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Reducing Trihalomethane Concentrations by Using Chloramines As a Disinfectant

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Reducing Trihalomethane Concentrations by Using Chloramines As a Disinfectant REDUCING TRIHALOMETHANE CONCENTRATIONS BY USING CHLORAMINES AS A DISINFECTANT by Elizabeth Anne Farren A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Environmental Engineering by ___________________________________ April 2003 APPROVED: ___________________________________ Dr. Jeanine D. Plummer, Major Advisor ____________________________________ Dr. Frederick L. Hart, Head of Department Abstract Disinfectants such as chlorine are used in drinking water treatment to protect the public health from pathogenic microorganisms. However, disinfectants also react with humic material present in raw water sources and produce by-products, such as trihalomethanes. Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) include four compounds: chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform. TTHMs are carcinogenic and have been found to cause adverse pregnancy outcomes. Therefore, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) has set the maximum contaminant limit for TTHMs at 80 µg/L. Additional regulations require reliable drinking water disinfection for resistant pathogens and treatment plants must simultaneously control TTHMs and achieve proper disinfection. Research has shown that THM formation depends on several factors. THM concentrations increase with increasing residence time, increased temperature and increased pH. The disinfectant type and concentration is also significant: THM concentrations can be minimized by using lower disinfectant doses or alternative disinfectants to chlorine such as chloramines. Chloramines are formed by the addition of both chlorine and ammonia. The Worcester Water Filtration Plant in Holden, MA currently uses both ozone and chlorine for primary disinfection. Chlorine is also used for secondary disinfection. This study analyzed the effect of using chloramines versus free chlorine on TTHM production at the plant. Water samples were collected from the plant, dosed with chlorine/chloramines and stored for their designated residence times. The residual chlorine was then quenched with sodium thiosulfate and the samples were analyzed for ii TTHM concentration using a GC-MS. Experiments were conducted in December of 2001, April of 2002 and February of 2003, and examined varying residence times, pH conditions, temperatures, chlorine to nitrogen ratios and free chlorine reaction periods. The study found that as the pH increased the TTHMs increased. For the free chlorine samples, as residence time increased, the TTHMs increased. For the chloramination samples it was found that most of the TTHMs were formed in the first six hour reaction period with free chlorine before ammonia was added. Therefore, reducing this free chlorine contact period to 0 or 3 hours would reduce THM formation further. Chlorine to nitrogen ratios between 3:1 and 7:1 were all effective at reducing THM concentrations. Using chloramination at a 3:1 ratio (with a 6 hour free chlorine time) reduced THM formation by approximately 38% for a 54 hour residence time compared to using free chlorine. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Civil and Environmental Engineering department at Worcester Polytechnic Institute for their continual support throughout my educational career. I would especially like to thank my advisor, Dr. Jeanine D. Plummer, for her constant support, understanding and suggestions through the past two years. Also I would like to thank her for her inspiration in the field of environmental engineering. Without the guidance I received from her, I would not have been able to complete this report. I would like to thank the staff of the Worcester Water Filtration Plant for their help collecting samples and providing the necessary laboratory equipment. I would especially like to thank the plant manager Bob Hoyt and the lab manager Jim Bonofiglio at the filtration plant for their help in providing the required materials and instructing me on the proper use of the instruments. Special thanks to everyone who has helped me maintain my sanity while conducting a project of this magnitude. During all of those endless nights my friends were the ones who pulled me through by helping in any way possible. My friends and family have given me the support, advice and counseling that I have desperately required over the past two years to finish this thesis. Lastly I would to thank my fiancé whose encouragement and suggestions throughout these past two years were priceless. iv Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements............................................................................................................ iv List of Figures................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ...................................................................................................................viii 1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................... 1 2.0 Literature Review.......................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Types of Disinfectants .............................................................................................. 5 2.1.1 Chlorine Disinfection......................................................................................... 5 2.1.2 Chloramine Disinfection.................................................................................... 6 2.1.3 Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection........................................................................... 8 2.1.4 Ozone Disinfection ............................................................................................ 8 2.1.5 Ultraviolet Disinfection ................................................................................... 10 2.2 Disinfection By-products........................................................................................ 10 2.2.1 History of Disinfection By-products................................................................ 11 2.2.2 Trihalomethanes............................................................................................... 12 2.2.3 Haloacetic Acids .............................................................................................. 13 2.2.4 Other Disinfection By-products....................................................................... 14 2.3 Factors Affecting the Formation of DBPs .............................................................. 15 2.3.1 Type of Disinfectant ........................................................................................ 15 2.3.2 Disinfectant Concentration .............................................................................. 16 2.3.3 Residence Time................................................................................................ 16 2.3.4 Temperature ..................................................................................................... 17 2.3.5 pH..................................................................................................................... 18 2.3.6 Total Organic Carbon Concentrations ............................................................. 19 2.3.7 Bromide Concentrations .................................................................................. 20 2.4 Health Risks............................................................................................................ 21 2.4.1 Animal Studies................................................................................................. 21 2.4.2 Human Studies................................................................................................. 22 2.5 Regulations ............................................................................................................. 24 2.5.1 Stage I D/DBP Rule......................................................................................... 25 2.5.2 Stage II D/DBP Rule........................................................................................ 27 2.5.3 Other Regulations ............................................................................................ 29 2.6 Disinfection By-product Control ............................................................................ 31 2.6.1 Removal of DBPs Precursor Material.............................................................. 32 2.6.2 Altering Disinfection Conditions..................................................................... 32 2.6.3 Removal of DBPs After Formation ................................................................. 34 2.6.3.1 Oxidation................................................................................................... 34 2.6.3.2 Aeration..................................................................................................... 35 2.6.3.3 Granular Activated Carbon Adsorption.................................................... 36 2.6.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Trihalomethane Removal .................. 37 2.7 Worcester Water Filtration Plant ............................................................................ 37 2.7.1 Disinfection By-products in Worcester ........................................................... 40 3.0 Methodology..............................................................................................................
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