Special Edition 1 | May 2017 International Transportation Transportation and services Intelligent mobilitysystems SCIENCE & RESEARCH cloud assistance Planning andoperating with PRODUCTS &SOLUTIONS mobility ­public Open chances for sustainable BEST PRACTICE transportation challenges? Fit for tomorrow’s STRATEGIES www.internationalesverkehrswesen.de

transportation Managing public Governance –Strategies –Solutions International Special Edition 1lMay 2017 Volume 69 © Clipdealer ©

Hier klicken Sie richtig!

IV online: Neuer Look – mehr Nutzen Informiert mit einem Klick Die Webseite von Internationales Verkehrswesen hat ein neues Das finden Sie auf www.internationalesverkehrswesen.de: Gesicht bekommen. Die aktuellen Webseiten unseres Magazins • Aktuelle Meldungen rund um Mobilität, Transport und Verkehr bringen eine frische Optik und eine Reihe neuer Funktionalitäten. • Termine und Veranstaltungen in der aktuellen Übersicht Vor allem aber: Die Webseite ist im Responsive Design gestaltet – • Übersichten, Links und Ansprechpartner für Kunden und Leser und damit auch auf Mobilgeräten wie Smartphones und Tablets • Autoren-Service mit Themen, Tipps und Formularen bestens lesbar. • Beitragsübersicht und Abonnenten-Zugang zum Heftarchiv

Schauen Sie doch Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft einfach mal rein! Eberhard Buhl M.A., Dipl.-Ing. Christine Ziegler VDI Marschnerstraße 87 | 81245 München www.internationalesverkehrswesen.de +49 89 889518.71 | [email protected]

Anzeige U2.indd 1 25.10.2016 10:00:42 Sebastian Belz POINT OF VIEW

The organization of ­ European railways: ­ Confusing for the customers

ocal public transportation on the streets and railways is incorporating services from many different transport providers. organized very differently around the world. Whereas This approach has been followed in Germany during the last some countries and regions have very elaborate systems 40 years, where it has increasingly become the norm. Other of financing and operation, many have only negligible or countries in western Europe continue to rely on less complex Leven no state-run organization. systems, most of which adequately cover service needs in metro- It is not possible to label a particular system as being either politan areas. In recent years, many urban regions in central “good” or “bad” without accurate knowledge of its underlying Europe have also followed this example. However, passengers in regional economic and social background and an understanding of rural regions remain disadvantaged: They must contend with its historical development. In general, in order to make a qualified extremely limited service and need to purchase a separate ticket judgement about a transit system, it is important to actually see and to complete their travel. use it, to become familiarized with it, to analytically understand it • Gaps at borders: Using public transportation services beyond and, above all, to appreciate how efficient it is for the passenger. country borders or demarcated areas of authority is a problem all Europe’s railway sector is characterized by a variety of organiza- over Europe. Service provided by one country often ends at the tional models. For example, Germany and Sweden have competi- border, even though offering transport for only a short distance tion-oriented systems based on long-standing and solid financial would be needed for the journey to remain uninterrupted. When foundations. In other countries, railway systems exist in protected and if such offers are available, they are often based on bilateral political spheres, and in part, carry on their operations depending agreements that involve a great deal of effort from local service on their current cash positions. Owing to European legislation that providers and, as such, are expensive. In addition, the integration has opened public transportation markets, many countries are still of fares for lines that cross borders is the exception. Instead, the searching for an optimal solution. prohibitive effect of adding divergent fare systems is the norm. Passenger rail transport systems show substantial differences • Inclusion of long-distance trains: In most countries, passenger with respect to the following aspects, some of which may negatively rail systems providing regional and local transport are publicly affect system synergies: organized. However, this is not always the case for long-distance • Planning security: Poland’s railway system service is based on train service. This is an unfavorable situation, because the differ- four timetable periods per year, with two sub-sections per period. ent transport requirements and infrastructures overlap. These Over the year, service may change considerably from one period overlaps could often be practically resolved in a collective rail- to the other. In contrast, railway timetables in Germany are gen- way system in order to provide economical service. In this erally offered for the entire year, and typically involve a planning regard, Great Britain has commanded a pioneering role for years stage of over 18 months. In order to create an even greater plan- by tendering large networks, most of which fully encompass ning security for the user, more and more German regional rail long-distance trains. In addition, the Czech Republic Ministry service providers include the passengers in the timetable plan- for Transport in Prague, which supervises inter-regional, long- ning as far as two years in advance. distance trains, has found a solution that better fits spatial plan- • Flexibility: The disadvantage of long-term transportation con- ning needs than a pure orientation to independently competi- tracts lies in their rigidity. Service providers in Germany are tive, long-distance transport strategies. often over-challenged by changes in demand. Systems with large vehicle reserve capacities, such as in Italy and Switzerland, are From the customers’ perspectives, an optimal passenger rail trans- often better able to respond to increased demand. port system does not yet exist. Overall, further developments and har- • Density and frequency of offerings: Most countries in western monization efforts are warranted, also in order to improve efficiency Europe base their planning on synchronized timetables, as intro- and above all, to enable the transportation sector to make a contribu- duced by and used in Switzerland and the Netherlands, to offer tion towards achieving Paris climate goals. EU authorities need to look extensive, connected services that run at one-hour intervals or beyond regulatory frameworks and demonstrate a stronger commit- even more frequently. The situation is different in central and ment to closing the gaps in international transport routes. In doing so, eastern Europe, but also in France, where for many routes, it is clear improvements in service can be achieved with little costs. considered to be sufficient to offer a few trains per day. • Fare integration: For over 100 years, Switzerland has pursued Sebastian Belz the idea of ensuring passenger mobility “from one source” by General Secretary, European Platform of Transport Sciences (EPTS)

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 3 International Transportation

PAGE 14 Pixabay Photo: PAGE 26 ropeway Leitner Photo:

POINT OF VIEW STRATEGIES BEST PRACTICE

3 The organization of European 6 Transport for tomorrow 21 PPP in Japan’s railway system – railways: Confusing for the Statement a success story ­customers Vincent Benezech Wilfried Wunderlich Sebastian Belz Oliver Mayer 8 European passenger rail ­services in transition 26 Managing public transport in The Fourth EU railway pack- Windhoek age brings changes and new The implementation of a new ­challenges to passenger rail public bus service for Windhoek, authorities Namibia Ludger Sippel Ernst-Benedikt Riehle Julian Nolte Ursula Hein

12 Repair or replace 30 Using GPS technology for Why the “Juncker Fund” is in ­demand data collection contradiction with the EU’s Introduction to opportunities transport policy – and how it and challenges of the methodo- can still be turned into a success logy in developing and emerging Michael Cramer economies Jens Müller Jakob Baum Enrico Howe 14 Public transit and land use ­decisions Review of guidebooks for transit agencies Andreas Kossak

18 MoviCi – Urban Mobility in the KNOWLEDGE AT A GLANCE Smart City The project “MoviCi – Urban­ Read the ­Mobility in the Smart City” International Transportation edition­ ­connects Colombian and for free – use the convenient ­German researchers and download from our website ­practitioners Volume 1/2017: Managing Public Transport Mirko Goletz Dirk Heinrichs Volume 1/2016: Smarter on the move Katharina Karnahl Volume 2/2015: Looking ahead Mathias Höhne Volume 1/2015. Urban transport

4 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 CONTENT May 2017

PAGE 36 ropeway Leitner Photo: PAGE 41 Rainer Sturm/pixelio.de Photo:

PRODUCTS & SCIENCE & SOLUTIONS ­RESEARCH

34 Deutsche Bahn Group is shifting 38 The intelligent railway system 54 Projects in a nutshell to the DB Enterprise Cloud theory Overview of selected mobility A compliant cloud architecture The European railway research research projects on AWS seemed to be a good perspective and the develop- 54 Will grass become the new choice ment of the European digital ­gasoline? Bertram Dorn railway strategy 55 Making lithium-ion batteries Dániel Tokody lighter, safer, more efficient 36 Solutions in a nutshell Francesco Flammini 55 A new take on aircraft takeoff A compliant cloud architecture and landing on AWS seemed to be a good 41 Air travel groups and their 56 Safe navigation even on const- choice ­mobility profiles in air traffic ruction sites 36 PPP-project: MiniMetro to relieve Towards seemless air travels – 56 A novel method helps reducing traffic congestion in Pisa the DORA project and mobility noise problems produced by 36 New smart system to reduce (information) requirements of air road traffic queues at roundabouts travellers 57 Unmanned cargo vessels – more 37 Supporting transport planning Michael Abraham sustainable maritime transport in Europe Wulf-Holger Arndt 57 Wider application of new ma- Norman Döge terials for lighter and greener trains 46 The British way of long distance 58 World’s first test site for auto­ transport nomous vehicles opens Philipp Schneider

50 Carsharing in rural areas Challenges and potentials for KNOWLEDGE AT A GLANCE managing public transportation at local government level Ann-Kathrin Seemann Sebastian Knöchel COLUMNS 59 FORUM Events www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de/ Please take account of the ETH Zurich english/ 61 IMPRINT | EDITORIAL PANELS ­supplement attached in this magazine. 62 REMARK | EVENTS

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 5 STRATEGIES Statement

Transport for tomorrow

Transport will remain a growth industry. That also means it has to start tackling some serious challenges. An outlook by Vincent Benezech, Policy Analyst, International ­Transport Forum.

Vincent Benezech is a policy analyst at the International Transport Forum – an intergov- ernmental organisation with 57 member countries which acts as a think tank for transport policies. He heads the team that models scenarios for the future of transport which are published biannually in the “ITF Transport Outlook”.

lobal demand for transport has been increas- CO2 emissions amounted to just under 4 billion tonnes in ing steadily during the past decades, with the 2015, which represents 42 % of all transport-related exception of a brief downturn during the emissions. In per-capita terms, this translates into

2008 economic crisis. Economic development approximately 3 tonnes of CO2 per inhabitant and per Gis still coupled with increased transport demand, and year. By contrast, inhabitants in non-OECD economies passenger and freight volumes are therefore likely to see emit on average 0.5 tonnes of CO2 per year from trans- continued growth in the foreseeable future. According to port activities. the latest scenarios for global transport demand, con- As the non-OECD world develops its economies, this tained in the International Transport Forum’s “ITF gap will start to close. In the ITF Transport Outlook Transport Outlook 2017”, passenger demand could 2017’s baseline scenario – which describes a world where increase twofold between 2015 and 2050, while demand no significant effort is made by policy makers besides for freight transport could even triple over this period. those already in place or easily foreseeable – transport’s The expected surge in the movements of passengers carbon emissions will increase 60 % by 2050. This alarm- and goods is the result of economic development ing growth takes place despite much more efficient use

expected over the coming decades, notably in what today of energy. Indeed, looking at the average CO2 intensity of are still low- and middle-income countries. The increased transport, this is expected to decrease significantly over sophistication of the transport systems available in these the coming three-and-a-half decades: For instance, pas-

countries will also be an important lever to increase senger transport will emit only an average of 60 g of CO2 trade and economic growth; investments in improved per passenger-kilometre in 2050 in the baseline sce- mobility systems and transport networks should there- nario, compared to 100 g in 2015. Similar improvements fore be encouraged. On the other hand, increased trans- will take place in the freight sector. But because of the port activity is already proving difficult to manage in expected strong growth in transport demand, these many regions, and further growth will bring challenges improvements, significant as they may be in themselves, at all geographical scales: In cities, congestion and local are far from sufficient to stop the growth in transport

pollution are already creating significant economic costs CO2 emissions, let alone reverse the trend. and causing widespread health problems. These nega- tive effects of increased mobility are bound to get worse Currently existing policies and measures unless strong policy interventions counter the current are not enough reliance on cars for urban mobility. At the national level, The political ambition to address the gap is there. The the supply of energy for the transport sector may become ratification of the Paris Agreement on Climate Change an issue. and the submission of Nationally Determined Contribu- tions (NDCs) which quantify the planned mitigation Transport’s carbon emissions will increase 60 % efforts of each country, are a clear sign for this. Now the Transport significantly contributes to global warming. commitments need to be transformed into actions with Carbon dioxide from mobility represents around 24 % of measureable results, however. Only about half of the

CO2 emission from fuel combustion. In OECD countries, NDCs explicitly mention transport as a potential mitiga-

6 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Statement STRATEGIES

tion source, and most of these references are vague or promotion of appropriate forms of public transport can only mention targets without linking them to specific limit CO2 emissions and at the same time provide more policy measures that would achieve them. Some of the equitable access. Decreasing the reliance on cars is also proposed carbon mitigation measures also run the risk of essential to limit the burden of infrastructure building in only solving short-term issues, while locking in expen- developing countries, especially in Asia. Most cities with sive infrastructure. This is for instance the case of Liquid fast-growing populations already suffer from heavily Natural Gas (LNG) for shipping, which requires large congested road networks. The ITF projections show that investment in port infrastructure but cannot be a long- maintaining accessibility levels for cars constant will term solution, since LNG still has a non-negligible con- require unsustainable levels of investment in road infra- tent of carbon. structure: In Asia, for instance, the total length of urban In any case, the added effects of all the pledges in the roads would need to quadruple. NDCs will not be sufficient to achieve the ambition of Car-based urban mobility creates equity problems also the agreement. Currently existing policies and measures, because not everyone can afford a motor vehicle. In this even when pushed to their maximum potential, are not respect it is worrying that accessibility by public trans- enough. Indeed, when combining the most optimistic port is especially low in developing cities, where the pathways for all modes, freight and passenger, emissions motorisation rate is also the lowest. Many city dwellers in 2050 amount to 7,370 million tonnes compared to are thus excluded from physically reaching opportunities 13,600 in the baseline. This low-carbon scenario neces- these cities offer, and they would greatly benefit from bet- sitates higher efficiency gains for all vehicles (including ter public transport access. However, local governments alternative fuels for ships), higher fuel taxes, full benefits will not be able to build full-scale transport systems that of vehicle optimisation for road freight and land use and are also affordable. In many countries, people with low public transport planning in the urban sector. incomes already cannot pay for public transport fares. Overall, the mitigation measures envisaged fall short The coverage of cities will need to be very carefully of the aspiration to limit global warming to 1.5 °C above planned and also take into account the potential of pre-industrial levels, as expressed in the Paris Agree- emerging non-traditional mobility services in cities. ment. The exact carbon budget to limit emissions at this level, as well as the share of the budget available to the Digitalisation? The next transport revolution transport sector, is not precisely known. What is known is already underway is that transport emissions even in the low-carbon sce- The impact of digitalisation is felt strongly across the nario in the ITF Transport Outlook 2017 overshoot all transport sector. But the next transport revolution is targets put forward by scientists that would make such a already underway, based on real-time streams of data scenario attainable. that make it easier and more efficient to match supply and demand. The coming decades will witness the arrival Efficient transport is critical to economic of more disruptive technologies, vehicle automation and development on-demand transport. Car-sharing is one of the services Efforts to make transport greener will need to be care- with the potential to increase accessibility in a sustaina- fully balanced with preserving transport’s role as an ena- ble way. Such solutions need to be promoted and accom- bler of economic growth. There can be no international panied by sound policies. Without these, vehicle automa- trade without transport infrastructure and services. Effi- tion could turn out to bring more cars onto the roads, cient transport is critical to economic development, as it with all the associated problems of air pollution, CO2 provides access to jobs, opportunities or social interac- emissions, congestion or access. In order to empower tions, and there is a growing recognition that accessibil- people in their personal lives and in their economic ity and connectivity should be at the center of transport activities, while safeguarding the ability of future gener- policies. ations to meet their needs, there is no alternative to mak- Interestingly, some of the measures that make trans- ing transport sustainable, and policy makers should be port more environmentally sustainable also improve ready to tap into the ongoing stream of innovation to accessibility. This is most evident in cities, where the achieve this paramount objective. ■ Photo: pixabay.de Photo:

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 7 STRATEGIES Railway Policy

European passenger rail services in transition The Fourth EU railway package brings changes and new ­challenges to passenger rail authorities

European Union, policies, public service obligations, rail markets

In December 2016, the European Parliament adopted the market pillar of the EU’s Fourth railway package. In combination with its technical pillar, the package aims at harmonising the EU railway policies for improving the competitiveness and attractiveness of railways and for a further development of the single European railway area [1]. This article describes the amendments of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 by Regulation (EU) 2016/2338 and gives guidance to competent passenger rail authorities on the decisions to take for governing passenger rail services, the related tasks and their implications when it comes to organising and awarding a public service contract (PSC).

Ludger Sippel, Julian Nolte

ince its coming into force in 2009, process [3]. It is important to note the rea- opted for making these positive experiences Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 has sons behind this situation: A significant accessible to passengers in all member been the frame for public service number of competent authorities in EU’s states of the EU [4]. Henceforward, the obligations (PSO) and the subse- Member States is not only responsible for Fourth railway package will open domestic Squent grant of compensations or exlusive organising and financing the services. Some passenger railway markets in the EU’s rights in the field of public passenger ser- of the authorities are at the same time the Member States, starting from the change of vices by rail and by road. Its provisions are owner of an incumbent railway undertak- timetables in December 2020 [3]. Further- of key importance for Europe’s transport ing. Direct awards of public service con- more, the amendment of Regulation (EC) sector: Most of the public passenger railway tracts have temporarily helped them to 1370/2007, carried out by Regulation (EU) transport in the EU has been, and appar- avoid a serious restructuring of these under- 2016/2338, introduces the awarding of PSC ently still is today, carried out under PSO takings. Other competent authorities have for public passenger rail transport on the (respectively PSC) [2]. Despite the earlier less strong links to incumbent railway basis of a competitive tendering procedure liberalisation of rail freight and cross-bor- undertakings, e.g. those authorities organ- as a general rule. der passenger rail services, domestic pas- ised on the regional level (figure ).1 Including the amendments of Regulation senger railway services have not been During the preparation of the Forth rail- 2016/2338, Regulation 1370/2007 now con- opened for mandatory competition yet, and way package proposal, the European Com- tains the following milestones [5]: many domestic public service contracts are mission intensively studied the benefits of • Until 02 December 2019, Member States still awarded directly without any bidding competition in the railway market and shall take measures to gradually comply with Article 5 (on the award of public service contracts) in order to avoid seri- ous structural problems particularly related to transport capacity; • Between 25 December 2020 and 25 June 2021, Member States shall provide the Commission with a progress report, highlighting the implementation of any award of public service contracts that comply with Article 5; • The duration of contracts directly awarded in accordance with Article 5(6) between 3rd Dec. 2019 and 24th Dec. 2023 shall not exceed 10 years; Figure 1: Competent • Article 5 (6) which allows for a direct passenger rail authorities in the EU award of public service contracts con- member states cerning rail services will cease to apply Source: KCW as of 25 December 2023.

8 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Railway Policy STRATEGIES

These milestones mark the further Member State Million train-km Year of reference Source advance of the liberalisation of European DE Germany 803 2014 [20] railway markets. UK United Kingdom 508 2014 [20] At the same time the amended Regula- FR France 412 2014 [20] tion still leaves exemptions that will enable IT Italy 286 2014 [20] many competent authorities to decide whether to contract railway services com- ES Spain 174 2014 [20] petitively or to directly award the services as NL Netherland 144 2014 [20] Article 5 defines several (new) exceptions PL Poland 135 2014 [20] for direct awards. CZ Czech Republic 122 2010 [21] The exemptions to competitive tender- SE Sweden 116 2014 [20] ing of rail services of the amended PSO reg- AT Austria 109 2014 [20] ulation now include the following situations: BE Belgium 84 2014 [20] • A maximum threshold of an annual HU Hungary 84 2014 [20] value of EUR 7,500,000 or the annual RO Romania 60 2014 [22] provision of 500,000 train kilometres is DK Denmark 51 2014 [20] not exceeded [6]; SF Finland 36 2014 [20] • The competent authority considers a direct award to be justified due to therel - SK Slovak Republic 32 2014 [20] evant structural and geographical char- PT Portugal 31 2010 [21] acteristics of the market and network BG Bulgaria 21 2014 [20] concerned and such a contract would IE Ireland 17 2010 [21] result in an improvement in the quality of HR Croatia 15 2014 [20] services or cost-efficiency, or both, com- GR Greece 11 2014 [20] pared to the previously awarded public SI Slovenia 10 2014 [20] service contract. Member States shall be LU Luxembourg 8 2014 [20] deemed to fulfil this condition when LV Latvia 6 2014 [20] – the maximum annual market volume LT Lithuania 5 2010 [21] is less than 23 million train-km (see Estonia 5 2014 [20] table 1) when the amendment comes EE into force, and Table 1: Market volume of rail passenger services in the EU Member States. To the extent known, – where just one competent authority at the given numbers refer to PSO and Non-PSO services within the states. the national level exists (see figure 1) and purpose infrastructure must be exempted a proceeding, competent authorities might – where only one public service contract from the regulations on separation and want to substantiate any of their decisions is covering the entire network [7]. infrastructure charges of Directive by specific market studies focussing on their • Exceptional circumstances justify a 2012/34/EU [11]. relevant market and the issue addressed. In direct award in order to optimise the pro- the case of exceptional circumstances it vision of public services. The amended Exemptions to be justified could for example be helpful to demonstrate Regulation names as such exceptional What, at first glance, seems to be an exten- that competent authorities in similar mar- circumstances a too large number of sive freedom of decision for competent kets regularly receive only a limited number competitive tendering procedures that authorities either in favour of or against of bids and that the result of such proce- are already being run which could affect competition will be in fact in most of the dures with limited competition is close to a the number and quality of bids likely to cases limited either by the required justifi- well negotiated direct award. be received or changes to the scope of cations or the maximum duration of directly A more complex approach is necessary if one or more public service contracts are awarded contracts. a competent authority wants to justify a required in order to optimise the provi- For instance, recital 21 of the amended direct award with “the relevant structural sion of public services [8]; Regulation stipulates for exceptional cir- and geographical characteristics of the mar- • Emergency measures taken by the com- cumstances that ket and network concerned” [12] and needs petent authority in the event of a disrup- a) the circumstances have to be indeed to negotiate the figures and performance tion of services or the immediate risk of “exceptional”, measuring methods with the incumbent such a situation [9]; b) the new contracts may be directly undertaking. In this case it would be • A regional or even local competent awarded only “temporarily” and extremely helpful for the authority to know authority (an authority which does not c) these contracts “should not be renewed the cost and production structures of com- act on the national level) provides the to cover the same or similar public ser- parable undertakings in detail. services itself or awards a service con- vice obligations”. A necessary condition to be met for a tract directly to a legally distinct entity direct award of a contract under exceptional over which it exercises control [10]. Given the fact that any competitor of the circumstances is furthermore the imple- • A competent authority may also award a (incumbent) operator favoured by the direct mentation of specific performance indica- PSC directly to an operator managing at award may appeal against the decision of a tors as well as effective and deterrent meas- the same time the entire or major parts competent authority to directly award a ures to be imposed in case the railway of the infrastructure where the relevant public service contract and that the justifi- undertaking fails to meet the performance passenger services are provided. For this cations are carefully examined during such requirements [7]. Reasonably, this require-

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 9 STRATEGIES Railway Policy

ment should take into account the positive • To ensure an efficient and rapid review REFERENCES experiences made in the EU so far, even if of the decision on the type of award [14]; [1] Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament some allowances for the specific situation of • The provision of a progress report by […], concerning the Position of the Council on the adoption of a each competent authority will be necessary. 25th June 2021 [13]; Regulation amending Regulation (EC) No 1370/2007 concerning the Important issues include the technical con- • The assessment of measures to ensure opening of the market for domestic passenger transport services by dition of the infrastructure and the rolling effective and non – discriminatory access rail. Brussels, 24.10.2016, COM(2016) 689 final, p. 3 stock to be used, the density and the con- to suitable rolling stock [15] and [2] Report from the Commission to the Council and the European Par- liament, Fourth Report on monitoring development of the Rail nections within the public transport net- • The compliance with the rules applica- Market. Brussels, 13.06.2014, COM(2014) 353 final, p. 51 work and the expectations of the passengers ble to compensation [16]. [3] Transport MEPs back reform of domestic rail services: more choice regarding the quality of transport. for better services. Press release; Brussels/Strasbourg 05.12.16 Conclusion and Outlook [4] Commission Staff working document impact assessment, Proposal Preparation of awarding procedures The amended PSO regulation leaves no for [...] amending Regulation (EC) No 1370/2007 [...], Proposal for Concerning awarding procedures, the doubt that the European legislator consid- [...] amending Directive 2012/34/EU [...]; Brussels, 30.01.2013, amendment of the PSO regulation brings ers the opening of the market as a means to SWD(2013) 10 final considerable changes for those authorities achieve better services for the user [17] and [5] Article 8 (2) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation that so far have not yet competitively ten- is eager to enhance quality, transparency, (EU) 2016/2338 dered their services and will be forced to efficiency and performance of passenger [6] Article 5 (4) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation open or are opening their market by choice. rail services [18]. It is true that the intro- (EU) 2016/2338 In order to award an economically favoura- duction of competitive tendering increases [7] Article 5 (4a) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation ble contract, a competent authority in gen- the amount of work on the side of the (EU) 2016/2338 eral will have to execute the following pre- authorities and forces the incumbent to [8] Article 5 (3a) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation paratory steps: adapt to the new situation. Nevertheless, (EU) 2016/2338 • Identification of networks which enable with the implementation of the Fourth [9] Article 5 (5) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation (EU) 2016/2338; the substance of this part of the Regulation has not railway undertakings (and in conse- railway package these changes are una- been changed by the Regulation (EU) 2016/2338. quence the authorities) to benefit from voidable. [10] Article 5 (2) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation operation synergies; The authors of this article encourage all (EU) 2016/2338 • Definition of the duration, scale and competent authorities that are not yet profi- [11] Article 5 (4b) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation scope of the services to be tendered, cient in the application of the PSO regula- (EU) 2016/2338 including lot sizes if appropriate; tion, and in tendering especially, to get in a [12] Article 5 (4a) lit. (b) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by • Definition of the type of contract: net close dialogue with the European Commis- Regulation (EU) 2016/2338 costs vs. gross costs or hybrid forms; sion on the challenges triggered by the [13] Article 8 (2) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation • Planning and optimisation of the to be Fourth railway package, with other authori- (EU) 2016/2338; actually unchanged by Regulation (EU) 2016/2338, tendered services; ties or with external experts specialised in but with a widened scope due to the amended article 5. • Modelling of the expected costs; the field of public service contracts. Such [14] Article 5 (7) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation • Definition of a quality management sys- exchanges and external expertise may help (EU) 2016/2338 tem with efficient performance indicators to comply with the amended regulation and [15] Article 5a (1) of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 amended by Regulation (punctuality, capacity, failure ratios, etc.); to minimise the risk of legal uncertainties of (EU) 2016/2338 • Implementation of an appropriate remu- the contracts to be awarded in future. ■ [16] Annex of Regulation (EC) 1370/2007 neration system; [17] Recital 2 of Regulation (EU) 2016/2338 • Implementation of an appropriate risk [18] Recital 5 of Regulation (EU) 2016/2338 diversification; [19] Régions de France: Les Régions lancent leurs travaux pour la prépa- • Guaranteeing access to production ration de l’expérimentation de l’ouverture à la concurrence. Com- muniqué de presse; Paris, 10.11.2016. resources (rolling stock, workshops, sale IN ADDITION systems). [20] Independent Regulator’s Group – Rail: Fourth Annual Market How to avoid hard cuts Monitoring Report, IRG – Rail (16) 1, March 2016; p. 15 The last three steps are of particular Even in a country like France which has been [21] Commission Staff working document impact assessment, Proposal importance for competent authorities in seen as closed for PSC competition in public for [...] amending Regulation (EC) No 1370/2007 [...], Proposal for rail transport for a long time, things are [...] amending Directive 2012/34/EU [...]; Brussels, 30.01.2013, order to achieve improvements in the effi- changing, mainly caused by the dissatisfac- SWD(2013) 10 final; Part 3, p. 7 ciency of the services: With increasing mar- tion with the performance of the incumbent [22] OECD Competition Assessment Reviews: Romania; OECD Publishing; ket transparency and reasonably calculable operator: From 2019 on, an “experimentation Paris 2016; p. 200 risks, more undertakings are going to par- phase” on tendering in French regional rail ticipate in a call for tenders. By designing transport is envisaged by the French state and by the regions, which are the competent the market, the authorities become the key authorities for regional train PSO services in players of passenger rail transport. France: On the one hand, such “experimenta- Ludger Sippel In addition to the specific justifications tion” can give any stakeholder the chance to Senior Consultant, KCW Berlin (DE) [email protected] of direct awards of public service contracts, acquire first experiences in the field of com- all competent authorities that operate on petitive awarding, resulting in tests of forms of governance and regulatory adaptions if Member State level will have to align their appropriate. On the other hand, a transition procedures to a number of further provi- phase of some years shall avoid hard cuts, sions, especially: before competitive awarding becomes man- Julian Nolte • The development and description of datory [19]. Depending on the results of the Consultant, KCW Berlin (DE) [email protected] measures to gradually comply with French presidential election, that might be even quicker than initially intended. ­Article 5 [13]

10 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 WISSEN WAS MORGEN BEWEGT

INTERNATIONALES VERKEHRSWESEN – DAS TECHNISCH-WISSENSCHAFTLICHE FACHMAGAZIN

Schiene, Straße, Luft und Wasser, globale Verbindungen und Internationales Verkehrswesen gehört seit 1949 zu den führenden urbane Mobilität: Viermal im Jahr bringt Internationales europäischen Verkehrsfachzeitschriften. Verkehrswesen fundierte Experten-Beiträge zu Hintergründen, Der wissenschaftliche Herausgeberkreis und ein Beirat aus Entwicklungen und Perspektiven der gesamten Verkehrsbranche Professoren, Vorständen, Geschäftsführern und Managern der – verkehrsträgerübergreifend und zukunftsorientiert. Ergänzt ganzen Verkehrsbranche verankern das Magazin gleichermaßen werden die deutschen Ausgaben durch die englischsprachige in Wissenschaft und Praxis. Das technisch-wissenschaftliche Themen-Ausgabe International Transportation. Fachmagazin ist zudem Wissens-Partner des VDI Verein Deutscher Mehr dazu im Web unter www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de Ingenieure e.V. – Fachbereich Verkehr und Umfeld.

... und keine Ausgabe verpassen! Das Jahres-Abonnement umfasst die gedruckte Ausgabe plus ePaper/PDF und Archivzugang (ab 1/1949). Ja, ich will Internationales Verkehrswesen regelmäßig lesen! Ich wähle: JahresAbo StudiAbo (Aktuelle Studienbescheinigung ist Voraussetzung)  Jahresbezugspreis Inland EUR 213,35 inkl. MwSt. und Versand  Jahresbezugspreis Inland EUR 85,34 (inkl. MwSt. und Versand).  Jahresbezugspreis Ausland EUR 215,– (mit VAT-Nr.) / EUR 237,73 (ohne VAT-Nr.),  Jahresbezugspreis Ausland EUR 95,09 (inkl. MwSt. und Versand). inkl. Versand

Meine/Unsere Daten:  Herr  Frau  Firma/...

Titel, Vorname, Name WIDERRUFSRECHT (s. § 6 der Allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen) Der Vertrag kann unter den in der Widerrufsbelehrung angegebenen Voraussetzungen innerhalb von 2 Wochen ohne Angabe von Gründen in Textform (z.B. Brief, Fax, E-Mail, www. Firma/ ... trialog-publishers.de/Widerrufsformular.pdf) widerrufen werden bei: Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft, z.Hd. Eberhard Buhl, Leserservice Internationales Verkehrswesen, Marschnerstr. 87, 81245 München, Fax: +49(0)89/889518.75, E-Mail: [email protected] Abteilung LAUFZEIT UND KÜNDIGUNG (s. 3 § der Allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen) Der Bezugszeitraum beträgt mindestens ein Jahr ab Rechnungsdatum. Wenn Sie das Magazin Straße + Nr. nach der Abonnement-Laufzeit nicht weiter beziehen möchten, teilen Sie dies dem Leserser- vice (Kontaktdaten s.o.) spätestens 6 Wochen vor Ende des Bezugszeitraums mit. Ohne recht- zeitige Kündigung verlängert sich ein bestehendes Abonnement automatisch um ein weiteres PLZ, Ort, Land Jahr. Die Annahmeverweigerung von Lieferungen gilt nicht als Kündigung. Für das StudiAbo gilt: Ohne Vorlage einer aktuellen Studienbescheinigung wird der jeweils gültige, reguläre Jahresabonnementpreis berechnet. Telefon Telefax E-Mail-Adresse Abo-Bestellung bitte senden an:

Umsatzsteuer-ID-Nr. (sofern vorhanden) Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft z.Hd. Eberhard Buhl Leserservice Internationales Verkehrswesen Ihr Bestellzeichen (sofern vorhanden) Marschnerstr. 87 D-81245 München Fax: +49(0)89/889518.75  Das Widerrufsrecht (s.rechts) habe ich zur Kenntnis genommen. E-Mail: [email protected]  Die AGB als Vertragsbestandteil habe ich gelesen und akzeptiert. Sie können beim Verlag angefordert oder unter www.trialog-publishers.de/agb_trialogpublishers.pdf heruntergeladen werden. »Internationales Verkehrswesen« und »International Transportation« erscheinen bei der Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft, München, www.trialog-publishers.de

Vertriebsanzeige IV.indd 1 15.02.2017 12:01:11 STRATEGIES EU transport investment

Repair or replace Why the “Juncker Fund” is in contradiction with the EU’s transport policy – and how it can still be turned into a success

Juncker plan, investments, TEN-T, infrastructure, EFSI

After his election as President of the European Commission, Jean-Claude Juncker promised that he would initiate an ambitious investment plan for the continent. The “European Fund for Strategic Invest- ments” translates this pledge into action and has already made investments worth EUR 33 billion. But so far there has been little in it for sustainable mobility: the transport sector is underrepresented, the fund channels away the resources reserved for the “Transeuropean Transport Networks” and the investment projects are often not aligned with the overarching goals of EU transport policy. Yet, the EU-Commission has made a proposal to extend and expand the fund, even before the mandatory mid-term evaluation has been carried out. The European Court of Auditors is not alone in criticising this hasty move.

Michael Cramer, Jens Müller

ven the project promoters proba- came up with a bold idea: instead of invest- the major contributor (EUR 4.2 billion). bly did not expect that one day ing its own money, the EU would create a This cut was all the more painful as the the extension of the A6 motorway guarantee fund with the help of the Euro- completion of the TEN-T will cost about between the small German towns pean Investment Bank. This concept resem- EUR 500 billion, which is why transport Eof Wiesloch-Rauenberg and Weinsberg, or bles modern financial alchemy (seefigure ).1 experts had fought very hard for an increase the modernisation of Greek regional air- The fund secures selected private and pub- in funding.2 The transfer to the EFSI almost ports would be considered as investments of lic investments by hedging against first offsets this increase. strategic importance for the whole conti- potential losses, thereby improving the The Transport Committee of the Euro- nent. Yet, the “European Fund for Strategic financing conditions. This scheme requires pean Parliament was not only concerned Investments” (EFSI) provides almost EUR a maximum of EUR 16 billion from the EU’s with a funding shortfall. They also won- 600 million in funding to both projects.1 budget and aims at stimulating investments dered whether transport projects would be This is not the outcome of EU transport of in total EUR 315 billion by the year 2020. able to secure a large share of EFSI funding, policies, but result of decisions taken by given the financial requirements and the Jean-Claude Juncker, President of the Euro- Serious concerns among transport need for very speedy realisation. And finally, pean Commission. After his election in experts from across all parties the Members of Parliament also feared that 2014, he came up with the idea of a compre- Juncker’s plan was generally taken up posi- eligible transport projects would contradict hensive investment programme, dubbed tively. Yet, transport experts from across all the overarching EU goals on better trans- the “Juncker Plan”. political parties had serious concerns from port connections across borders, good jobs But Juncker faced two problems: the EU the outset. This was, first and foremost, due and sustainable development. budget could not provide the necessary to the fact that the capital needed to estab- In order to counter these concerns, the resources for his plan and the Union is not lish the EFSI had to be taken from other European Commission suggested that by allowed to contract debt. His team thus parts of the EU budget, with transport being July 2018 an independent mid-term evalua- tion of the EFSI should be carried out. It would be the basis for further decisions. It was also thanks to this guarantee that Jean- Claude Juncker eventually obtained a large majority for his idea in 2015. An early proposal to extend and expand However, one year later, the European Commission no longer adhered to this promise. They hastily carried out an inter- nal evaluation and came to a positive evalu- ation of the investment plan. In September 2016, the Commission proposed the exten- sion and expansion of the fund - barely one year after the setting up of the EFSI, and Figure 1: How the EFSI works almost two years before the deadline for an Source: European independent evaluation. Currently, both the Investment Bank Council of the EU and the European Parlia-

12 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 EU transport investment STRATEGIES

ment are scrutinizing this proposal. It fore- Figure 2: Sectorial sees an increase of the EU guarantee from distribution of EFSI EUR 16 to 26 billion and, thereby, aims at investments Source: European triggering investments equaling a total of Investment Bank EUR 500 billion. Moreover, the Commis- sion wants to extend the duration of the fund from July 2019 to December 2020. The necessary funding shall yet again be raised from other parts of the EU budget, with transport once more being amongst the major contributors (EUR 155 million). This approach was met with harsh criti- cism by the European Court of Auditors, the EU’s budget watchdog. “The Proposal was launched without a comprehensive impact assessment (for the second time) and too soon for the economic, social and environ- mental impact of EFSI to be measured and to enable a conclusion whether EFSI is achieving its objectives”, the institution concluded.3 The Transport Committee of the European Parliament was equally alarmed by the threat of seeing a further cut European Transport Networks” try to capital markets. There may be benefits in in the EU’s budget for transport infrastruc- achieve. It is clear that the “Juncker fund” certain cases, but this can never be a substi- ture. The Members of Parliament prepared puts the financial viability of projects before tute for a well thought-out transport policy. their own appraisal of the “Juncker plan” fundamental EU objectives such as cohe- It would be of much more strategic impor- and arrived at explosive conclusions. sion, employment and climate protection. tance for the EU to finally turn the promises made in the 2011 EU White Paper on Trans- Disappointing results for the How the EFSI could be turned port into a reality, rather than putting their transport sector into a success hopes in the “Juncker Fund” with its limited Probably the most salient insight is that the The proposed expansion and extension of size when compared to the GDP of the EU. transport sector is underrepresented the fund appears counterproductive against If the EU succeeded in establishing fair amongst the selected projects, despite its this background. It would thus seem logical intermodal competition, better consumer high financial contribution (seefigure ).2 So to freeze EFSI spending and transfer the protection and a shift towards environmen- far, transport only accounts for 9 % of the remaining funds to other instruments. But tally-friendly transport modes, this would approved EFSI projects. Besides this secto- such a proposal would be doomed to fail, be a major step towards the future of mobil- rial imbalance, there also is a geographical given the dominance of the Grand Coalition ity – and one that needs no additional public one: three quarters of the projects are located between Conservatives and Socialists at the spending. ■ in the older Member States, whereas Central European level. It would be more realistic to and Eastern Europe are underrepresented. temporarily suspend the increase and pro- The second important lesson is related to longation of the fund in order to draw the 1 The list of projects financed by the EFSI can be found on the the character of the selected projects. There right lessons and readjust the fund. website of the European Investment Bank: http://www.eib. org/efsi/efsi-projects/ clearly is a preference for projects with a In this context, it is important to note that 2 See Regulation 1316/2013 establishing the „Connecting high investment volume over the ones with European economies no longer suffer from Europe Facility“, recital 15; http://www.eca.europa.eu/ clear added value for the EU. Projects of weak demand but rather have to cope with Lists/ECADocuments/OP15_04/OP15_04_EN.pdf regional or national importance account for their structural deficiencies and the conse- 3 See Opinion 2/2016 of the European Court of Auditors, the major share of the supported projects, quences of global trends. The focus on paragraph 26; 11 Nov 2016; http://www.eca.europa.eu/en/ whereas measures for the Trans-European increased spending at almost every price Pages/DocItem.aspx?did=39677 infrastructure and the transition towards therefore makes less sense than ever. Instead, 4 See the press release/report of 16 December 2014 by the sustainable mobility are rare. The afore- the EU should put the long-term benefits at European Court of Auditors; http://www.eca.europa.eu/ Lists/ECADocuments/INSR14_21/INSR14_21_EN.pdf mentioned example of Greek regional air- the heart of its investment policies. The ports is an example of the blindness of the European Commission’s proposal contains EFSI fund with regard to transport policy one lesser-known idea that shows how this Michael Cramer objectives. In 2014, the European Court of could be achieved: they suggest that EU Member of the European Parliament Auditors scrutinized EU spending on grants for transport infrastructure be for the Greens/EFA, Brussels (BE) regional airports and found that it “pro- “blended” with private capital in order to [email protected] duced poor value for money”.4 accelerate the realization of the TEN-T. This What is more, road construction repre- could indeed be an interesting approach – sents 40% of signed EFSI transport projects, provided that EFSI spending is strictly linked Jens Müller, MA in European while the environmentally-friendly railways to working towards the goals of territorial Economy only account for 20% and cross-border pro- cohesion, employment and decarbonisation. Transport Policy Advisor in the European Parliament, Brussels (BE) jects can barely be found on the list. This is Finally, one may also wonder whether it [email protected] exactly the opposite of what the “Trans- makes sense that the EU gets involved in

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 13 STRATEGIES Urban Development Photo: Pixabay Photo: Public transit and land use decisions Review of guidebooks for transit agencies Public transportation, transport planning, passenger transportation

The integration of public transit and land use planning in large cities and metropolises is still widely insuf- ficient, at least in the Federal Republic of Germany. As a consequence, the potential of transit-oriented land use could be more fully exploited in order to maximize the benefits for traffic and the environment. This situation clearly needs to be corrected. This can be achieved by re-positioning transit agencies in the processes of deciding how to use land, creating a better orientation of the land use development that incorporates the backbone systems of public transit, taking advantage of innovative financing options, and, last but not least, acknowledging expected changes in future mobility patterns.

Andreas Kossak

nitiated by the Verband Deutscher ties since the 1960s. Although issues in address the complex issues of public transit, Verkehrsunternehmen (VDV, Engl.: transportation planning, including public due to a lack of educational background and Association of German Transit Com- transportation, have been approached aca- professional experience. They have been panies), a group of experts met to dis- demically, they have not been fully talking idly for years about an impending, Icuss the topic of transit and town planning. addressed or translated into practice. This drastic change in mobility conditions. In The results of the assembly were published has been due, in part, to the lack of interest particular, they have also been forecasting a in an article entitled “Integration of Town or cooperation of many transportation world in which people will more or less Planning and Transit for Lively Cities” in industry stakeholders. However, in light of exclusively rely on shared self-driving cars. the VDV’s journal (Der Nahverkehr) in 2016. the expected changes in mobility conditions As such, most of their scenarios fail to The article’s subtitle clearly expresses the and behaviors, a continuation of this situa- include mention of classical public trans- demand that transit issues should be duly tion could not only weaken but even signifi- portation [2]. considered in strategic urban and traffic cantly endanger the role of the public tran- In contrast, independent experts and planning processes [1]. sit in urban transportation systems. renowned research institutes worldwide The integration of urban and transporta- “Mobility researchers” or “Future have assigned a much more positive and tion planning has been a topic of teaching researchers” often are more or less self- meaningful role to future models of public and research at German technical universi- appointed and inadequately qualified to transportation in cities and metropolitan

14 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Urban Development STRATEGIES

areas [3]. In particular, they expect that example, transit agencies “…need to be issues related to land use decisions, the urban and regional rail systems will even invited to the table (i. e., to participate in the benefits of and need for transit, or the assume more dominant roles as backbones land use decision-making process)” and relationship between transit and land use of passenger transportation systems, pro- they “...need the tools to be influential play- decisions. vided that public transit agencies and enti- ers when they arrive at the table”. To this ties responsible for urban and transporta- end, the authors explicitly state that the The guidebook presents four case studies tion planning react appropriately to the goal of the guidebook is to promote “...effec- that illustrate how the successful applica- anticipated changes. tive transit and land use decision-making by tion of the above-mentioned five “precondi- Addressing the complex task of fully providing the transit agencies with the right tions for success” has been implemented in exploiting the potential of future options set of tools to be effective at the decision- real-life situations involving public transit. that favor public transit and improve traffic making table”. This is accomplished by pro- In particular, the potential of urban rail sys- and environmental conditions in cities and viding answers to the following questions: tems to enhance and/or intensify transit- metropolitan areas primarily involves the • “What can transit agencies do to become oriented development becomes clear in the following: more meaningful participants in land use following two cases: • determining the kind and extent of decision-making?” • improvements made along existing rail involvement of transit agencies in planning • “When and how is it worthwhile for tran- lines in New Jersey and, regional and urban passenger transport, sit agencies to get involved?” • the introduction and expansion of a • planning the intensity and extent of tran- modern streetcar system as a method to sit-oriented development (TOD), and The guidebook outlines the following redevelop a district adjacent to the down- • strengthening the financial basis of public five preconditions for success: town area of Portland, Oregon. transit. • a supportive transit agency board, • a designated transit agency staff person In the Portland streetcar project case Remarkably, several guidebooks, memo- with technical competency, study, it is explained how town and trans- randums, and papers that deal with these • a coordination process, portation planners in the early 1970s sys- complex considerations have been recently • a common understanding or language, tematically approached and pursued chang- published by Federal Administrations, by and ing an automobile-centered transit situation the Transportation Research Board (TRB) • a transit-supportive community. to one based on a modern light rail system of the National Academies of Sciences, and (LRT) in the Portland metropolitan area. In the American Public Transit Administra- The guidebook offers a wide range of order to visualize what the consequences of tion (APTA). All of these publications were tools and tips related to these issues. In this a continued and automobile-oriented tran- based on intensive research. Although the context, the guidebook explicitly refers to sit policy would look like, a photo montage respective histories of public transit in the the fact that even though transit authorities was created to show how Portland’s skyline US in Europe differ in numerous aspects, (in the US) do not have the jurisdictional would look with six 40-story parking facili- the facts and recommendations docu- authority to ensure that land use decisions ties added to it. According to local authori- mented in the U.S. publications are more or are transit-supportive, they have multiple ties’ estimates, these facilities would have less directly transferable to European tran- possibilities to “proactively engage…major been necessary if the former automobile- sit systems. A survey of selected issues cov- stakeholders and the general public to focused transportation policy had been ered in the latest publications is provided in achieve the desired land use outcome”. maintained and allowed to expand. the following. Furthermore, the following key tools for Instead, a previously existing, multi- “enhancing the communication and coordi- story parking garage in the downtown area Linking public transit and town nation” among the different stakeholders was pulled down, and the land was used to planning are discussed: create a very attractive public square (Pio- Sponsored by the U.S. Federal Transit • Partnering: This includes early and sus- neer Square, see figure ).1 Since then, Port- Administration (FTA) in the framework of tained communication, formal and infor- land’s new “living-room” has enjoyed the TRB’s Transit Cooperative Research mal processes of engaging transit agen- immense popularity, and it has received Program (TCRP), the “Guidebook for Transit cies in the decision-making processes, highest US awards for architecture, urban Agencies: Linking Transit Agencies and Land encouraging cities to incorporate transit design, and public art [5]. All light-rail lines Use Decision Making” was published in the considerations during their development of the metropolitan area are connected to fall of 2016 [4]. The guidebook presents review processes, and establishing work- one another around the square. explicitly stated, basic tenets, such as: ing groups, workshops, and educational Following the short versions of the case • “Land use decisions play a key role in programs. studies (full versions are attached at the end shaping the long-term success of virtu- • Publishing strategic guidebooks: This of the guidebook), the key interaction points ally every transit system.” includes developing region-specificand activities at the various geographic • “Organizations other than transit agen- handbooks, guidebooks, and/or websites planning scales (e. g., regional, municipal, cies hold the responsibility and authority related to transit-supportive develop- county, corridor, sub-area/district, and site) for integrating land use and transit”. ment, thereby highlighting the impor- are explained. As well, the specific chal- tance of interagency communication, lenges of cooperating with the various part- The guidebook emphasizes how “...tran- collaboration, and coordination. ners involved in land use decision-making sit agencies can influence the framework for • Articulating costs and benefits: Here, all processes (e. g., metropolitan planning those stakeholders to routinely make tran- stakeholders (e.g., local governmental organizations, state government, philan- sit-supportive land use decisions”. In this land use planners and private develop- thropic organizations, non-profit commu- regard, it also calls attention to crucial ers) should be informed about and fully nity organizations, and private developers) requirements for successful planning. For understand the service and operational are described.

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 15 STRATEGIES Urban Development

In a special attachment, the importance people enjoy easy access to jobs and ser- so that they create the conditions for pro- of the five “key features of the built environ- vices. Well-done TOD connects transit to viding attractive transit. For example, DOT ment …that strongly influence the use of desirable places to live, work and visit like has been described as a way to create and public transit” is discussed. Termed the “5 entertainment venues, parks, retail, restau- connect urban highlights: “Transit revival Ds”, these include: rants, an improved pedestrian environment requires regional and systematic integration • Density (of land use), and diverse housing choices”. of transit planning and place-making initia- • Diversity (mix of land use), In particular, the memorandum empha- tives that moves beyond incremental transit • Design (of the transportation-infrastruc- sizes how focusing on growth around transit oriented development” [9, 10]. ture around the transit systems, espe- stations can capitalize on public invest- Regarding the choice of whether to cially with respect to walking and ments in transit and create many benefits, implement BRT or LRT, on the one hand, it cycling), including: is important to consider the basic principle: • Destination accessibility (connections to • increased use and associated revenue “Mass transit needs mass to be successful. the main urban activity centers or gains for transit systems, Low transit ridership and underutilized “places”), and • revitalization of neighborhoods, capacity make public transit infrastructure • Distance to transit (relation between • greater supply of affordable housing, unsustainable.” On the other hand, com- concentrations of land use and urban rail • economic returns to surrounding land pared to bus systems, the economic benefits system stops or attractive bus services). owners and businesses, of properly designed urban rail systems • reduction of traffic congestion, and considerably outweigh the construction and Transit-oriented development (TOD) • more safety for pedestrians and cyclists. operation costs. Furthermore, they are Since Portland decided to revamp its public much more stable and represent more transportation system in the 1970s, the con- TOD-activities are promoted by the FTA attractive infrastructural backbones of the cept of TOD has gradually received more with “technical assistance”, “financial sup- land use patterns. Owing to these considera- attention from urban and regional planners port of pilot-projects” and “training pro- tions, it has become a more desirable and all over the US. In Portland, the decision to grams”. Such assistance is described in a accepted practice to take advantage of the adopt TOD policy into urban planning was comprehensive TCRP report entitled “Tran- so called “value capture” approach for based on the results of a public referendum. sit-Oriented Development in the United financing transit infrastructure and opera- Since then, transportation system- and land States: Experiences, Challenges, and Pros- tions, especially in the US. use-planning in major US cities and metro- pects”, which was published in 2004 [8]. politan areas has increasingly focused on In the US, TOD is currently the subject Co-financing of public transit by urban rail systems [6]. Over the recent years, of interesting public scientific discussions way of value capture the introduction of bus rapid transit (BRT) and disputes regarding different issues. For In the framework of the TCRP, in August systems has also been discussed. A BRT sys- example, one issue concerns the question of 2016 the U.S. TRB published the pre-version tem includes streets with dedicated bus lines, whether the focus should be on develop- of a guidebook entitled Guide to Value Cap- attractive bus services with relatively few ment-oriented transit (DOT) instead of on ture Financing for Public Transportation Pro- stops, high travel speeds, separate right-of- transit-oriented development [9, 10]. jects [12]. In the introduction, the impor- ways for bus traffic, design features, and Another topic of debate is whether it may be tance of public transit as a key element of equipment similar to those used for light rail- more economically feasible to base TOD on transportation infrastructure for communi- based systems, at least at the main stations. BRT-systems than on urban rail systems ties as well as local and regional economies The U.S. Federal Transit Administration (e. g., the LRT) [10, 11]. across the US is emphasized. However, the (FTA) has also begun to focus more inten- The answer to the first question is pri- guidebook also points out that a large num- sively on TOD-based transportation sys- marily rooted in the different phases of ber of transit projects are “…underfinanced, tems. In a recent and frequently advanced urban or regional development. Whereas leading to suboptimal service, long-deferred FTA memorandum, the principle of TOD is TOD primarily aims to develop urban and maintenance and failure to realize desirable characterized as follows [7]: “Transit ori- regional structures and traffic conditions, projects”. ented development … creates compact, DOT involves introducing certain processes Instead of calling for more federal or mixed-use communities near transit where that will improve existing urban structures state subsidies based on the general tax rev-

Figure 1. Pioneer Square in Portland, Oregon (left); light rail car and streetcar stopping at a transit mall (right). Photos: Kossak

16 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Urban Development STRATEGIES

operating costs so that good service can be provided and maintained.

Numerous guidebooks, white papers, and memoranda about this topic have recently been published in the US. They represent rich resources for information about the necessary activities involved in developing public transit systems. Such information can help to promote and ensure a strong and viable future for public transit in European cities and metropolitan areas. ■

REFERENCES [1] Deutsch, V. et. al.: Integration von Stadtplanung und ÖPNV für leb- Figure 2. Map of transportation system enswerte Städte; Der Nahverkehr 4, 2016. development charge projects in Portland, OR (left); A Portland streetcar (right). [2] Kossak, A.: Werden autonome Autos die städtischen Bahnsysteme Source left: [12]; photo right: Kossak) überflüssig machen?; ETR – Eisenbahntechnische Rundschau 5, 2016. [3] Kossak, A.: Autonome Autos und der ÖPNV – Bedrohen autonome enues (as in Germany), value capture mech- The six case studies refer to the follow- Autos den klassischen ÖPNV?; Der Nahverkehr 3, 2015. anisms are proposed to be the most ade- ing projects: [4] Transportation Research Board, U.S. National Academies of Sci- ences: Linking Transit Agencies and Land Use Decision Making: quate and effective ways to secure financing • Boston Landing Station, Boston, MA Guidebook for Transit Agencies; TCRP-Report 182, Washington, DC, for infrastructure development projects. • Denver Union Station, Denver, CO 2016. According to the report, value capture “... is • Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway Corpo- [5] Kossak, A.: Integration von Nahverkehr und Kunst – Das Public Art the public recovery of a portion of increased ration Program der Stadtbahn Portland im US-Staat Oregon; Internation- property value created as a result of public • Kansas City Streetcar, Kansas City, MO ales Verkehrswesen 3, 2015, p.68-71. infrastructure investment.” Some common • Portland Streetcar, Portland, OR (see [6] Kossak, A.: Transit Oriented Development und Value Capture – value capture mechanisms are discussed in ­figure )2 Investitionsimpulse und Wertsteigerungen als Folge des Baus von detail, for example: • Dulles Metrorail, Washington DC region Stadtbahnen; ETR – Eisenbahntechnische Rundschau 3, 2016. • impact fees, [7] U.S. Federal Transit Administration: Transit Oriented Development; • joint development / public private part- An impressive example of how co-financ- Memorandum, June 28, 2016. nerships (PPP), ing can be implemented to cover operating [8] Transportation Research Board, U.S. National Academies of Sci- ences: Transit-Oriented Development in the United States: Experi- • land value taxation, costs for the complete public transit system ences, Challenges, and Prospects; TCRP Report 102, Washington, DC, • negotiated exactions, of a metropolitan area can be seen in the 2004. • parking fees, Portland, Oregon transit project. According [9] Fan, Y. (2016, 02 May). The future of U.S. transit is in regional place- • sale or leasing of air rights, to the 2016 annual report of the Tri-County making (Part I) [Web log post]. Retrieved from ps://globaltransit- • sales tax and special assessment districts, Metropolitan Transportation District of blog.wordpress.com/2016/05/02/the-future-of-u-s-transit-is-in- • station naming rights, and Oregon (TriMet), 60 % of the operating regional-place-making-part-i/ • tax increment financing. costs are covered by “payroll and other tax [10] Fan, Y. (2016, 08 June). The future of U.S. transit (Part II): Historical revenue”. The dominant contribution from and contemporary development-oriented transit [Web log post]. The reason for compiling the guidebook these sources allows fare tariffs to be kept Retrieved from https://globaltransitblog.wordpress. com/2016/06/08/the-future-of-u-s-transit-is-in-regional-place- is described as follows: “The guide ... has low, thus making the use of public transit making-part-ii/ been developed to provide transit agencies, more attractive. [11] McMahon, J.: Bus rapid transit spurs development better than light local governments, developers, and others rail or streetcar; Forbes, 15 September, 2013. with insight regarding value capture as a Conclusions [12] Transportation Research Board, U.S. National Academies of Sciences funding strategy for public transport pro- The chronically insufficient involvement of (Publ.): Guide to Value Capture Financing for Public Transportation jects”. The titles of the book’s chapters are public transit agencies in the urban and Projects; Washington, DC, August 2016. as follows: transportation planning of cities and metro- [13] TriMet: 2016 Annual Report; Portland, OR, 2017. • Conditions Necessary for Value Capture politan regions as well as the anticipated • Local Economic and Market Considera- changes in boundary conditions and mobil- tions ity behavior, especially in the urban trans- • Regulatory Considerations portation sector, require short-term actions • Articulating the Business Case in order to be able to maintain and/ or cre- • Development Risks ate lively cities. Such actions include: • Creditworthiness, Finance, and Funding • positioning transit agencies more promi- • Institutional Capacity and Partnership nently in land use decision-making pro- Andreas Kossak, Dr.-Ing. • Overcoming TOD Complexity and Risk cesses, Kossak Research and Consulting, • Case Studies (to demonstrate attributes • taking full advantage of TOD, and Civil Engineering Lab, Hamburg (DE) of successful value capture finance • using value-capture mechanisms to co- [email protected] ­projects) finance public transit projects and cover

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 17 STRATEGIES Colombian-German Research Network

Medellín. Photo: Pixabay.de MoviCi – Urban Mobility in the Smart City The project “MoviCi – Urban Mobility in the Smart City” con- nects Colombian and German researchers and practitioners City of tomorrow, Colombia, Germany, traffic, urban mobility

The city of tomorrow is a city, where all citizens manage to travel from home to work, to school or to shopping or leisure destinations faster, safer and more reliable. This requires an integrated transport system that includes all modes and the integration of land use – the locations where people live and the destinations they travel to – and transport. To achieve this, the MoviCi project connects transport and land use practitioners and scientists working for planning and implementation of integrated transport systems. The aim is to build a network of stakeholders from industry local governments, civil society and research institutions in Colombia and Germany to exchange knowledge and good practice.

Mirko Goletz, Dirk Heinrichs, Katharina Karnahl, Mathias Höhne

ll around the world, cities and ing the Future – Building the City of Tomor- The MoviCi project urban agglomerations face simi- row”1, the German Federal Ministry of The DLR Institutes of Transport Research lar challenges while trying to Research and Education supports ten Ger- and Transportation Systems implement the integrate the existing modes of man research networks in their efforts to project “MoviCi – Urban Mobility in the publicA and individual transportation, while connect with partners from foreign coun- Smart City”, in Spanish “Movilidad urbana new modes driven by digitalization are tries to develop solution for future smart en ciudades intelligentes”. The project being developed. With its initiative “Shap- cities. started in February 2017. Over a period of 18

18 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Colombian-German Research Network STRATEGIES

months, it aims to connect Colombian and across Europe in the Urban Mobility project.3 an intermodal context will be one of the top- German partners to develop solutions for Intermodality requires the integration of ics of the MoviCi project. The DLR Institute future urban mobility. It explores in particu- high-capacity ‘backbone’ infrastructure of Transport Research brings in compe- lar the potentials of digitalization for new with first and last mile services. tences from its current Mototaxi project5. mobility services, for improving mobility Digitalization enables new solutions that Transport demand and traffic modelling and for reducing negative effects from permit a more flexible and individualized in urban areas is an important tool for deci- transport. usage of transportation systems. Multiple sion making on transport investment and To achieve this, the project connects modes of transport are integrated into a regulation, but also to understand the effects practitioners and researchers working for seamless trip chain with bookings and pay- of new services on the transport system.The planning and implementation of integrated ments managed collectively. These solu- Institute of Transportation Systems devel- transport systems. The aim is to build a net- tions require the gathering and usage of ops and runs the microscopic traffic simula- work of stakeholders from industry, govern- data, which can then also be used for more tion tool SUMO (Simulation of Urban ments and authorities of cities, transporta- efficient trip-planning , and to support deci- Mobility)6 in order to test and evaluate the tion companies and research institutions in sion-making for government and local impact of new mobility solutions. The open Colombia and Germany to exchange knowl- authorities regarding improvements in source software suite SUMO covers road edge and good practice. regional public transport systems. The pos- network imports and enrichment, demand The two DLR Institutes contribute to sibilities of managing transport demand by generation and assignment and a state-of- this goal by co-organizing three events with concentrating and optimizing trips in real- the-art microscopic traffic simulation capa- Colombian partners: a dialogue at the Andi- time facilitates on-demand services. The ble to simulate private and public transport naTraffic fair2 in Bogotá, that took place Institutes of Transport Research and Trans- modes, as well as person-based trip chains. from 27 to 29 March 2017, a workshop with portation Systems are currently involved in municipal planners and decision makers the development and evaluation of a flexible The MoviCi project at the that will take place in Calí (fall 2017) and a bus system in a small sized city in Germany.4 ­AndinaTraffic in March 2017 scientific symposium from 18 to 20 April In this project information and booking The project made a first appearance at the 2018 in Medellín. through a smartphone app is controlled by AndinaTraffic fair7 (figure 1). This biannual Several partners in Colombia and Ger- the passengers and requires dynamic real- event is one of the largest exhibitions for many contribute to the project: BerlinPart- time routing and dynamic calculation of trip ITS and ICT solutions in transport in South ner representing the City of Berlin, Metro- time. This on-demand bus transport is tem- America. This year, the fair took place from Calí, ITS Automotive Nord, ITS Colombia, poral and spatial flexible without a fixed March 27 to 29 in Bogotá. It attracted more German Partnership for Sustainable Mobil- time-table and is suitable for times or areas than 1000 visitors from 23 countries. Almost ity and Universidad Nacional de Colombia with less demand. 100 exhibitors presented their products. Sede Medellín. However, the integration of such new The MoviCi project was present with a pro- services, when taken to the Colombian con- ject stand. The project team likewise con- Achieving integrated mobility: DLR text, does not only have to consider existing tributed the conference program of the fair. competences in the MoviCi project public transport systems like Bus Rapid Dirk Heinrichs highlighted current The two DLR Institutes contribute specific Transit, Light Rail Transit or the spreading trends in intermodal travel in urban areas. competences from their research portfolio cable cars in Colombian cities. They also He provided answers to three questions: to the project. This includes the topics: face existing informal services like motorcy- Why intermodality is a topic in cities? What • intermodal travel in urban areas, cle taxis, tricycles or, most recently, plat- do we know about how people in cities prac- • new and integrated mobility services form based taxis services such as Uber. tice intermodality? Based on user needs: that emerge with information and com- Seeking ways to integrate these services in what are the lessons for planning a user- munication technology, • transport demand and traffic modelling in urban areas, • development of innovative methods for traffic monitoring, • development of methods to influence traffic operations and quality in trans- portation

Intermodal travel can be a key compo- nent of an efficient urban mobility system in the future. Intermodal mobility describes the use of different means of transport dur- ing a single trip. Enabled by digitalization, it promises users a high degree of flexibility and a ‘seamless’ journey, and increases the attractiveness of public transport. The larger cities get, the more common it becomes that users of public transport com- bine different modes along their journeys. The two DLR Transport Research Institutes Figure 1: MoviCi project team at AndinaTraffic fair with University of Medellín representatives­ currently assess intermodal travel in cities Source: DLR/MoviCi

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 19 STRATEGIES Colombian-German Research Network

centred intermodal transport system? Using communication (V2X) have been intro- Find out more experiences from Singapore, Shanghai and duced to traffic management. Based on this Bogotá, the presentation illustrated how progress the DLR developed two novel transport systems have changed with urban- movici approaches that utilize data from ICT for an movilidad urbana en ization over the recent decades. Based on ciudades inteligentes optimized traffic signal control in fast grow- empirical data from a dedicated survey on ing mega cities. The work of the DLR shows The MoviCi Website provides more informa- urban intermodal travel in Germany, Hein- tion on the project and how to get involved. how new signal-control methods can help richs showed the importance of the first and Project partners are BerlinPartner, MetroCalí, municipalities to reduce congestion, mini- last mile and the interchange for intermodal ITS Automotive Nord, ITS Colombia, German mize waiting times and decrease vehicular travel. Partnership for Sustainable Mobility, Univer- emissions. To do so, it became necessary to Katharina Karnahl pointed out how digi- sidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Medellín bridge the gap between the scientific find- and Trialog Publishers (media partner). Any- talization and the technological develop- one interested in receiving news on the dia- ings, which are mostly based on simulation ment enable new innovative solutions with logue with practioners and the call for studies, and their commercial application in respect to individualization, flexibilization papers for the symposium in Medellín is sin- the real world. To validate the simulation and optimized usage of transportation sys- cerely invited to contact the project team. results, the new methods have been tested tems. Integrated mobility solutions com- www.movici.com – [email protected]. in the field. The results of this work were bine transportation services from different presented to the audience. providers, organized on one platform for arranging and managing the trips. On- the Institutes of Transport Research and Activities ahead demand services are based on managing Transportation Systems are currently work- The project team will present the MoviCi transport demand by concentrating and ing on. project at the Smart Cities NYC in New York optimizing trips in real-time. In the future Mathias Höhne has shown that traffic from 03 to 06 May 2017 as part of a delega- self-driving vehicles can support this spe- signal control strongly influences the qual- tion from the “Shaping the Future – Build- cific use case, with on-demand services ity of traffic within urban street networks. ing the City of Tomorrow”-campaign. Like- being more affordable with autonomous Due to innovation in ICT (Information and wise preparations are starting for the dia- vehicles. As an example for on-demand ser- Communication Technologies) new data- logue with practioners in November 2017 vices the development and evaluation of a sources like video capturing, wireless inroad and the scientific symposium in April 2018 flexible bus system was presented, a project detectors and vehicle-to-infrastructure in Colombia. ■

1 https://www.research-in-germany.org/shaping-the- future/about-the-campaign.html 2 http://www.andinatraffic.com 3 http://www.urmo.info 4 http://www.reallabor-schorndorf.de 5 http://www.urmo.info 6 http://sumo.dlr.de 7 http://www.andinatraffic.com

Mirko Goletz Graduate economist, Research associate Mobility and Urban Development, DLR Institut of Transport Research, Berlin (DE) [email protected]

Dirk Heinrichs, Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Head of the Department Mobility and Urban Development, DLR Institut of Transport Research, Berlin (DE) [email protected]

Katharina Karnahl, Dipl. Ing. Research associate, DLR Institute of Transportation Systems, Berlin (DE) [email protected]

Mathias Höhne, Dipl. Ing. Research associate, DLR Institute of Transportation Systems, Berlin (DE) [email protected]

20 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Public Private Partnership BEST PRACTICE

The Akechi Railway (Gifu Prefecture) was converted 1985 into PPP. Photo: Oliver Mayer PPP in Japan’s railway system – a success story

Public private partnerships, Japan, rail service, railway infrastructure, railway operations, rural public transportation

Public private partnerships for railways in Japan are different from those in other countries. Many railway lines in Japan are profitable and can easily generate enough revenues, so that there is no need for either the public sector to pay subsidies, nor for the private sector to invest money in public railways. However, due to declining passenger numbers in some areas, this model does not work anymore. In this paper the Japanese model of PPP is described, where the public sector takes over private railways to prevent them from being closed. The authors describe the main principles and the reasons of successful PPP-projects in Japan.

Wilfried Wunderlich, Oliver Mayer

n the age of global warming, the Japa- [3-5]. In the Japanese railway sector, how- ing is overcome. As shown in figure ,1 financ- nese government is committed to pro- ever, PPPs play a different role. Many private ing is a matter of the railway operator. Dif- tecting the environment [1]. Conse- and public railway lines in Japan are profit- ferent models of joint ventures (JV) for quently, it supports public transport able. In densely populated urban areas, traf- example, special purpose vehicles (SPVs), Ivia railways, as this is the most energy-effi- fic volume is very high, so that steady reve- private finance initiatives (PFIs), design- cient transport system with the lowest CO2- nues are generated. These revenues enable build-finance-operate (DBFO) projects, emissions. However, railway systems are the railways to pay for necessary mainte- build-transfer-operate (BTO) projects, and known to involve capital-intensive infra- nance, buy new rolling stock, and finance others have been described and analyzed in structures [2]. For many countries, public small infrastructure improvements. How- the literature [4, 5]. However, these models private partnerships (PPP) represent an ever, demographic changes and the have mainly been developed for the purpose option for sharing the burden of costs. PPPs increased use of privately owned automo- of building new railway lines. In this paper, are agreements between governments and biles have resulted in a decline in the num- we focus on currently operating railways the private sector for the purpose of provid- ber of passengers in some areas. As a result, that are facing the problem of declining pas- ing and maintaining public infrastructures, private railways are not always able to con- senger numbers. In these cases, the general community facilities, and related services. tinue service on a loss-making line. In such interest in regional transport, the citizens’ PPPs have become popular in recent years, cases, the public sector may have to step in needs in the community, and, in particular, because the public sector cannot secure to prevent the railway from being closed. how the media report about the situation enough funds to maintain or operate the When national polices support public assume major roles. When railway infra- public infrastructure, including railways transport, the first hurdle of securing fund- structure is designed and built, it should

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 21 BEST PRACTICE Public Private Partnership

Private railways in Japan can be grouped Travel motivation into two categories. The first group includes the traditional private railways that have Communication been private since the beginning of their Information operations. Among them are large compa- nies with a track length of 100 km or more (e. g., Seibu, Tobu, Odakyu, Meitetsu, Passengers Railway Operator Acceptance Service Kintetsu, Hankyu, and Nishitetsu), but also small regional railways (e.g., Fuji Kyuko and Toyohashi Railway), and tramways (Okay- Maintenance Comfort ama, Hiroshima, and Nagasaki). The second group consists of former public railways that have been privatized, for example, JR Media Politicians Financing East, JR Central, and JR West (formerly JNR) as well as small local railways (e. g., the Ethics Length Community interests Semboku Rapid Railway). Public interest Contract All subways and some tramways in Japan are publicly owned, as are JR Hokkaido, JR Diversity Regional interests Diversification Shikoku, and JR Freight (formerly JNR), National interests and some regional railways (e.g., South Hok- kaido Railway, Echigo Tokimeki Railway, and Tosaden Kotsu). All other railways are Figure 1: Relationships between railway operators and their stakeholders, such as passengers, jointly owned by the public and private sec- media and politicians. tor and are thus PPP-railways (more com- monly referred to in Japan as third-sector railways) [7, 8]. These railways include for- then support the passengers that use it. Pas- Japanese National Railway (JNR), today mer JNR local lines (e.g., the Sanriku Rail- senger acceptance of the infrastructure (e. g., about half of Japan’s approximately 200 way) or former JR lines running parallel to satisfaction with convenience and comfort) railway companies are privately owned. The new Shinkansen lines (e.g., the Shinano is reflected in media reports. Hence, there largest railways in Japan are also private Railway, the Iwate Ginga Railway and the are complex interactions in the railway busi- companies. About 90–95 % of the total num- Aoi Mori Railway). These were handed over ness between stakeholders and they are rep- ber of rail passengers in Japan are trans- to prefectural governments, who are now in resented in figure 1 with reverse arrows indi- ported on their lines, excluding subways. charge of operating them, often in coopera- cating the mutual dependencies. Railway The equity participation of most railway tion with private companies, with a total of operators in Japan are also trying to influ- companies is differentiated between share- 45 lines. However, in many cases, operating ence passenger motivation to travel by train holders. Unlike railway systems in most results have been mediocre [7]. Because by launching destination campaigns, public other countries, because the largest railways land prices in Japan are very high and infra- relation programs, or other marketing strat- in Japan are private, they do not require any structure must withstand earthquakes, con- egies in order to improve the social integra- public support to finance their daily opera- struction costs for new railway lines are rel- tion in the community [6]. tions. Indeed, due to the large number of atively high. Thus, since the 1960s, about 50 passengers, many railway companies have new lines in Japan have been built and oper- Japan’s railway system been profitable for many decades, and there ated by companies whose basic capital is Following Japan’s railway reform in 1987 has thus been no need for the public sector jointly held by the public and private sec- and subsequent privatization of the former to engage in railway operations. tors. These new lines mainly operate in

Figure 2: Wakayama Electric Railway was rescued after the transfer into Figure 3: Hitachinaka Seaside Railway is a PPP between the former PPP Photo: Oliver Mayer private railway operator and the local government. Photo: Oliver Mayer

22 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Public Private Partnership BEST PRACTICE

urban and suburban areas, but they also Year Railway Former owner New owner(s) provide freight service for newly developed 2002 Manyo Line Kaetsuno Railway Takaoka City, Imizu City, Toyama harbors (e. g., Sendai Airport Transit, Prefecture, others (mainly public) Yurikamome, Tsukuba Express, Yokohama 2002 Aoi Mori Railway JR East Aomori Prefecture and others Minatomirai Railway, Chiba Monorail, (mainly public) Osaka Monorail, Linimo, and Keiyo Rinkai 2003 Echizen Railway Keifuku Electric Railway Fukui City and others (mainly Railway). The last group of PPP (third-sec- public) tor) railways consists of formerly private 2006 Wakayama Electric Nankai Wakayama Electric Railway railways that have been transferred to the Railway (operator, fully private) Wakayama City (property owner, public sector in recent years, as the private fully public) owners have no longer had sufficient funds 2008 Hitachinaka Seaside Ibaraki Transport Hitachinaka City and Ibaraki to continue operations. These include, for Railway Transport (mainly public) example, the Wakayama Electric Railway 2008 Fukui Railway Meitetsu Group Fukui Town Management, Sabae (illustrated in figure ),2 the Hitachinaka Sea- Chamber of Commerce, and side Railway (figure ),3 the Yokkaichi Asun- others (mainly public) aro Railway (figure ),4 the Iga Railway, Man- 2010 Aoi Mori Railway Aoi Mori Railway Aoi Mori Railway (in charge of train operation only), Aomori yosen, and the Echizen Railway (see also Prefecture (new infrastructure table 1). owner, fully public) 2015 Ainokaze Toyama JR West Toyama Prefecture, Toyama City, PPPs prevent private railways Railway and others (mainly public) from closing 2015 Yokkaichi Asunaro Kintetsu Kintetsu, Yokkaichi City (operator, Most railway lines in Japan are profitable Railway mainly private), Yokkaichi City (infrastructure owner, fully public) due to high passenger numbers. Unprofita- ble routes can be supported by pooling 2015 Kyoto Tango Railway Kitakinki Tango Railway Willer Trains (operator, fully private), Kyoto Prefecture, income generated from profitable routes Kyotango City, and others operated by the same train company or by (infrastructure owners, mainly public) profits from non-railway business. Govern- ment subsidies for loss-making lines have Note: Unless different ownership for operator and infrastructure is mentioned, the railways are integrated companies owning the infrastructure and operating trains. traditionally only been granted if the lines were owned by public or public-private Table 1: Recent PPP-developments in Japan’s railway sector companies; private railways have never been eligible for any kind of grants to cover operating deficits. Therefore, if a private railway line was in deficit, ultimately it was closed and transportation was replaced by bus service. Once the downward spiral started, it was hard to be stopped, as illus- trated in figure .5 Recent examples include the tramway system of Gifu and the Hitachi Electric Railway (both closed in 2005), the Kashima Railway (closed in 2007) or the Towada Kanko Railway (closed in 2012). A train is a mass transportation system and Figure 4: Yokkaichi Asunaro Railway is an can be expected to be profitable when the example of successful population density in its region is higher PPP than a certain level, which is according to Photo: Oliver Mayer our investigations in the range of 150 to 1000 persons per square kilometer, unless there are other socio-demographic charac- ure 5). A list of some of these railways and naka City holding the majority of shares, teristics of the residents in the service area. their new ownership structures is provided and Ibaraki Transport, the former private A recent example of closure in December in Table 1. In some cases, the ownership of owner, a minority. This new railway was 2016 was the JR Rumoi Line in Hokkaido in the infrastructure was separated from the formed in 2008, as Ibaraki Transport could a sparsely populated rural area. railway operations. This is a common sys- not secure enough funds on its own to keep Recently, however, closure of railway tem in Europe, but a new concept in Japan. the railway running. The line had been lines has not been positively accepted by the The Kishigawa Line of the private Nankai opened in 1913 and has been privately general public [8]. Hence, viable railways Railway was transferred into a PPP consist- owned and operated ever since, but falling with potential for passenger growth or ing of Okayama Electric Railway and passenger numbers forced the public sector regional development have been kept open. Wakayama City in 2006, forming Wakay- to get involved in operating a railway. In all these cases, the public sector has ama Electric Railway (figure ).2 Unique mar- The Yokkaichi Asunaro Railway is become involved in railway ownership and/ keting of a “stationmaster cat” helped to another example of a successful transition or operations (a previously unknown prac- attract media attention, resulting in an from private to public ownership. It is a tice in these regions), thus allowing the rail- increase in revenues. The Hitachinaka Sea- small railway consisting of two lines (Utsube way to continue providing service (see fig- side Railway (figure )3 is a PPP with Hitachi- and Hachioji lines) with a total length of

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 23 BEST PRACTICE Public Private Partnership

(a) (b) for free, the railway’s operations were prof- itable in its first year, thus resulting in a total Amortization (2) Transition Last financial burden for Yokkaichi city of glowing up around JPY 100 million (about EUR Basic Break even Profit analysis (3) Transition 900,000) a year. This arrangement is valid (1) Profit loss Set-up Profit gain until March 2025 and will be reviewed thereafter [9]. Invest- Stable commercial Yokkaichi Asunaro Railway’s name refers ment operation Red (4) Dismantling, to its narrow gauge lines. In Japanese, naro account scrap, sell Inflated Media means “narrow”, and asu means “tomorrow/ (c) expectations attraction the future”, thus indicating that this type of (d) railway has a future. Indeed, without Yok-

Inno- Loss of Plateau of Counter- kaichi City’s involvement, it would not have vation Dead (2) Transition interest productivity measure a future. This is only one example of a Japa- Stakeholders visibility; valley (3) New nese public-private partnership according Founders ownership motivation to which the public sector has taken over Slope of (1) Downward Dis- (4) Closure financial responsibility for a deficit-making enlightenment circle starts illusion- private railway line. Similar examples are men t the Iga Railway and Yoro Railway, also both Time [years] formerly Kintetsu lines, in the Mie and Gifu Figure 5: Financial situation when opening a new business (a), when closing (b), and the stake- Prefectures. holder visibility or founder’s mentality when opening (c), and when closing a new business (d). The dilemma of Japanese railway companies As mentioned above, there are three main types of railway financing systems in Japan, namely, private railways, joint private-­ public railways, and public railways. All Figure 6: A typical three types face severe decreases in reve- third-sector railway is the Aoi Mori Railway, nues owing to declines in passenger volume, and the train is especially in rural areas. bearing the local This situation is depicted in figure 5 (parts mascot. Its ownership a and c), which summarizes the relation- was transformed into ships that exist when a new business is a PPP after the construction of a opened (as adapted from textbooks on high-speed line. entrepreneur businesses). The stakeholders Photo: W. Wunderlich and funding bodies must reach the break- even point. After that, the investment is compensated for by the revenues, and even 7 km, running in the industrial city of Yok- lines and converting the track into a bus a rise in profit can be expected.Figure 5 kaichi, the largest city in Mie Prefecture rapid transit system. However, Yokkaichi (parts b and d) show the situation when the with a population of 310,000. Originally City rejected this proposal, preferring conditions for revenues worsen, as it is the built by the Mie Railway between 1912 and instead to keep the railway running by case for rural railways in the present age of 1922, the two lines were absorbed in 1965 by transferring the two lines to a public railway changing demography and high usage of Kintetsu, Japan’s largest private railway. system. privately owned motor vehicles. The down- The lines, running as urban railways with a For this to happen, the two lines had to ward spiral, spurred on by negative reports narrow gauge of 762 mm, are unique in be separated from Kintetsu. Thus, in 2015, a in the media, results in a further decline and Japan. During Japan’s economic boom after new railway company, the Yokkaichi Asu­ is followed by deficit. When the media the Second World War, passenger numbers naro Railway, was formed, with Kintetsu reports about the situation, it usually on the two lines rose, reaching a peak of 7.2 retaining 75 % of ownership and Yokkaichi focuses on the railway itself and a last glow- million passengers in 1970. However, in the City 25 %. The Yokkaichi Asunaro Railway ing up of positive revenues is achieved. This following decades, increased suburbaniza- company has remained in charge of train is the last chance of hope to turn a declining tion and motorization led to a 50 % decrease operations, but does not own the tracks or business into success. Instead of the worst in railway passengers (3.6 million passen- the rolling stock, which is unusual in Japan. alternative of closing and scrapping (see fig- gers in 2013). By 2010, although the lines Instead, all infrastructure and rolling stock ure 5 parts b (4) and d (4), there is the option were losing JPY 270 million (Yen; about have been transferred from Kintetsu to Yok- of making a transition (figure 5 b (3)) from a EUR 2.2 million) a year, the losses were fully kaichi City for free. The city is responsible purely public or private financing system to covered by Kintetsu. Because Kintetsu was a for covering maintenance costs. A third of a PPP. The transition itself increases the private railway company and profitable as a these maintenance costs have been subsi- motivation of the stakeholders and may whole, the Utsube and Hachioji lines were dized by the state and a further sixth by the reduce the business operating expenses. not eligible for public subsidies. In 2012, prefecture, so that Yokkaichi City effectively There is another point where a transition Kintetsu was no longer willing to cover pays only half of the costs. Because the city is even more likely to be a success. If a major these losses and suggested closing the two has leased all infrastructure to the railway change in the business environment is

24 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Public Private Partnership BEST PRACTICE

expected, countermeasures can be implemented. A typical example [4] Osei-Kyei, Robert; Chan, Albert P. C. (2015), Review of studies on the Critical Success Factors for Public–Pri- for this case is the opening of a high-speed line, which leads to a loss vate Partnership (PPP) projects from 1990 to 2013, International Journal of Project Management, 33, 1335- 1346, doi: 10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.02.008 of most of the long-distance travelers on the old line. If it is already foreseeable that the revenues from the remaining regional or even [5] van de Velde, D. M. (1999), Organisational forms and entrepreneurship in public transport, Part 1: classify- ing organisational forms, Transport Policy, 6, 147-157 local traffic will be much less than before, then this is the point [6] Wunderlich, Wilfried (2016), Rail network developments: Japanese railways go for better social integra- where a transition of the old line is appropriate. Starting from a tion, Internationales Verkehrswesen, 68[3], 51-53. Online Supplement, http://www.internationales- much higher level of public acceptance prevents the occurrence of verkehrswesen.de/rail-transport-in-japan/ a destructive spiral of downgrading and the company can be saved [7] Mayer, Oliver (2017), Mehr Stagnation als Hoffnung: Ein Überblick über Drittsektor-Bahnen im ländlichen at its present level. An example can be seen in the third-sector rail- Raum Japans [Engl.: More stagnation than hope: An overview of third-sector railways in rural Japan], ways founded on former JR lines, where the long-distance traffic Bulletin of Aichi University of Education, Humanities and Social Science, 66, 135-144, http://hdl.handle. was converted to Shinkansen [6]. Typically, the prefecture owns the net/10424/7016 majority of the shares (more than 51 %), the municipalities along [8] Saito, Takahito (2015), Overcoming Difficulties Faced by Local Railway Transport, Japan Railway & Transport the line hold minor shares, and local businesses own from 10 % to Review, 65[3], 6-17, http://www.ejrcf.or.jp/jrtr/jrtr65/pdf/6-17_web.pdf 20 %. As around a dozen long-distance freight trains are using such [9] Personal communication with the department of Urban Planning, Yokkachi City, March 17, 2017 railway lines, there is also national interest to keep them in service. [10] Watari, Chiharu (2014), Outline of the JR East Group Safety Plan 2018 – The Sixth 5-year Safety Plan, Japan Figure 6 shows a train in Hachinohe belonging to the Aoi Mori Rail- Railway & Transport Review, 64[10], 76-83, http://www.ejrcf.or.jp/jrtr/jrtr64/pdf/76-83_web.pdf way, which runs the local services to Aomori. By displaying the mas- [11] United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (2008), Guidebook on promoting good Governance in cot in large size, the connection to local communities is strength- Public-Private-Partnerships, http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/ceci/ publications /PPP.pdf ened and social acceptance improved [6]. The secret, however, why PPP has been successful in Japan is Wilfried Wunderlich, Dr. related to the prevalent work mentality of the operating staff as well Professor, Tokai University, Faculty of as the managers. Let us explain how this psychosocial and cultural Engineering,Hiratsuka (JP) attitude against work affects the financial situation. Railways are a [email protected] predominant example of how to maintain security. In Japan, the fol- lowing four pillars of risk prevention are commonly embraced [10]: (1) reduce risk factors, (2) be aware of safety, (3) promote priority Oliver Mayer, M.A. improvement plans, and (4) provide individual training to prepare Professor, Aichi University of Education, Department of Educational Administration for dealing with critical situations. When converting this concept to and Governance, Kariya (JP) financing, it means that instead of increasing control mechanisms [email protected] such as watchdogs or regulators, it is better to address the question, whether inherent safety design can prevent human errors. Ade- quate and appropriate training is the best safety protection measure to deal with human or system failure, together with observation and The 45th European 2017 Transport Conference detailed documentation of work progress. In addition, eliminating EUROPEAN TRANSPORT 04-06 October 2017 the influence of the most uncontrollable or irrational factors (e.g., CONFERENCE Casa Convalescència, Barcelona, Spain short-term decisions of individuals, financial instability, or incorrect forecasts of passenger volume) have been mentioned as represent- th ing the most critical success factors (CSF) for PPPs [4]. Instead of Booking Discounts - Deadline 30 June 2017 analyzing the situation passively, active measures of leadership are Delegates are now invited to book their place at the the key to success. Such examples are training of the staff, simple European Transport Conference to benefit from an Early contracts, training to prevent unethical behavior, and open discus- Booking Discount. The Early Booking Discount applies to sion to prevent asymmetric flow of information are a few issues that delegates booking 3-day attendance only, with payment have already been discussed in the guidelines of good governance received by 30th June 2017: (GGG) as factors of psychosocial and cultural attitude making fur- AET or ECTRI Members Standard Fee* Early Booking Fee* ther PPPs sustainable [11]. Individual Member £800 €960 £720 €850 Organisation Member £760 €920 £690 €820 Conclusion Non-Member £940 €1130 £850 €995 The examples of successful PPPs for railways in Japan were based Single days may be booked from 1st July 2017. In addition, on the willingness of local or prefectural politicians to make deci- a 50% discount on booking fees is applicable to attendees sions for maintaining public transport, as shown with the Yokkaichi from new EU Member States (joined since 2004) and for Asunaro Railway. Although it still might be a long way from CSF to young professionals under the age of 26 or with less than 5 GGG in PPPs, the more private-public partnerships are achieved, years’ professional experience. the more successful and sustainable such projects will be. ■ For those involved in transport planning, research and practice, the European Transport Conference is the event to find in-depth presentations on policy issues, best REFERENCES practice and research findings across a broad spectrum [1] Okano-Heijmans, Maaike (2012), Japan’s ‘green’ economic diplomacy: environmental and energy technol- of transport modes. ogy and foreign relations, The Pacific Review, 25 [3], 339-364, doi: 10.1080/09512748.2012.685090 To secure your place, please complete [2] Boll, Philip (2007), Investitionen in Public Private Partnership-Projekte [Engl.: Investment in Public Private an Early Booking Form online at: Partnership-Projects], Schriften zur Immobilienökonomie, Band 43. Rudolf Müller Verlag. www.etcbookings.org [3] Shaoul, Jean; Stafford, Anne; Stapleton, Pam (2012), The Fantasy World of Private Finance for Transport via *All fees shown are subject to 20% VAT. Public Private Partnerships, International Transport Forum Discussion Paper 6, doi: 10.1787/5k8zvv6tn2bv- Standard Fees may be subject to alteration due to fluctuating exchange rates. en, or http://hdl.handle.net/10419/68822

J000097b Early booking Int Verk 88x126.indd 1 03/04/2017 18:09 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 25 BEST PRACTICE Public Transport Photo: GIZ Transport Namibia GIZ Transport Photo: Managing public transport in Windhoek The implementation of a new public bus service for Windhoek,­ Namibia Public bus service, sustainable urban development, Transport project

The Sustainable Urban Transport Master Plan (SUTMP) aims at developing a sustainable, affordable, accessible and efficient public transport system for Windhoek. The “MoveWindhoek” project, a Namibian- German coalition, addresses the challenge to implement a modern public bus system through a diversi- fied, long-term approach. It includes the modernisation of the bus fleet, capacity development, aware- ness campaigns as well as steering and funding models. It is implemented by City of Windhoek, with support from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH.

Ernst-Benedikt Riehle, Ursula Hein

oving Windhoek’s transport Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale able transport through public participation system to a sustainable, Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. It focuses [1]. The Namibian Cabinet endorsed the affordable, accessible, attrac- on public and non-motorized transport and plan in 2014, a crucial step for its implemen- tive and efficient transport is supported through the “Transport, Mobil- tation. Msystem – this is the aim of a coalition of the ity, Logistics” project of GIZ in Namibia. In early 2016 the first new bus lines, Government of the Republic of Namibia, In 2013, the Sustainable Urban Trans- together with newly procured, modern bus- represented by the Ministry of Works and port Master Plan (SUTMP) was developed. ses, were introduced to Windhoek’s citizens. Transport (MWT) and the Ministry of It serves to enable decision makers in the The implementation is continuing and is Urban and Rural Development (MURD), transport sector to implement measures proving to be a complex challenge. Among the City of Windhoek (CoW) and the according to a long-term vision for sustain- others, Public Transport has the image of

26 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Public Transport BEST PRACTICE

transport for the poor, the city faces capac- ity and funding constraints, the legal plan- ning basis does not yet provide for inte- grated approaches and scheduled bus ser- vices is a new and thus unknown concept for Namibia.

Current situation On a daily basis, CoW has about 60 busses in operation, on a network of 30 routes and 7 lines, to serve its customers. These usually synonymous words denote two separate types of operation: Routes are direct connec- tions between vaguely specific start and endpoints as well as customer-requested stops, representing the old, insufficient sys- tem. Lines are newly introduced connec- tions with dedicated bus stops, a schedule and service in both directions. Lines shall become a full-day service. All but one of the lines meet at a central interconnection point to allow passengers to transfer. Bus operations for both lines and routes begin currently as early as 5:30, running until approximately 9:00 in order to bring employees and students to work and school. In the afternoon, operations run from 13:00 through 18:00–19:00. Service is sparse on Saturdays and currently non-existent mid- day on weekdays, at night, and on Sundays. In February 2016, the City of Windhoek launched the new system with seven bus lines, which stem directly from the SUTMP planning process. For this purpose, a bus network plan was developed. It indicates the bus lines, their respective bus stops and interchange points (figure 1). To enhance the system’s quality, 26 new low-floor buses were procured, funded jointly by CoW and Figure 1: Bus route map for Windhoek Source: GIZ Transport Namibia the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), as part of the MoveWindhoek project and brand. They operate exclusively on the new lines. In 2017, CoW plans to shift operation completely to the new network of 14 lines, including the seven existing lines. All lines are planned to finally operate according to fixed schedules at frequencies of 20-60 min- utes; the span of service, however, will be limited by the existing resources. The demand for a public bus service however is high. Estimates indicate that, at present, around 10,000 passengers ride Windhoek’s buses every day. A recent survey revealed that 60 % of bus users are female and at the same time the majority (two- thirds) live in households earning less than 2,000 NAD (about 145 EUR) a month, with more than 40 % earning less than 1,000 NAD. With current fares for single bus rides of 6 NAD (0,42 EUR), and 5 NAD with a Figure 2: Street scene in Katutura/Windhoek Photo: GIZ Transport Namibia

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 27 BEST PRACTICE Public Transport

rechargeable “SmartCard”, the importance Implementation – a diversified for the capital city, but also be accessible for of busses as daily means of transport for a approach other towns in the country. Further funding big part of Windhoek’s population becomes The Master Plan is a long-term approach to streams, from advertising space to parking obvious. Its relevance for economic partici- develop Windhoek’s transport system until management in the CBD, are under debate pation and enhancement of livelihoods is 2032. Developing public transport services, as well. high. In general, Windhoek’s citizens spend transforming mobility perception and up to 25 % of their monthly disposable awareness, providing non-motorized trans- Capacity building income for transportation, which is high in port opportunities and ensuring an inte- A key aspect is also to train the respective international comparison [2]. Moreover, grated approach to land-use and transport staff in various fields in order for them to alternatives for daily commute are scarce. planning is a complex and long-lasting pro- reach autonomous execution of their Windhoek residents’ primary mode of cess, which is addressed within this Namib- responsibilities. In the course of the capac- transportation is the ubiquitous privately ian-German project through different ity building approach, GIZ is hosting train- operated shared taxi, which accounts for aspects. ings for employees of CoW as well as for the 38 % of all trips [2]. Taxis are hailed exclu- MWT. With the support of GIZ, a German sively on the street, usually carrying one or Steering structure expert for the implementation of the new two passengers during off-peak hours, and The implementation of the SUMTP is bus system is employed at CoW. Her work up to four going in the same direction dur- guided through a comprehensive steering includes operational planning, fleet man- ing the morning and afternoon peak hours. structure. It contains of different commit- agement, public transport infrastructure Approximately 7,000 taxis ply the streets tees. The “Flexible Thematic Units” shall and capacity building within the Public of Windhoek. Taxi fares from the north- coordinate technical implementation and Transport Division of the City of Windhoek. western suburbs range from 10 NAD (0,70 monitoring. The “Technical Steering Com- GIZ is also supporting the University of EUR) for trips to the city centre and sur- mittee”, which consists of Management rep- Namibia (UNAM) and the Namibian Uni- rounding suburbs, to 20 NAD for trips to resentatives from the key stakeholders, is versity of Science and Technology (NUST) outer suburbs. coordinating the implementation. It further with specific study paths in engineering and Non-motorized transport, although con- presents to the “Steering Committee”, infrastructure planning. tributing to about 30 % of Windhoek’s modal which consists of the Permanent Secretaries split [2], is to date unsatisfactory, due to of MWT and MURD, the CEO and high rep- Survey missing or deficient infrastructure for resentatives from CoW and GIZ. The Steer- During the implementation process, it is pedestrians and cyclists (figure ).2 Windhoek ing Committee was officially launched in necessary to monitor the impact on the has only one short bicycle lane next to the October 2015. users, which are affected directly by changes Grove Mall, a shopping centre in the south- of the system. GIZ conducted a customer ern part of town; consequently, virtually no Funding model satisfaction survey in October and Novem- Windhoek resident uses bicycles for non- The financial side of the SUTMP has been ber 2016. At that point in time, the new lines recreational purposes. The number of another focus area for the implementation. had been operated for half a year and prior pedestrians involved in accidents is high. It Currently CoW is financing the bus opera- to the City’s plan to switch entirely to a new is also a core aspect of enhancing a public tions within its core budget. This has proved system of 14 lines. transport network, as about 90 % of bus to be a challenge and therefore governmen- The survey reached about 10 % of daily users walk to and from the bus, thus being tal and other funding sources are consid- bus users and provides a comprehensive dependent on non-motorized transport ered. A dedicated grant for sustainable and insightful picture of the customer per- infrastructure. mobility solutions from governmental spective, their concerns and challenges as The introduction of a new public bus ser- resources through the involved ministries is well as opinion on the public bus service. vice thus aims at the alleviation of several under preparation. This grant will be unique As the economic situation described development challenges. within Africa and not only provide funding above shows a majority of low income households use the bus service. Thus it is not surprising that the mayor reasons for customers using the bus is to safe money (67 %) and secondly for security reasons (12 %). The overall satisfaction with the bus sys- tem is poor, with women rating it distinc- tively lower than men. At the same time the survey revealed that the new lines where rated distinctively better than the former routes (63 % fair to excellent compared to 42 %). Finally, while the value for money was rated very good, aspects such as waiting time, travel time and personal space were considered negatively (figure ).3

Institutional development The organizational set-up of the bus opera- tions has been identified as another area of Figure 3: Satisfaction with the bus service, survey 2016 Source: GIZ Transport Namibia interest. Currently, the Division of Public

28 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Public Transport BEST PRACTICE

AUF EINEN BLICK continuously how to best inform the public and potential customers and provide Der Sustainable Urban Transport Master Plan updates on new developments. (SUTMP) hat das Ziel, ein nachhaltiges, erschwingliches, barrierefreies und effi- zientes öffentliches Verkehrssystem in Wind- Challenges huk zu entwickeln. Das „MoveWindhoek“ The ongoing implementation of the SUTMP Projekt, ein Deutsch-Namibisches Gemein- for Windhoek is currently undergoing a schaftsprojekt, adressiert die verschiedenen thorough review. This already revealed that Herausforderungen in der Umsetzung eines modernen ÖPNV Systems durch ver- implementation is ongoing, however pro- schiedene langfristige Ansätze. Es enthält gress is slow and some milestones were not Figure 4: MoveWindhoek logo die Modernisierung der Busflotte, Capacity achieved as foreseen, due to various chal- Development, Aufklärungskampagnen sowie lenges. Aufbau von Steuerungs- und Finanzierungs- Due to driver and bus shortages, many of for the operation and development of the mechanismen. Es wird von der Stadt Wind- huk, mit Unterstützung der Deutschen the ambitions regarding all-day service and network will be a crucial factor for the Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenar- frequency could not be immediately real- future development of this flagship project beit (GIZ) GmbH, durchgeführt. ized. Furthermore, drivers’ behaviour is for Namibia. ■ often still not appropriate and prevents the lines from following a schedule and dedi- The “Transport, Mobility, Logistics” project is implemented by GIZ and funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Transport is within the main structure of cated tracks. Cooperation and Development. For information on the project, the city’s administration. Therefore, financ- Windhoek’s bus stops have few of the please contact the Project Manager, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Heinrich ing, HR and other administrative processes amenities that bus passengers await in Semar ([email protected]). underlie standard procedures, which do not developed countries. In 2013, of Wind- allow prioritization and effective service hoek’s 160 bus stops, 45 % had no shelter delivery. Besides rolling out the operations and 85 % no sign [2]. While these statistics SOURCES to a separate entity, further commercialisa- are now outdated due to the introduction of [1] International Transportation (67) 1 | 2015, 30–33 tion is contemplated to integrate existing the lines, they give a solid picture of current [2] Ministry of Works and Transport; City of Windhoek; Deutsche private businesses in the future public conditions. Even where shelters exist, the Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH (2013): transport system. The aforementioned taxi benches are often broken, and the bus stop Sustainable Urban Transport Master Plan for Windhoek including businesses will be vital to ensure an efficient signs that do exist have no customer infor- Rehoboth, Okahandja and Hosea Kutako International Airport: Final Report. Windhoek. feeder structure to the public transport cor- mation at all – not even a list of routes or ridors. lines stopping at the station. Travel times of bus passengers often Awareness campaigns exceed 1–1.5 hours depending on the desti- To enlarge the visibility and enable identifi- nation, even for trips from the suburbs to cation for partners and citizens, the Master the city centre, despite a distance of roughly Plan is implemented under the campaign 15 km. These long travel times result pri- “MoveWindhoek” (figure 4). All activities, marily from heavy traffic during rush hour, materials and communication is done in long dwell times resulting from chaos (push- accordance with the specially developed ing, fighting to board bus) at heavily fre- Corporate Identity Manual. It sets the basis quented bus stops, and frequent inspection of communication and information of the stops by City Police to check fare collection project. records. Travel times for passengers trave- Prior to the introduction of new lines, a ling from one end of a line to the other can first awareness approach was introduced – be even longer, as most travel via the city the so called “Information Bus”. Once a centre, thus encountering additional traffic week a bus and information stand was posi- and following a circuitous route. Windhoek tioned at different spots throughout the city, so far has no dedicated bus lanes, despite especially in the northern, most populated heavy traffic on main arterial roads during parts, in Katutura. City employees as well as peak times. GIZ members organized the busses and During peak travel times – 5:30–7:00 h conducted creative activities (e.g. Quizzes) and 4:30–6:30 h – buses are filled to the to inform the public about the new system. brim. Standing passengers completely fill Additionally, to the targeted information the aisles; slow service often means passen- Ernst-Benedikt Riehle Technical Advisor, Deutsche campaigns such as the information bus, gers must endure the crowding and heat for Gesellschaft für Internationale continuous information through various upwards of an hour. Passengers are regu- Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, forms of media is necessary to keep the pub- larly left behind due to lack of space, and the Windhoek (NA) lic informed. The project has a designated crowding likely generates personal safety [email protected] homepage (www.movewindhoek.com.na) as issues for women in particular. well as respective Facebook and twitter Many of the aforementioned difficulties Ursula Hein Technical Advisor, Deutsche account. However, the aforementioned sur- can be narrowed down to the quite limiting Gesellschaft für Internationale vey revealed that the majority of current funding base of the public transport system Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, customers is best reached through newspa- as well as the organisational lay-out of the Windhoek (NA) pers and radio. It is important to investigate bus operations. Ensuring sufficient funding [email protected]

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 29 BEST PRACTICE Data Tracking

Using GPS technology for demand data collection Introduction to opportunities and challenges of the ­methodology in developing and emerging economies

Tracking, travel demand, data collection, GPS, smartphone, Ukraine

Travel demand data is a necessary basis for urban mobility planning, but especially in developing and emerging economies data availability is often weak or non-existing. The Global Positioning System (GPS) technology offers a cheap alternative for data collection to traditional diary or survey methods. This article elaborates on advantages and disadvantages of the approach. Also different aspects of the post- processing of GPS data in order to determine trips, mode choice and trip purposes are discussed. In practice, GIZ collects first experiences with the methodology in four Ukrainian cities.

Jakob Baum, Enrico Howe

he goal of every transport plan- lenge: while network information is Classical approach to ner is to meet the citizen’s often freely available through Open- data collection demand for mobility. In order to StreetMap (given precautions in quality With the rise of transportation science in provide a reliable, safe and effi- control), travel demand data and behav- the 1950s, transport models have been based Tcient transport system, they have a set of ioural models are very rare. on data obtained from household surveys measures to choose from – ranging from • Behavioural models – Behavioural mod- and travel diaries [2]. In these paper- or tel- different infrastructure measures that els determine how a person travels given ephone-based collection formats, the par- enhance the system, but also travel demand certain circumstances. Most modelling ticipants reveal information on each con- management measures such as congestion software on the market has a behavioural ducted trip at the given day. This method pricing and many more. model implemented that is applied in produces a dataset with relatively high projects located all over the world. Obvi- information density by using detailed ques- Data necessities for transport ously, this lacks to account for cultural tionnaires. Representative surveys are com- system planning and local characteristics of travel deci- paratively easy to conduct and expensive at Facing the decision between such an array sions. For example, the travel time cost the same time. of possibilities, the planner needs to evalu- varies largely between different coun- On the other hand, its reliability is often ate and appraise the options and their tries, age and sex groups [1, Ch. 5.2.7]. very weak as it relies on stated preferences: impact on the system, its users and the soci- • Travel demand – This paper will guide The high manual workload for the partici- ety as a whole. This is done through varying through some aspects of GPS tracking as pants may result in low information quality appraisal methods, including cost-benefit- a travel demand data collection method- on trips as well as their distances and dura- analyses that are based on models. To run ology. The most common travel demand tions. Also un-intentional misreporting, these models, three types of data are needed: format is an Origin-Destination-matrix especially regarding multimodal and short • Existing network and prices – Especially (OD-matrix), describing the amount of trips by foot, are a challenge. in developing and emerging economies people traveling between different places The costs implied with a representative, data availability reveals a serious chal- with a given mode of transport. traditional data collection are often close to prohibitive for cities in developing and Travel Diary or Survey GPS-based emerging economies. In order to over- – low reliability + high reliability on trip times and durations come the difficulties on data reliability of traditional data collection, transport – no information on chosen travel route + travel route information researchers and practitioners started to – low scalability + easily scalable add supplemental technology into their – high collection cost + low collection cost methodological designs. + information on chosen mode + inter-modality detected with higher accuracy + information on trip purposes – complex post-processing needed: Global Positioning System (GPS) – based data collection – no direct information on used mode For the first time, GPS-technology was – no direct information on trip purpose used in 1997, in a context of a mobility sur- Table 1: Travel Diary vs. GPS-based Data Collection (own work, based on [4]) vey in order to automate data collection

30 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Data Tracking BEST PRACTICE

and to enhance its robustness ([3] as cited by Handheld Tracking Devices Smartphones [4, p. 34]). This first study already showed a + easy to handle for participants +/– knowledge about smartphones required main advantage of GPS tracking over self- + long battery lifetime – short battery lifetime reported travel diaries: the share of short trips in this survey was higher than in previ- + high tracking quality – lower tracking quality ous, traditional surveys. Many short trips – need to carry additional device +/– personal disposability of smartphones varies largely between countries (smart- have simply not been included in household phone penetration rate) surveys or traffic diaries – probably because – higher cost of provision + lower cost of provision they are not perceived as ‘real’ trips by the participants in the first place or because – tracking capability in challenging environ- + WiFi and other signals can be used in ments (high building density, underground) challenging environments making the effort of filling out a diary for a short trip is not perceived as necessary. An – bias in sample / ownership overview of advantages and disadvantages is Table 2: Handheld Tracking Devices vs. Smartphones (own work, based on [4]) given in table 1. Initially, GPS-based data collection took [...] mostly place with special in-vehicle or 23742017-01-14T10:13:20Z handheld devices, guaranteeing a high data 23752017-01-14T10:13:48Z accuracy. Their handling is easy as they 23762017-01-14T10:14:08Z [...] have to be simply carried by the participants without further need for interaction. Energy Figure 1: Example of an array of three GPS-points stored in a GPX-file consumption is, in congruence with the small array of functionality, limited, even though the capture frequency is high and smartphones as the tracking device, as vary- ture review [5]: most researchers define that the generated tracks are usually very accu- ing dissemination rates and disproportion- one trip has ended and a stop has been rate. Downsides are the burden to carry an ate ownership of smartphones in the popu- reached when a certain “dwell” time has additional device for the participants (which lation groups are to be expected. Especially been reached. The threshold is usually set may lead to unaccounted trips if (un)inten- in many developing countries, a large share between 120 and 300 seconds. Furthermore, tionally left at home) as well as the implied of the population doesn’t own a smartphone. the change of location, heading and the den- costs of acquisition. Also motivation to participate varies sity of track points are common criteria. between different socio-demographic In order to account for different seg- Smartphones: the omnipresent groups. This has to be accounted for in the ments of a multimodal trip, the threshold data collection device investigation design, e.g. through accompa- can be decreased: More segments are With the dissemination of smartphones, nying traditional interviews, targeted detected, analysed and merged again after- their potency as personal tracking objects recruiting of underrepresented groups, sup- wards. [6, p. 324] has become tremendous. Without need to ply of smartphones and finally weighting in Main challenges arise from signals loss carry an additional device and hence no fur- the data analysis (see table 2). Using data and inaccuracy. However, existing algo- ther costs, barriers for their utilization are from the network provider (Call Detail rithms are able to segregate up to 98 % trips very low. Therefore, the strongest argument Records) instead may also be an option – and stops correctly [7]. for the use of smartphones is the ease of however, that comes with its own chal- acquisition of participants and scalability lenges. through simple software distribution. However, today’s smartphone batteries Why and how did you move? The are not designed to facilitate constant track- need to post-process GPS-data AUF EINEN BLICK ing applications. On account for this, exist- A GPS track has information about location, Wissen und Daten über Verkehrsnachfrage ing tracking software often decreases the elevation and time attached to each data sind notwendige Grundlagen von Stadt- frequency of GPS tracking points and the point. From this, speed, heading and accel- verkehrsplanung. Insbesondere in Entwick- lungs- und Schwellenländern besteht häufig amount of requested satellites. Therewith eration can easily be derived. Obviously, a kein Wissen über Bewegungsmuster der the track quality decreases substantially high frequency in data point collection leads Bevölkerung. Das Globale Positionsbestim- compared to specialized handheld devices. to higher resolution of location, speed and mungssystem (GPS) stellt eine kostengün- Also, low battery status or anxiety for it can acceleration data (see figure ).1 stige Alternative zu traditionellen Datensam- lead to interruption of tracking. On a trip level, the track gives valuable melmethoden, wie Haushaltsbefragungen Another challenge for GPS tracking is and highly accurate insights into route und Mobilitätstagebüchern, dar. Dieser Artikel behandelt die Vor- und Nachteile der the loss of signal. GPS devices need constant choice, trip distance and duration. However, Methode sowie einige Aspekte der notwen- view to multiple satellites. Tracking under- it doesn’t reveal used modes and trip pur- digen Nachbearbeitung von GPS-Daten, um ground or in an urban environment with poses directly. Therefore, post-processing Fahrten, Verkehrsmittel und Fahrtzwecke many skyscrapers is therefore difficult. algorithms have been developed deducting herauszufinden. Derzeit verfügbare Meth- Smartphones have the advantage to be able this information from the tracks. oden müssen im Regelfall auf Raumdaten zurückgreifen, um valide Ergebnisse zu to use auxiliary sensors such as Wifi, mobile erzielen. Verkehrsmittel können dann bereits network or Bluetooth signals to locate their Identifying Trips relativ gut ermittelt werden. Die Bestimmung user. A raw GPS track consists of an array of von Fahrtzwecken stellt eine große Heraus- A general challenge is the misrepresen- points. In order to divide those points into forderung dar. Die GIZ sammelt nun erste tation of population subgroups in the sam- different trips and stops, a set of criteria is Erfahrungen mit GPS-Datensammlung in vier ukrainischen Städten. ple. This bias may be reinforced by using applied as Gong et al. show in their litera-

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 31 BEST PRACTICE Data Tracking

Identifying Mode Choice Mode distinction can be done via differ- such as transit network data. Some modes After trips have been extracted, the used ent approaches such as machine learning, have distinctive characteristics in their mode has to be identified for each trip. In an probabilistic methods or criteria-based speed and acceleration profile. A common urban context, foot, bike, car and different algorithms or a mix of the above. Criteria- speed pattern of a car can easily be differen- forms of public transport are the most com- based (or rule-based) methods often work tiated from a pedestrian or a bicycle (see monly distinguished modes. with speed patterns among other criteria figure 2). The probability that an algorithm detects the right mode is very high in this case.

speed waiting Detecting public transport use in delimi- km/h tation to car usage is already more complex since speeds of the two modes are similar. Regular stops are a potential way to identify public transit – but how to differentiate 40 between cars and buses being stuck in traffic? In order to tackle this issue, many algo- 20 rithms rely on spatial data as a second source of information. By matching the GPS track with road networks as well as public time transport routes and schedules, the algo- rithms can e.g. detect if a person followed a walking bus cycling car bus route and stopped in proximity to pub- lic transport stations, which makes it very Figure 2: Speed Patterns of Different Modes likely that transit was being used. Open source solutions like the Open Street Map public transportation database reveal important data such as routes, stops and public transportation mode. This data set varies globally in accuracy and information density but can be used as a solid input source for public transportation recogni- tion. If necessary, local planners can edit the Open Street Map data base. More sophisticated algorithms are able to detect the mode of more than 90 % of trips correctly [6, p. 325ff.]. However, the described limitations in mode detection show that active user integration for tasks like track validation or transportation mode Figure 3: A GPS-Track of a Person using different Modes Graphic: Enrico Howe, modalyzer editing can prove beneficial to the aim for adequate data sets (see figure ).3

Identifying Trip Purpose Next to the transport mode choice, the iden- tification of trip purposes – the reason why trips were made – is a major issue in the creation of a reliable data basis for transport system planning. Common categories are home, job and leisure trips. In order to detect a trip’s purpose, the GPS data is combined with spatial data that includes land-uses (e. g. residential, indus- trial) and points of interests (e. g. restaurants, shops). If a trip starts at a residential area and ends at a school, chances are very high that it was a home-school or home-work trip. By adding a portion of personal data, e. g. the home and work address of a person, the pre- dictions can be made even more precise. However, the accuracy of automated detection of trip purposes is not yet as high as the precision of mode choice detection and therefore much less applied. [4, p. 48] Figure 4: Ukrainian Cities in which GPS Tracking Technology is used by GIZ With very high data quality, just above 70 %

32 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Data Tracking BEST PRACTICE

identify trips

detect modes

detect purpose

Figure 5: Overview on one Day of Tracking of accuracy has been reached, with many information on trip mode and purpose to a [5] L. Gong, T. Morikawa, T. Yamamoto, and H. Sato, “Deriving Personal studies being in the range of 40–60 % accu- large extent. In order to verify these find- Trip Data from GPS Data: A Literature Review on the Existing Meth- odologies,” Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 138, pp. 557–565, Jul. racy ([8] and [9], cited by [6, p. 328f.]). An ings or to gather further information, e.g. on 2014. overview on the three steps of post-process- reasons why a person choses a certain mode, [6] L. Shen and P. R. Stopher, “Review of GPS Travel Survey and GPS ing is given in figure .5 so-called Prompted Recall Surveys (PRS) Data-Processing Methods,” Transp. Rev., vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 316–334, can be used. This increases the burden on May 2014. Best Practice: using GPS tracking the participant slightly, but ensures a higher [7] H. Gong, C. Chen, E. Bialostozky, and C. T. Lawson, “A GPS/GIS in the Ukraine prediction quality and may be used to method for travel mode detection in New York City,” Comput. Envi- The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internation- enhance the algorithms, too. ron. Urban Syst., vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 131–139, Mar. 2012. ale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) supports local PRS has also been used in the Ukrainian [8] W. Bohte and K. Maat, “Deriving and validating trip purposes and governments in shaping sustainable mobil- case: modalyzer prompts the result of the travel modes for multi-day GPS-based travel surveys: A large-scale application in the Netherlands,” Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol., ity systems worldwide. In Ukraine, the tracking to the user at the end of each day vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 285–297, Jun. 2009. development agency GIZ cooperates with and the user ensures its quality by verifying [9] P. T. McGowen and M. G. McNally, “Evaluating the Potential To Predict modalyzer, a smartphone-based traffic data the detected trips. Activity Types from GPS and GIS Data,” presented at the Transporta- collection app developed by the Innovation tion Research Board 86th Annual MeetingTransportation Research Centre for Mobility and Societal Change Conclusion Board, 2007. (InnoZ). It is currently being used in four GPS tracking technology has reached usa- cities within the project “Integrated Urban bility for travel demand data collection. It is Development in Ukraine” to get a better cheaper and, when used appropriately, understanding of the mobility demand, more detailed than traditional survey meth- identifying travel patterns and behaviour of ods. However, in order to reach high accu- the population. The generated data will racy in detecting trips, modes and trip pur- finally be used for the development of inte- poses, high-quality spatial data and public grated urban mobility concepts. transportation data is needed. Particularly Modalyzer has been adapted to Ukrain- in cities of the Global South, data availabil- ian needs and automatically identifies nine ity on informal transit is often low. The transportation modes and transit types. Fur- Ukrainian example has shown that imple- ther modes can be added manually – e.g. menting Prompted Recall Surveys in a data users can specify and edit trips by tagging collection application for smartphones is a them with the local transportation mode viable option to overcome the issue of data marshrutka, a local form of minibus service. availability and to enhance data reliability. Within the first three months, more than Limited smartphone ownership is a remain- 1,000 participants already recorded over ing challenge. ■ 140,000 km combined. The collection period will last five months. The individual users of modalyzer can Jakob Baum, M.Sc. Transport Policy Advisor, Deutsche benefit from the app by monitoring their REFERENCES Gesellschaft für Internationale travel patterns through user friendly dia- [1] T. Litman, “Transportation Cost and Benefit Analysis: Techniques, Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ), Bonn (DE) grams and tables, including information on Estimates and Implications.” Victoria Transport Policy Institute, [email protected] their CO2 footprint and kilometres travelled 2009. by each mode. [2] K. W. Axhausen, “Draft Travel Diaries: An Annotated Catalogue 2nd Edition,” ResearchGate, 1995. Enrico Howe, M.Sc. Verifying GPS-tracking: Prompted Recall [3] Battelle Transport Division, “Lexington Area Travel Data Collection Expert, Innovationszentrum für Surveys Test, Final report.” 1997. Mobilität und gesellschaftlichen Wandel GmbH (InnoZ), Berlin (DE) As elaborated above, GPS post-processing [4] M. Schönau, “GPS-basierte Studien zur Analyse der nachhaltigen [email protected] algorithms are already capable of revealing urbanen Individualmobilität,” Dissertation, Universität Ulm, 2016.

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 33 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Cloud Services

Deutsche Bahn Group is shifting to the DB Enterprise Cloud A Compliant cloud architecture on AWS seemed to be a good choice

Service provider, Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Internet of Things (IoT), network monitoring, ­multicloud strategy

The lack of IT standardization across subsidiaries, the complexity of organizational structures, and the high cost of maintaining legacy environments was hampering DB Group’s growth plans. The group was not as agile as competitors in rolling out new applications and improving the customer experience, which meant some of the subsidiaries were losing market share. Others even had initiated dangerous paths towards “shadow IT”. Thus, DB Systel contracted e.g. AWS to provide managed and unmanaged cloud services to the group and implemented a cloud-first strategy.

Bertram Dorn

eutsche Bahn Group is one of the other group subsidiaries also host IT ing IaaS suppliers that didn’t meet require- the largest transport operators staff of their own in their business units. ments, only Microsoft Azure and AWS in the world, with EUR 40.5 bil- Based on those aspects and on the legacy, remained as options, and only AWS had full lion in revenue in 2015 and with subsidiaries have a fairly high degree of control of its German data center infrastruc- Dmore than ten business units generating independence around when and how they ture. At that point, the decision was made to over EUR 1 billion a year in revenue. The trigger investments in ‘their’ IT systems. test AWS’ capabilities. group consists of around 450 subsidiaries, Overall, the DB Group IT architecture With the intention of quickly responding ranging from DB Schenker (international managed by DB Systel is imposing. The ser- to business needs, DB Systel and AWS logistics) to DB Netze Energie (delivery of vice provider is responsible for more than worked together on the first proof of con- electricity and gas). Of those subsidiaries, at 630 applications in production. 60 % of cept, which consisted of setting up a full vir- least fifty have significant IT spending. those have been written from scratch in- tual data center on AWS, including policies Overall, the group has around 308,000 house over the years, whereas 40 % are built and network connectivity. The AWS techni- employees, of whom more than 100,000 are on standard software such as SAP or Oracle cal team provided extra support and the regular IT users. PeopleSoft. However, more often even those proof of concept was completed success- DB Systel is the subsidiary dedicated to third-party applications are heavily custom- fully within a week. providing IT and telecommunications ser- ized, with tens if not hundreds of DB Systel The second step was to assess AWS’ abil- vices to the rest of the group. The unit is developers whose only task is to maintain ity to comply with the regulations impact- responsible for a broad range of areas, from and customize them further. ing DB Group, which is a partly state-owned helpdesk support to telephony, and from company. In particular, the IaaS provider maintaining the ticketing system to running Establishing the DB Enterprise has to comply with the German federal reg- the proprietary network that DB Group uses Cloud ulation for data protection – ‘Bundesdatens- to connect stations and offices. DB Systel is At the end of 2014, the situation began to chutzgesetz’. Following the assessment, DB in effect a managed service provider, being evolve. In February 2015, DB Systel started Systel was able to ascertain that AWS did paid by other subsidiaries with formalized to explore cloud infrastructure options that comply. This provided the backing for DB contracts. It generated a revenue of EUR could help the group achieve agility and Systel to select AWS as the preferred sup- 825 million and employed 3,600 staff in cost savings. In April 2015, the DB Systel plier, and in May 2015 the formal contract- 2015. From a data center point of view, it board created a small, independent task ing process kicked off. owns and operates three physical data cent- force led by René Schneider to formally With the contract signed, DB Systel ers in Berlin, running around 8,000 physical define requirements and engage with an became the compliant, compulsory pro- and virtual servers overall. external Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) vider of AWS services to the whole of the Importantly, in 2013 DB Systel was provider. Interestingly, being a service pro- DB Group. The managed AWS-powered ser- greenlighted by the group board to start vider itself, DB Systel had the luxury of fore- vices became officially available to DB offering IT services for third-party compa- going research on managed service capabil- Group on January 1, 2016. Two types of ser- nies, leveraging its expertise in areas such as ities or IaaS integration partners. All of the vice were offered on AWS: DB Enterprise mission-critical logistic back-end and net- implementation and operation skills would Cloud ‘Managed’ and DB Enterprise Cloud work monitoring. Conversely, the largest of come from DB Systel itself. After discount- ‘Unmanaged’.

34 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Cloud Services PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS

The ‘managed’ cloud offers application DB Systel reports that most of the work- and boosting its image as a business-ena- hosting, development and maintenance loads deployed in the “unmanaged” service bler (e.g., with the IoT system for escalator based on AWS infrastructure, similarly to have been Web-based application space. maintenance). More concretely, the divi- how it offers those services based on the on- For example, bahn.de, the main consumer sion is now able to use that expertise to premise data center infrastructure it owns. portal for the group, including online tick- offer managed AWS cloud services to third- This means the subsidiary has no direct eting and real time information on the party customers, increasing revenue out- point of contact with AWS services, which train status, is running a hybrid infrastruc- side of the DB Group. The compliance and are used by DB Systel technical staff. DB ture on AWS, managed by the responsible security departments can work with a cen- Systel is responsible for every layer of the business unit. The application is complex tralized, corporate-wide data location strat- stack, with the exception of the data protec- and multitier, including several Java layers egy, logging services and policies. It now tion layer that remains the responsibility of and connectivity to other on-premise sys- can do without shadow IT and avoid the the subsidiary. tems. creation of dangerous “black holes.” DB The ‘unmanaged’ Cloud is enabled by Also DB Regio Bus, a subsidiary respon- Group as a whole can now leverage large AWS’ advanced capabilities in terms of iden- sible for local bus services operating 13,000 public-cloud capabilities in a compliant tity and access management rights. DB Sys- buses countrywide, decided to migrate fashion to experiment with digital transfor- tel is the owner of AWS’ contract, receives most of its IT load to DB Enterprise Cloud mation initiatives and fight back against the the bill for any expense occurring on it and “Unmanaged.” It went through the process expanding list of competitors in the mobil- operates with administrator rights on the to receive AWS user accounts from DB Sys- ity service arena. AWS environment. It then sets up fully com- tel and moved its full load to AWS capacity. pliant “User accounts” that can be requested It had planned for a 21 % reduction in over- Looking into the future and employed by the various subsidiaries. all monthly infrastructure costs, and ended While much has been accomplished in the User accounts have a restricted set of rights, up with a 28 % decrease – now gunning for first half of 2016, it looks like the journey to with limitations around network connectiv- additional reductions thanks to rationaliza- flexible cloud infrastructure for DB Systel ity and service catalogue. tion of the application landscape. DB Regio and the broader group has just started. A Bus is now running a “serverless” infra- mid-term goal is definitely the migration of Successful usage of the structure, with 100 % of the loads sitting on ever larger portions of workloads onto AWS. AWS-based cloud AWS. DB Systel does not have a set target for this, In the first couple of months of operation, and the option of DB Group-owned infra- there were several successful projects Exceeding all expectations structure will remain for the foreseeable within Deutsche Bahn Group. For example, When it set off with AWS-based services at future. Ultimately, it is the subsidiaries and DB Systel is currently using AWS basic and the beginning of 2016, DB Systel had a goal business units that have to decide on which advanced services (e. g., AWS RedShift and to generate at least EUR 1 million in reve- back-end to host their applications. This AWS Dynamo DB) to set up a vast Open nue per year from the other subsidiaries, game of demand and supply will lead to con- Data platform. The goal is to collect all non- linked to those AWS environments. As of tinued flip of the balance of workloads confidential information from the DB August 2016, DB Systel reported that the towards AWS. Group (e. g., location of stations, travel target had already been exceeded, and in Other long-term goals include the stand- schedules, length of tracks) and make it fact it is now facing some pressure to quickly ardization of applications and a multicloud available freely in the form of APIs so that expand the cloud task force team to deal strategy: The expanding popularity of local governments, app makers et cetera can with demand. DB Systel was impressed by standard IaaS/PaaS services is leading IT leverage them to innovate. AWS’ technical capabilities and IaaS/PaaS professionals across the group to rethink Another example is the strong usage of portfolio, the geographical reach and readi- the approach between custom applications the Internet of Things (IoT) platform for ness of the AWS engineers to quickly set up and standard applications. DB Systel leader- cargo train tracking and for escalator main- POC environments and help kick-start the ship is empowering staff with the concept of tenance. The group is equipping a first batch process was also appreciated. In terms of standardizing applications that bring no dif- of cargo trains with small, inexpensive benefits for the DB Group at large, the busi- ferentiation to the group, and allocated the devices transmitting location via GPS. DB ness plan for moving to a cloud-first resources to developing new cloud-enabled Systel is using the AWS IoT service for data approach was built on cost saving expecta- business models. On the strength of the ingestion and data collection back-end, with tions of 15–30 % versus the on-premise data experience around AWS, the DB Systel the goal of offering corporate customers real center environment. cloud team is now starting to assess multi- time information on cargo position. Real Costs included both capital expenses cloud strategies, especially for SaaS envi- time information also helps with the mainte- (annualized) and operating expenses, as ronment types in SAP and Oracle corner- nance of escalators. Because there are thou- long as they were linked to infrastructure stone areas. ■ sands of them in operation daily across Ger- elements replaced by AWS IaaS/PaaS solu- man railway stations. Due to their sheer tions. Costs included staff, energy, hardware numbers, the DB Station und Services AG, Capex, system management software the subsidiary responsible for managing sta- licenses, and hardware maintenance fees. tion facilities, had a very hard time detecting All implementations executed so far fell in problems, with faults going undetected in that bracket of savings, according to DB some cases for weeks. Combining sensors ­Systel. Bertram Dorn (currently being installed in escalators across One can also see that the AWS migration Solutions Architect EMEA, Amazon the country) with AWS IoT services allows is starting to exert a positive influence at a Web Services Germany GmbH, Munich (DE) DB Group to monitor status in real time and strategic level. Not only is DB Systel gaining [email protected] dispatch maintenance much more quickly. lots of respect from the other subsidiaries

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 35 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Business Line

Solutions in a nutshell Overview of selected mobility solutions

PPP-project: MiniMetro to relieve traffic congestion in Pisa

addition to planning and construction of the ropeway, the PPP project also entails oper- ating the MiniMetro and the commuter car park at the midway station. The overall costs of the project totaled EUR 72 million, with 21 million provided by the EU, and the remainder by Leitner ropeways and Con- dotte d’Acqua S.p.A.. The two companies will operate the system and car park under a licensing arrangement for 33 years, after which everything will be transferred to the municipality of Pisa. The new MiniMetro in Pisa is the first

Photo: Leitner ropeway Leitner Photo: ropeway of its kind equipped with the gear- less drive system Leitner DirectDrive. Its outstanding features include low consump- ith the official opening of the Mini- travel time between Aeroporto Galileo Gali- tion and emissions, as well as low noise lev- WMetro PisaMover on 18 March 2017 lei at the southern outskirts of Pisa and els. The two vehicles shuttle back and forth, the Tuscan city of Pisa starts into an new Stazione Centrale to just five minutes. Each with each travelling on its own line. The sustainable era of mobility. The of the two trains consists of three connected entire ropeway is operated fully automati- 90,000-inhabitant city currently suffers cabins, and offers space for 107 passengers. cally and can be controlled flexibly. The from immensely high levels of traffic, with Both the vehicles of the electrical Mini- operators expect to serve roughly two mil- commuters, tourists and students doubling Metro and the stations were designed by lion passengers each year. From 2020 on, the population figure. The new PisaMover Italian star architect Adolfo Natalini. The this figure is expected to increase to roughly ropeway will reduce plenty of commuter bogy on which the vehicles run is also a spe- 2.6 million. road traffic, and will play an important role cial new development: It was developed in The Park&Ride service is also to reduce in local transport and improve connections cooperation with the University of Pisa and road traffic in the city, with a commuter car to the existing public bus network. It takes makes the ride particularly comfortable. park for 1,400 cars near the midway station. passengers from Galileo Galilei airport to As a result, PisaMover is another exam- Situated close to an important and large the main train station in the city center. ple of the successful use of urban ropeway highway exit, commuters from the region Together with a new commuter car park installations. Marco Filippeschi, Mayor of can park their car for EUR 2.5 per day and and an improved network of bike paths, Pisa, is convinced of the new means of travel to the city center conveniently in a MiniMetro will reduce road traffic and make transportation’s advantages: “It is a model of few minutes. The ropeway is part of a com- Pisa a more attractive and better place to innovative urban mobility that will have a prehensive infrastructure concept: A new live. positive impact on the entire city”. Behind network of bike paths was built, pedestrian In Pisa, the route from the airport into this innovative installation is a joint public- walkways were improved, new rotaries were the city center is particularly at risk of con- private-partnership project of Leitner rope- added and a dangerous railroad crossing was gestion. The PisaMover can reduce flows of ways and Condotte d’Acqua S.p.A., one of removed. traffic on this critical route, shortening the Italy’s largest construction companies. In www.leitner-ropeways.com

New smart system to reduce queues at roundabouts

ong queues at certain approaches to Politecnica de Valencia (Spain) have Roundabouts allow for motorists to cross Lsome roundabouts could be reduced released a guide for technicians to imple- intersections without the need to stop using magnetic detection devices under the ment this intelligent traffic system, already before crossing in a safe and more efficient road surface, which would activate a traffic used on roundabouts in Australia and on way. However, where traffic flows are not metering signal at another, less congested various highway on-ramps. balanced, there can be delays and long approach. Researchers at the Universitat queues of vehicles at certain roundabout

36 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Business Line PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS

approaches, infuriating motorists. As a solu- to a smart traffic signal at a second, less con- tion to this problem, engineers tend to gested approach which is impeding the for- enlarge the roundabout and the number of mer to cross the intersection,” explained lanes, build direct right turn bays upstream Marilo Martín-Gasulla, the main author of the intersection, convert the roundabout the paper. “In this way,” she added, “we can into a complete signalized intersection and use programming to generate longer gaps even create grade-separated interchanges. on the roundabout that can be used by driv- However, not all the situations allow for ers, mainly on the congested approach but these constructive solutions and often they also from other approaches to the rounda- Source: Mariló Martín-Gasulla et al./UPV cannot be implemented due to environmen- bout, smoothing traffic flow and improving tal or budgetary limitations. the overall operation of the roundabout. In In these situations, the researchers have this way, delays can be reduced by up to roundabout according to the needs of the proposed the implementation of an intelli- 60 %.” specific moment. The system is optimized gent transport system based on the ramp To carry out the study, published in the by programming minimum green (or blank) meter already used on ramps on some for- journal ‘Transportation Research Record’, and red times, and a maximum red time, in eign motorways and highways to “ration” the authors used real traffic data recorded at order to prevent excessive delays for motor- the number of vehicles from side streets and a roundabout in El Saler (Valencia) and ists on the metered approach. The system is minor roads joining the main road when the microsimulation techniques. Next, they only activated when it is determined by the latter is congested. The researchers’ pro- developed a graphical model and a guide for traffic volume. posal is to apply this to roundabouts using engineers and road managers to implement an ad-hoc methodology. the smart system, already being used in Reference: Marilo Martin-Gasulla, Alfredo ­Australia and on some roundabouts in García, and Ana Tsui Moreno: Benefits of Queues reduced by up to 60% North America. The system costs around Metering Signals at Roundabouts with “One of the main approaches which pro- EUR 14,300. Unbalanced Flow. Transportation Research vides higher demand would be monitored The paper’s authors stress that the sys- Record: Journal of the Transportation Research using what is known as queue detector, a tem is not based on creating a signalized Board 2585, pp. 20-28, 2016. DOI: magnetic device installed inside the asphalt roundabout; it only uses signals on one par- 10.3141/2585-03 which detects cars. This is in turn connected ticular approach to regulate traffic on the Contact: [email protected]

Supporting transport planning in Europe

obility of people in Europe is increas- and in particular on the EU Member States,” Ming, as are the challenges faced when explains project coordinator Dr. Eckhard planning transport. Planning is to reduce Szimba, who heads the respective working dependence on fossil fuels, counteract con- group at the Chair for Network Economics gestion in cities, reduce greenhouse gas of KIT’s Institute of Economics (ECON). emissions, mitigate air pollution and noise, “The forecast period is divided into steps improve traffic safety, and support trans- of five years each and extends until the European transport networks. As decisions year of 2050.” Apart from modules for in transport planning have effects lasting for demography, economy and resources, decades, it is even more important to plan vehicle stock, passenger and freight actions in the long term and to assess their demand, as well as environment, and consequences at an early stage. safety, HIGH-TOOL comprises a com- The HIGH-TOOL model simulates prehensive data inventory and a user transport policy measures and their impacts interface. HIGH-TOOL is available as on the computer. HIGH-TOOL (strategic open-source software and character- high-level transport model)is the result of a ized by user-friendly application. meanwhile completed EU project and mod- Any strategy simulation is accompa- els transport policy measures and their nied by an assessment report that impacts. With this tool, the Directorate- lists major results in the form of General for Mobility and Transport (DG Excel tables and diagrams. MOVE) of the European Commission is Input and output indicators of HIGH-

provided a quantitative instrument to assess TOOL are largely based on major European KIT Source: the impact of transport policy measures on strategy papers, such as the “White Paper economy, society, and the environment for on Transport,” the “Roadmap for moving to workshops for future users. Currently, the decades. HIGH-TOOL can be applied to a competitive low-carbon economy in model is being used among others to assess strategically assess options and to preselect 2050,” and the “EU reference scenario 2013,” strategies for shifting transport from road options for analysis using more detailed a collection of long-term prognoses until to rail. models. 2050. The project consortium already pre- “The perspective of HIGH-TOOL is sented HIGH-TOOL at several large confer- global. The focus, however, lies on Europe ences on transport research and organized More information is available at www.high-tool.eu

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 37 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Digitalisation Photo: Peter-Freitag/pixelio Photo: The intelligent railway system theory The European railway research perspective and the development of the European digital ­railway strategy

Digital age, railway, ICT, roadmap, intelligent transport system (ITS)

Digitalisation of the railway industry and its future challenges were among the main topics at the 2016 International Trade Fair for Transport Technology (InnoTrans). Digitali- sation presents a new opportunity for the future of the railway industry. The digital age and the digital development of transportation also contribute to the competitiveness of the European rail industry. In Hungary, we have been conducting scientific research with the purpose of developing an intelligent railway system within the intelligent transport system since 2014. In 2017, the consortium partners will launch a research and develop- ment project worth over EUR 9.5 million. The primary goal is to build an economical branch line railway system that benefits from the advantages of IP-based technologies and artificial intelligence.

Dániel Tokody, Francesco Flammini

igitalisation technology has created new have become even more significant. Different stakehold- opportunities for the future of the rail indus- ers in the railway industry can greatly contribute to the try and railway networks. In particular, the future of the European railway and the development of a development of digital transportation has more sustainable transport system. Significant research Dcontributed to the competitiveness of the European rail work has been done in the field of railways in order to industry. Funds that have been allocated for the develop- achieve the goals of intelligent transportation. ment of railway systems can be more efficiently used by generating positive effects in several different sectors, Innovation programmes in Europe: such as the rail vehicle industry or signalling and inter- Trends in technology locking technology (cross-fertilisation). Profitability In Europe the creation of a digital ecosystem is very goes hand in hand with the development level of the important, especially with respect to sustainability. Digi- infrastructure, including that for railway infrastructure tal technologies will change all aspects of transportation, and related services. As for the latter, poor service quality including the structure of the railway system. The full in railway transport represents one of the barriers to digitalisation of the transportation sector will also have economic growth. In addition, safety considerations an effect on the quality of life, security, energy efficiency, and competitiveness. In some countries, full digital mod- ernisation of railway systems is planned to be imple- REVIEWED ARTICLE mented by 2060. A full-spectrum reform of railway systems, which is Received: 29 Mar 2017 necessary to develop intelligent transportation systems, Accepted: 21 Apr 2017 still needs to be carried out. Some positive examples in

38 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Digitalisation SCIENCE & RESEARCH

this direction, however, reflect how railway-related research and development can be initiated by the manu- facturers of rail supplies, system integrators, passenger and freight rail operators, infrastructure managers, national or international railway organisations, and uni- versity research institutes. According to a recent report published by the Associ- ation of the European Rail Industry (UNIFE), the aver- age yearly market volume of the global railway industry is currently around EUR 160 billion. The railway sector has great innovation potential. This is reflected by the fact that in the EU, about EUR 950 million will be spent on railway research and development between 2014 and 2020 [1]. Examples of future developments in Europe include automatic obstacle-detection systems for railway vehicles, medium frequency traction transformers, energy storage technologies, improved regenerative braking, track-friendly, low-cost and silent bogies for freight wagons, complex monitoring systems, satellite- based positioning systems, hybrid and diesel electric technologies, lightweight materials, environmentally- friendly vehicle welding procedures, the application of RFID technology, and smart railway technologies [2, 3]. Figure 1. Boulding’s classification of systems, adapted to include smart and Other research- and innovation-related activities that intelligent systems, as described in Tokody’s theory of intelligent systems [9, 10]. pertain to the railway industry are also being carried out, for example, in the field of advanced management and control systems. The seven main areas of such activities level, we are creating ontologies for artificial intelli- include smart and fail-safe communications and posi- gence, knowledge management, and database manage- tioning systems, traffic management solutions, automa- ment. These ontologies are being developed to ensure tion, moving block and train integrity, smart procure- the provision of effectively distributed knowledge in a ment and testing, virtual coupling, and cyber security [4]. new structure of the railway system: We are creating a A concrete example of research and innovation activity consistent knowledge base by asking various questions in these seven primary areas is the “Cybersecurity in the and answering them. We are also building and planning RAILway Sector” project (a Shift2Rail sub-project). Co- committed agents (i.e., anything that perceives its envi- ordinated by Claudio Monti (from Ansaldo STS), it has a ronment and responds or interacts to it via sensors and budget of EUR 1,498,150 [5]. Similarly, another sub- effectors, respectively [7]) which can safely rely on the project called “Smart Automation of Rail Transport”, above-mentioned ontologies. With the help of these under the management of Dr. Miroslav Obrenovic ontologies, knowledge can be shared with the agents and (Deutsche Bahn), has a budget of EUR 999,600 [6]. among the agents. Unfortunately, the developments pursued in these Furthermore, we are examining the safety of critical projects represent only individual cases. As such, they railway infrastructures by looking at different relation- are not part of a structured development strategy. ships with respect to security. In this process, it is also Research, development, and innovation activities should necessary to adapt knowledge generated by associated be governed by scientific and business requirements and academic disciplines (e.g., general system theory, infor- conducted proactively at independent sectoral research mation theory, artificial intelligence, semantic systems, bases. An example of a project of this kind is the “Intel- etc.). In this regard, Tzafestas et al. states: “The field of ligent Railway System” project1 with a planned budget of intelligent systems is actually a new interdisciplinary EUR 9.5 million. field which is the outcome of the interaction, cooperation and synergetic merging of classical fields such as system Research on and development of an theory, control theory, artificial intelligence, information ­intelligent and competitive railway system theory, operational research, soft computing, communi- The purpose of intelligent systems is to make the human cations, linguistic theory, and others.” [8, p. 21] environment more “people-friendly”. With respect to A new type of system, such as an intelligent system, infrastructural systems, this means that they should be may be understood, created, or developed further by sustainable, safe, economic, and easy-to-use. At the pre- applying the basic principles of general system theory. sent, agent planning – the term “agent” standing for Here it is useful to refer to the works of biologist Ludwig something that perceives and acts [7] – is a new field of von Bertalanffy and economist Kenneth E. Boulding, research which aims to build intelligent systems. Intelli- who made significant contributions to the foundations of gent railway research focuses on two areas, namely, rail- general system theory. Both examined various systems way system analysis and the explicit adaptation of knowl- from an economist’s point of view, for example, the part- edge obtained in related academic disciplines. whole relationships of different systems as well as the In order to develop a model that may best grasp and various processes within them and their self-organising describe the railway system on a theoretical-conceptual mechanisms. In his hierarchical classification of systems,

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 39 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Digitalisation

Boulding defined nine levels of systems, ranging from supported economic growth, sustainability, efficiency simple to complex, as illustrated in figure 1 [9]. and modal shift from road to rail [16]. The long-term In our opinion, the level of development for currently development of the railway sector cannot be ensured existing railway systems corresponds to Boulding’s cate- without the use of digital technologies. Therefore, a uni- gory of “thermostats”, which are essentially self-regulat- form European digital railway strategy, that aims to ing control mechanisms or cybernetic systems that oper- address many of the above-mentioned points should be ate to maintain a pre-determined equilibrium. The formulated. ■ important contributions of Bertalanffy and Boulding towards advancing the understanding of systems should 1 This is a new project to start 28 August 2017 in Hungary. See also: Papp, J. be considered in the process of analysis. As well, theo- (2016). Embedded Control System with Shared Logic for Railroad Transport. retical advances in the field of artifical intelligence (AI), Innorail magazine, Special Edition for InnoTrans 2016, 40-41. Retrieved from which aims to understand and create intelligent entities http://innorail.hu/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/1473093522-5c5abab- [11], can be applied to develop future railway systems. 12645dea0f8e312b0482f81da.pdf The “Intelligent Railway System” is based on such intel- ligent entities. REFERENCES [1] Ronald Berger. (2017). World rail market study forecast 2016 to 2021. Retrieved from Conclusion http://www.unife.org/component/attachments/?task=download&id=731 The lack of a long-term development strategy can nega- [2] Flammini, F., Pragliola, C., & Smarra, G. (2016). Railway infrastructure monitoring by tively affect the competitiveness of the railway sector. On drones. Paper presented at the International Conference on Electrical Systems for Air- the other hand, on a European level, there are important craft, Railway, Ship Propulsion and Road Vehicles & International Transportation Electri- developments in the railway industry. The “digitisation fication Conference (ESARS-ITEC), Toulouse, France. doi: 10.1109/ESARS-ITEC.2016.7841398 of everything” megatrend has an effect on the railway [3] Tokody, D., Schuster, G., & Papp, J. (2015). Study of how to implement an intelligent rail- way system in Hungary. Paper presented at the IEEE 13th International Symposium on sector, too. Intelligent, autonomous systems must also be Intelligent Systems and Informatics (SISY), Subotica, Serbia. doi: 10.1109/SISY.2015.7325379 developed in this sector in order to ensure sustainability [4] European Commission (Shift2Rail founding members). (2014). Shift2Rail strategic master and safety. By using such intelligent systems, the railway plan. Brussels, Belgium. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/ infrastructure could be greatly modernised with “more files/modes/rail/doc/2014-09-24-draft-shift2rail-master-plan.pdf trains, better connections, greater reliability.” [12, p.12] [5] Shift2Rail. (2016). Cybersecurity in the RAILway sector. Retrieved from http://shift2rail. There are further opportunities for development in org/projects/cyrail/ the railway sector. For example, cross-industry collabo- [6] Shift2Rail. (2016). Smart automation of rail transport. Retrieved from http://shift2rail. ration could also help to boost the economy on a Euro- org/projects/smart/ pean level, which is beneficial from the aspect of eco- [7] Russell, S. J., & Norvig, P. (2016). Artificial intelligence: A modern approach (3rd ed.). nomic sustainability [13]. With regard to the railway sec- Boston, MA: Pearson. tor, digitalisation involves the widespread application of [8] Tzafestas, S. G. (1999). Advances in intelligent systems: Concepts, tools, and applications. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. digital technologies. Research and development strate- [9] Boulding, K. E. (1956). General systems theory: The skeleton of science. Management gies have aimed to improve and expand the European Science, 2(3), 197-208. Reprinted and appendixed: http://www.panarchy.org/boulding/ Train Control System, for example, by installing elec- systems.1956.html tronic interlocking equipment, increasing energy effi- [10] Tokody, D. (2016). Okos Mobilitás [Smart Mobility]. Műszaki tudományos közlemények, ciency and railway safety, and implementing intelligent 5(1), 401-404. maintenance systems [14]. [11] Édelkraut, R., et al. (2005). Mesterséges Intelligencia Almanach [Artificial intelligence According to the European Union Agency for Net- almanac]. Retrieved from http://mialmanach.mit.bme.hu/aima/ch01 work and Information Security (ENISA), smart infra- [12] Arter, M. (2015). It’s looking good: the emerging case for Digital Railway [PowerPoint structure could be developed by combining IoT technol- slides]. Retrieved from http://digitalrailway.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Martin- ogies with critical infrastructures, such as the railway. Arter-Presentation-SupplierConference-20-Nov-15.pptx. Public transport, including railway infrastructure, repre- [13] International Union of Railways. (2015). A global vision for railway development. Paris, France: International Union of Railways. sents one part of smart infrastructures. The public trans- [14] The Thales Group. (2016). Digitalisation of German railways: Interview with Dr. Ben port system also is part of a larger system (i.e., the smart Möbius [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ThIViPEmckA city), which aims to improve the quality of life for city [15] European Union Agency for Network and Information Security (ENISA). (2016). IoT and dwellers by using information and communication tech- smart infrastructures. Retrieved from https://www.enisa.europa.eu/topics/iot-and- nologies (ICTs) [15]. smart-infrastructures The connection of cyber and physical worlds is creat- [16] European Commission, Innovation and Networks Executive Agency of the (INEA). (2014). ing further challenges for our society. One such issue is Mission & objectives. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/inea/en/mission-objectives the application of cloud-based computing. Although dig- ital technologies like these may offer solutions for more Daniel Tokody, Dipl.-Ing. Young Researcher, Investment Project Coordinator, efficient resource and documentation management, rail- Óbuda University, Doctoral School on Safety and way systems must have access to a protected and secure Security Sciences; Hungarian State Railways; cyberspace. In the future, the safe operation and security Gödöllő (HU) of various infrastructure networks (e.g. digital railway [email protected] infrastructure) will not be restricted to the “physical world” only. Francesco Flammini, Dr. In summary, if the European railway sector is to Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Maryland remain competitive, then more research and develop- University College (UMUC) Europe, Rome (IT) ment is needed to generate innovations that will maxi- [email protected] mize the impact of future transport systems in terms of

40 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Travel Planning SCIENCE & RESEARCH Photo: Rainer Sturm/pixelio.de Photo: Air travel groups and their mobility profiles in air traffic Towards seemless air travels – the DORA project and mobility (information) requirements of air travellers

Intermodality, seamless travel information, travel time reduction, intermodal routing, air transport, waiting time detection, in-door navigation, usability

The research carried out in the DORA project, clearly demonstrated that traveller groups travelling by airplane were not yet sufficiently specified. DORA performed comprehen- sive activities to overcome this gap. The following article describes the definition process of defining potential user groups for the development of a seamless door-to-door journey planner.

Michael Abraham, Wulf-Holger Arndt, Norman Döge

he name DORA means “Door-to-Door Infor- their travel from the origin of their travel to the airplane mation of Air Passengers”. It is a three years at the departing airport as well as from the arrival airport Research and Innovation Action project to their final destination including indoor navigation in under the EU programme Horizon 2020 the airports. Tfocused on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS Thus the DORA integrated information system cre- Cluster). It has started on 01 June 2015. Main goal of the ated within the project together with necessary software DORA project is to design and establish an integrated platforms and end user applications supports the reduc- information system that helps passengers to optimise tion of the overall time needed for a typical European air

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 41 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Travel Planning

travel, including the time required for the transfer to and played to the passenger. In addition, the service is inte- from the airports. grated into the information systems of transport compa- The service is developed prototypically for the con- nies and airport companies. nection Berlin – Palma de Mallorca and demonstrated Partner organisations of the project are the airport during a one-year test phase, beginning in June 2017. operators in Berlin and Palma de Mallorca, the cities of The main component of the service is an intermodal Berlin and Palma, the local traffic information providers route planner based on real-time data on the road, rail and public transport companies as well as technology and air traffic situation for the route from and to the air- development companies and universities. Besides VMZ port. The information offer for the passengers is com- Berlin Betreibergesellschaft mbH, specific partners are pleted with newly developed solutions for terminal the Berlin’s Senate Department for Urban Development mobility, such as indoor navigation via smartphones and and the Environment, Berlin-Brandenburg Transport waiting queue detection at the security controls. In the Association, Berlin-Brandenburg Airport and the Tech- event of a fault, alternative routes are automatically dis- nische Universität Berlin. Air Berlin is an associate part- ner of the project.

Travel chains and user requirements In order to specify the technical requirements of the ser- vice to the needs of air travellers, specific user groups had to be determined. This required – as a first step – to have a look at every single element of the entire air travel chain as e. g. performed by Goswami et al. (2011). The resulting parts of the air travel chain, consisting of forerun, movement at the starting airport, movement at the destination airport, flight and follow-up move- Figure 1: Air Travel Chain Components ment to reach the final destination are shown infigure .1 In a second step different mobility alternatives of all potential travellers for all parts of the travel chain at forerun and follow-up ways to the pilot airports have been analysed in a complex process: The input data based on a review of the mobility options in the air passenger standard surveys, informa- tion provided by partners on site and expert interviews with mobility experts, staff at airports and public trans- port stations. Special emphasis was put on the mobility requirements of persons with special needs like people with walking impairment, families with pushchairs etc. In a last step the collected mobility options – describ- ing the level of physical movements – were extended by a level of related mobility information. As a result, the complex travel chain, developed for DORA shows – on the example of the pilot connection – all potential mobil- ity alternatives and related mobility information require- ments on the side of the traveller. Figure 2 shows the dif- ferent potential travel options for reaching the airport on the example of Berlin. If different transport options and the information regarding their usage and restrictions are available, the traveller is principally able to plan the whole travel chain. However, the decision what options will be chosen is mainly related to the personal preferences of the air traveller. As illustrated in Fi, for the small part of the forerun to the airport the amount of information is quite complex to oversee. Moreover, there exist strong rela- tions between the different stages of the travel chain. In order to provide only the – for the trip planning – neces- sary information it was – prior to the technical develop- ment – important to assess by which information and preferences trip planning processes of air travellers are usually being shaped.

Air traveller groups Figure 2: Travel Options and Related Mobility Information Requirements of Air In order to understand personal mobility preferences Travelers on the Example of the Forerun to the Berlin Airports and the criteria that are important for decisions related

42 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Travel Planning SCIENCE & RESEARCH

to the trip planning process, it is important to under- 1. Airport Private Traveler Study (Gesellschaft für Kon- stand the purpose of the trip. Freyer (2006) distinguishes sumforschung GfK, 2011), two main traveller groups with different travel motifs. As 2. Future Traveller Tribes 2020 – Report for the Air figure 3 shows, these are leisure and business travellers. Travel Industry (Henley Centre Headlight Vision and In 2012 the European tourism market was responsi- Amadeus, 2007), ble for altogether 1,180 million trips. Leisure travel pur- 3. Future Traveller Tribes 2030 – Understanding tomor- poses were responsible for 88.4 % of all trips, while busi- row’s Traveller (Future Foundation and Amadeus, ness purposes were the main travel reason for 11.6 % of 2015). all trips. In 2012, moreover, two thirds of all trips were towards a destination inside the country of origin, while The lack of existing studies and statistics required to one third had an outbound destination and were mostly apply an own research setting. Due to the fact that the undertaken for holiday purposes (Eurostat, 2015). organization of a comprehensive survey on the pilot Finally it can be stated that most of the air trips inside connection – that would have allowed performing a Europe are related to leisure travels. Nevertheless, busi- detailed cluster analysis – was not possible, the strategy ness travellers on average are traveling by airplane more chosen applied an approach consisting of a qualitative often. and quantitative data analysis. This whole process is Taking this initial differentiation by Freyer into shown in figure .4 account it was in a next step necessary to observe criteria Following the approach of target group models, val- relevant for decision making throughout the trip plan- ues of variables of existing studies on the characteriza- ning phase. Under the assumption that the importance tion of air travellers and travel behaviour have been com- of criteria like time costs, time, environmental impact pared and combined. etc. varies across different groups of travellers, the group definition process was also considering socio-economic and socio-demographic criteria as important impact var- iables. The desk research investigating the availability of existing studies that observe the trip planning processes of air travellers revealed a significant research gap. Most existing studies considered air traveller flows to and from the airport only in meso or macroscopic transport models. On the individual, microscopic level trip plan- ning processes of air travellers have not been observed in detail. Detailed classifications of air travellers have only been undertaken in marketing studies rather focusing the airport- or travel agency-sided marketing processes and not the ways to and from the airport. These are for example following studies: Figure 3: Main Traveller Groups and their Travel Motif (based on Freyer, 2006)

Characteristics Young Traveller Family Traveller Middle-aged Traveller Senior Traveller Age < 30 years of age 31–50 years of age 31–65 years of age > 65 years of age Income Majority lower and lower > 2500 EUR/m All income groups 2000 EUR/m– middle income class (majority between 2000 6000 EUR/m (<2000 EUR/m) EUR/m and 4000 EUR/ m) Most frequently used Public transport, car (being Car (being brought/parked Public transport, car (being Car (being brought), taxi, modes of transport for brought), taxi, collective for the duration of the brought), taxi (between decreasing number of forerun transport (charter/tour travel), public transport, 31–40 years share of public public transport users bus) charter/tour bus, airport transport 60 % on the shuttle modal split), charter/tour bus Most important criteria for Reliability, safety and travel Reliability, safety, travel Reliability, safety, travel Reliability, safety, travel transport mode choice time time, barrier-freedom, time time, barrier-freedom forerun price and environmental issues Most important criteria for Reliability, safety and travel Reliability, safety, travel Reliability, safety, travel Reliability, safety, travel transport mode choice time time barrier-freedom, price time time, barrier-freedom follow-up movement and environmental issues Information sources Homepages of airlines, Homepages of airlines, Majority no, minority Travel agency (written, airports and public airports and public webpages of public oral) transport providers transport providers transport, airport, airline Check-in behaviour Counter, online via PC Counter, online via PC Counter, check-in machine Counter Smartphone availability 85 % to 95 % 100 % 90 % Majority not Internet connection abroad 50 % to 60 % 75 % 50 % Majority not Table 1: Leisure traveller groups

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 43 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Travel Planning

Characteristic Business travellers below Business travellers over These initial groups were then further consolidated 35 years of age 35 years of age by a deeper analysis of selected variables of the dataset Age < 35 years of age > 35 years of age provided by the project partner FBB (Flughafen Berlin Most frequently used Public transport, taxi Taxi, public transport, car Brandenburg GmbH) which consisted of around 20,000 modes of transport for (also small shares of cases collected at the airports of Tegel and Schönefeld forerun rented cars) during their standard passenger survey. In addition an Most important criteria Reliability, safety, comfort Reliability, safety, travel in-depth passenger survey with 419 usable cases was for transport mode time choice forerun designed and carried out by the project partners ETRA (Grupoetra), Aena (Spanish Airport Operator), FBB (Air- Most important criteria Reliability, safety, comfort Reliability, safety, travel for transport mode time port operator Berlin) and TUB (Technische Universität choice follow-up Berlin). The main purpose of the quantitative analysis movement was to connect transport mode choice, check-In behav- Information sources Internet search engines, Internet search engines, iour and socio-demographic characteristics of existing websites of public websites of public transport providers, transport providers classifications. navigation system inside The initial group profiles were then reviewed by/ the vehicle reshaped based on the results of five expert interviews Check-in behaviour Online (PC and smart- Online (PC and smart- with experts from the field of tourism research, airport phone) phone) operators, mobility research. Smartphone availability 100 % 90 % This resulted in a final definition of traveller groups in Internet connection 50 % 60 %% the segment of leisure travellers (table 1): abroad • Young travellers, Table 2: Business traveller groups • Family travellers, • Middle-aged travellers, • Senior travellers.

This overview shows that the main distinguishing criteria are age and income. Regarding the transport mode choice it can be stated that the shares of public transport rise until the age of 40 and then start to decrease again. The main reasons for the use of cars of younger and older travellers is that they are mostly being brought by relatives or friends. For older people barrier-freedom especially when travelling with heavy luggage is the most important criterion for not choos- ing public transport. The transport mode choice of family travellers does not follow the general trend of all travellers regarding the public transport use. This seems to be mostly related to the luggage that has to be brought to the airport for all family members. Thus most of the family travellers are reaching the airport by car. The defined traveller groups in the segment of busi- Figure 4: Main Approach to the Definition of DORA User Groups ness traveller shown in table 2 are: • Business travellers below 35 years of age, • Business travellers over 35 years of age.

For the business traveller groups the main distin- guishing criterion is the age. The typical business traveller is by majority male, as figure 5 illustrates, and very time critical and on average travelling more often than the leisure traveller. Since the business traveller is not traveling with heavy luggage he / she prefers the Online Check-In and is usu- ally later at the airport than the leisure traveller, as fig- ure 6 illustrates. Regarding the mode choice it can clearly be stated that younger business travellers mostly reach the airport by public transport while older business travellers prefer to drive by taxi. This can also be related to company spe- cific policies. Moreover it has to be mentioned, that the presented Figure 5: Sex of business and leisure travelers; DORA Berlin Airport Survey 2015 user group profiles are also based on site (Palma and Ber- (n = 195) lin) specific interviews and surveys. The mode choice

44 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Travel Planning SCIENCE & RESEARCH

already differs between both airports due to different available options and connectivity. For both, leisure and business travellers it can be stated that the younger the travellers the more smart- phone affine they are. Nevertheless most of the people questioned indicated to use homepages and web portals of airlines, airports and public transport providers as the main sources to access information related to their travel. Thus a service like DORA would help to bring still segregated information together and make travel plan- ning easier and more effective.

Research gaps The investigation carried out revealed significant research gaps related to the processes of trip planning during the air travel phases of forerun and follow-up movement. A deeper cluster analysis of the FBB passen- ger survey of Berlin did not lead to a definition of an suf- ficient number of groups being shaped by group specific similarities in matter of socio-economic, socio-demo- graphic, transport mode choice etc. characteristics. For Figure 6: Boxplots regarding arrival time before the official departure of profes- Berlin the different ways of mode options to the airports sional and leisure travellers, DORA Berlin Airport Survey 2015 (n = 195) of Tegel and Schönefeld alone lead to different mode choices of eventually comparable individuals. Other important factors could be flight times, target destina- Future Foundation and Amadeus (2015): Future Traveller Tribes 2030, Understanding Tomor- tions, airlines, seasons, booked holiday package with row’s Traveller. Accessed 6 July 2015. http://www.amadeus.com/documents/future- organized transfer etc. Reaching a more consolidated traveller-tribes-2030/travel-report-future-traveller-tribes-2030.pdf definition of air traveller groups would require a in mat- Gesellschaft für Konsumforschung GfK MobilitätsMonitor/Initiative Airport Media (2011): Air- port Private Traveler Study – Reiseverhalten, Einstellungen und Werte der Privat­ ters of survey design, timing more advanced and com- reisenden am Airport. Accessed 13 July 2015. http://www.flughafenwerbung.de parative study putting more emphasis on the isolation of Goswami, A.K. et al. (2011): Offsite passenger service facilities: A viable option for airport other influential factors. access? pp 263-270, in: Journal of Air Transport Management. Vol. 16. Issue 5. Elsevier Ltd. ISSN: 0969-6997. DORA field test – test users wanted Henley Centre HeadlightVision and Amadeus (2007): Future Traveller Tribes 2020, Report for With the help of the defined User Groups different use the Travel Industry. Accessed 13 July 2015. http://www.amadeus.com/documents/future- cases have been defined that found direct entrance into traveller-tribes-2030/travel-report-future-traveller-tribes-2020.pdf the further specification of the technical set-up of the Figure 7: DORA DORA service. App Starting In early June 2017 a first version of the DORA App – Screen starting screen shown in figure 7 – and the related DORA trip planning website will be launched. The App version will provide the full initially described functionality for the test connection between Berlin and Palma and will be available for test purposes as an installation file for Smart Phones. During several iterations the App will be evaluated for one year. Since the number of 500 test users has to be reached, individuals who take part in the initial Wulf-Holger Arndt, Dr.-Ing. expert and later live test are welcomed throughout this Head of the research unit „Mobility and Space“, period. ■ Centre for Technology and Society, Technische Universität Berlin (DE) [email protected] For more information, please check the DORA homepage: https://dora-project.eu/page Mail: [email protected]. Michael Abraham, Dipl.-Ing. Researcher in the research unit „Mobility and Space“, Centre for Technology and Society, Technische Universität Berlin (DE) [email protected]

REFERENCES EUROSTAT (2015): Statistic Portal of the European Union. Characteristics of Tourism Trips. Norman Döge, Dipl. Geogr. Accessed: 20 July 2015. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/ Researcher in the research unit „Mobility and Tourism_statistics_-_characteristics_of_tourism_trips Space“, Centre for Technology and Society, Technische Universität Berlin (DE) Freyer, W. (2006): Tourismus. Einführung in die Fremdenverkehrsökonomie. München, Wien, [email protected] R. Oldenbourg Verlag. 87 ff. ISBN 978-3-486-57874-4.

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 45 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Public Transport

The British way of long distance transport

Coach, Intercity, Franchise, Long distance transport, Deregulation

Similarities and fundamental differences – both diagnoses are appropriate comparing the British and German long distance land transport sectors. Whereas the British rail franchising system is unique in Europe, the coach sectors have converged in a remarkably short period since the deregulation in Germany in 2013. Learning from the British case is instructive – particularly in the light of a proposed Long Distance Passenger Rail Act.

Philipp Schneider

n the decades after the war railways were huge, After winning the General Election in 1979, the Con- state-owned companies. They retained a more or servative Party promptly implemented their neoliberal less unrivalled position in the long distance mar- manifesto and deregulated the coach sector with kets, while coaches did not play an important role. important legislative acts in 1980 and 1986 [2]. NBC IThe rise of the car and later of aviation changed the big remained in public ownership till 1988, when it was picture: governments started to reorganise their trans- eventually privatised and split into several small com- port industries. Starting with the British coach sector in panies, one of which was National Express [3]. This the 1980s the long distance transport markets were grad- period of management-buyouts and mergers culmi- ually liberalised. The railways followed in the 1990s, and nated in an oligopolistic market for local buses, whilst in 2013 the German coach sector was deregulated – a few National Express became by far the biggest player in years earlier almost non-existent, the coach has already the coach market. begun to strongly compete with the other modes of In 2009 an EU report called the British coach sector transport. “the most liberalised of any large member state” [4]. This In this article the development and structure of the claim leans more on the few existing barriers to entry British long distance rail and coach sector is described. and the regulatory arrangement than on the plurality of At the end conclusions from the British case for Ger- operators, as National Express today still holds a domi- many are drawn. nant position. It is by far the largest operator with the exception of Scotland, where Scottish Citylink has a sim- British coach market ilar dominant position. However, it is difficult to express The recent history of the British coach sector can be their dominance in distinct market shares, because data divided into two parts: the first part lasts till the deregu- is hardly available and in statistics coach and bus services lation and privatisation respectively in the 1980s, the can often not be easily distinguished. It is estimated that second part since then until today is affected by an open National Express has a market share of about 60 % and market and the continuing domination of the largest its most important competitor Megabus some 10 % [3]. operator National Express. National Express is the only operator which runs a From 1969 on, as a result of a merger, the market was nationwide network, serving 1,000 destinations or so. dominated by the state owned National Bus Company Thereby 80 % of the services are operated by contracted (NBC), which itself controlled 93 bus companies and third-party companies [1]. 21,000 vehicles [1]. Since the 1970s NBC used the com- Megabus, a Stagecoach subsidiary, has established a mon brand name ‘National Express’ increasingly for comprehensive network all over Britain as well, albeit their intercity services. In Scotland the Scottish Bus less extensive and with lower frequencies. The company Group (SBG) had a similar position. For both NBC and follows a no-frills low-cost strategy, targeting mainly low SBG competing with British Rail (BR) proved to be diffi- income but internet savvy groups, so that distribution cult, as they could not easily adjust fares or timetables channels are mainly located online. With its distinct due to the regulatory regime [2]. yield management techniques Megabus achieves a com- paratively high load factor [5]. The British coach network is concentrated on the main centres, as services have to be commercially via- REVIEWED ARTICLE ble. Non-business travel purposes, i.e. holiday, leisure and ‘Visiting Friends and Relatives’, can be held respon- Received: 01 Mar 2017 sible for 92 % of all journeys. Accordingly, the key seg- Accepted: 03 Apr 2017 ments of the coach operating companies are people who

46 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Public Transport SCIENCE & RESEARCH

Figure 1. Develop- ment of British railway sector

are too young for a driving license, students and senior Long distance trains in Britain citizens [3]. Controlled by a state-owned monopolistic company, BR, The coach sector implements virtually no regula- the British railway sector developed quite similarly to tions: Operators can start services without any foregoing virtually all of its European counterparts until the begin- notification, as long as they fulfil the qualitative licensing ning of the privatisation process in 1994. However, a requirements [6]. However, there are barriers to entry in remarkable political incoherence led to the contempo- operational terms, although they do not seem to be spe- rary structure: starting with modernisation and rationali- cific to Britain: Operators need a large customer base, as sation processes in the post war era, followed by the high most customers use to travel infrequently with coaches. speed train program in the 1970s, the sectorisation in the This leads to high marketing costs. 1980s and an utterly radical deregulation and privatisa- The deregulation has made market access for new tion scheme in the 1990s, which had to be reformed sev- companies easy. The downside is that incumbents can eral times since as figure 1 shows. [7] This has been sub- react to emerging competition very quickly as well, as ject to many disputes and investigations henceforth and National Express demonstrated time and again. A prob- shall not be further discussed here. It implemented, lem of decreasing (but still relevant) importance con- however, one important feature: the franchising system. cerns the distribution channels: In the 1980s one of Basically, a franchise is a geographical restricted and National Express’ main advantages over its competitors limited concession for passenger services, competitively was its widely spread ticket outlets [3]. tendered. Profitable franchises are let to the bidder offer- The access to coach terminals can constitute a bar- ing the highest annual premium, unprofitable franchises rier to entry as well, especially because some coach sta- to the bidder with the lowest need for subsidies [8]. tions are in possession of National Express. A key issue There are also some open access operators, although here is how slots are distributed in case of capacity market entry outside the franchising system is seriously restrictions. Regarding the case of the publicly owned restricted and to date there are not many success stories Victoria Coach Station, the major coach station of Lon- [9]. The exclusivity of the franchise operators widely don, there frequently occur capacity restraints in peak restricts ‘competition in the market’, but causes an inten- periods; operators have to apply for slots every year – sive ‘competition for the market’ – supported by the fact thus, there are no grandfather rights. However, Victoria that the Train Operating Companies (TOCs) were priva- Coach Station offers volume discounts of up to 54 %, tised without significant assets. Rolling stock ownership which inevitably constitutes a barrier to entry for is centralised within specialised companies, the staff has entrants, as they usually cannot profit from the maxi- to be transferred from an inferior company to its succes- mum discounts [4]. Some operators avoid the main sor [10]. coach stations in order to get closer to their target group Out of initially 25 franchises 5 were emphasised on or because of lower costs. long distance services, which implies comparatively long The British coach market represents a substantial journey distances, high average operating speeds and share of mobility and is likely to grow overall. However, high passenger volumes [10]. The composition of the the prospects for small independent operators to suc- franchises has been altered frequently with the overall cessfully enter the market are limited, despite the regime number being reduced to 17. However, the long distance being based on market initiative. franchises have largely stayed untouched (current oper-

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 47 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Public Transport

Figure 2. Development of the long distance franchises from 1996 on

ator in parentheses): Greater Western (First), East Mid- the future development is uncertain. However, the mar- lands (Stagecoach), New Cross Country (Arriva), West ket leader has already started consolidating its network; Coast and East Coast (both Virgin and Stagecoach). Fig- DB Fernverkehr on the other hand have has increased ure 2 illustrates their development. the amount of discount tickets considerably, whilst suc- One outstanding case of the recent franchising past cessfully improving punctuality and travelling comfort. was the take-over of operations by Directly Operated Thus, so far both rail and coach have benefited from Railways (DOR) on the East Coast franchise. DOR is a competition in terms of passenger numbers [16]. Plus, publicly owned ‘operator of last resort’, whose only pur- the British case might be relieving: Although market pose is to run train operations transitionally in case of leader for many years, National Express fares are still franchisee failures [11]. The other case was the successful low, especially compared to the railways. This could indi- legal challenge of Virgin to the award of the West Coast cate the presence of a contestable market, which would franchise to First in 2012, which was caused by faults require e.g. the absence of sunk costs, standardised prod- inside the Department for Transport (DfT), costed more ucts and the impossibility of an incumbent to react to a than 55 Mio. GBP and caused the stop of all ongoing market entry, before the entrant can costlessly exit. franchising procedures [12]. Especially the latter aspect is controversial concern- Summing up, Britain faces an intensive competition ing the British coach market, as National Express proved for the market with more than two applicants in almost repeatedly their swiftness in fighting actual or potential every tender so far. Number and composition of TOCs in competitors. Besides, market entry requires high mar- the long distance sector changed over the years. Open keting costs, as companies need a large customer base access is distinctly restricted, so that today only two com- [3]. However, intermodal competition could ensure effi- mercial operators offer their services. Interestingly, Brit- ciency in the sector anyway [17]. ain is one of the only countries which tender long dis- In addition to possibly decelerating intramodal com- tance services. petition in the German market, uncertainties for the sec- tor can be found in a shortage of trained bus drivers, defi- Summary and lessons to learn ciencies in the terminal infrastructure and a possible The coach industries of Britain and Germany have con- integration of coaches to the HGV toll scheme.[14]. verged at terrific speed since the deregulation of the German coach sector in 2013. At the outset of this pro- cess Britain was decades ahead, as the first steps of deregulation occurred no later than 1980. Today, with a AUF EINEN BLICK market share of over 90 % (based on timetable kilome- Die Deregulierung des deutschen Fernbusmarktes 2013 tres [13]) Flixbus has gained a market leadership posi- hat zu einer rasanten Angleichung an die Verhältnisse in tion, which might make even National Express slightly Großbritannien geführt, wo der Markt bereits in den jealous. 1980er Jahren geöffnet wurde: Hier (Flixbus) wie dort (National Express) hat sich ein klarer Marktführer etabliert. Thereby Flixbus relies on a huge number of inde- Im Schienenpersonenfernverkehr (SPFV) sind die Unter- pendent operators and acts as a planning, pricing and schiede hingegen fundamental: Der britische Fern- marketing network – as well as active and former com- verkehrsmarkt ist einer von wenigen, in denen SPFV-Leis- petitors, of whom no one owns or operates a bus fleet tungen wettbewerblich ausgeschrieben werden. Diesem independently. [14] Franchising-System steht ein freier Marktzugang in In terms of market share, doubts about the competi- Deutschland gegenüber, der jedoch seit der Bahnreform 1994 zu keinem nennenswerten Wettbewerb geführt hat tive sustainability of the wild first years in the German und der Deutschen Bahn einen Marktanteil von 99 % market turn out to have been legitimate [15]. In these beschert. Vor- und Nachteile des britischen Systems sol- years, German passengers could enjoy low fares, high lten bei einer möglichen Neuausrichtung des SPFV, frequencies and a level of service, which has been partly beispielsweise im Rahmen eines jüngst vorgeschlagenen superior even to the glamorous ICE trains (cf. Wi-Fi Schienenpersonenfernverkehrsgesetzes, in Deutschland berücksichtigt werden. standards). With respect to the market share of Flixbus,

48 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Public Transport SCIENCE & RESEARCH

A completely different situation can be observed in [5] Robbins, D. (2007): Competition in the UK express coach market 25 years after deregula- the rail industry. Both countries initiated a reform pro- tion: the arrival of Megabus.com. Paper presented at European Transport Conference (17.-19 October 2007, Leiden). cess in the first half of the 1990s, with Britain’s franchis- ing system on the one side and a mixed system in Ger- [6] van de Velde, D. (2009): Long-Distance Bus Services in Europe: Concessions or Free Mar- ket? Discussion Paper No. 2009-21, Joint Transport Research Center. many on the other: competitive tendering for regional [7] Haywood, R (2007): Britain’s national railway network: fit for purpose in the 21st cen- passenger rail services and open access in the long dis- tury? Journal of Transport Geography, 15(3), 198-216. tance sector. Regarding the latter, a market share of 99 % [8] Knowles, R. (2004): Impacts of privatising Britain’s passenger services – franchising, for the incumbent DB Fernverkehr is the result of 23 refranchising, and Ten Year Transport Plan targets. Environment and Planning, 36, 2065- years of (no) competition, neglecting HKX (Hamburg – 2087. Cologne) and Locomore (Berlin – Stuttgart) as drops in [9] Müller, G. (2011): Die Bedeutung von Liberalisierungs- und Regulierungsstrategien für die the ocean. [18] At the same time there is no dominant Entwicklung des Eisenbahnpersonenfernverkehrs in Deutschland, Großbritannien und player in the British market, but an intensive ‘competi- Schweden. tion for the market’. [10] Nash, C.; Nilsson, J.; Link, H. (2013): Comparing three Models for Introduction of Competi- As a matter of course, the British Franchising system tion into Railways. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 47(2), 191-206. Figure 2. Development of the long distance franchises from 1996 on has its very own flaws, well documented in the Brown [11] Barrow, K. (2010): East Coast rebuilds a battered franchise. International Railway Journal, review and elsewhere, whilst positive impacts like grow- 12/2010, 48. ing passenger numbers can be hardly attributed to the [12] Lodge, T. (2013): Rail’s second chance. Putting competition back on the track. Centre for franchising system but mostly to exogenous conditions. Policy Studies, London. Exemplary problems of the franchising rounds to date [13] IGES (2017): Fernbusmarkt: weniger Fahrten bei weiter steigenden Fahrgastzahlen. Press are declining competition, strategic bidding and an release, 2017-01-29. ambiguity about the objectives, the contract length or [14] Knorr, A.; Lueg-Arndt, A. (2016): Intercity bus deregulation in Germany e Intramodal and intermodal effects after two years. Research in Transportation Economics, 59 (2016), 323- risk distribution [19]. 329. If there is ever going to be a Long Distance Passenger [15] Augustin, K.; Gerike, R.; Martinez Sanchez, M.; Ayala, C. (2014): Analysis of intercity bus Rail Act in Germany, as suggested in December 2016, markets on long distances in an established and a young market: The example of the these defects are to be avoided. The British system leads U.S. and Germany. Research in Transportation Economics, 48 (2014), 245-254. to significant transaction costs, which might be even [16] Statistisches Bundesamt (2017): Öffentlicher Personenverkehr 2016: Neuer Höchststand higher in the German case, e.g. due to federalism and bei Fahr- und Fluggästen. Pressemitteilung Nr. 060 vom 21.02.2017. network length. System transition would take a long a [17] Preston, J.; van de Velde, D. (2016): Workshop 7 report: Market initiative: Regulatory time, as a coordinating body at federal level had to be design, implementation and performance. Research in Transportation Economics 59 implemented and potential entrants would need prepa- (2016), 343-348. ration time. Handling of DB’s rolling stock in upcoming [18] Deutsche Bahn AG (2016): Wettbewerbsbericht 2016. Berlin. tenders would have to be discussed, as well as cases of [19] Preston, J. (2016): Deja Vu all over again? Rail franchising in Britain. Research in Transpor- integrated long distance and regional passenger rail tation Economics 59 (2016), 107-115. ­services, e.g. Stuttgart-Zürich or Bremen-Norddeich, to [20] Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Gestaltung des Schienenpersonenfernverkehrs (Schienen- avoid struggling for competences between regional and personenfernverkehrsgesetz – SPFVG). Bundesratsdrucksache 745/16. federal authorities. International services would have to be reorganised, as they are to date usually built upon bilateral alliances. Positive experiences from tendering regional passen- ger rail services make the British approach charming, even more regarding the opportunity of controlling the supply with long distance services. Technically this is asked by the German constitution since 1994 (Article 87e(4)) but has never been implemented, although many cities and whole regions lost their long distance connec- tion in this period. Sometimes those services have been replaced by publicly funded regional rail services. Besides, international services are partially insufficient (especially to Germany’s eastern neighbours). Of course, a better supply would cost additional money: EUR 100 to 500 million, according to the initiators [20]. ■

SOURCES [1] National Express Website, http://www.nationalexpressgroup.com/about-us/ [2] Robbins, D.; White, P. (1986): The experience of express coach deregulation in Great Brit- ain. Transportation, 13(4), 359-384. Philipp Schneider, M.Sc. [3] White, P.; Robbins, D. (2012): Long-term development of express coach services in Brit- Research assistant, Track and Railway Operations, ain. Research in Transportation Economics, 36, 30-38. (32f.) Department of Land an Sea Transport Systems, Technische Universität Berlin (DE) [4] European Commission (Ed.) (2009): Study of passenger transport by coach. Prepared by [email protected] Steer Davies Gleave, Brussels.

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 49 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Public Transportation Photo: Pixabay.de Photo: Carsharing in rural areas Challenges and potentials for managing public transportation at local government level

Carsharing, rural areas, local governance, local commitment, sustainable mobility

This article illustrates the concept of car sharing in rural areas, in particular the role of the municipalities. The qualitative study describes the state of research followed by the methodical approach and the results of the analysis which are visualized using a logic model. The results show that car sharing has further potential for growth in rural areas. In particular, municipal support, civil engagement and supra-regional subsidies play a key role in increasing the potential of this form of mobility in rural areas.

Ann-Kathrin Seemann, Sebastian Knöchel

obility is a basic element of everyday life regions often provide only limited local public transport and a necessary requirement for any eco- and in many cases secondary lines with lighter traffic are nomic interaction. In recent times, signifi- facing cancellation for cost-cutting reasons. cant changes in personal, as well as com- This makes an obvious need for carsharing activities Mmercial, transport have been witnessed. Alongside the in rural areas. However, the development of car sharing progression of electric mobility and the development of cannot be triggered by the free-market alone but autonomous driving it is especially innovative mobility requires proactive political intervention [4]. In addition services and new business models often based on increas- to the European Union (EU) and the federal and state ing digitalization that show the biggest potential for governments, it is most notably the municipalities that optimization. In this regard, rural areas are the most play a major role in the reshaping of traffic behaviour challenging due to low population density and the inher- and local carsharing initiatives. For this reason, Cohen ent need for covering larger distances between destina- and Kietzmann investigated which forms of collabora- tions [1]. According to Wagner et al., declining passenger tion between local authorities and carsharing associa- numbers are the main impediment of a cost-effective tions are the most fruitful to advance sustainable mobil- public transportation system, such that long-term main- ity [5]. A well-developed carsharing infrastructure tenance of appropriate public infrastructure could pose clearly makes for a decisive advantage in communal a serious problem in the foreseeable future [2, 3]. Rural incentive competition. Canzler finds that cities in which

50 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Public Transportation SCIENCE & RESEARCH

motorised private transport has been repressed are con- vidually without having to rely on their own personal sidered more attractive compared with those with cars. In conjunction with sophisticated IT applications, higher car traffic [6]. In this view, car sharing represents this can form a highly effective mobility service that a vital tool for local governments in competing to attract again can be integrated into a transregional transporta- businesses and private households specifically in rural tion network. Technological developments aid in further regions so as to prevent gradual depopulation [7]. Neu promoting the concept of sharing and to exploit existing and Nikolic find in the theoretically similar constructs potentials. Hereby, the smartphone interconnects the dif- of resilience and subsistence a chance for municipalities ferent traffic carriers and acts as a central interface to co- to compensate infrastructural deficits by civic engage- ordinate the local mobility chain successfully. ment and thus become overall less dependent on state, federal or EU funds [8]. Following Kopatz, local sustain- Local authorities’ support of car sharing ability projects are exploiting their full potential only if The analysis of the interviews revealed that both the they are systematically supported by the local authori- implementation and financial support of car sharing in ties [9]. For obvious reasons, the local context is highly rural regions are strongly politically motivated. Munici- relevant here, as it strengthens identification possibili- palities mostly serve as key drivers for these particular ties with the agenda. projects. Therefore, it is obvious that local authorities This study focuses on rural areas in Baden-Württem- play a major role in the development of carsharing ser- berg, Germany, and includes only municipalities that meet vices as they function as an essential decision-making the OECD definition for rural regions [10]. To ensure a body. If the governing mayor has a positive attitude representative and reliable result, we conducted 20 semi- towards car sharing and recognizes its potential, this will structured expert interviews with 10 carsharing providers also influence its local development accordingly in so far and 10 local authorities about alternative mobility con- as the authorities will be able to secure the funds needed cepts over a period of four months (Sept. – Dec. 2015). to push the implementation forward. This confirms the findings of Hull [11] and Daley et al. [12]. On the other Results hand, if the mayor is not inclined towards the concept, Rural regions the interviewed experts see little chance to operate suc- Carsharing providers consider rural areas as difficult cessfully in those specific communities. business segments compared with urban regions. Both a Furthermore, the experts are unanimous that local well-developed infrastructure as well as a notable popula- partners are urgently needed to put appropriate and tion density are necessary conditions that need to be met people-oriented mobility services into practice. Only to ensure the long-term economic success of carsharing intensive co-operation between authorities and local companies. In rural areas, however, one or both of these business partners can keep the costs down and assure criteria are often not satisfied. Facing such conditions, user-oriented distribution of costs while using the car- mobility providers run the risk of not being able to main- sharing concept to its full potential. Hence, it is evident tain the quality they are known for from urban environ- that the resulting mobility services are not simply trans- ments. Therefore, companies fear reputational damages ferable to other areas, but are highly individual instead. that could do permanent harm to their business model. As a matter of fact, the interviews yielded a broad variety of possible partners for joint ventures: local firms, Local mobility services as a chance municipal partners like municipal utilities (‘Stadtwerke’) All interview partners endorse the view that car sharing and savings banks (‘Sparkassen’), regional public trans- as a local mobility service could, in fact, help to close port enterprises, cultural and sports associations, as well existing gaps in the local public transport market. Estab- as social institutions and other actors, have come up as lishing mobility hubs in specific rural areas, for example, integrated partners in actual carsharing programs. This could ensure a seamless transition between public trans- means that employees or members can either use the port and carsharing vehicles and thus make intermodal offered services free of charge or at preferred rates, or mobility possible. In the same way, car sharing could also they have predetermined time quotas for the use of sin- be combined with other mobility services like bus-on- gle vehicles, both of which ensure a minimum utilization demand or citizen buses to substitute underutilized reg- rate and can contribute to a reduction of staff motor ular service. A combination of these custom-tailored pools as well. The interviews indicated that persons transport solutions can, therefore, help to reduce the holding a public office often decided in favour of using cost of public transport by a considerable amount as the carsharing alternatives for on-duty use rather than resources are applied more effectively. insist on the official cars that they were in fact entitled to The consulted experts concur that the goal of expand- have in their positions. This can result in a significant ing the carsharing principle to rural regions is to comple- cost reduction for public offices. ment the public transportation system with additional The surveyed carsharing operators point out that the mobility services and thus offer a broad range of highly same principle could indeed also be applied to corporate integrated means of transportation. This in itself contrib- use, such that expenditures on cost-intensive company utes to increasing the overall attractiveness of a munici- car fleets could be eliminated completely. Therefore, pality, but it also helps in reducing the saturation of roads, they not only see great potential for growth in that which implies preventing congestion, improving traffic regard but also suggest that this could enhance the over- flow as well as restricting detrimental effects on health all attractiveness of a region in terms of locational com- and safety. Ultimately, this objective is fully achieved petition. As a result, more businesses might settle in the when citizens can reach any point within the region indi- area, which again has positive effects for local residents,

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 51 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Public Transportation

Individual (civic) ressources: Ressources of local partners Communal ressources: Federal and state ressources: • Time • Mobility needs of employees • Capital • Capital (subsidies, institutional • Mobility needs and members • Workforce funds) Input • Utilization & payment • Capital investments • Municipal promotion of • General public transport • Civic engagement • Company mobility economic development financing management • Inter- & intracommunal • Initiation of tender procedure cooperation • General public service

Public participation Inclusion of local Interpretation of Transparent acquisition Local planning Selecting the best Initiation of the Close existing partners local potentials of local mobility needs platform fitting form of project (by gaps in public Activities Civic engagement Educational Municipal organization governing transport campaign support mayor) market

Restraints Dispersed population, high investment costs, customer preferences

Output Environmentally friendly and citizen-centered mobility service, oriented at individual needs of a community

Reduction of Lower number Less traffic & Development of Providing Inter- costs of (privately congestion battery charging general public mediate owned) cars infrastructure for service Outcome electric cars

General change in Decreased Area-wide car Three- Local and Public sector Increased local Development of Final mobility behaviour need for sharing dimensional individual marketing & overall added value public transport Outcome multiple cars infrastructure sustainability transportation attractiveness of a infrastructure & per family concept municipality digitalization

Figure 1: Results of this study diagrammed in a result-oriented logic model

in that the number of local jobs increases. This is not tive desire for environmentally friendly and citizen-cen- only favourable from an economic point of view but can tred mobility services to close existing gaps in public also improve the quality of life due to shorter everyday transport. On the other hand, the development of car commutes (resulting in increased leisure) and less sharing in rural areas is also politically motivated as it adverse effects on the environment. offers cost-saving potentials in terms of public spending Apart from transferring the entire mobility service to and improves the overall attractiveness of the region. In external partners, there are also several other forms of particular, the analysis of the interviews has shown that organization in which municipalities can play a role. governing mayors play a key role in the initiation of car- Some authorities, for example, organize car sharing on sharing projects because their attitude towards the car- their own and only rely on a provider’s car fleet. How- sharing idea is a crucial factor. Moreover, it is evident that ever, the interview partners had divided opinions regard- the success of a project is dependent on the intended type ing this approach. They particularly criticized a lack of of use (private, public, corporate or a combination) flexibility on the part of their project partners and tedi- because cost-effective operation is only possible for a cer- ous maintenance processes of the car pools, which pre- tain threshold level of utilization. In practice, this means vented an appropriate and undisturbed operation. They that an in-depth assessment of potential demand is propose that local partners would be desirable as this required to find the best-fitting form of organization. That would not only guarantee more flexibility but also maxi- is, local companies must be included both for their mize local added value. However, the interview results demand and participation possibilities to recognize and show that smaller companies often struggle with the exploit regional potentials individually. To win local com- high investment and maintenance costs of a fleet. Some munities over, it is recommended that carsharing provid- municipalities, therefore, decided to set up their own ers raise awareness about the advantages of car sharing, carsharing programs, for which they co-ordinate the especially in the context of electric mobility. Finally, it is sharing, provide the car fleet and are responsible for important to clarify the mobility behaviour of the locals so maintenance and repairs. as to break that mental barrier of habit and convince them that they are actually not dependent on a car of their own. Conclusion In figure 1, the results of this study are diagrammed in a The results indicate that the carsharing principle offers result-oriented logic model. All municipal stakeholders great potential for growth not only in urban but also in (that is, citizens, local companies, local authorities as well rural areas. However, successful implementation requires as federal or state governments) are involved in a carshar- that local authorities and local communities act in con- ing project. All actors provide their own inputs and thus cert. In addition, supra-regional subsidies are needed in do their part in the development process of the project. most cases given the capital-intense nature of such pro- The resulting activities can be considered as individual jects. Civic engagement primarily comes from a distinc- components for the further planning process and its

52 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Public Transportation SCIENCE & RESEARCH

implementation. Aside from these activities, there were [4] Lindloff, K., Pieper, N., Bandelow, N. C., & Woisetschläger, D. M. (2014): Drivers of carshar- also restraints identified. Circumstances like particularly ing diffusion in Germany: an actor-centred approach. In: International Journal of Auto- motive Technology and Management 21, 14(3-4), 217-245. high investment costs and geographical factors among [5] Cohen, B., & Kietzmann, J. (2014): Ride on! Mobility business models for the sharing others represent major challenges for the establishment economy. In: Organization & Environment, 27 (3), 279-296. of sustainable carsharing systems in rural areas. If inter- [6] Canzler, W. (2014): Der Öffentliche Verkehr im postfossilen Zeitalter: Sechs Thesen. In: ference with those factors can be minimized, the resulting ÖffentlicheMobilität . Wiesbaden: Springer, 229-240. output is an environmentally friendly and citizen-centred [7] Sauer, M., & Glass, T. (2015): Steigerung der Attraktivität des öffentlichen Verkehrs durch mobility service that is oriented at individual needs of a Ergänzung um stationsbasiertes e-Carsharing in ländlich geprägten Gemeinden. In: particular community. This output again implies interme- Nahverkehrstage 2015: Nahverkehr und Freizeit: Neue Kunden durch innovative Konzepte diate and final outcomes. Intermediate outcomes thereby gewinnen, 25, 101-114. denote short- and medium-term effects of the carsharing [8] Neu, C., & Nikolic, L. (2015): Versorgung im ländlichen Raum der Zukunft: Chancen und launch that is, for example, the reduction of privately Herausforderungen. In: Gerontologie und ländlicher Raum. Wiesbaden: Springer, 185-206. owned cars and better allocation of resources. Final out- [9] Kopatz, M. (2015): Wirtschaftsförderung 4.0: kooperative Wirtschaftsformen in Kom- munen. In: Politische Ökologie (142), 104-110. comes, on the other hand, describe the ultimate goals and [10] OECD (2007): OECD-Prüfbericht zur Politik für ländliche Räume. Deutschland: OECD. long-term consequences of car sharing, namely the altered [11] Hull, A. (2009): Implementing innovatory transport measures: What local authorities in mobility behaviour or positive public sector marketing. the UK say about their problems and requirements. In: European Journal of Transport Provided it is feasible to include all actors and their indi- and Infrastructure Research, 3(9), 202-218. vidual resources, the concept of car sharing holds a lot of [12] Daley, D. M., Sharp, E. B., & Bae, J. (2013): Understanding city engagement in community- potential for rural regions and can bring several positive focused sustainability initiatives. In: Cityscape, 143-161. synergetic and secondary effects. ■ Ann-Kathrin Seemann, JProf. Dr. Junior Professor, Public and Non-Profit Management, REFERENCES Transport/Logistic and Public Real Estate, Albert- [1] Küpper, P. (2011): Auf dem Weg zu einem Grundangebot von Mobilität in ländlichen Räu- Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg (DE) men: Probleme, Ursachen und Handlungsoptionen. In: Arbeitsberichte der ARL: Auf- [email protected] sätze, 152-168. [2] Wagner, A., Hollbach-Grömig, B., & Langel, N. (2012): Demografischer Wandel –Heraus- forderungen und Handlungsempfehlungen für Umwelt-und Naturschutz. In: Litera- Sebastian Knöchel, M.A. turstudie zur Aktualisierung und Verifizierung des vorliegenden Erkenntnisstandes und Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter Public and Non-Profit Aufbereitung für die Ressortaufgaben (Teil 1). Dessau-Roßlau: Umweltbundesamt. Management, Transport/Logistic and Public Real Estate, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg (DE) [3] Bertelsmann Stiftung (2015): Demographischer Wandel verstärkt Unterschiede zwischen [email protected] Stadt und Land. Gütersloh.

Seal of approval for scientific contributions

Peer reviews – a transparent quality assurance instrument for authors and readers

eer review processes are recognized priate manuscripts for publication in the mendation concerning whether the Pworldwide as quality assurance tools. science section with an accompanying manuscript should be published in its They represent a method to constructively statement to the editorial staff. original form, if any revisions must be and critically handle research findings, sci- A manuscript must be an original, pri- made, or if the manuscript cannot be entific analysis, and technical develop- mary contribution, which means that it has accepted for publication. ments in a specific area. As well, they help not been previously published in the cur- • The reviewers’ evaluations are not for- to ensure that scientific contributions sub- rent form and composition. After a manu- warded directly to the authors. Thus, mitted to our journal meet our high publi- script passes the initial formal editorial the reviewers’ identities remain cation standards. assessment, it is forwarded to two, or, in unknown to the authors (double-blind The publisher and editorial staff there- special circumstances, more experts (refer- review). fore invite researchers and developers in ees) in the relevant area or discipline, who the transportation industry, scientists, then evaluate the manuscript using a Interested authors will find the guide- engineers, and students to submit appro- standardized review process. The key steps lines for authors, information about related of the peer review process are as follows: formalities, and the form for submitting a • Manuscripts that satisfy initial accept- contribution at ance criteria are sent by the editorial www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de/ staff to scholars or experts in the relevant autoren-service discipline or area for evaluation. The authors’ identities remain anonymous KONTAKT throughout the entire review process. Eberhard Buhl, M.A. • Using a standardized evaluation form, Managing Editor the reviewers conduct their evaluations Internationales Verkehrswesen / and then provide the editors, in writing, International Transportation [email protected] with their comments as well as a recom-

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 53 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Academics

Projects in a nutshell Overview of selected mobility research projects

Will grass become the new gasoline?

n the quest of more sustainable fuel types, are utilized to convert the sugars in the few drops. The current process is very Iscientists at Ghent University (Belgium) grass into lactic acid and its derivatives. The expensive, and engines should be adapted to have developed a way to turn grass into bio- lactic acid can already serve as an interme- this new kind of fuel. “If we can keep work- fuel. Will we soon drive on ‘grassoline’? diate chemical to produce other compounds ing on optimizing this process in coopera- “Until now, grass has mainly served as such as biodegradable plastics (PLA) or tion with the business world, we can come feed for animals. But apart from that, grass fuels. In this case, the lactic acid is con- down on the price. And maybe in a few years can also be used as biofuel. Due to its vast verted into caproic acid which was further we can all fly on grass!”, Khor concludes. abundance, grass is the perfect source of converted into products such as decane. energy”, scientist Way Cern Khor tells us. And that is where the process ends: decane More information: www.ugent.be/en/news- During his PhD research at Ghent Univer- can be used as fuel, for example for aviation. events/news/from-grass-to-grassoline.htm sity he investigated methods that can disin- This is very important: while cars are turn- tegrate and treat grass until it can be used as ing electric, planes are not – and they will a fuel. not do so in the coming two decades at least. Although it might sound revolutionary, Turning forage grass to aviation fuel there’s still a lot to do before this becomes To improve its biodegradability, the grass is reality. Right now the amount of biofuel that pretreated at first. Then enriched bacteria can be made from grass is still limited to a Photo: pixabay.de Photo:

54 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Academics SCIENCE & RESEARCH

Making lithium-ion batteries lighter, safer, more efficient

esearchers from Universidad Carlos III peratures (greater than 100 °C). “This is Rde Madrid and the Council for Scien- especially important in the case of electric tific Research (initialed CSIC in Spanish) vehicles, because if there is an accident and have patented a method for making new fire, conventional batteries can catch fire, ceramic electrodes for lithium-ion batteries and it is very difficult to extinguish,” said that are more efficient, cheaper, more resist- Jean Yves Sanchez, another inventor of the ant and safer than conventional batteries. patent and UC3M CONEX researcher from Currently, lithium-ion batteries are the the Université Grenoble Alpes (France). main electrochemical storage systems in “These new solid electrodes can’t burn,

electronic devices and the area of transpor- which contributes to improving the safety UC3M Photo: tation. “What we have patented are new of the batteries,” he added. ceramic electrodes that are much safer and When there are major electrical con- capacity of commercial electrodes with the can work in a wider temperature interval,” sumption peaks, commercial lithium-ion same density. And as this technique permits explained Professor Alejandro Várez, one of batteries tend to overheat and, in some the fabrication of high-density electrodes the inventors from the UC3M Materials cases, even explode. The reason is that the (between 450 and 1000 microns), the stor- Synthesis and Processing research group. electrolytes normally used contain organic age capacity by area increases up to ten It is a method of making ceramic sheets liquid solvents that can ignite, like the addi- times the capacity of current technology. by way of a thermoplastic extrusion mold. tives used for the fabrication of electrodes. “This technique allows making electrodes “With our technology, however, solvents are Further information in English: www.uc3m.es/ss/ that are flat or tube-shaped, and these elec- not used during the fabrication process,” Satellite/UC3MInstitucional/en/Detalle/Comunicac trodes can be applied to any type of lithium- said Sanchez. “In addition, if you compare ion_C/1371231022939/1371215537949/Lighter,_ ion battery,” said Várez. Moreover, the cost them with conventional electrodes, the ones more_efficient,_safer_lithium-ion_batteries of production is relatively low, and, accord- we obtain with this fabrication process are ing to its creators, it is easy to adapt to very hard and can’t be cut, which contrib- the current process of production, so the utes to improving the solidity of the battery.” next step to industrialization would be Another advantage of batteries that inte- immediate. grate these new electrodes is their effi- These ceramic electrodes consist only of ciency, according to tests done by the active material, which reduces the risk of researchers. These tests show an increase of Spanish video with subtitles: degradation and inflammation at high tem- specific capacity that is nearly triple the https://youtu.be/Z_lxsLbXL88

A new take on aircraft takeoff and landing

viation research has long dreamed of enabling it to fly at any time of day and Abuilding aircraft that require little take- within city limits. Apart from transport, off and landing space rather than long run- such aircraft could potentially be used for ways and enormous surface areas. One crop dusting, surveillance, logistics, fire- enterprising effort in this direction was the fighting and a number of pilotless opera- EU-funded project SOAR (Distributed tions. open-rotor aircraft), based on a novel con- Overall, the expected stability, hover cept of an open-fan wing aircraft. This rep- capability, modest fuel needs, reduced run- resents one of the latest aircraft technolo- way length and increased safety could help gies that blends fixed-wing aircraft and heli- revolutionise the industry. Lastly, a reduc- copter, offering stable short takeoff and tion in maintenance, construction and certi- landing (STOL) capabilities and possibly Source: FanWing fication costs will contribute to making hovering capabilities. STOL aircraft leaner, more efficient and The technology is based on propulsion and fan drive system. This included calibrat- more environmentally friendly. from a fan that is fixed on top of the wing ing different components, installing neces- structure and that can create a vortex to lift sary sensors, and completing required wind the aircraft. To achieve its aims, the project tunnel tests to select the best materials, combined efforts of the German Aerospace blade pitch angles and speeds. Various wing More information: www.soar-project.eu Centre (DLR), FanWing Ltd. of the shapes with different tail lengths and high- United Kingdom, the Belgian Von-Karman lift devices were also tested. The newly Institute (VKI) and Germany’s Saarland developed synchronous motor is capable of University. generating 45 Nm in high angular speeds. Together, the project partners made A key advantage of STOL aircraft is the great progress in advancing the propulsion reduced noise during takeoff and landing,

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 55 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Academics

Safe navigation even on construction sites

teach the software to recognize the classic patterns more quickly and efficiently.” Via the interplay between navigation equipment and on-board computers, it will be possible in the future for differently des- ignated highway exits on construction sites to be correctly identified, for the distances to other vehicles to be kept optimally, and for the speed to be adjusted in a timely man- ner. “What in the short term could be able to promote relaxation and increased safety when driving by means of assisted driving is intended to work all by itself in the long term: Automated vehicles will then react independently,” Eickeler explains. An automotive camera is used which cur- rently delivers 20 to 25 frames per second. Directly during the trip, these pictures are

Source: Fraunhofer IAIS Fraunhofer Source: analyzed and information about signs, lane utomated vehicles have to be able to Fraunhofer researchers are developing information or LED traffic signs are identi- Areliably detect traffic signs. Previous technologies for the real-time interpreta- fied and processed. A future vision is that systems, however, have had problems in tion of such signs. “Our technology enables this camera will be able to function as a pri- understanding complex traffic manage- a system to read signs of this kind with a mary interface, making a large number of ment with different information about high degree of accuracy,” says Stefan Eick- sensors redundant. speed or the course of the lanes, as mainly eler, who is responsible for the subject of occurs on construction sites: driving lanes object recognition at the Fraunhofer Insti- Further information: https://www.iais.fraunhofer.de/en.html generally narrow, traffic jams develop old tute for Intelligent Analysis and Informa- and new road markings overlap, and tion Systems IAIS in Sankt Augustin, Ger- ­limiting beacons and traffic cones are many. The information is processed seman- ­difficult to detect by the sensors. The tically, understood in terms of content and signs contain different information about made available for further processing. “With the permitted speed or the course of the Deep Learning – a key technology for the lanes. future of the automotive industry – we

A novel method helps reducing noise problems produced by road traffic

cientists from the universities of Gra- and, once chosen, choosing the most suita- choices to be taken into account are defined, Snada (Spain) and Southampton (UK) ble option against the noise. In fact, the criti- and the appropriate options are chosen for have designed a new method to reduce cal study of the noise action plans published each of said stretches. In addition, weights noise problems caused by road traffic, which in Spain shows the general lack of method- are obtained for each of the criteria, which is said one of the main environmental ologies and criteria taken into account in the allows to assess their relative importance in impacts of roads with important effects on decision-making on the problem of prioritiz- each problem. people’s health and their physical and psy- ing the actions included in them. The final product is a method that any chological well-being. The research, carried out by Spanish- entity can easily implement and which The application of the European Envi- British scientists, proposes a practical meth- helps in decision making by choosing the ronmental Noise Directive by various public odology based on exclusively technical cri- most suitable alternatives for the reduction administrations of the European Union teria using available data from the organ- of the exposure to the noise. member countries in relation to road traffic isms responsible for the infrastructures. More information: sl.ugr.es/ruido_traficoEN noise has generated, in recent years, a sig- This methodology, called PATRON (Prior- nificant number of Noise Action Plans itizing AcTions against Road Noise), con- (NAPs) by the different administrations sists of two stages. The first stage consists of responsible for the infrastructures. However, defining and weighing, in an objective and said directive does not establish a regulated reasoned way, the main criteria used to pri- process that allows choosing the most criti- oritize the road stretches included in a plan. cal road stretches which require some action In the second stage, the main criteria and

56 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Academics SCIENCE & RESEARCH

Unmanned cargo vessels – more sustainable ­maritime transport

n EU initiative has developed an idea intended for use Afor unmanned shipping that involves in harbours or designs for various modular on-board sys- congested ship- tems for ship control, sensing and commu- ping lanes. An nication, plus onshore stations. For envi- advanced sensor ronmental reasons, oceanic cargo ships are module automati- travelling more slowly, thus increasing the cally looks out for ship population. At the same time, num- traffic, obstacles bers of available mariners are declining. and weather con- The solution may lie in partially autono- ditions surround- mous cargo vessels, which also offer com- ing the vessel by mercial and environmental advantages. continuously The EU-funded Munin (Maritime combining sensor

unmanned navigation through intelligence data from existing Thinkstock EvrenKalinbacak, Source: in networks) project worked to develop a navigational sys- technical concept for such ships and assess tems with modern daylight and infrared tional expenses and environmental impact, its feasibility. cameras. A shore control centre continu- and avoid the problems of mariners being at Project partners developed a technical ously monitors and controls the vessel (see sea for long periods. concept for the operation of an unmanned figure). merchant vessel during the deep-sea part of Other units include an autonomous navi- its voyage. The ship is autonomously oper- gation system with a predefined yet flexible More information: ated by new systems aboard the vessel. voyage plan, and an autonomous engine and www.unmanned-ship.org/munin However, the monitoring and controlling monitoring control system. The latter moni- functionalities are performed by an opera- tors and controls all engine room compo- tor on land. They also assessed the concept’s nents and serves as a transceiver for the technical, economic and legal feasibility. shore control centre. The Munin team developed prototypes Thanks to Munin, autonomous shipping for the subsystems, including both on-board is technically feasible. The development and onshore modules. The systems are not should yield cost savings, reduce opera-

Wider application of new materials for lighter and greener trains

he implementation of new lightweight the regulatory framework of railway car- The team examined the crashworthiness Tmaterials for trains has been slow due body structures to the introduction of new of rail vehicles and parameters of the manu- to the lack of suitable certification proce- materials. facturing process that influence final mate- dures. An EU initiative paved the way for Work began by benchmarking the most rial properties. It proposed optimal prog- the certification of new materials such as promising new materials available to rail- nostic, health management and non- composites. They can help to build lighter way and other sectors, and examining rail destructive methods for new materials in rolling stock that will consume less energy certification processes and standards to rail carbodies. and reduce emissions. While such materials identify gaps which need to be filled ahead Lastly, recommendations were proposed are being used in the manufacturing of roll- of implementing new materials. for modifying current railway standards in ing stock parts, there is no way to certify a Project partners studied fire, smoke and order to enable the safe introduction of new rail vehicle built mostly or entirely from toxicity properties of resins, the noise, vibra- materials in train carbodies. non-metallic materials. The existing regula- tion and harshness of composite materials, tory framework must be re-examined in and the advantages and disadvantages of order for the sector to recognise what composite materials concerning electromag- Detailled information: www.refresco-project.eu/deliverables changes are needed. netic compatibility. They investigated exist- With this in mind, the EU-funded ing standards, and characterised and mod- REFRESCO (Towards a regulatory frame- elled procedures for the new structural mate- work for the use of structural new materials rials. This was done to understand the struc- in railway passenger and freight carbody- tural requirements for issues arising from the shells) project set out to provide recommen- replacement of metal with high-performance dations and the information needed to adapt composite materials in rail carbody shells.

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 57 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Academics

World’s first test site for autonomous vehicles opens

to attack – from pirates, for example. How- ever, cyber security will be an issue,” Sørensen adds.

New rules and standards needed The Trondheim Fjord is highly suitable as a test site for autonomous vessels. The fjord is clear and open, large and wide, almost like a small sea – while it is demanding enough to create challenges for humans and technol- ogy to tackle. Another factor is that shipping traffic is relatively low. Most important of all, however, is the cluster of expertise near the fjord, which includes research institu- tions, business and industry with long tradi- tions of research and development in auton- omous systems, vessel concepts, aquacul- Kongsberg autonomous vessel Photo: Idun Haugan/NTNU ture, mineral extraction and robotics. Now these players will have a test laboratory on their doorstep, but the test site will also be orway’s Trondheim Fjord will be the present – such as on a pilotless vessel, or oil available for other players who need to test Nworld’s first technological playground and gas installations. These often involve autonomous vessels. Kongsberg Seatex, for pilotless vehicles that move below, on remote control of the vessel or installation Marintek, and Maritime Robotics have and above the water’s surface: Snake robots, with varying levels of autonomy, using for joined forces with NTNU to launch the test underwater drones, unmanned ships, and example satellite communications. Control site initiative. Other industrial players such flying drones will soon be seen on Norway’s is then moved from the bridge on the ship as Rolls-Royce Marine are involved as well. third-longest fjord located in the west-cen- or the control room of the installation to a Sørensen notes that the rapid develop- tral part of the country. The area is being centre on land. ment of autonomous systems creates com- established as a test lab for autonomous Today, autonomous unmanned vehicles pletely new demands for dealing with risk technology, which could replace the crews are used to perform tasks in so-called and management of risk. Qualification of on ships, among many other possibilities. unstructured environments with complex, new technology and operations will call for “As far as I know, this is the first test site unpredictable and sometimes dangerous an approach that focuses more on function of its kind in the world,” says Professor areas, or for surveys and mapping of geo- and risk. The bottleneck for further devel- Asgeir Johan Sørensen, Director of the Nor- graphical areas. What is now happening opment of the technology lies here, he wegian University of Science and Technol- with full force is the development of larger believes. ogy’s Centre for Autonomous Marine Oper- pilotless vessels that can transport cargo ations and Systems (NTNU AMOS). and maybe passengers. And the environ- More information: NTNU Centre for Autonomous ment can actually benefit from that. Marine Operations and Systems – www.ntnu.edu/ Good news for the environment Slowly sailing vessels use less fuel. In the amos Autonomous technology is being used in future, the speed of freight traffic could be advanced automated systems with human adapted more precisely to the cargo on operators – for example in a car’s cruise board. Some products must get there fast, control and collision avoidance systems or but for others, speed is less important. This the autopilot on a passenger plane. Autono- is better for the environment, and cuts oper- mous functions are also found in unmanned ating costs. “Unmanned vessels can also be systems where people are not physically built in ways that make them less vulnerable

Your editorial contact: Eberhard Buhl, Managing Editor, Mail: [email protected] Let’s keep in touch … Your advertising contact: Hellfried Zippan, Media Sales, Mail: [email protected]

58 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 Events FORUM Photo: Estrel Berlin Estrel Photo: The car of the future: Digitized, connected and driving autonomously Preview: 05–06 July 2017 – ConCarExpo 2017, Berlin (DE)

he automotive industry is undergoing a shape new infrastructure concepts. At the fundamental preconditions to be laid down Ttransformation. The growing digitiza- conference all these topics will be subject of that are geared towards a comprehensible, tion lays the foundation for future vehicle discussion amongst the leading minds of the reliable and swift vehicle-environment generations to be able to communicate with automotive industry with the focus clearly information exchange. For this purpose, each other, with the driver and their envi- being placed on “Automated Driving”. appropriate information and communica- ronment. In light of this, digitization is con- tion structures have to be arranged and sidered the key on the way to fully auto- 4th International VDI Conference – implemented, to establish a digital infra- mated and connected driving. Vehicles con- Automotive HMI & Connectivity structure. What this will look like and how tinue to become safer, smarter and more The man-machine interface goes beyond unresolved financial matters will be clari- comfortable. What are the technical and the mere connection of driver and vehicle. fied, will be discussed at the conference infrastructural obstacles that still need to be It includes the driver being linked up to the “Digital Infrastructure and Automotive overcome and how do these changes revolu- environment. By continuously pushing the Mobility” by experts with an automotive, tionise mobility as such? These are the main advancement of driver assistance system telecommunication and IT background. topics at the international Trade Exhibition technology, which measures the alertness of To benefit from an even wider range of “ConCarExpo 2017” taking place from 05 to the driver and reaches as far as linking up to topics and make use of ample networking 06 July 2017 at Estrel in Berlin. mobile devices, driving will be more com- opportunities, conference participants may The “ConCarExpo” is Europe’s biggest fortable and safer by introducing new tech- attend any of the four VDI conferences that international trade exhibition in the field of nologies. will be run simultaneously with their ticket. connected car, automated driving and IT In addition, conference participants will security in the vehicle. Under the headline 3rd International VDI Conference – have free access to the trade exhibition “Connected Car & Mobility Solutions” more IT Security for Vehicles “ConCarExpo”. However, an exhibition than 100 exhibitors will be presenting their Digital networking and automation in vehi- ticket for the trade exhibition “ConCar- technical solutions and new business mod- cles are considered groundbreaking future Expo” does not entitle the holder to attend els. trends. Be it a GPS connection or online any of the VDI conference that are held in As part of “ConCarExpo” four specialist controllable infotainment, all these conven- parallel. conferences will be held in parallel where ient features pose at the same time a secu- more than 100 international trade experts rity threat. How to mitigate harm arising will be speaking about automated driving, from this threat and which new measures man-machine interfaces, IT security as well are in place to protect automotive informa- as digital infrastructure: tion technology will be subject of a discus- sion conducted by experts at the conference 4th International VDI Conference– “IT Security for Vehicles”. Exhibition and conferences will be held in Automated Driving English. Further informations, registration Automated Driving is one of the megatrends International VDI Conference – and programme: that are going to have a large-scale impact Digital Infrastructure and www.concarexpo.com or on the automotive sector in the years to Automotive Mobility www.vdi-international.com come. Major changes are imminent that will The implementation of digital innovations [email protected], affect the use and design of vehicles and like automated driving in real life calls for Phone: +49 211 6214-201

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 59 FORUM Events

TEN-T road network development – Experiences of the last 25 years Preview: 08–09 June 2017 – XV. European Transport Congress and X. Budapest International Road Congress, Budapest (HU)

he Hungarian Scientific Association for Eastern European region to share their entific education and research (to support TTransport (Közlekedéstudományi results and lessons learnt to each other and especially the young researchers), and to Egyesület, KTE) organizes a two days con- to present their challenges, findings and develop a European level cooperation with gress with both well-esteemed international innovations. the scientific institutions. The EPTS mem- scientific presentators as well as several The EPTS platform was formed in ber states organize international confer- technical visits and touristic tours. Vienna in 2001 by the scientific organiza- ences at annually changing sites. After 2007 The intention of the jointly held 15th tions and associations for transport of Aus- and 2012, the Hungarian Scientific Associa- European Transport Congress and 10th tria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, tion for Transport hosts the event for the Budapest International Road Congress is to Hungary, Macedonia, Italy, Poland, Slova- third time. discuss the experiences of the last 25 years kia, and Slovenia with the aim of encourag- of TEN-T road network development. The ing the political, scientific and economic conference gives an opportunity to the pro- dialogue in the European transport sector. It Further information: fessionals and experts of the Central and is the goal of the association to promote sci- www.epts2017budapest.eu – www.epts.eu

New Mobility World

Preview: 14–17 September 2017 – New Mobility World at IAA 2017 “Shaping the Future of Mobility across Industries”, Frankfurt am Main (DE)

ew Mobility World is the B2B event at Driving, Connected Cars, Urban Mobility, cours” demonstration areas and test tracks Nthe 67th International IAA Cars Motor- Mobility Services, and E-Mobility. the future of e-mobility can be experienced show where the mobility of tomorrow With the formats “Hall”, “Forum”, and today. begins. Supported by the Federal Ministry “Parcours”, New Mobility World provides a New Mobility World provides an ecosys- for Economic Affairs and Energy and the platform for presenting, discussing, and tem for disruptors and innovators to be at Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital experiencing the e-mobility of tomorrow. In the forefront of future thinking – to change Infrastructure, New Mobility World will the “Hall” area, theme parks bring together the way in which we will move from A to B take place from September 14 to 17. At New young and established players who work in in the future. Mobility World, innovators, digital pioneers, the e-mobility field. In terms of content, the start-ups and the automotive industry come “Forum” will be the meeting place for pio- together to build the future of e-mobility neers and innovators with its high class and discuss five main topics: Automated talks, discussions and panels. At the “Par- https://newmobility.world/en

EVS30 – Electric Vehicle Symposium & Exhibition

Preview: 9–11 October 2017, 30th Electric Vehicle Symposium & Exhibition, co-located with BATTERY+STORAGE and f-cell, Stuttgart (DE)

he largest trade fair and conference all forms of electric mobility and discuss Tevent for electric mobility will be held new trends and possible uses of electric in Stuttgart in 2017 – the “Electric Vehicle power transmission. Symposium & Exhibition” (EVS). Every 12 Following the motto “Industrialization to 18 months, researchers, government rep- and market – the sustainable path to elec- resentatives and industry experts from tromobility”, the conference will highlight the exhibition will present special vehicles around the world gather to get the latest latest research projects, technological from the construction sector and agricul- picture of all forms of electric mobility, its advances, market development strategies ture, regulations and standards, energy man- technologies and other issues, such as bat- and innovative business models for e-mobil- agement systems, and software solutions for tery and fuel cell drives, and discuss new ity concepts. networked and autonomous driving. trends. The event venue rotates between In addition to the focal areas e-mobility, North America, Europe and Asia. system suppliers, components and accesso- Further informations, registration and In Stuttgart, manufacturers, users and ries for the automotive industry, charging programme: decision-makers can get the latest picture of infrastructure, and production technologies www.messe-stuttgart.de/en/evs30

60 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 IMPRINT | EDITORIAL PANELS

International Transportation is a special edition of ­Internationales Verkehrswesen | vol. 69 Editorial Board Imprint Kay W. Axhausen Sebastian Kummer Prof. Dr.-Ing., Institute for Transport Prof. Dr., Head of the Institute for Editorial board Planning and Systems (IVT), Swiss Federal Transport and Logistics Management, Prof. Dr. Kay W. Axhausen Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich (CH) Vienna University of Economics and Prof. Dr. Hartmut Fricke Business (AT) Prof. Dr. Hans Dietrich Haasis Prof. Dr. Sebastian Kummer Hartmut Fricke Barbara Lenz Prof. Dr. Barbara Lenz Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil., Chair of Air Transport Prof. Dr., Director of the Institute of Prof. Knut Ringat Technology and Logistics, Technical Transport Research, German Aerospace Publishing house University (TU) Dresden (DE) Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und TRIALOG:PUBLISHERS Raumfahrt e.V./DLR), Berlin (DE) Verlagsgesellschaft Hans-Dietrich Haasis Knut Ringat Eberhard Buhl | Christine Ziegler Prof. Dr., Chair of Business Studies and Eco- Prof., Speaker of the Executive Board Marschnerstr. 87, D-81245 Munich nomics, Maritime Business and Logistics, of the Rhine-Main Regional Transport Phone +49 89 889518.71 University of Bremen (DE) Association­ (Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund [email protected] GmbH/RMV), Hofheim am Taunus (DE) www.trialog.de Publishing Director Dipl.-Ing. Christine Ziegler VDI Phone +49 89 889518.72 [email protected] Editorial office Managing Editor Phone +49 89 889518.73 [email protected] Editorial Advisory Board [email protected] Gerd Aberle Jürgen Peters Advertising Dr. rer. pol. Dr. h.c., Dr., CEO, Innovation Center for Mobility Hellfried Zippan Emeritus professor of Gießen University, and Societal Change (InnoZ) GmbH, Phone +49 89 889518.74 and honorary member of the Editorial Berlin (DE) Fax +49 89 889518.75 Advisory Board (DE) [email protected] For advertisement prices, please see price list Uwe Clausen Christian Piehler Dr.-Ing., Director of the Transport no. 54 of 01 Jan. 2017 Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing., Director of the Institute for Transport Logistics at Technical Univer- Program at the German Aerospace Sales sity (TU) Dortmund & Fraunhofer Institute Center ­(Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Phone +49 89 889518.76 for Material Flow and Logistics (IML), (DE) Raumfahrt e.V./DLR), Cologne (DE) Fax +49 89 889518.75 [email protected] Florian Eck Tom Reinhold Dr., Deputy Managing Director of the Dr.-Ing., Associate Partner, Oliver Wyman, Publishing intervals German Transport Forum (Deutsches Berlin (DE) Quarterly, plus International Transportation Verkehrsforum e.V./DVF), Berlin (DE) Terms of subscription Subscriptions run for a minimum of 1 year and may Alexander Eisenkopf Jürgen Siegmann be terminated at the end of any subscription period. Prof. Dr. rer. pol., Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil., To unsubscribe, submit a written notice at least six ZEPPELIN Chair of Economic & Transport Chair of Track and Railway Operations, weeks before the period ends. The publishers shall Policy, Zeppelin University, Friedrichshafen Technical University (TU) Berlin (DE) not be liable in case of non-deliverability due to force (DE) majeure or any other cause beyond their control. ­Supplementary digital subscriptions available on Michael Engel Erich Staake request. Dr., Managing Director of the German Dipl.-Kfm., CEO and President Subscription rates Airline Association (Bundesverband der of Duisburger Hafen AG, Duisburg (DE) Subscription Deutschen Fluggesellschaften e. V./BDF), Germany: 193 EUR/year, incl. shipping, plus VAT Berlin (DE) Abroad: print for subscribers with VAT no.: 215 EUR/ Ottmar Gast Wolfgang Stölzle year incl. shipping; w/o VAT no.: 215 EUR/year incl. Dr., Chairman of the Executive Board of Prof. Dr., Professor of Logistics Manage- shipping, plus VAT | digital 193 EUR/year, for subscrib- Hamburg-Süd KG, Hamburg (DE) ment, Research Institute for Logistics ers w/o VAT no.: plus VAT Management, University of St. Gallen (CH) Print subscribers will receive every issue in print format plus access to the archive (e-mail subscribers: e-paper only) . Martin Hauschild Johannes Max-Theurer Single issue: 50 EUR Chairman VDI Committee Traffic & Context; Executive Director, Plasser & Theurer, Head of Mobility Technologies, BMW Group, Linz (AT) Media partnership Munich (DE) VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure e.V. – Fachbereich Verkehr und Umfeld Ute Jasper Matthias von Randow Printing house Dr. jur., lawyer, Executive Director of the German Aviation Grafik und Druck GmbH, Munich law firm of Heuking Kühn Lüer Wojtek, Association (Bundesverband der Production Düsseldorf (DE) Deutschen Luftverkehrswirtschaft/BDL), Schmidt Media Design, Munich, schmidtmedia.com Berlin (DE) Cover Oliver Kraft Peer Witten Urban Traffic in Hong Kong Geschäftsführer, VoestAlpine BWG GmbH, Prof. Dr., Chairman of the Supervisory Photo: ClipDealer Butzbach (DE) Board of Hamburger Hafen und Logistik Copyright AG (HHLA), Hamburg, and Speaker of the It is not permitted to copy or distribute any part of Logistics Initiative Hamburg (DE) this publication, neither in print nor in digital form, Matthias Krämer Oliver Wolff except with the publisher’s prior written consent. Director Mobility and Logistics, Federation Executive Director of the Association of The publisher accepts no liability for any unsolicited of German Industries (Bundesverband der German Transport Companies (Verband manuscripts. Deutschen Industrie e.V./BDI), Berlin (DE) Deutscher Verkehrsunternehmen/VDV), Cologne (DE) Ralf Nagel CEO of the German Shipowners’ Associa- TRIALOG:PUBLISHERS tion (Verband Deutscher Reeder/VDR), Verlagsgesellschaft München Hamburg (DE) ISSN 0020-9511

International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 61 REMARK | EVENTS

CALENDAR OF EVENTS 15 May 2017 to 19 Oct 2017

15–17 May 2017 62. Global Public Transport Summit Montreal (CA) LEAD the TRANSITion Organization: UITP, International Association of Public Transport www.uitpsummit.org

17-18 May 2017 Polis Convention – Urban Development Düsseldorf (DE) Organization: polis convention GmbH Contact: +49 202 248 36-22, [email protected] www.polis-convention.com

31 May–02 June International Transport Forum – 2017 Summit 2017 Governance of Transport Leipzig (DE) Organization: International Transport Forum, Paris Contact: +33 1 45 24 19 80, [email protected] Dear Readers, http://2017.itf-oecd.org

In the current issue of International Trans- portation 1/2017, we address some questions 08–09 June XV. European Transport Congress & 2017 X. International Road Congress that have increasingly attracted attention Budapest (HU) Organization: European Platform of Transport Sciences (EPTS) and Hungarian Scientific Association for worldwide, for example: How can public Transport (KTE) transportation systems be maintained, ex- Contact: Eva Schmidt, Assistant to Secretary General EPTS, [email protected], www.epts.eu panded, and optimized in order to meet www.epts2017budapest.eu rapidly growing transport needs? And how should this all be financed? 13–14 June 2017 Smart Logistics Expo & Cargo & Logistics Innovation Congress The contributions in this issue make it Venlo (NL) First Global Multimodal Unmanned Cargo Systems Event clear that both political will as well as goal- Organization: Jakajima b.v., Eindhoven oriented strategies are needed to meet www.cargoinnovationconference.com such complex challenges. From a techno- logical perspective, addressing these issues 21–22 June 2017 Parken becomes even more imperative, especially Karlsruhe (DE) Planning, construction and operating of parking areas because increasingly shorter cycles of Organization: Mesago Messe Frankfurt GmbH innovation­ generate new, often cross-­ Contact: [email protected] www.mesago.de/en/Parken/home.htm sectoral technologies. An urgent task for the immediate future is to implement laws and regulations so that these technologies 05–06 July 2017 2nd New Mobility World can be fully utilized. Berlin (DE) Shaping the Future Mobility across Industries – at IAA Organization: NMW project office, Dirk O. Evenson, +49 30 7262 199 71, [email protected] In this regard, there are currently many https://newmobility.world/en/ topics that need to be considered, for ex- ample, making use of highly automated transport vehicles, creating environmen- 14–24 Sept 2017 IAA Cars 2017 tally sustainable driving systems, providing Frankfurt am Main (DE) 67th International Motor Show 2017 Organization: German Automotive Industry Association (VDA), Berlin, +49 30 897842-0, www.vda.de mobility services in various nearby areas, www.iaa.de ensuring the safe transport of passengers and goods, and maintaining data security. One thing you can be sure of: These 09–11 Oct 2017 EVS30 „International Electric Vehicle Symposium & Exhibition“ topics will also be dealt with in depth in the Stuttgart (DE) Host: World Electric Vehicle Association (WEVA), European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (AVERE) upcoming issues of our magazine. If you Organization: Messe Stuttgart, [email protected] would like to submit a contribution, please Congress organisation: Sandra Bilz, Tel.: +49 711 656960-5704, contact us. Author guidelines and a submis- [email protected] sion form can be found at our website: www.messe-stuttgart.de/evs30/ www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de Alternatively, you may contact me di- 17–19 Oct 2017 eMove360° Europe rectly per e-mail: [email protected] Munich (DE) 2nd International Trade Fair for Mobility 4.0: electric – connected – autonomous I look forward to hearing from you! Organization: MunichExpo Veranstaltungs GmbH Contact: [email protected] http://www.emove360.com Sincerely,

For information on additional events go to Eberhard Buhl, Managing Editor www.internationalesverkehrswesen.de

62 International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 TECHNISCH-WISSENSCHAFTLICHE BEITRÄGE ZUR STADT IM WANDEL Aller Anfang ist

Viermal jährlich berichtet Transforming Cities bereitet leicht! Transforming Cities über den diese Themen auf – für Wandel in urbanen Regionen Entscheider in Verwaltungen und ihren Einzugsgebieten. und Stadtwerken, Planungs- und Konstruktionsbüros, Anerkannte Experten aus Unternehmen, Hochschulen Wissenschaft und Praxis und Institute. greifen in ihren Fachbeiträgen die Herausforderungen Wissen auch Sie mehr über auf, denen sich Gestalter, Hintergründe, Entwicklungen Ver walter und Erhalter im und Perspektiven zur aktiven urbanen Kontext zunehmend Gestaltung der Stadt von gegenüber sehen. morgen:

Sichern Sie sich jetzt das Transforming Cities StarterAbo! 4 Ausgaben lesen, nur 2 Ausgaben bezahlen – und 50 % sparen!*

* Im ersten Bezugsjahr zum Preis von EUR 60,- statt EUR 120,- anschließend zum regulären Preis. Printabonnement zuzüglich Versand. TranCit StarterAbo

Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft Gesellschafter: Eberhard Buhl M.A., Dipl.-Ing. Christine Ziegler VDI Marschnerstraße 87 | 81245 München +49 89 889518.71 | [email protected] http://www.transforming-cities.de/starterabo/

Anzeige.indd 1 24.10.2016 15:22:16 Special Edition 1 | May 2017 International Transportation