DOCSLIB.ORG

Use of Chlorofluorocarbons in Hydrology : a Guidebook

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Use of Chlorofluorocarbons in Hydrology : a Guidebook USE OF CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS IN HYDROLOGY A Guidebook USE OF CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS IN HYDROLOGY A GUIDEBOOK 2005 Edition The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency: AFGHANISTAN GREECE PANAMA ALBANIA GUATEMALA PARAGUAY ALGERIA HAITI PERU ANGOLA HOLY SEE PHILIPPINES ARGENTINA HONDURAS POLAND ARMENIA HUNGARY PORTUGAL AUSTRALIA ICELAND QATAR AUSTRIA INDIA REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA AZERBAIJAN INDONESIA ROMANIA BANGLADESH IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF RUSSIAN FEDERATION BELARUS IRAQ SAUDI ARABIA BELGIUM IRELAND SENEGAL BENIN ISRAEL SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO BOLIVIA ITALY SEYCHELLES BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA JAMAICA SIERRA LEONE BOTSWANA JAPAN BRAZIL JORDAN SINGAPORE BULGARIA KAZAKHSTAN SLOVAKIA BURKINA FASO KENYA SLOVENIA CAMEROON KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA CANADA KUWAIT SPAIN CENTRAL AFRICAN KYRGYZSTAN SRI LANKA REPUBLIC LATVIA SUDAN CHAD LEBANON SWEDEN CHILE LIBERIA SWITZERLAND CHINA LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC COLOMBIA LIECHTENSTEIN TAJIKISTAN COSTA RICA LITHUANIA THAILAND CÔTE D’IVOIRE LUXEMBOURG THE FORMER YUGOSLAV CROATIA MADAGASCAR REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA CUBA MALAYSIA TUNISIA CYPRUS MALI TURKEY CZECH REPUBLIC MALTA UGANDA DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MARSHALL ISLANDS UKRAINE OF THE CONGO MAURITANIA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES DENMARK MAURITIUS UNITED KINGDOM OF DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MEXICO GREAT BRITAIN AND ECUADOR MONACO NORTHERN IRELAND EGYPT MONGOLIA UNITED REPUBLIC EL SALVADOR MOROCCO ERITREA MYANMAR OF TANZANIA ESTONIA NAMIBIA UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ETHIOPIA NETHERLANDS URUGUAY FINLAND NEW ZEALAND UZBEKISTAN FRANCE NICARAGUA VENEZUELA GABON NIGER VIETNAM GEORGIA NIGERIA YEMEN GERMANY NORWAY ZAMBIA GHANA PAKISTAN ZIMBABWE The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world’’. USE OF CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS IN HYDROLOGY A GUIDEBOOK 2005 Edition INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 2006 COPYRIGHT NOTICE All IAEA scientific and technical publications are protected by the terms of the Universal Copyright Convention as adopted in 1952 (Berne) and as revised in 1972 (Paris). The copyright has since been extended by the World Intellectual Property Organization (Geneva) to include electronic and virtual intellectual property. Permission to use whole or parts of texts contained in IAEA publications in printed or electronic form must be obtained and is usually subject to royalty agreements. Proposals for non-commercial reproductions and translations are welcomed and will be considered on a case by case basis. Enquiries should be addressed by email to the Publishing Section, IAEA, at [email protected] or by post to: Sales and Promotion Unit, Publishing Section International Atomic Energy Agency Wagramer Strasse 5 P.O. Box 100 A-1400 Vienna Austria fax: +43 1 2600 29302 tel.: +43 1 2600 22417 http://www.iaea.org/books © IAEA, 2006 Printed by the IAEA in Austria March 2006 STI/PUB/1238 IAEA Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Use of chlorofluorocarbons in hydrology : a guidebook. — Vienna : International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006. p. ; 24 cm. STI/PUB/1238 ISBN 92–0–1000805–8 Includes bibliographical references. 1. Chlorofluorocarbons. — 2. Tritium. — 3. Radioactive tracers in hydrology. — 4. Groundwater recharge. I. International Atomic Energy Agency. IAEAL 06–00427 FOREWORD Groundwater is used to meet nearly half of the global freshwater demand for domestic and agricultural use. Sustainable use of groundwater resources is, therefore, an important part of the overall efforts required for sustainable human development. Hydrological investigations to assess groundwater resources and to develop sustainable management strategies require a variety of scientific information, including the occurrence and rate of aquifer recharge. In arid and semi-arid areas, natural tracers, such as the environmentally stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen and the radioactive isotope tritium, are unique tools for recharge characterization. The atmospheric input of tritium from thermonuclear bomb tests of the 1950s and early 1960s provided an ideal tracer for determining the presence and rate of modern recharge in shallow aquifers. As the atmospheric concentration of tritium declined, its use for quantifying recharge by estimating the age of groundwater became less reliable. Alternative tools, such as concentrations of the daughter product of tritium (3He) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were devised for quantifying modern groundwater recharge. Measurement of the concentrations of a number of CFCs, which are synthetic compounds used in the industry, provides a complementary tool for corroborating and/or validating recharge estimations based on isotope data. The development of the CFC technique as a tool for dating groundwater has occurred over approximately the last 20 years and a number of research publications have documented its use in specific aquifers. This publication is intended to facilitate a comparative analysis of CFC and isotope techniques and a wider use of the CFC technique under appropriate conditions by providing a description of its scientific basis, sampling and measurement methods, interpretation and limitations of data, and a variety of case studies. This publication is an addition to a number of other IAEA reports and guidebooks that have been published over the last forty years to facilitate the use of isotopes in hydrology. It is aimed at students, teachers and practitioners, and should serve as a reference document for more advanced researchers. The IAEA officers responsible for this publication were M. Gröning, L.F. Han and P. Aggarwal of the Agency’s Laboratories and the Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences. EDITORIAL NOTE The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of the IAEA, the governments of the nominating Member States or the nominating organizations. Owing to their number, the references in this publication have been left, as an exception, in the ‘author-date’ style. They have not been converted into the IAEA’s numbered reference style. The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries. The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA. The authors are responsible for having obtained the necessary permission for the IAEA to reproduce, translate or use material from sources already protected by copyrights. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS . 1 L.N. Plummer, E. Busenberg 1.1. Introduction. 1 1.2. Terminology. 4 1.3. Importance of the multi-tracer approach . 6 1.4. How to use this guidebook . 7 CHAPTER 2. CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE. 9 L.N. Plummer, E. Busenberg 2.1. History of atmospheric CFC concentrations. 9 2.2. Characteristics of the distribution of CFCs in the atmosphere . 11 2.3. Time dependent CFC concentration ratios in the atmosphere . 14 CHAPTER 3. PRINCIPLES OF CHLOROFLUOROCARBON DATING. 17 L.N. Plummer, E. Busenberg, P.G. Cook 3.1. Basic assumption . 17 3.2. Dating with CFC concentrations . 18 3.3. Dating with CFC concentration ratios. 26 3.4. Setting the ‘clock’ . 26 3.5. Groundwater age . 28 3.6. Future applications of CFCs . 29 CHAPTER 4. EFFECTS AND PROCESSES THAT CAN MODIFY APPARENT CFC AGE. 31 P.G. Cook, L.N. Plummer, D.K. Solomon, E. Busenberg, L.F. Han 4.1. Contamination . 31 4.2. Unsaturated zone transport of CFCs . 37 4.3. Recharge temperature . 42 4.4. Excess air . 47 4.5. Sorption . 50 4.6. Microbial degradation . 51 4.7. Matrix diffusion . 53 4.8. Hydrodynamic dispersion . 54 4.9. Summary . 56 CHAPTER 5. CFCs IN BINARY MIXTURES OF YOUNG AND OLD GROUNDWATER . 59 L.N. Plummer, E. Busenberg, L.F. Han 5.1. Groundwater mixtures. 59 5.2. Binary mixtures. 60 5.3. General case of binary mixing. 63 5.4. Tracer plots . 65 5.5. Multi-tracer plots . 68 5.6. Summary of binary mixing . 71 CHAPTER 6. MODELS OF GROUNDWATER AGES AND RESIDENCE TIMES . 73 D.K. Solomon, P.G. Cook, L.N. Plummer 6.1. Introduction. 73 6.2. Unconfined aquifer with constant thickness . 75 6.3. Unconfined aquifer with linearly increasing thickness . 79 6.4. Confined aquifer with constant thickness . 81 6.5. Confined aquifer with constant thickness in confined part . 83 6.6. Discussion . 85 6.7. Summary . 88 CHAPTER 7. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF CFCs IN HYDROLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 89 D.K. Solomon, L.N. Plummer, E. Busenberg, P.G. Cook 7.1. Estimation of recharge rate from rate of downward movement using vertical CFC profiles . 89 7.2. Application of a discharge model. 91 7.3. Tracing flow direction and velocity using spatial variations — losing and gaining streams. 92 7.4. Identifying recharge areas . 95 7.5. Identifying ‘secure’ drinking water sources — recognizing leakage of shallow water into water supply wells . 97 7.6. Reconstructing the history of contaminant loading to an aquifer . 99 7.7. Calibrating groundwater flow models . 101 CHAPTER 8. DATA INTERPRETATION IN REPRESENTATIVE CASES. 105 L.N. Plummer, E. Busenberg, L.F. Han 8.1. Introduction. 105 8.2. Shallow, aerobic infiltration water (sample 1) . 106 8.3. Dated waters from springs, Shenandoah National Park and vicinity, Virginia, USA (samples 2 and 3) . 106 8.4. Mixtures from fractured rock and karstic aquifers (samples 4–7). 119 8.5. Water contaminated with one or more CFCs (samples 8–16). 120 8.6. Microbial degradation of CFCs (samples 17–19) . 124 8.7. Groundwater beneath deep unsaturated zones (samples 20–22). 125 8.8. Gas stripping and microbial degradation (samples 23 and 24) . 127 8.9. Screening patterns of CFC apparent ages for an initial assessment . 128 8.10. Guidelines for assignment of apparent CFC age . 130 CHAPTER 9.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Reference Guide
    Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools REFERENCE GUIDE Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Indoor Environments Division, 6609J 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20460 (202) 564-9370 www.epa.gov/iaq American Federation of Teachers 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20001 (202) 879-4400 www.aft.org Association of School Business Officials 11401 North Shore Drive Reston, VA 22090 (703) 478-0405 www.asbointl.org National Education Association 1201 16th Steet, NW Washington, DC 20036-3290 (202) 833-4000 www.nea.org National Parent Teachers Association 330 North Wabash Avenue, Suite 2100 Chicago, IL 60611-3690 (312) 670-6782 www.pta.org American Lung Association 1740 Broadway New York, NY 10019 (212) 315-8700 www.lungusa.org EPA 402/K-07/008 I January 2009 I www.epa.gov/iaq/schools Introduction � U nderstanding the importance of good basic measurement equipment, hiring indoor air quality (IAQ) in schools is the professional assistance, and codes and backbone of developing an effective IAQ regulations. There are numerous resources program. Poor IAQ can lead to a large available to schools through EPA and other variety of health problems and potentially organizations, many of which are listed in affect comfort, concentration, and staff/ Appendix L. Use the information in this student performance. In recognition of Guide to create the best possible learning tight school budgets, this guidance is environment for students and maintain a designed to present practical and often comfortable, healthy building for school low-cost actions you can take to identify occupants. and address existing or potential air quality Refer to A Framework for School problems.
    [Show full text]
  • A Van Der Waals Density Functional Study of Chloroform and Other Trihalomethanes on Graphene Joel Åkesson, Oskar Sundborg, Olof Wahlström, and Elsebeth Schröder
    A van der Waals density functional study of chloroform and other trihalomethanes on graphene Joel Åkesson, Oskar Sundborg, Olof Wahlström, and Elsebeth Schröder Citation: J. Chem. Phys. 137, 174702 (2012); doi: 10.1063/1.4764356 View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4764356 View Table of Contents: http://jcp.aip.org/resource/1/JCPSA6/v137/i17 Published by the American Institute of Physics. Additional information on J. Chem. Phys. Journal Homepage: http://jcp.aip.org/ Journal Information: http://jcp.aip.org/about/about_the_journal Top downloads: http://jcp.aip.org/features/most_downloaded Information for Authors: http://jcp.aip.org/authors THE JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL PHYSICS 137, 174702 (2012) A van der Waals density functional study of chloroform and other trihalomethanes on graphene Joel Åkesson,1 Oskar Sundborg,1 Olof Wahlström,1 and Elsebeth Schröder2,a) 1Hulebäcksgymnasiet, Idrottsvägen 2, SE-435 80 Mölnlycke, Sweden 2Microtechnology and Nanoscience, MC2, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Göteborg, Sweden (Received 25 July 2012; accepted 14 October 2012; published online 1 November 2012) A computational study of chloroform (CHCl3) and other trihalomethanes (THMs) adsorbed on graphene is presented. The study uses the van der Waals density functional method to obtain ad- sorption energies and adsorption structures for these molecules of environmental concern. In this study, chloroform is found to adsorb with the H atom pointing away from graphene, with adsorption energy 357 meV (34.4 kJ/mol). For the other THMs studied the calculated adsorption energy values vary from 206 meV (19.9 kJ/mol) for fluoroform (CHF3) to 404 meV (39.0 kJ/mol) for bromoform (CHBr3).
    [Show full text]
  • Chlorofluorocarbons Chem 300A Tyler Jensen, Mackenzie Latimer, Jessie Luther, Jake Mcghee, Adeeb Noorani, Tyla Penner, & Maddy Springle
    Chlorofluorocarbons Chem 300a Tyler Jensen, Mackenzie Latimer, Jessie Luther, Jake McGhee, Adeeb Noorani, Tyla Penner, & Maddy Springle 1.1: A Brief History of Chlorofluorocarbons Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), also known as Freons, were first synthesized in 1928 by Thomas Midgley Jr, who was working for General Motors trying to find a safe refrigerant to use in commercial applications. (Rosenbaum, n.d.). They are an anthropogenic compound containing fluorine, carbon, and chlorine atoms, and are classified as halocarbons. CFCs are a family of chemicals based upon hydrocarbon skeletons, where most hydrogens have been replaced with chlorine and/or fluorine atoms. They are chemically stable freons that are non-flammable, tasteless and odourless. CFCs are very volatile, which makes for ideal refrigerant gases, having a boiling point close to zero degrees (Rosenbaum, n.d) They were originally created to replace the toxic gases used in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Examples of the toxic gases replaced by CFCs as refrigerants are ammonia (NH3), methyl chloride (CH3Cl), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) (Wilkins, 1999). When first created dichlorodifloromethane was found to be less toxic than carbon dioxide, and as non-flammable as carbon tetrachloride (Midgley & Henne, 1930). The non-toxic, non-flammable, and non-reactive properties of CFCs made them ideal for use as refrigerants. CFCs were used in many developed countries for consumption and production as they were inflammable and non-toxic towards humanity. Chlorofluorocarbons can be used as refrigerants, cleaning agents, foaming agents, and propellants for aerosol sprays (Welch, n.d.). In 1974, Two University of California chemists, Professor F. Sherwood Rowland and Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • Secondary Organic Aerosol from Chlorine-Initiated Oxidation of Isoprene Dongyu S
    Secondary organic aerosol from chlorine-initiated oxidation of isoprene Dongyu S. Wang and Lea Hildebrandt Ruiz McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78756, USA 5 Correspondence to: Lea Hildebrandt Ruiz ([email protected]) Abstract. Recent studies have found concentrations of reactive chlorine species to be higher than expected, suggesting that atmospheric chlorine chemistry is more extensive than previously thought. Chlorine radicals can interact with HOx radicals and nitrogen oxides (NOx) to alter the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere. They are known to rapidly oxidize a wide range of volatile organic compounds (VOC) found in the atmosphere, yet little is known about secondary organic aerosol (SOA) 10 formation from chlorine-initiated photo-oxidation and its atmospheric implications. Environmental chamber experiments were carried out under low-NOx conditions with isoprene and chlorine as primary VOC and oxidant sources. Upon complete isoprene consumption, observed SOA yields ranged from 8 to 36 %, decreasing with extended photo-oxidation and SOA aging. Formation of particulate organochloride was observed. A High-Resolution Time-of-Flight Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometer was used to determine the molecular composition of gas-phase species using iodide-water and hydronium-water 15 cluster ionization. Multi-generational chemistry was observed, including ions consistent with hydroperoxides, chloroalkyl hydroperoxides, isoprene-derived epoxydiol (IEPOX) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl), evident of secondary OH production and resulting chemistry from Cl-initiated reactions. This is the first reported study of SOA formation from chlorine-initiated oxidation of isoprene. Results suggest that tropospheric chlorine chemistry could contribute significantly to organic aerosol loading.
    [Show full text]
  • Nerve Agent - Lntellipedia Page 1 Of9 Doc ID : 6637155 (U) Nerve Agent
    This document is made available through the declassification efforts and research of John Greenewald, Jr., creator of: The Black Vault The Black Vault is the largest online Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) document clearinghouse in the world. The research efforts here are responsible for the declassification of MILLIONS of pages released by the U.S. Government & Military. Discover the Truth at: http://www.theblackvault.com Nerve Agent - lntellipedia Page 1 of9 Doc ID : 6637155 (U) Nerve Agent UNCLASSIFIED From lntellipedia Nerve Agents (also known as nerve gases, though these chemicals are liquid at room temperature) are a class of phosphorus-containing organic chemicals (organophosphates) that disrupt the mechanism by which nerves transfer messages to organs. The disruption is caused by blocking acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that normally relaxes the activity of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. ...--------- --- -·---- - --- -·-- --- --- Contents • 1 Overview • 2 Biological Effects • 2.1 Mechanism of Action • 2.2 Antidotes • 3 Classes • 3.1 G-Series • 3.2 V-Series • 3.3 Novichok Agents • 3.4 Insecticides • 4 History • 4.1 The Discovery ofNerve Agents • 4.2 The Nazi Mass Production ofTabun • 4.3 Nerve Agents in Nazi Germany • 4.4 The Secret Gets Out • 4.5 Since World War II • 4.6 Ocean Disposal of Chemical Weapons • 5 Popular Culture • 6 References and External Links --------------- ----·-- - Overview As chemical weapons, they are classified as weapons of mass destruction by the United Nations according to UN Resolution 687, and their production and stockpiling was outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993; the Chemical Weapons Convention officially took effect on April 291997. Poisoning by a nerve agent leads to contraction of pupils, profuse salivation, convulsions, involuntary urination and defecation, and eventual death by asphyxiation as control is lost over respiratory muscles.
    [Show full text]
  • CHAPTER12 Atmospheric Degradation of Halocarbon Substitutes
    CHAPTER12 AtmosphericDegradation of Halocarbon Substitutes Lead Author: R.A. Cox Co-authors: R. Atkinson G.K. Moortgat A.R. Ravishankara H.W. Sidebottom Contributors: G.D. Hayman C. Howard M. Kanakidou S .A. Penkett J. Rodriguez S. Solomon 0. Wild CHAPTER 12 ATMOSPHERIC DEGRADATION OF HALOCARBON SUBSTITUTES Contents SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................................... 12.1 12.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................... 12.3 12.2 ATMOSPHERIC LIFETIMES OF HFCS AND HCFCS ................................................................................. 12.3 12.2. 1 Tropospheric Loss Processes .............................................................................................................. 12.3 12.2.2 Stratospheric Loss Processes .............................................................................................................. 12.4 12.3 ATMOSPHERIC LIFETIMES OF OTHER CFC AND HALON SUBSTITUTES ......................................... 12.4 12.4 ATMOSPHERIC DEGRADATION OF SUBSTITUTES ................................................................................ 12.5 12.5 GAS PHASE DEGRADATION CHEMISTRY OF SUBSTITUTES .............................................................. 12.6 12.5.1 Reaction with NO ..............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Warning: the Following Lecture Contains Graphic Images
    What the новичок (Novichok)? Why Chemical Warfare Agents Are More Relevant Than Ever Matt Sztajnkrycer, MD PHD Professor of Emergency Medicine, Mayo Clinic Medical Toxicologist, Minnesota Poison Control System Medical Director, RFD Chemical Assessment Team @NoobieMatt #ITLS2018 Disclosures In accordance with the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME) Standards, the American Nurses Credentialing Center’s Commission (ANCC) and the Commission on Accreditation for Pre-Hospital Continuing Education (CAPCE), states presenters must disclose the existence of significant financial interests in or relationships with manufacturers or commercial products that may have a direct interest in the subject matter of the presentation, and relationships with the commercial supporter of this CME activity. The presenter does not consider that it will influence their presentation. Dr. Sztajnkrycer does not have a significant financial relationship to report. Dr. Sztajnkrycer is on the Editorial Board of International Trauma Life Support. Specific CW Agents Classes of Chemical Agents: The Big 5 The “A” List Pulmonary Agents Phosgene Oxime, Chlorine Vesicants Mustard, Phosgene Blood Agents CN Nerve Agents G, V, Novel, T Incapacitating Agents Thinking Outside the Box - An Abbreviated List Ammonia Fluorine Chlorine Acrylonitrile Hydrogen Sulfide Phosphine Methyl Isocyanate Dibotane Hydrogen Selenide Allyl Alcohol Sulfur Dioxide TDI Acrolein Nitric Acid Arsine Hydrazine Compound 1080/1081 Nitrogen Dioxide Tetramine (TETS) Ethylene Oxide Chlorine Leaks Phosphine Chlorine Common Toxic Industrial Chemical (“TIC”). Why use it in war/terror? Chlorine Density of 3.21 g/L. Heavier than air (1.28 g/L) sinks. Concentrates in low-lying areas. Like basements and underground bunkers. Reacts with water: Hypochlorous acid (HClO) Hydrochloric acid (HCl).
    [Show full text]
  • "Fluorine Compounds, Organic," In: Ullmann's Encyclopedia Of
    Article No : a11_349 Fluorine Compounds, Organic GU¨ NTER SIEGEMUND, Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany WERNER SCHWERTFEGER, Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany ANDREW FEIRING, E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Wilmington, Delaware, United States BRUCE SMART, E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Wilmington, Delaware, United States FRED BEHR, Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States HERWARD VOGEL, Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States BLAINE MCKUSICK, E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Wilmington, Delaware, United States 1. Introduction....................... 444 8. Fluorinated Carboxylic Acids and 2. Production Processes ................ 445 Fluorinated Alkanesulfonic Acids ...... 470 2.1. Substitution of Hydrogen............. 445 8.1. Fluorinated Carboxylic Acids ......... 470 2.2. Halogen – Fluorine Exchange ......... 446 8.1.1. Fluorinated Acetic Acids .............. 470 2.3. Synthesis from Fluorinated Synthons ... 447 8.1.2. Long-Chain Perfluorocarboxylic Acids .... 470 2.4. Addition of Hydrogen Fluoride to 8.1.3. Fluorinated Dicarboxylic Acids ......... 472 Unsaturated Bonds ................. 447 8.1.4. Tetrafluoroethylene – Perfluorovinyl Ether 2.5. Miscellaneous Methods .............. 447 Copolymers with Carboxylic Acid Groups . 472 2.6. Purification and Analysis ............. 447 8.2. Fluorinated Alkanesulfonic Acids ...... 472 3. Fluorinated Alkanes................. 448 8.2.1. Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acids
    [Show full text]
  • Verification Program Manual and Mexico
    SHARE: Join Our Email List CLIMATE ACTION NEWS December 2020 A note from our President Greetings, The climate community is hopeful and excited for a new era of climate policy, action, and diplomacy. The incoming Administration has already indicated a serious commitment to addressing the climate crisis, with key appointments and statements portending well for the future of U.S. climate action on the federal level. We are excited for the U.S. to not only rejoin the Paris Agreement, but to provide the example, the innovation, and the thought-leadership to achieve GHG reductions at the scale and urgency required. The Reserve is working to support and inform international efforts to scale up, mobilize, and strengthen the effectiveness of voluntary carbon markets across the globe. Even though COP has been postponed this year, experts around the world continue to discuss and deliberate critical issues to help craft key underlying decisions on how markets should function, how to apply usage of carbon offsets, and how to ensure the environmental integrity and financial value of offset projects and credits. In addition to participating in international discussions, the Reserve is working to expand our work in Mexico. We are updating the Mexico Ozone Depleting Substances Protocol to add several halocarbons, which are refrigerants with high global warming potentials. We are also continuing to work with communities and organizations across Mexico with outreach and education on implementing forest carbon projects, as well as drafting agricultural offset protocols for consideration by the Mexican Government. Thank you again for your climate action and leadership throughout the year.
    [Show full text]
  • United States Patent Office Patented July 1, 1969
    3,453,337 United States Patent Office Patented July 1, 1969 1. 2 3,453,337 FLUORINATION OF HALOGENATED The presence in the reaction mixture of the two fluo ORGANIC COMPOUNDS rides, or the complex fluoride enables better yields of Royston Henry Bennett and David Walter Cottrell, Ayon highly fluorinated products to be obtained under less mouth, England, assignors to Imperial Smelting Cor severe reaction condions, markedly increases the amount poration (N.S.C.) Limited, London, England, a British of fluorination reagent reacted under otherwise similar company conditions and enables the fluorination reaction to be No brawing. Filed Feb. 19, 1965, Ser. No. 434,128 carried out (for the same yield of product) at a lower Claims priority, application Great Britain, Feb. 26, 1964, temperature with the consequent use of less costly ma 7,932/64 terials and techniques of reactor construction. The pres Int, C. C07c 25/04 10 ence of the fluorides enables the vapor phase reaction U.S. C. 260-650 2 Claims to be carried out (for the same yields) at lower pressure This invention relates to the fluorination of organic than the pressure involved in the reactions using only halogen compounds and more especially to a process the alkali metal fluorides as proposed hitherto. The fur for the production of highly fluorinated aromatic com ther possibility of using a continuous flow apparatus such pounds by the replacement of higher halogen atoms in 15 as a fluidised reactor will be apparent to those familiar halogeno-aromatic compounds by fluorine atoms. with the art. The presence of the two fluorides or com Aromatic halogenocarbons containing carbon and halo plex fluoride enables a lower temperature to be em gen atoms only can be reacted with alkali fluorides ployed than was hitherto believed to be necessary, with under various conditions to give yields of halofluoro a consequent reduction in the extent of thermal degrada aromatic compounds.
    [Show full text]
  • Applied and Fundamental Heterogeneous Catalysis Studies
    APPLIED AND FUNDAMENTAL HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS STUDIES ON HYDRODECHLORINATION OF TRICHLOROETHYLENE AND STEAM REFORMING OF ETHANOL DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Hyuntae Sohn, M.S. Graduate Program in Chemical Engineering The Ohio State University 2016 - Dissertation Committee - Prof. Umit S. Ozkan, Advisor Prof. Andre Palmer Prof. Lisa Hall Prof. T.V. (Babu) RajanBabu Copyright by Hyuntae Sohn 2016 ABSTRACT The dissertation herein reports heterogeneous catalysis studies conducted on two different projects, (1) Hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene and (2) Ethanol steam reforming. The former is associated with the process for trichloroethylene waste treatment and groundwater remediation technology whereas the latter pertains to hydrogen production. The presented work involves not only investigations on the catalytic activity, but also fundamental studies to understand how and why a catalyst works for a particular reaction. This dissertation is composed of two major parts. (1) Part I (Chapter 1-4): Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a chlorinated hydrocarbon solvent which has been widely used as a vapor degreaser for metal cleaning. TCE contains high level of toxicity, also known as a carcinogen. Recently, contamination of groundwater due to untreated TCE is a rapidly rising environmental issue, affecting the drinking water quality. The current waste treatment process for removal of TCE are mostly based on adsorption and extraction techniques. However, these processes do not provide a complete destruction of the TCE chemical structure; hence, it requires an additional incinerator to convert TCE into non harmful products. Hydrodechlorination (HDC) of TCE is a catalytic chemical reaction where TCE is converted to ethane and hydrochloric acid using hydrogen as a reducing agent.
    [Show full text]
  • Reducing Trihalomethane Concentrations by Using Chloramines As a Disinfectant
    REDUCING TRIHALOMETHANE CONCENTRATIONS BY USING CHLORAMINES AS A DISINFECTANT by Elizabeth Anne Farren A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Environmental Engineering by ___________________________________ April 2003 APPROVED: ___________________________________ Dr. Jeanine D. Plummer, Major Advisor ____________________________________ Dr. Frederick L. Hart, Head of Department Abstract Disinfectants such as chlorine are used in drinking water treatment to protect the public health from pathogenic microorganisms. However, disinfectants also react with humic material present in raw water sources and produce by-products, such as trihalomethanes. Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) include four compounds: chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform. TTHMs are carcinogenic and have been found to cause adverse pregnancy outcomes. Therefore, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) has set the maximum contaminant limit for TTHMs at 80 µg/L. Additional regulations require reliable drinking water disinfection for resistant pathogens and treatment plants must simultaneously control TTHMs and achieve proper disinfection. Research has shown that THM formation depends on several factors. THM concentrations increase with increasing residence time, increased temperature and increased pH. The disinfectant type and concentration is also significant: THM concentrations can be minimized by using lower disinfectant doses or alternative disinfectants to chlorine such as chloramines. Chloramines are formed by the addition of both chlorine and ammonia. The Worcester Water Filtration Plant in Holden, MA currently uses both ozone and chlorine for primary disinfection. Chlorine is also used for secondary disinfection. This study analyzed the effect of using chloramines versus free chlorine on TTHM production at the plant.
    [Show full text]