard” Publishing House. It puts ed with great care. A series of art mono- out text books, the current political and graphics on the problems of art was also art literature for youth, popular literature published by Gosizdat. on natural science, technics and agricul­ The transition to the New Economic ture and also books for children. Policy caused the reconstruction of the Of the public organisations engaged in entire book trade. In place of an organ book publication wc may cite the trade- of distribution (“ Tsentropechat”) commer­ union publishing departments, the most cial sections W’crc set np in the publishing

54 houses and co-operatives began to engage The growth of the book production is in book distribution. characterised by the following figures: The Soviet book trade had almost no Number of Number of foundation in the past because the old titles cepies book trade was entirely ruined in 1917. 1928 34 165 366.4 million During the war the book business ceased 1929 40 871 395.9 to be a pa\ing concern and this had its 1930 49,218 853.4 effect on the number of bookshops even 1931 53,848 845.1 prior the Revolution. Such an enormous increase in production Gosizdat played the principal roie in entailed an increase in the number of book­ setting up a system of bookshops. In 1921 shops. By 1981 there were 1,705 bookshops the USSR already possessed N71 book­ (four times as many as in 1913) and shops, in 1925 their number increased to 37,302 book-stands at factories, works and 1,590, and in 1927 there were about 1,700 collective farms (three times as many as in of them (uot counting book-stands). Before 1927). the Revolution, in 1912, there were 1,183 The very structure of the publishing shops or 69% of those that existed in 1927. trade has changed. In 1930 in place of The qualitative advantages of the Soviet separate publishing houses an United Pub­ book business are still more important. lishing House of the RSFSR (OGIZ) was Instead of the former concentration of the founded, 20 publishing shops were turned book business in big centres, there is a ten­ over to this new concern divided into a dency to develop the network of book­ number of publishing sections. In place shops in the villages, many book-stands were of separate commercial enterprises a single constructed at factories and works, which centre of book distribution — “ Knigo- makes the books more accessable, to the tsentr” — was set up. A similar system new reader, one who is of greater import­ of the book trade was introduced in the ance from the social standpoint. Ukraine and in the other republics. The new structure enabled us to improve T h e first F i v e-Y ear Plan in the mass organisational work on the books the book trade of the USSR as well as to organise the training of the personnel: an Editorial-Publishing Insti­ The fulfilling of the enormous tasks of tute, the educational-publishing teclmicum, the Five-Year Plan required a correspond­ courses and circles to improve the effici­ ing tempo of development of the book ency of the workers have been established. trade. The demand for books grew enor­ As regards the commercial end of the book mously. Even the rapidly increasing book trade there exist a number of technicums, production proved inadequate. It became schools for apprentices, a correspondence necessary to reconstruct the book trade technicum and many courses and circles. which no longer satisfied the new require­ The carrying through of the Five-Year ments either from the point of view’ of Plan in regard to books is illustrated by the organisation pr of technique. following table (in millions of copies): 1927 1929 1930 1931 Plan Fulfilment % Plan Fulfilment % Plan Fulfilment % 1,450 1,800 1,853.2 103 2,230 3.C40.0 136.3 2,750 3,447.6 125.4%

Thus the rate of development of book in 1927, yet. does not meet the demand. production lias exceeded the figures laid Text books for universities which used to be down by the Five-Year Plan. However, printed in 3 to 4 thousand copies are now even though the Plan has been exceeded, sold in tens of thousands of copies. Books still the demand for books in the USSR on agriculture are distributed in hundreds exceeds the supply. of thousands of copies. Books on technics In 1931 to ensure greater efficiency two have a circulation two to three times great­ publishing houses were made independent er than in 1927 and covering separate pro­ of the OGIZ of the RSFSR — the Associ­ blems (metallurgy, machine building, min­ ation of Scientific-Technical Publishing ing and geological literature). A circul­ Houses and the Party Publishing House. ation of 15 to 25 thousand copies are usually Books are sold in the Soviet Union sold out in a very short space of time. with unprecedented rapidity. The circul­ The enormous growth of book public­ ation of books is considerably greater than ation is particularly noticeable in the nation­

55 al republics and regions of lhe USSR. Ccntroizdat was the leading Organisation The extension of book publishing acti­ of its kind, the output of hooks published vities in languages other than Russian by this house in different native languages is as follows: comprising approximately 00 70% of all those published in the entire RSFSR. S s c Ry the nature of its work and its content |s ? Ceulroizdal was perhaps the only one of | 2 l a S c, its kind existing that dealt with such l - s x; 5 a great variety of subjects in diverse lan­ 1913 —— 6,144,500 guages. The existence of such an organis­ 1927 59 7,598 31,995,900 ation is possible only under the conditions 1931 81 19,530 191,427,700 arising from Lenin’s national policy as New publishing centres have arisen. practiced in the USSR. In place of jingoistic and chauvinistic Until 1932 Ccntroizdat published liter­ literature the toilers of each nation are ature in 08 different languages: now turning out in their own languages 1. Adyghei a i»? 2. Arabian, 3. Armenian, text-books, books on science and art, po­ 4. Assyrian, 5. Bashkiria!!, 0. Bulgarian, pular books and books for children, all 7. Buriat-Moi golian, 8. Chechen, 9. Clicr- of which serve as a means of the inter­ kes, 10. Chinese, 11. Chuvashian, 12. Czc- national education of the masses. eho-Slovakian, 13. Darghinian, 14. Digorian, 15. English, 10. Esthouian, 17. Finnish, * 18. German, 19. Gipsy (Romany), 20. Greek, The programme of the second Five-Year 21. Hindustani, 22. Hungarian, 23. Ingush, Plan, which aims at the construction 24. Iranian, 25. .Jewish, 20. Kabardinian, of a classless society in the USSR, pre­ 27. Kalmukian, 28. Karachaian, 29. Ka- sents to the book trade of the USSR a task rakalpakian, 30. Karelian, 31. Kazakian, of immense importance. 32. Khakassian, 33. Kirghizian, 34. Koini- It is to turn out at least three times as Permiakian, 35. Komi-Zyrianian, 30. Ko­ many books, since the demand is at least rean, 37. Kumykian, 38. Latgallic, 39. Lat­ for five times the number produced at the vian, 10. Lithuanian, 41. Mari (Mountain present time. dialect), 42. Mari (Prairie dialect), 43. Mon­ In order not to lag behind any longer in golian, 44. Mordovian-crzia, 45. Mordo- point of material technique we have also vian-moksha, 40. Nagaibakian, 47. Neman, been given the task during the next few 48. Nogaian, 49. Oirotian, 50. Ossetin, years to produce our own machines for the 51. Persian, 52. Polish, 53. Russian, 54. press and the paper industry. Shorian, 55. Tadjikian, 50. Tartar, 57. The first successes have already been Tatian, 58. Tungus, 59. Turk, 00. Turk­ achieved: Soviet printing presses, Soviet ish, 01. Turkmenian, 02. Tuvin, 03. Ud­ linotype machines, Soviet binding machines murt ian, 61. Uigurian, 05. Ukrainian, and Soviet rotary presses arc already in 06. Uzbek, 07. While-Russian, 08. Yakut. use. Besides Ccntroizdat literature was also Thus Soviet books arc being turned out published locally, so altogether about a at the rate which is required by the needs hundred different nationalities were cover­ of the cultural revolution. ed in this vast publishing activity. From 1932, with the reorganisation of Literature and press of the the publishing system the national press nations of the USSR was further developed. It was proposed to embrace the most backward nations. Literature in the native tongues of the To be able to judge the depth and dimen­ nations in the USSR is the offspring of sions of this work it will be necessary to the October Revolution. take into consideration all the difficulties The publishing of literature in the national which must be met. Chief of these are: languages was originally done by the West­ absence and imperfection of scripts among ern and Eastern Publishing Houses, estab­ a number of nationalities and absence of lished at the People’s Commissariat for established orthography. Nationalities under the guidance of J. Sta­ Together with the creating of scripts it lin. At the beginning of 1924 both these is important to pay attention to the intro­ publishing houses were merged under the ducing of the latin alphabet among the name of Ccntroizdat (Central Publishing many millions of the USSR population House). speaking Turkic-Tartar languages. Kcst home for \vrrk°rs in a former monastery

Physical-cuUuri parading on th- Square

)phylactorium in Dniepropelrovsk (Ukraine)

Host home fo workers in a former landowners eslal The film “ Kikos”. Director: Darkhudarian

The film “ The Woman". Director: Dzigan A working moment of the film: “ The trial must continue". Director; Dzigan Inauguration of German architecture exhibition in Moscow Al present the literature in the Turkic- languages, published by l he Central Pub­ 'artar languages is published only in latin lishing Houses. haracters. In 1932/33 it is proposed to Particularly characteristic is I he fact dopt the latin alphabet for publishing that in 1930 the book output was greater lurposes likewise for the other groups than that of the combined preceding f nationalities. years. The development of the local printing The editorial and publishing plan for ndustry together with the general growth 1932 provides for a considerable increase nd stabilisation of the national publishing of many hundreds percent in comparison louses, have increased the scope for further with 1931. In the publishing centre (Mos­ levelopmcnt of publishing work which the cow) the following growth in 1932 is antici­ csult that today we have in the USSR pated: titles — 121 %, printed folios — 219% ip to 40 national publishig houses. copies — 207% and impressions — 119%. The rapidly growing demand for native The general national press is expected to iteralure well portrays the growth of the show a growth of 09.2 %. With regard to the lational press. During the existence of type of bo tks the plan for 1932 estimates lentroizdat 7,738 titles were published the growth of text-books for schools to nth a total of 51 million copies and 258 mil- reach 79.2%, agriculture —70%, technical— ion impressions. The annual publication 100°/0, communistic literature and social if this huge output during the past 9 years economics — over 79%. s shown by the following table : The national publishing industry has /5 far exceeded the task and tempo set il o ~ *3 | , £ - O c by the Five-Year Plan. But even this is & 1 not satisfying the ever growing cultural ■g | I § | sj il! U i = 5,- demands. v : z ill* i l y M In working out those main lines which 923 31 i21 97 389 go to make up the essence of the second 924 *9 397 301 1,612 Five-Year Plan, the task is set whereby 925 335 1.419 1.299 6,173 through the steady growth of the national 926 567 2 296 2 796 11,235 927 633 3 (08 2 665 15 172 press in the earlest possible period to dt 928 683 3,515 3147 19 374 away with the differences existing between 9;9 699 3,199 3 922 24 256 the cultural levels of nationalities of the 930 2 458 8,041 17,824 88,5 0 Soviet Union. .931 1 2 243 8.639 91,245 18,878 During the second Five-Year Plan pub­ Total 7,738 30,635 50 932 257.956 lishing work must embrace the languages The above figures illustrate the rate of all the nationalities of the USSR. Thi: )f growth in books written in native task is truly immense.

LATINISATION a n d unification OF ALPHABETS IN THE USSR By N. Y a k o v 1 e v

In point of the number of nationalities, 150 different languages. A considerable and the variety of its ethnical composition proportion of these nationalities inhabit the USSR occupies one of (he first places the Soviet territory, living as permanent among all the countries of the world. The settlers. This applies to most Turko-Tarlar number of languages spoken by these na­ languages and nationalities, to most Ugro- tionalities is equally large. The inhabitants Finnish, Japhetic (in 1 he Caucasus), Tmigus- of the Soviet Union speak no fewer than Manchu and pale-asatic languages and nationalities. On the other hand, sonic 1 The figures for 1931 are given only of the nationalities which inhabit the for the Head Office of Centroizdat: with all branches inclu led, these figures wo Id USSR in large numbers, especially in the be much b.gger (approximately 40—30°/0). republics adjoining foreign States, Jive

57 likewise in those adjoining Stales and speak the population that could read and write either the same or similar languages. Sueh in their own language. Most of the Turkic- for instance is the ease with the Azcrbai- Tartar nations were either in a similar or djanians, Rercians and Assyrians in Persia, in a worse position: there were less than Kurds, Lazes and Turks in Turkey, Arabs, 1% literates among the Karakalpaks, .Turkmens, and none at all Hehidjcs and a number of small iranian and among the Kazaks, liashkirs, and Kirghizes. Tiurkic-Tartar tribes in Afghanistan, Kal­ The Uzbeks were in a somewhat better mucks, Uigurs, and Dungans in Western position, but even among them the average Chinn; Kalmucks and Mongols in Mongolia; number of people who could read and Chinese and Koreans in China and Korea; write did not exceed The average Aleuts and Ksquimaux in the United States level of literacy both in their own and in (Alaska, Aleutian Islands), Lapps in Nor­ the Russian languages among the nation­ way, Karelians and Finns in Finland. al minorities of prc-revolutionarv Russia, We do not mention here such western na­ which are now inhabiting the Soviet tionalities as Hslhonians, Letts, Poles, Hast, probably did not exceed A to 1°0. Germans and others. Today the USSR is probably the only The variety in nationality and language country in the world in which every na­ which prevail in the USSR is intensified tionality, irrespective of its size or cultural by the diverse historical, socio-ceonomieal level, enjoys an indisputable right lo de­ and living conditions under which these velop its written language and literature nationalities lived before the Revolution. and schools in its own language. Unlike This variety in socio-economic conditions other Stales, the nationalities of Lhc USSR was naturally reflected on the stale of enjoy not only an abstract right, but the culture of each individual nationality and real possibility to be taught in their own in particular was apt to hamper the deve­ language and to cultivate a national liter­ lopment of its alphabet and written lan­ ature, and what is more with Lhc poli­ guage. tical and financial assistance of the State. Prior to the Revolution all the eastern Thanks lo the Revolution, for the first nationalities which inhabited the present Lime in history there has arisen in the USSR territory of the USSR, apart from a few a mighty movement of the national masses exceptions, had practically no written of the toilers for the creation of national languages of their own and in fact lhere literary languages. “ The socialist Revolu­ were very few people among them who tion did not diminish but increased 111' could read and write in their own language. number of languages” , says J. Stalin (at­ It is true, many of them possessed the rudi­ tacking Kautsky’s theory concerning “ the ments of missionary religious literature, creation of a single language common to based on the Russian alphabet, the rudi­ all humanity, the others dying off during ments of Maliomcdan literature in Arabic the period of socialism”), “ for this Revo­ script, Llamaist literature in Mongolian lution, shaking up the profoundesl depths script, etc. However, missionary literature, of humanity and thrusting them on lo which was forcibly planted among these the political arena, calls to life a large nations, had on the whole no success and number of new nationalities which for­ met with a violent resistance on the part merly were cither little or unknown. Who of the masses. Literature in Arabic and could have imagined that old tsarist Russia oilier complicated scripts, owing to its consisted of more than 50 nationalities1 difficulty, usually remained the privilege and ethnographic groups? However the of the clergy, bureaucracy and the bourgeois October Revolution, having broken the intelligentsia. Prior lo the Revolution old chains and thrust lo the fore a large the masses of the people and the national number of forgotten nations and national­ proletariat were illiterate. In order to ities, gave them new life and new dcvelop-l illustrate this state of things suffice it mcnl” (J. Stalin, “ Questions of Lenin­ Lo recall that most of the small nationalities ism”) U of North Caucasus and Daghestan not only Thus the development of literary languages had no written language but only 1 or 2% among the nationalities of the Soviet^ of them could read and write in Russian. Such a numerous-populated nationality as 1 The figure of 50 nationa’ities refers tot til-? year 1925. With tli*» growth of n? tionalW Azerbaijanians, which already before the construction, new national groups h v® Revolution possessed their own national been deve’opcd. At present, the total numJ literature, had approximately l 1/a% of ber of such nationalities has reached 150.1

5» Union is one of the proofs of the general one of the most backward and exploited success of the Revolution and of socialist colonies of Russian imperialism, now possess 20nst riiclioil. written languages to the extent of 80%. At the present time we are able to quote This achievement of the October Revolu­ 'acts and figures which are still more strik- tion is all the more significant, when we ng. In 19.11 out of a total of 131 Eastern take into consideration tlie fact that tlie rationalities of the USSR 84 nationalities USSR obtained as a legacy from tsarist possessed their own written language and Russia the smallest and most oppressed schools. Of these one half for the first and backward nations, which possessed .¡me acquired a written language only no written language at all and spoke a lfter the October Revolution. The reinaili­ variety of languages almost unknown to ng 47 nationalities, mostly small ones tlie scholars of olden days. ised the written language of the more If we take Soviet Central Asia, we find irogressive of their neighbours who were that there are 41 nationalities, of whom nost akin to them both in culture and lan- 30 have a written language and only 11 ¡uage. However, even these nations are without it (the latter include several ¡radually obtaining a written language Iranian dialects, which can easily be served if their own. Thus in 1932 the following by the Persian literary language and script). rationalities have acquired or are acquiring In India 87 % of the nationalities heir own written language: the Tabassa- possess no written language of their own. anians in Daghestan, the Abazinians in In Soviet Central Asia we find the opposite: Jorth Caucasus, the Beludjis in Turkmenia, 3/4 of the minorities possess their own Cumandiiiians in Western Siberia, Vepsians written language. It is necessary to add that nd Izhorians in lhe Leningrad region and this situation in Soviet Central Asia is tliers. rapidly bettering — more and more nations There is no doubt that before the eud are creating their owu written language f the second Five-Year Plan all the un­ (for instance this year the Beludjes, Kurds, ions of the Soviet Union will possess Vakhanians and others). Soon all nations written language of their own. inhabiting Soviet Central Asia will have In order to obtain a clear idea of the their own written language. uccesses achieved by the national policy These successes in the LTSSR have proved n the USSR, especially as regards tlie possible only owing to the existence of reation of written language, it is necessary the Soviet regime and to the introduction f) compare the conditions of the minorities of latinisation ond unification. Only la­ n the Soviet Union with that of the na- tinisation, which is closely linked up with ional minorities in the progressive coun- the unification of the alphabets in the .So­ ries of Western Europe and in their co­ viet East, supplied the backward national­ mics. ities with a technical instrument fully Tn Central Africa, on an enormous tract adapted for national mass education. f land occupied bv the so-called Sudanese Therefore the success of the movement for ¡egroes, the population numbers 45 to latinisation and the unification of alpha­ 9 million and speaks 435 different languages. bets is most important in bringing about 4 this enormous number of languages the introduction of national written lan­ nlv 5 or 6 have a more or less fixed written guages and national literacy. That is mguage. Thus the Sudanese nationalities why Lenin described latinisation as the hich on an average number 100,000 in great Revolution in the East. ach tribe, possess a written language of The movement for latinisation in the ot more than 1.38% of the total number USSR began immediately after the October f nationalities and languages. Revolution. In Yakutia already in 1917 For purposes of comparison it should tlie question was raised of replacing the e added that 26 nationalities of the Soviet alphabet based on the Russian script forth, who speak the dialects of twenty which was used prior to the Revolution mguages and live on a territory which and which served mainly as a weapon of ; not smaller than the one inhabited by tile missionary, of russification propaganda, le Sudanese Negroes, and whose total by the lalin script. The Yakut latinised umber is 135,237 (4. c. on an average alphabet was only definitely introduced, ot more than 6 to 7 thousand for each however, in 1922, after the final consolid­ at ion and language), already possess a ation of Soviet rule in this region. This ritten language for 16 of these nations, alphabet was not yet unified and was a hus the nations of the North, formerly mere adaptation to the Yakut language

59 by means of internalionnl phonetic tran­ the Soviet Hast. That is why Azerbaidjan scription. in 1921 work was started for the is justly regarded as the pioneer of latin- adaptation simultaneously of the latin isation in the USSR. alphabet for Ingushes, Ossetians, and Ka- The example of Azerbaidjan rapidly bardinians in North Caucasus, and for had its effect on other nationalities wlrch Azerbaijanians in the Azerbaidjian Re­ had hitherto used Arabic script. In 192:’»' public. The Ossetians adopted the latin 192 1 work was started for the introduction alphabet, discarding the Russian script of the latin alphabet among Tnrkic-Tartar (despite the fact that as a result of mission­ nations with a weakly developed national ary propaganda the Ossetian written lan­ literature (the Kazaks, the Kazan Tartars, guage in Russian characters was widely the Bashkirs, the Uzbeks and others). used before the Revolution), and in Azcr- At the same time preparatory work was baidjan the latin script became a weapon being carried on for the holding of the wherewith to combat (he reactionary .Ma- All-1.' nion Congress for lntinisatioii whicli homedan literature written in the Arabic later on was called the first All-Union script. In 1923 was held the first educational Tnrkological Congress. In the North Cau­ conference of the mountain tribes of North casus the second educational conference Caucasus, which approved a project for of mountain tribes held in 1925 at Rostov-on- introducing the latin alphabet for the Don finally introduced lalinisation amonp efore-mentioned three nations and also for a number of these tribes. The latinisation the Karachais. From that year onward of the minority languages inhabiting tlu latin script began to be used by a section former Mountaineers’ Republic was ir of the mountain tribes inhabiting the North the main completed by 192b. Caucasus. Finally in 1925, the Abkhazian The first Tnrkological Congress met ir alphabet based on the Russian script and the city of Baku (Azerbaidjan) in February— introduced by the tsarist government for March 1920. It was attended by represent missionary and colonising purposes, was atives of all the most important Turkic upon the initiative of the Abkhazians them­ Tartar minorities of the Soviet Union,*anr selves replaced by a script, which in the likewise by many those of North Caucasus main was based on latin, and is called japlie- Daghestan, and Transcaucasus (Kurds) tidological script (or the so-called ana­ The Congress passed a resolution recom­ lytical alphabet) worked out by the Acade­ mending to the representatives of oil the re mician N. Marr. publics of the Soviet blast to take int< At this first stage of development of consideration the experiments in latin national written languages in the USSR, isation of Azerbaidjan. As a result of till: 1 atinisation, as we observe, used to be Congress there was formed a voluntary introduced sporadically and among rela­ society for the spreading of latinisatioi tively few nationalities. The question consisting of representatives of the variou: of unification was not discussed fully. nationalities of the USSR. This society The latin alphabet in its various forms was called the All-Union Central Committei which practically have not yet been tho­ of the new Turkic alphabet. It first me roughly tested (the international transcrip­ a Plenum at • Baku in February—Marcl tion, the japhetidologieal one, the alpha­ 1927. Here, the latinised alphabets o bets of the mountain tribes, the original the Turkic-Tartar nations were for tin project of the Azerbaidjan alphabet) served first time actually unified. Thus the year mostly for the purpose of creating a written 1926— 1927 mark the second stage o language for nations which lacked it alto­ latinisation. At this period, unlike th gether (the Ingushes, Kabardinians) and sporadic attempts made by the variou at the same time served as a tool for eom- republics during the first years, latinisatioi balting the missionary activities as repre­ becomes a wide international movemen sented by the Russian script. It is only among nations, particularly the Turkic among the Azerbaidjans that the latin Tartar ones, which used the Arab:c a'phabe: alphabet was for the first time used as ami which had served as a baltle-groun< a weapon for combatting the more or less and of age-long propaganda by reactionary established Arabic script. The experience Mohamedan mullahs. The unification o gained in the struggle by Azerbaidjan alphabets means the international graphii against the reactionary Mahomcdan script and phonetic unification of national al and schools became subsequently a great phabets. The movement for latinisatioi factor in the struggle for the development becomes a revolutionary struggle by thi of national culture among the nations of masses of toilers of Fastern nationalitie for enlightenment and science against the and printed language accessible to the mediaeval obscurantism of the Mohamedan broad masses. In its third stage latinisation reactionaries, the clergy, the local feudal is becoming also a struggle for education lords and the bourgeoisie. The class and and the development of literature of the educational nature of this struggle becomes small nations. strikingly manifest. Tlu* latinised script, In 1928— 1929 the following nationalities as a popular weapon of mass literacy of obtained for the first time a written lan­ the toilers, replaces the caste literacy guage: Dungane (Western Chinese — Maho- of small privileged sections of the popul­ medans), Nogays, Talyshcs, Khakasses; ation. in 1921—Tabassaranians (Daghestan), South­ By the end of this period the unified ern Karelians, Vcpsians, Izhorians, and latin alphabet (which was then called the 10 nationalities of the Soviet North (Aleu­ new Turkic alphabet) was already being tians, Moguls, Golds, Gilyaks, Intelmens, used by 17 Turkic-Tartar, 10 Japhetic, Kamchadals, Kets, Koryaks, Lamuts, Lapps, 7 Iranian, 2 Mongolian, and 1 Chinese Samoyeds, Ostyak-Samoyeds, Ostyaks,Tun- (Dungane) nations, 87 in all, inhabiting guses, Udeys, Chukchi, Esquimaux. In the Soviet Union (1920). Of this number 1922 the alphabets for the following na­ 28 nationalities passed on to the new uni­ tionalities are being worked out: Bcludjes, fied Turkic alpliabjt (as it was then called) Abazes (North Caucasus), Uds(Azcrbaidjan), and 9 nations (including Azerbaïdjan) Kurds (for the Ccntral-Asiatic Kurds), preserved for the time being their separate Kumands (Western Siberia). The question lion-unified latin alphabet. This latter is likewise being raised of creating a spe­ number, as we shall sec later on, became cial written languages for the small Iranian gradually reduced with the progress of peoples of Tadjikistan (the Vakhanians, unification. Yazgulyainians, Yagnobians), for the tribes The third and last stage of latinisation inhabiting Daghestan and Azerbaïdjan (the in the USSR began in 1980. The latinis­ Aukhovians, Kaitagians, Tsakhunans, and ation and unification of alphabets used by others), and finally for the backward peoples the Turkic-Tartar nationalities, as well as of the North — - Yukagirians, Ycnisscy-Samo- of alphabets of other nations, formerly yeds, Tavgians and Karagascs. using the Arabic script, may in the main The unified alphabet consists of 23 basic be regarded as technically complete in 1920. letters (to the 25 letters of the latin alphabet At that time the overwhelming majority 8 move arc added which arc modified latin of Turkic-Tartar nationalities, as well letters). Apart from these there are also as of other nations inhabiting the USSR, the so-called additional letters represent­ which formerly used the Arabic script, ing sounds peculiar to each language. In passed on to the latin alphabet. Subsequent all there arc 58 such letters for all nations work in the domain of latinisation consists using the new alphabet. No doubt the furth­ in developing the literary language, in er work of unification will reduce their laying down the rules of orthography and number to the minimum of 45 — 46 letters. settling the questions of terminology. At However even now the 91 letters (in all) the same time latinisation is advancing contained in the new' alphabet constitute further and covering new fronts. only a small proportion of the total number Nationalities using other forms of alpha­ of the very complicated lcLters of all alpha­ bets which arc mediaeval and backward bets, which arc now replaced by the new in technique and reactionary in content one. The alphabet, wdtli which wTe are most (the Syrian and Mongolian scripts, the Chi­ familiar— the Abkhasian— lias 52 let­ nese hieroglyphics) and also those using ters, the smallest alphabet of a ll,— the scripts based on the Russian alphabet Kazak alphabet,- - consists of 29 letters. introduced by lhe missionaries, are now All the additional letters are based on beginning to join the movement for latin­ latin script. isation. This applies to Mongolian, Semitic, The degree of literacy as regards persons Ugro-Finnish, Chinese and other nations. using the new alphabet proves that it is However, a specially important feature widely used. In 6 republics — the Tartar, is that latin script is used by nations Turkmen, Azerbaïdjan, Uzbek, Kazak, and which formerly had no written language at Tadjik republics — the total number of all, and who therefore could only write in persons who can read and w'rite (between a language foreign to them. Latinisation the ages of 8 and 65) has been 8,500,000 in the second stage was a struggle against in 1921, of which 5,096,000 use the new mediaeval backwardness and for a script alphabet, when writing in their own lan-

6 l gunge. For the first lime in history the Soviet Union. The Fasten) States adjoining masses of Fastcrn nations begun to rend the USSR, especially those which by arms and to write. had to defend their independence against The success of the latinised and unified the attacks of the imperialists, quickly alphabet is entirely due to those social grasped that latinisation is one of the means and political conditions in which the new of strengthening and developing cultural system of alphabet is being introduced in independence. In view of the success of the Soviet Union. latinisation and the educational strides The spread of literacy among all the na­ in Soviet Azerbaijan and in other Turkic- tions of the USSR, even the most backward Tart nr republics the Turkish Republic ones, the founding of schools where they officially adopted the latin script in 1928. teach in vernacular, the development of The Tuvi Repulic which had no script native publishing houses, of the native of its own adopted the unified latin alpha­ press, fiction and poetry, render the new bet in 1921) and in 1930 the Mongolian Re­ alphabet a mighty factor in the greatest public followed suit discarding its Mongol­ cultural revolution. ian script and adopting the latin one. The success of latinisation in the USSK The question of latinisation has since could not fail to have its effect outside the 1928— 1929 also been discussed in Persia.

THE ORGANISATION 01' LIRE ARIES IN THE USSR

Ry P. C m U r O V

The organisation of libraries in pre-war tories, geography, and a large proportion Russia was the most backward section of fiction. Scientific books constituted only of national education. The tsarist govern­ 1%, books on logic, psychology, pedago­ ment employed the most varied means — gics — 1,5%. direct prohibition, a complicated system Only occasionally, thanks, apparently, of permits for opening libraries, limitation to the ignorance of the librarian, were in the choice of books, war against politic­ works of a progressive nature included, but ally ‘‘unreliable ’ librarians — to hamper they were swallowed up in a sea of reac­ the existence of these cultural centres. tionary .and jingoist rubbish recommended All the libraries were divided into two by the catalogue. categories: free “ national ’ libraries, and And yet there were libraries where the so-called “ public" subscription librar­ social and political work was carried on al- * ies. In the case of the latter the subscrip­ though on a small scale. The librarians 1 tion fee prevented the workers, particul­ in touch w’itli underground revolutionary j arly manual labourers, from having access organisations selected the best of political to them. All books published in Russia and sociological-scientific literature, and were admitted into the “ public ’ libraries sometimes even distributed illegal books. ’ with the exception of those which had been Of course the number of theses libraries | put on a special list. The selection of books wTas small, and this sort of work was excep­ for the free libraries was controlled even tional. | more severely. The Revolution of 1905 somewhat altered i Free national libraries conducted by the state of things. Free libraries were organs of local self-government, voluntary put on an equal status with “ public All societies, etc., could be opened only with books on sale began to be admitted into the permission of the district governor, the library. But after 1905 an unheard- and were subjected to the vigilant super­ of number of books were prohibited, con­ vision of a special official who not only fiscated, and burnt by tsarist officials. censored the choice of books, but also saw As before, the government took up an to it that the library did not become a antagonistic position towards these public centre for any social work or the place institutions of cultural and political work. for social gatherings. One must note, as a characteristic fea­ Among the books permitted in reading ture of pre-war libraries, that all atenlion libraries — this especially in the case of was concentrated on the dominant nation­ free national libraries — the majority were ality; national minorities were hardly wrorks of a religious nature, patriotic his­ taken into account.

6 2 The October Revolution posed the pro­ gical institutes and the pedagogical fac­ blems of mastering the cultural heritage ulties of the universities, — prepare organ­ and the fundamentals of science and tech­ isers for district libraries, and for the nics. Hence the exceptional attention which libraries of important industrial centres, the Soviet authorities gave and give to and also teachers for technical schools of the organisation of libraries. librarianship. The high schools for libra­ The decisions of the congresses on extra­ rians (technicians), and special depart­ school education and political education, ments in pedagogical technicums, prepare and the decrees of the Council of People’s librarians for the vast network of libraries Commissaries gave concrete instructions as for the masses. The huge majority of li­ to the content, direction and methods of brary workers have passed either through work in libraries. correspondance courses of the higher schools, After the Revolution the libraries began or through technicums attached to librar­ to grow with fabulous rapidity, three ies or else through courses for improving kinds of library being founded simulta­ the qualification of librarians (courses neously: those connected with the bodies lasting one, three, or six months, with of people’s education, with the trade or without exemption from work in the unions, and with the Red Army. This factory). threefold development of libraries conti­ Library workers are paid at the same nues up to the present. On the first of rate as teachers. The following statistics January, 1920, the number of libraries apply to library workers: 70.3% with high conducted by the People’s Commissariat school or university education, 51% for Education amounted to more than who have been librarians for more than 50,000; those conducted by the trade three years. This shows that serious atten­ unions to more than 10,000, those by the tion is paid to the preparation of Red Army — 10,000. librarians. By 1930 there were already 30,000 public Around the libraries are grouped a mass libraries iu the USSR; reckoning travelling of organised readers already amounting libraries and book centres — about 141,000. to hundreds of thousands. This mass con­ The number of books in them by 1930 sists of teachers, workers, students, acti­ amounted to 105 millions as compared vely participating in library work. with 57 million in 192G, and 50 million The distinctive features of Soviet organ­ in 1920. isation of libraries arc: 1) a definite poli­ The average book fund of a library in tical standpoint —- libraries to serve so­ 1930 was about 3,500 volumes. Whereas cialist construction, the cultural revolu­ in tsarist Russia the number of books was tion and the dictatorship of the proletar­ increased very slowly, in the Soviet Union iat; 2) a definite plan as the main prin­ we witness the doubling of catalogues over ciple of library work; 3) the conducting a period of five years. of work amongst the masses. The disposition of books in Soviet lib- The new theory of library work is based faries for 1930 was as follows (in %): on the leaching of Marx and Lenin, in par­ fiction — 28.7, anti-religious — 2.2, socio­ ticular on Lenin’s teaching on the press logy— 19.5, history and geography — and culture. 0.5, natural sciences — 4,0, applied sci­ The ordered planning, which is the ences — - 0.2, agriculture 5.1, miscella­ principle underlying the organisation of neous 27.2. all work in the USSR, is to be found also Much attention is ¡laid in the USSR in the organisation of libraries. The work to the training of library workers. Before of every individual ilbrary is carefully the Revolution librarians (from 1913) re­ planned. The plan regulates for the organ­ ceived only a short training at the national isation of acquisitions for the current year, Shanyavsky university in Moscow', or at the organisation of readers - - what groups short courses attached to the zemstvos. Now' and how many a library service — tra­ a network of institutions for the training velling libraries and book-hawker centres; of library workers has been developed. the amount of book lending; work among The institutes of library science prepare the masses. teachers for the higher schools of librar- The libraries draw up their working ianship, and highly-qualified specialists plan taking at their basis established norms for the leading libraries. Higher schools of labour (special processes of library work for librarians, — that is librarianship in­ arc being subjected to detailed study), stitutes. librariauship sections in pedago­ budget allowances, the decrees, plans, and work of the Soviets, colliozcs, trade unions, current cultural and economic interests and other organisations, also taking into the libraries do not forget the fundamental eonsidcration the work of preceding years. problem of communist education, the re­ The plan which reflects tlie possibilities fashioning of the workers psychology, the of the library, the concrete demands of education of conscious builders of socialism. the organs of Soviet government, and also The popularisation of books on questions those of the trade unions, factories, col- of theory is one of the chief problems of liozcs, etc., constitutes a detailed programme the libraries’ work. Work for current for the year's work. Experience has shown campaigns is closely connected with the that it is possible to plan not only work basic problems of communist education. among the masses and the acquisition of A characteristic feature of the work of books, but also the growth and composi­ Soviet libraries is that they serve all 11a- tion of readers and the lending of books. tionalititcs. Statistics show the tempest­ The plan, in its fundamentals, is fre­ uous growth of libraries in the Ukraine. quently over-fulfilled. The actuality of White Russia and the Asiatic republics, the plan is due to the comprehensive work where formerly there were practically no of the libraries in recruiting readers and libraries. distributing books. For example let us look at the organ­ The libraries work among the masses isation of libraries in the Turkoman repub­ is new for the USSR. The libraries are lic. In the past Turkmenistan had not concerned not only with the popularis­ a single library for the masses. Xobodv ation of books in definite branches of know­ knows what libraries existed there for­ ledge, but also strive to connect the dis­ merly apart from those attached to diffe­ tribution of books with definite decrees rent officers clubs and similar institutions. of the Party, the government and the trade Now there is a comparatively well develop­ unions (the fulfilment of the production ed network of libraries. There is a central and financial plan on the enterprise; the book fund conducted by the Commissariat furtherance of political education; the for Education, 48 trade-union libraries, sowing and harvest campaigns; the election 15 district libraries. In 1920 there were of Soviets, etc.). 292 travelling libraries. The methods of work among the masses A lasting foundation has been laid for are extremely varied; readings and discus­ the organisation of libraries in the national sions, lectures, addresses, literary soirées, minority republics. Library work is already literary trials, evenings devoted to special a definite factor helping to build socialism books such as anti-religious, military, in formerly backward districts. political, and those devoted to factory The growth in the number of readers, production. There are also competitions the necessity for making the most of the for the best study of a book, reference work, books, make exchange between the libr­ the popularisation of definite books and aries an urgent necessity. As yet only the placards in connection with the various first steps have been taken in yiis direction. political, cultural, and agricultural cam­ This is one of the weak points of our paigns within the country. library work. Work among the masses is carried on At the present time, as distinct from not only within the walls of the library; the pre-revolutionary period, library work on the contrary, chiefly outside them — in is distinguished by carefully planned organ­ factories, colliozcs, in the fields during isation firmly based on a government work, at meetings. Libraries help in elect­ budget and partly on that of the trade ing the Soviets and factory committees, unions. help to compose the mandates etc., and take Library work in the USSR is undoubtedly part in socialist competition and shock- developing and accomplishing a great work. brigade work. Libraries organise disputes, But it still lags behind the speed of econom­ exhibitions, propagandise hooks and give ic reconstruction. To rival this demands necessary reference material. We must greater effort, a more comprehensive mo­ note the growing use of wireless by the bilisation of all forces and possibilities. libraries. The activity of the libraries should go hand A vast number of documents, decrees in hand with the growing cultural demands of town Soviets, of district committees of the masses, for in the USSR, more than and colliozcs bear testimony to the direct anywhere, are conditions secured for the participation of the libraries in socialist progress of cultural work among the toil­ construction. But in their effort to satisfy ing masses.

64 October and the Art

VOICE OF THE SOVIET ARTISTS

LEONID LEONOV that helped Soviet literature to surmount its many difficulties was its attention to Soviet writer, author of many works of the best part of the legacy left by the old considerable importance as for instance literature. ‘•The Badgers” , "The Thief ” , ••Hiver Sot” Western literature — with the exception and a new novel ‘‘Skutarevsky” of a few names — is living through a pe­ riod of decay. The struggle with the gener­ Soviet literature is mustered for a parade. al scantiness of ideas -th is it is that Its achievements seem especially consi­ gives birth to literature in capitalist derable if we bear in mind the situation States. Whereas in the USSR literature of some years ago, when many old writers is inspired by the great work of construc­ had left the country and new ones had not tion and the abundance of ideas, it would yet appeared. It was a time when reaction­ be only just to say that Soviet literature ary and petty-bourgeois tendencies tried has every chance of becoming the leading to hold sway in literature. power in world literature.

N. OGNEV Soviet writer, author of the “ Diary of Ko- tia Riabtsev ’ and other novels

During 15 years Soviet literature has created many works of world-wide fame. This relates not only to Russian literature, but also to the literatures of national minor­ ities. No doubt, the time is soon to come when the national writers of the peoples of the USSR will give 11s chefs-d’oeuvre on a still greater scale. One must bear in mind that in some of the republics the written language as well as the free press first were introduced with the Revolution, i. e. no more than 15 years ago. Why then such a confidence in chefs- d’oeuvre? The reasons are simple. The liberated peoples forming part of the So­ viet Union have now an opportunity to And yet, within the short period of realise their dearest ideals; powerful na­ la years an entirely new literature has been tional sources flow into a single united created, whose achievements are widely stream, from which new' forces are drawn: known throughout the entire world, whose the purpose of creative work is clear and works are being translated into all lan­ near: the different cultures are responsible guages. What are the reasons of such suc­ for the variety of creative forms united cess? by one common idea. Hence the tremendous First and foremost the Devolution has growth of the national theatres we have itirred up new vast strata of people, from been witnessing in the USSR; similar imong which new and remarkable writers achievements in the field of national lite­ lave come. Secondly, contemporary life rature will, no doubt, follow in the nearest daces at the disposal of the writer a lot future. >f rich material from which he can draw The very conditions of life in the Soviet he content of his work. A third factor Union are most favourable for creative

65 development. This is not a hyperbole, hill I made it my purpose to iiiak'e the two a fact. If a writer stops in his artistic worlds old and new- clash an t l o observe progress, Ihe masses come to help him. the results of it. And I see already that Stagnancy, inertia are made impossible llie old world is stagnant, inert, dull and by Ihe intense process of growth going on unable to develop. Whereas in this country, throughout the country. alongside with difficulties connected with growth, we witness creative victories in all corners of life.

1». 1‘AVLKNKO Soviet writer, author of “ Turkmenistan ’ and other works. Vice-president of the organ­ isational committee of the Union of So­ viet writers

The high level of revolutionary consci­ ousness of the Soviet writer, and the or­ ganic fusion of our literature with life of the country is responsible for the fact that now we are making preparations for the October anniversary with so. passionate a zeal, as if we’d slaked our life on it. 'rile tournament of ideas and creative efforts which already has begun amongst us writers, and will assume a final shape during the October days, is an event that cannot be rekoned in mere monetary units and consequently could only be possible under Soviet conditions. It never was Unlike Western Kurope or U.S.A. the before. Soviet Union lakes great care of the wel­ fare and material conditions of its writers: special houses are being built for them, as well as new sanatoria and rest houses. I mention it here because I personally have experienced it. Though 44 years old I still see great perspectives opened up before me as a writer. I have just finished the novel “ Three dimensions” exposing the individualism of tlie old Russian intelligentsia and show­ ing its cdlapsj. Now I ; m working on a big novel which I am calling “ Inventors” . The majority of inventors portrayed in the novel comes from among the working youth. Their inventions are limited not only to technical devices, hut cover likewise the creation of new forms of life in all its manifestations. The subject is treated in several aspects (combination of different schemes, and creation of human documents arc the favourite methods of my literary technique). One aspect shows the modern Soviet school in its turn towards polvteclinis- ation in our, Soviet meaning of the word. We started a gigantic roll-call of talents The other aspect is connected with the in order to check and evaluate our cadres school abroad. Finally a part of the novel in the light of the tremendous growth of is devoted to Soviet tourism. th3 USSR, in the light of al1 difficulties

66 it had coped with, and oil the eve of the writers, especially from amongst the petty- creation of a classless society. bourgeois intellectuals, who first began The hooks which are to appear at the to write under the influence of the turbulent October days will bear witness to the fact upheaval that shoo; the wearisome dullness that we have grown without confining of pre-revolutionary days? The changing ourselves to the narrow limits of our pro­ world, the crash of the age old exploitation blems, that we have found a new approach system, the evolving of a new socialist to history, examining the methods and culture — all this has stirred up thoughts means of capitalism, observing the changes and feelings and stimulated action. The undergone by Westerns living in the USSR joyful shock suffered by our conscience and noting the exciting events that shake when grasping suddenly the real meaning the Hast. of things — this it is that made writers of We arc perfectly aware of the war clouds many of us. which are becoming ever denser here and there over the world. We never forget that our mother country reaches beyond its geographical boundaries, and that all those who wish to repeat our social experiment in any corner of the world are our country­ men. We want to make all the 15th anni­ versary of our Revolution a literary feast as well. All my work during this year was car­ ried on in view of preparation for this Oc- lober feast. I wrote a novel of the Paris Commune linking up the success of October with the revolutionary heritage left us by history. I tried to trace and to describe the development of class struggle in the past. My next book will deal with the influence oi our mode of life upon people from the West, who in some way or other get in touch with socialist construction in the USSR.

Soviet literature has still many difficult ANNA KAHAVAVEVA problems to solve. We have to overcome with in ourselves the elements of old indi­ Soviet writer, author of “ Sawmill” . vidualistic tendencies in art, elements of “ Courtyard” , “ Steep Tread” etc. formalism, of bourgeois estheticisin which has nothing in c mmon with the prole­ For us Soviet writers the loth annivers­ tarian notion of beauty. ary of the October Revolution is not merely The decision of the Central Committee the date of a national jubilee. Fach writer of the Union Communist Party on the reor­ of the Soviet Union is closely connected ganisation of all art bodies begins a new with October in his creative work. Many historic stage in the development of litera­ representatives of the old pre-revolutionary ture and art in the USSR, opening up wide literature having joined the proletarian perspectives to all writers who sincerely Revolution entered upon a higher and wish to participate in socialist construction. entirely new stage of their creative There is not a single writer who could development. Rut for the new generation forget about the war danger threatening of writers to which 1 belong, to the writers the Soviet Union. The greater the hatred of our proletarian land buildirg up so­ that inspires our enemies, the cle rer our cialism, the role of the October Revolution love for our country, the steadier our belief is especially important, livery line we have in the justness of our chosen way, and in written is due to October, — the October the imp rtance of our class work for the Revolution gave birth lo this literature as whole of toiling and exploited humanity. well as to all of us. llavn’t we a great many And all of us writers win if needed come

6y l<> the defence of our country, the only in order to throw himself into the uncharted Stole of free socialist labour, free thought seas of the arts. and tremendous, unheard-of constructive From the fronl I return not to my un­ energy. finished career in Petrograd, but to .Moscow lo begin a new one. And, although already the first distant thunders of approaching revolutionary arL S. HISHXSTKIX are raging all around, 1, having wrenched myself free for art, am completely taken up Producer of “ Potemkin” , ‘“October” , “ The by art “ in general” . Oeneral Line” At first my tie with the Revolution is Since the October Revolution — fifteen purely external. But, armed with technical years, iny work as an artisL — twelve. methods, 1 Iry with avidity lo penetrate Pamily traditions, upbringing and educ­ deeper and deeper into the first principles ation prepared me for (piiLe a different of art and creation, where I instinctively career. anticipate the same sphere of exact sciences 1 was destined to be an engineer. for which my short apprenticeship as an But a subconscious and unformed striv­ engineer had given me so ardent an inclin­ ing towards art led me, even in engineering, ation. not towards its mechanical and technical The teachings of Pavlov, Freud, a season aspects but towards that which bordered with Meyerhold, a disorderly and feverish most closely on the arts, towards archi­ filling up of the gaps in my knowledge in tecture. this new sphere, excessive reading and the first steps of independent “ decorative” work as a regisseur in the theatre of the “ Proletkult ” , — such is my struggle with Llie windmills oi mysticism constructed by sycophants on the threshold of a technical mastery of art for those who wish to master the secrets of its laws by common sense. The attack is less don-quixotic than it seemed at first. The arms of the windmill soon break, and gradually I begin Lo feel even in this mysterious region the one true dialectic, that of materialism. I had long been a materialist in my natur­ al bent. At this stage something in common sud­ denly arises between wliat had been ab­ sorbing me in the process of analytical work and what is going on all around. My pupils, not a little to my astonishment, call my attention to the fact that in expound­ ing the arts I use the same methods as the teacher of political principles is using next However it needed the whirlwind on­ door in expounding political and sociolog­ slaught of l he Revolution to set me free from ical problems. the inertia of a set course of action and This outward spur resulted in the acstlie- to follow an inclination which by itself ticians on my work-table being replaced would never have struggled to the surface. by the dialecticians of materialism. This is my first debt to the Revolution. Warring 1922. A decade ago. It needed the shattering of all foundations, By means of philosophical study of the a complete revolution in the outlook and basic principles of Marxism, the experience principles of society, and, finally, two acquired in individual experimental-creat­ years of technical engineering on the ive work in a particular sphere of human northern and western red fronts, to enable activity is united with the experience of a timid student to cast off the shackles the human race in all aspects of its social of a plan marked out for him from the cradle activity. by devoted parents, and sacrifice an almost But it does’nt end there. The Revolution, completed education and assured future in the precepts of its inspired teachers, already permeates my work in a different social organisation and in the interests manner. The tie with the Revolution be­ of a different class. comes a blood tie and organic. In the impossibility of creating on the In creative work this is reflected in a other side of the demarcation line dividing transition from the completely rationalised the classes was all the mighty strength and but almost abstract theatrical eccentrics of force of the proletarian Revolution, like a •‘The Sage” — an adaptation of Ostrovsky’s whirlwind annihilating all those who oppose play “ Every wise man is something of a it, and like an even more powerful whirl­ fool” — through the propaganda placard- wind dominating those who once choose to plays “ Do you hear, Moscow?” and “ (ins- throw their lot in with it. masks” , to the revolutionary film epics So acts, feels, and thinks every member “ Strikes” and “ Potemkin” . of the pleiad of Soviet artists; many of The striving towards a closer contact us coining through Revolution to art, and with the Revolution brings with it a ten­ all of us calling through art to Revolution. dency towards a still more profound in­ culcation of the methods of militant dia­ lectical materialism into the arts. NATALIE SATZ The following films as well as responding to immediate social problems are attempts Director and Art Supervisor of the Moscow at practical experiment in “ giving imme­ Children’s Theatre diate actuality to the secrets of the creative process and the possibilities of the cinema.” The October Revolution has opened up This is the path necessary for mastering before the workers of art new horizons, the most effective methods in revolutionary wonderful in their grandiosity. Art which art, and for equipping with knowledge the before the Revolution was accessible only generation of young bolsheviks destined to replace the film producers of the first five-years periods of the Revolution. The centre of gravity of my films “ Octo­ ber” and “ The General Line” is in their experimental-research work. With individual creation there is conti­ nuously interwoven practical work, mathe­ matical, scientific, and pedagogical (the State institute of cinematography). I am also writing a theoretical work on the fundamental principles of cinema art. My outlook on life may be considered as formed. The Revolution is accepted. My activity is devoted entirely to its inter­ ests. At this stage I went abroad. '1’he outside world is the supreme lest to which a Soviet citizen can be subjected by his biography. The test of free choice. The outside world is the supreme test for a man in the sense of being a conscious, verification of what he is for and against. The outside world is the supreme Lest to the chosen few, now called to the wide for a creative worker: can he, in general, masses of the people. New peculiar flowers create apart from the Revolution and con­ of creative genius grew on the new soil tinue to exist apart from it. tilled by the October. Race to face with the golden mountains if formerly the artist's initiative often of Hollywood 1 too was subjected to this had to struggle against insurmountable lest. And 1 underwent it not in an altitude obstacles, then now every cjnslructive of haughty refusal of wordly delights and manifestation of such initiative met with benefits, but by the modest organic refusal full support Oil the part of the Stale. of my creative and constructive faculties I remember how 11 years ago as a girl to create in the conditions of a different 1 look passionately to the idea of creating

69 a now llioalro. a l lien l re especially lor day served almost exclusively the privi­ e.hildren. 'l'liere never had been such a leged classes of society, and still remains llientre before. Sometimes, oil holidays, inaccessible to the wide worker and pea­ performances for children were given. bill sant masses. these as a rule were rare and very poor. Tile re w re also theatrical companies, the enterprising managers of which exploit­ ed young child-artists, lint one does not even want to mention all this when one conies to think about real art. My idea was to create a special theatre which would carry great art to its little spectators, a theatre where the best play- rights, musicians and artists would create a new art an art for children. The performances in this theatre would be given daily and the young audience would come to it as to its new home a home of joy. And what at first seemed an unrealisable dream has come true. 'The opening of the Moscow Children's Theatre was soon fol­ lowed by the organisation of similar theatres in other cities of the Soviet Union. And now these theatres have become so tightly interwoven with the life of Soviet children that in the near future there will he not a single big city in the USSR with­ out its own theatre for children. Only in the USSR lias there been set One must hear in mind that these before us musicians the task to acquaint the theatres require not only moral hut also the labouring masses with the finest examples material support of the State, as children of the musical heritage, and above all pay only 40 copeks for a seat and part of to create such music and to train such Hie tickets are distributed free. Where, musicians ami pedagogues who would be except the Soviet Union, could such a scale able to serve not only a small privileged of organisation lie possible? group, but all the toilers both in (he USSR I should also like to dwell upon the and in the whole world. opportunities which the October Revolu­ tion has given to us women. There is now no field of activity, no leading post where a capable woman could not work as an A. KRAVCHENKO equal of man. I was not even fifteen, when the October Painter Revolution enabled me to work on my favourite job. And now if I am the direc­ Tn inv studio, among easels and tools, tor, art supervisor and producer of the 1 make pictures, woodcuts, engravings por­ theatre I have created, could I ever separate traying revolutionary struggle and con­ all this from the soil which made my work struction work, agitating for definite poli­ possible? tical ideas. I think and feel sure that in my own way with paint-brush and chisel — I hell) to build it]) socialism in the Soviet Union. A. GOLDENVEISER, The tasks of Soviet art, tremendous as Professor of music at the Moscow Conserva­ they arc in their scope, demand from me tory, llonourary Worker of Art first and foremost a true representation of contemporary life; therefore i must The art of music, one of the most power­ go personally to the building sites in order ful means for uniting the working masses, to witness every things wilh my own eyes which can so easily do away with national and to become imbued by the real enthu­ and racial frontiers, lias up to the present siasm and greatness of the construction.

7° I went to Dnicprosti\yv (a large series We arc not isolated from life. We stand of my woodcuts are devoted to this huge in its very core. Ours is a militant art project), visited many factories, and now organisation and we arc wholly confident I am thinking of spending some lime in tlie R.*d Navy. Everywhere I find new themes, wonderful in their sharpness and artistic pathos. I recall how the October days and the civil war inspired us artists. The Revolu­ tion poured new life into the senescent, formally-eslhetic art of old Russia. The Revolution gave entirely new themes to plastic arts. The enthusiasm, the pathos of struggle and construction proved a real source of inspiration for artists. Instead of pandering to the desires of the aristo­ cracy and the bourgeoisie, the painter’s work can now satisfy the demands of the working masses. We receive numerous orders from the Red Army, from our na­ tional galleries and museums, worker clubs, rest homes etc. If in capitalist countries art is dying under pressure of the crisis, in the Soviet Union art lives an extremely intense and vigourous life. The artist fully realises his responsibility before the country and gives of his best in order to create works that our work is as necessary for the >oviet of the highest quality, with regard both Union as any other in the front of cultural to theme and technique. revolul ion.

e ■ a The opening of Dnieproges

J. STALIN'S MESSAGE ------

To the chief of Dnieprostroy construc- leave Moscow, on account of pressing lion — Comrade Winter. business. To the secretary of the Kichkas District I warmly greet and congratulate the Party Committee— Comrade Leibenson. workers and the administration of Duicpro- To the chairinan of the District Committee strov on their successful completion of of lhe Builders Union Comrade Brovko. this great historical edifice. I firmly shake hands with the sliock- 1 am sorry l could nol comply with your brigaders of Dnieprostroy, the glorious request to be present at the opening of the heroes of socialist construction. Dnieper station. I could not possibly ./. Stalin.

GREETING FROM TIIE CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF ----- THE COMMUNIST PARTY OE THE UKRAINE TO THE BUILDERS OF THE DNIEPER POWER STATION

By their shock work the proletarians of ation and for the establishment of a new Dnieprostroy under the guidance of the Par­ electric base for the socialist industries. ty ensured the bolshevist tempo of construc­ The Central Committee of the Communist tion of the largest hvdro-electric station in Party of the Ukraine licartely welcomes the world and made the greatest contribu­ the advance detachment of the army of so­ tion towards the realisation of the Lenin­ cialist builders — the workers, technicians, ist plan of electrification of the USSR. engineers, communists and young commun­ The staff of workers and the guiding staff, ists oT Dnieprostroy on the day the world the bolshevik and young communist organis­ giant power station is set into operation. ations of Dnieprostroy furnished brilliant The Central Committee of the examples of the struggle for iiulustrialis- Communist Party of the Ukraine.

DNIEPROGES — THE LENIN DNIEPER ------HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATION — IS OPERATING (From the report of the builders of Dnieprostroy) Dnieproges has been started. The Leninist fronted with the task of erecting I he so­ plan of electrification, the plan of a genius, cialist works of the Dnieper industrial is now embodied in the gigantic construc­ combinaLc within the period fixed by the tions on the Dnieper. The offspring of the Party and the Government. Our task is first Five-Year Plan Dnieproges — is driv­ to give the country in the nearest future ing along the high-voltage transmission cast iron, high-grade steel, rolled steel and line — 450,000 II. P. —-the cheapest elec­ .Soviet aluminium. We shall complete the tric power in the world. The greatest dam construction of the giant works of the Dnie­ in the world - 700 metres long, 00 metres per combinate at the same speed as Dniepro­ high, containing 720,000 cubic metres of stroy was erected, taking advantage of the concrete — has now cut across the power­ experience gained in its construction. ful Dnieper. Long live the Party of the bolsheviks Today the electric smelter for high-grade and its Leninist militant Central Committee! steel and the mechanical repair works “ Za- Long live Comrade Stalin, the leader porozhslal ' are being set into operation. of the Party and of the working class! The current has been turned on. Dnieper Head of the combined Dnieper is now working for socialism. We are con­ construction A. V. Winter.

Published by the Soviet Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries. Editor: M. APLETIN.