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JULIUS CÆSAR (100-44 B.C.E.)

Rome solved the great political sweeping vision, he saw as from some problem of the ancient world in the superior height, the political situation best practicable, if not in the best of his own time in its relation to the conceivable, way. To Julius Cæsar it past and the future of the ancient fell to put the crowning stroke to that world. If had till then carried work. The several states of modern out the work of conquest with Europe have all contributed, though in considerable method, and upon the different degrees, to political progress, whole, with steadiness, it had very and therefore no one of them has the inadequately satisfied the need for unique importance and glory that incorporation. Rome’s oligarchical belongs to Rome. For the same reason, constitution, admirably adapted for no modern statesman stands on a the first task, could not easily level with Julius Cæsar. He remains, reconcile itself to the second. in Shakespeare's phrase, "the foremost man of all this world." 2. What word best describes Rome’s government before Cæsar came to 1. What famous English writer called power? Julius Cæsar “the foremost man of a. Dictatorship all this world”? b. Monarchy ______c. Oligarchy ______d. Theocracy ______In its best days, and while It was the high fortune of Rome and Macedon were still that, in the principal crisis of its formidable, the Senate had from time history, it possessed a citizen so to time, prudently though grudgingly, splendidly endowed in intellect, extended the privilege of citizenship to character, and heart. Free to an some of the subject Italian states. But extraordinary degree from the the great mass of had only prejudices belonging to his age and extorted it by rebellion during the country, with piercing and far- boyhood of Cæsar. Outside Italy, the

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Julius Caesar conquered nations were still on the he preferred to re-establish the footing of subject allies, trampled upon senatorial oligarchy. and fleeced for the benefit of Rome, or rather of the Roman nobles and 4. Why did fail to extend the capitalists. If the great dominion was franchise (citizenship) to Rome’s to be maintained in some tolerable provincials? degree of well-being for all its ______members, or even maintained at all, it ______was absolutely necessary that the so- ______called Republican constitution, always ______oppressive for the provinces, and now ______shamefully corrupt, should be replaced ______by personal government. When Sulla crushed the Marian 3. The Roman patricians were always party (party of ), Cæsar eager to extend citizenship to had just arrived at manhood. Though Rome’s conquered peoples. of an old house, he had yet a a. True family connection with the democratic b. False party, Marius having married his aunt. Cæsar himself had married a For a complete incorporation of daughter of the democratic leader the subject peoples was not to be Cinna, and for refusing to divorce her expected from the suffrages of a he was proscribed by Sulla, but dominant people, to even the poorest managed to keep in hiding till the of whom, it would mean the cessation storm was past. of highly prized privileges and immunities. The provinces would from 5. Describe Julius Cæsar’s two the earliest moment of their subjection familial connections to the have welcomed such a change. The Populares (democratic party). time was more than ripe for it when ______the Roman world lay at the feet of ______Sulla. Sulla had all the ability, self- ______reliance, prestige, and opportunity ______that were needed. But his moral ______nature was below the task. He had ______neither the insight, nor the sympathy, ______nor the noble ambition of Cæsar, and ______

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Julius Caesar After the death of the great determined to take the great task into reactionist Sulla (78 B.C.E.), Cæsar his own hands. He was the recognized seized every opportunity of reviving chief of the popular party, which the spirit of the popular party—for aimed at concentrating Republican instance, by publicly honoring the government in the hands of a single memory of Marius, bringing to justice person, as the only means of bridling murderers of the proscription, and the oligarchy. But this was not to be courageously raising his single voice in accomplished merely by popular votes, the Senate against the illegal as many a democratic leader had execution of Catiline's partisans (63 found to his cost. Cæsar needed an B.C.E.). Clearly seeing the necessity army and a military reputation, and for personal government, at a time with rare patience he set himself to when his own services and distinctions acquire both. By a coalition with were not such as to entitle him to —now obliged to treat Cæsar aspire to it, Cæsar did his best to as an equal—he obtained the secure it for Pompey (then the consulship (59 B.C.E.), which on its foremost man in Rome), by expiration entitled him to a great strenuously supporting measures military command. which virtually placed the empire at Pompey’s absolute disposal for an 7. The Populares aimed at indefinite period. A fairly good soldier, concentrating Republican but a most vain, unreliable, and government in the hands of a/an incompetent statesman, Pompey after _____. five years let these powers slip a. assembly through his hands. b. hereditary chieftain c. single person 6. Whom did Cæsar help bring to d. troika power? a. Jugurtha Roman generals had of late b. Marius preferred to extend their conquests c. Pompey eastward, and to win comparatively d. Sulla easy and lucrative triumphs in Asia, over people who had possessed for long Cæsar was by this time thirty- ages a type of civilization suited to eight (62 B.C.E.). He had steadily them, and who therefore could never risen in influence and official rank. It thoroughly assimilate Western was, no doubt, now that he manners and institutions. All this

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Julius Caesar time Gaul, lying at the gates of Italy, continuous years did he devote to this was neglected (only the district great task, which, if he had achieved between the Cevennes and the Alps nothing else, would make his name having been reduced), because the one of the greatest in history. people were more warlike, and less booty was to be gained. Yet, till that 9. Ancient Gaul is roughly equivalent conquest should be effected, Rome's to what modern country? work of civilizing the world was a. France standing still. Nay, it was always b. Germany menaced by northern invasions. c. Great Britain d. Spain 8. Why did Roman generals prefer to conquer Eastern lands, rather than In those ten years, Cæsar lands in Europe north of Italy? conquered Gaul, from the Pyrenees to ______the Rhine and the British Channel. ______Cæsar conquered Gaul so thoroughly, ______and treated the Gauls so sensibly, that ______when the fierce struggle was over, ______Gaul frankly and even proudly ______accepted her new position. The ______culture, the institutions, even the ______language of the victors, were eagerly ______adopted. The grandsons of the men who had fought so gallantly against This field of action—the Cæsar, won full citizenship, took their conquest of Gaul—Cæsar marked out seats in the Senate, and commanded for himself. He could prepare the Roman armies. means for assuming power at home, These ten years decided the and at the same time render the future of the West, and therefore of highest service to his country and humanity. It is not merely the central humanity. His ardent spirit, his position and natural advantages of incredible energy in all circumstances France, nor yet the admirable of his life, astonished his qualities of her people, which have contemporaries. Time pressed, for he made her throughout mediæval and was no longer young. While he was modern history, the foremost of absent from Rome, what revolutions European states. It is even more the might not mar his plans! Yet, ten result of France’s (Gaul’s) rapid and

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Julius Caesar thorough acceptance of Roman 11. Imagine that you are Pompey. civilization. This made France the heir Would you ally yourself with the of Rome. This enabled France, long nobles in order to defeat your rival, afterward, to Romanize Germany and Cæsar? Why or why not? Does England in some degree, and as it your opinion change when you were at second-hand, by the arms of know that Pompey was married to Emperor Charlemagne and William Cæsar’s only daughter, Julia the Conqueror. Caesaris? ______10. How is France the heir of ______ancient Rome? ______It had been arranged between ______Cæsar and Pompey, that during the ______absence of the former in Gaul, the ______latter should act with the popular ______party, and keep the nobility in the ______condition of impotence to which it had ______been reduced in the consulship of ______Cæsar. Partly from jealousy of Cæsar, ______partly from sheer incapacity, Pompey, ______after much vacillation and duplicity, ______finally allied himself with the nobles. Pompey was thinking that, with the In the negotiations which nobles’ aid, he would be able to crush preceded the civil war, Cæsar showed his rival (Cæsar) and thereafter be a moderation and fairness in striking supreme. The nobles, for their part, contrast with the unscrupulous and thought they would know how to deal headstrong violence of the nobles, who with Pompey if once Cæsar was out of had not even formal legality on their the way. side. But when he was finally summoned to hand over his province

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Julius Caesar and army to a nominee of the Senate, 13. Why did Cæsar enjoy popular on pain of being declared a public support? enemy, and when the who ______had reversed the resolution of the ______Senate were obliged to fly for their ______lives to his camp, he suddenly crossed ______the river , the boundary of his ______province, and marched on Rome (49 ______B.C.E.). ______12. What river did Caesar cross, ______thereby declaring his intention to ______wage war against his enemies in ______Rome? ______Pompey, for his part, was not ______sorry to have a pretext for moving eastward toward the scene of his early Cæsar had but one legion with triumphs, where his military prestige him; the bulk of his army was far and his personal influence would away in its Gallic cantonments. The cause all the client states to rally forces of Pompey were overwhelmingly round him, and the sulky and superior in numbers. But the rapid suspicious nobles would find and daring advance of Cæsar themselves overshadowed. So Pompey prevented their concentration. He crossed the Adriatic, leaving the large came, not merely the adored general of veteran army in Spain, which was a veteran army, but the long-tried and under his orders, to take care of itself. consistent leader of the liberal party, Thither Cæsar proceeded as soon as who had never swerved from his he had secured Italy, bent on making principles, never betrayed his friends, sure of the West before doing anything never flinched from dangers. else. When the Spanish legions were Fascinated by his success and beaten, he lost no time in following encouraged by his clemency, towns Pompey, who had found the respite all everywhere opened their gates. too short for drilling his large but raw Pompeian levies joined him, swelling force of Romans, and organizing the Cæsar’s army at every stage as he masses of Asians whom he had swept down Italy. summoned to his standard.

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Julius Caesar 14. Pompey fled to the _____. in its interest. This was indeed an a. north ideal by no means novel to Romans. b. south Scipio had brooded over it. Gaius c. east Gracchus had for a moment realized d. west it. The oldest institutions and traditions told of it. It was the power In the campaign that ensued, of the ancient kings theoretically the conqueror of the East—Pompey— continued to, and in grave fully maintained his old military emergencies actually exercised by, the reputation. But at length, driven by magistrates of the Republic during its the clamor of the nobles to risk a best days. It had been increasingly pitched battle, he suffered a crushing overshadowed by the Senate. defeat on the field of Pharsalia (48 The Senate was now to be B.C.E.). Flying to Egypt, still an reduced to its original consultative independent kingdom, Pompey was office. The functions of the executive assassinated by order of the had been gradually divided among government (Pharaoh Ptolemy). several magistrates. They were now to be re-concentrated. Above all, annual 15. Where was Pompey killed? election—the cherished institution of ______all oligarchies, open or disguised—was ______to be replaced by life-tenure, with ______power to name a successor. The subjects of Rome were to be admitted The beaten patrician party to citizenship, wherever and whenever rallied again, first in Africa, then in fit for it. There is even reason to Spain. Of the three years and nine believe that Cæsar intended to move months of life that remained to Cæsar, much faster in this direction than his much the greater portion was spent at successor did. the head of his army. He, therefore, Rome itself, from the mistress of had not time to give any complete the Empire, was to become its capital organization to his new government. and most dignified municipality. All But his intentions are clearly old parties—Cæsar's own included— discernible in outline. Supreme power, were to consider themselves at an end. legislative as well as executive, was to "To the victors the spoils!" was a cry be vested in a single ruler, governing rebuked from the first. For the not by divine right, but as the vanquished of Pharsalia there was not representative of the community, and only amnesty, but admission to the

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Julius Caesar highest grades of the public service, if ______they would bury their old grudge and ______recognize the government. Pauperism ______among the lower class, and insolvency among the upper—ulcers not Of the administrative work of admitting of a radical cure—were Cæsar it is impossible here to give any treated with judicious palliatives. adequate idea. A reform of the Taxation was reduced, expenditure calendar served the West till 1582, was increased, and yet the balance in and served Russia until the Russian the treasury at Cæsar's death was Revolution. Other reforms included a tenfold what it had ever been before— recasting of the whole provincial a proof of the frightful waste and administration, a codification of corruption from which the Roman , a census of the Empire, a world was rescued by the overthrow of uniform gold coinage, a public library, the oligarchy. a metropolitan police force, building regulations, sanitary regulations, an 16. Describe the type of government alteration of the course of the Tiber, that Cæsar planned to establish for which would have drained the Rome. marshes. All these grand projects, ______and more, some carried to completion, ______some only sketched out, teemed from ______the active brain of the great organizer, ______in the brief moments he could spare ______from military cares in these last ______months of his life—a devouring ______activity, an all-embracing capacity, ______such as perhaps never shone forth in ______man before or since. What Roman ______incorporation meant for the ancient ______world was at last revealed. The war ______havoc of seven centuries had found its ______justification. ______17. Western Europe used the Julian ______calendar until 1582. ______a. True ______b. False

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Julius Caesar

The Ides of March—the day, March 15, 44 B.C.E., when Caesar was assassinated.

In the midst of this glorious and beneficent career, at the age of fifty-five, Cæsar, whose frank and fearless spirit disdained suspicion or precaution, was assassinated by a knot of rancorous, perfidious aristocrats, whom he had pardoned and promoted. Their purblind spite was powerless to avert the inevitable advent of monocracy. What they did effectually extinguish for more than a century, was the possibility of amnesty, conciliation, and mutual confidence. Careless as usual of historical truth, the great English poet William Shakespeare has glorified the murderers of Cæsar. Italian writer Dante Alighieri, never forgetting the moral responsibility of art, has reserved the lowest circle of hell for Brutus, Cassius, and Judas Iscariot. It imports little to the greatness of such a one as Cæsar, to add that in an age of oratory he stood in the first rank of orators; that his historical writings are an unrivalled model of vigor, lucidity, and elegance; that he carried his scientific culture to a point very unusual among his countrymen; and that his personal prowess and feats of endurance were the admiration of veteran soldiers. Women loved him, and he loved them. Enjoying life thoroughly, he was temperate in all things. To no man has it been given to approach more nearly to the perfection of human nature—complete, evenly balanced, and self-controlled.

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Julius Caesar 18. Looking back on Cæsar’s life, what would you most like to emulate in your own life? What pitfalls would you most like to avoid? ______

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Julius Caesar Word Search Puzzle

U N S C R U P U L O U S N P O M A H I I R P U C C I T I Z E N S H I P N O T S S L T T A K Q I Y R O T A R O O D E N O M M U S S N J N R C

V D A X B A F P L O S C I P S C I T E S C T V

I E A R G P I N I L T E T E N C M R C W O E E

L W I O D R D Q G R N N I Y A E I E I U R M D I O L R U I I H A M E S B T I S L N F N O P S Z D U E P V O I R P T U M L C S A U E R U E S A A J U L I U S C A E S A R I O T O N I S R E T H Z Q I L S T H U P R U S R R E U E V H A N I S C N C E M O I M M U N I T I E S B A W T T O R F O I G W R C Q O N G X A I Y L J L J E A N E D C T E A Y A F C D V H P Z K Y C L G B E B V Y E Y S V U L O N V A N Q U I S H E D E R

E O V E R W H E L M I N G L Y Z A Y K D F X G

ambition oratory assimilate overshadowed beneficent overwhelmingly census patricians citizenship perfidious civilization Pompey conqueror privileges duplicity rancorous Gaul Rome greatness successor history summoned immunities strenuously incompetent temperate Julia unrivalled Julius Caesar unscrupulous oligarchical vanquished

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Caesar’s Death by Carl Theodor von Piloty, 1865.

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