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The Role of Volatiles in the Evolution of the Surface of Mars

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The Role of Volatiles in the Evolution of the Surface of Mars The role of volatiles in the evolution of the surface of Mars A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of London by Julie Ann Cave University of London Observatory Annexe Department of Physics & Astronomy University College London University of London 1991 1 ProQuest Number: 10797637 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10797637 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 To the best mum and dad in the world. “In a word, there are three things that last forever: faith, hope and love; but the greatest of them all is love. ” 1 Corinthians, 13:13 2 “Education is the complete and harmonious development of all the capac­ ities with which an individual is endowed at birth; a development which requires not coercion or standardisation but guidance of the interests of every individual towards a form that shall be uniquely characteristic of him [or her].” Albert Barnes—philanthropist 3 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Professor John Guest for the encouragement and supervision he has given to me during the period of my thesis, and, in particular, for introducing me to the wonders of the planets, and for encouraging me to undertake this project in the first place. I’d also like to thank all of my contemporaries at the Annexe and at the Ob­ servatory for their company. Wyn Hughes and Gil Thornhill have been particularly supportive, and have always taken time to listen to my ramblings as my ideas formed; the late-night debriefing trips up to the ‘Three Hammers’ were particularly enjoyable! The hundreds of photographs that were used during the research, and those in the thesis itself, were all printed by Dave Rooks, whose care and professionalism is greatly appreciated. I’d also like to thank Adrian Fish for managing the ZUVAD Starlink node so well, and for his speedy help on a number of occasions. Many thanks too go to David, Wyn, Gil, Ian Howarth, and Dad for proof reading, and for their helpful suggestions. Discussions with Frangois Costard and Ruslan Kuzmin were a great source of encouragement, and I am grateful for their interest and enthusiasm in this project. Thanks also to Mike Bamlett and Ed Finch for geological enlightenment in the field and the classroom. I’d also like to take this opportunity to acknowledge Helen Sandi- son, whose excellent teaching has had a great impact on me, and who first awakened, and subsequently fostered, my interest in all things geographical! I would like to thank Professor Sir Robert Wilson and the Physics and Astronomy Department for support from the Perren Studentship scheme. My fiance, David ‘Wonky’ Wonnacott has been a constant and able source of help with the idiosyncracies of DTgXand VAX and deserves a medal for his patience, understanding, and support given during the last few years. His academic advice is also gratefully acknowledged, but his love and companionship have been more valuable than I can say. His family also have my heartfelt thanks, for their help with the preparation of the colour figures, and for making me feel so welcome in their family. 4 5 My parents have encouraged and supported my education, but, more than that, they have provided an endless supply of love, faith, and enthusiasm. It’s impossible for me to express the full extent of my love and pride for them, but I have great pleasure in dedicating this work to them, with all my love. Thanks Mum and Dad! 6 A bstract A review of the evidence concerning the original and current water budgets of Mars is presented. Previous workers have suggested that a sub-surface reservoir of ice may explain the apparent discrepancy between the two estimated budgets, but the nature, origin, distribution, importance and fate of this ice remains controversial. A thorough examination of the Elysium region has been performed to see how well the distribution of this ice layer may be understood. The distribution of all major landforms that may have required the presence of water for their formation is described. After this initial investigation, the research concentrates on the interpretation of impact crater morphology variations, which are potentially capable of indicating the depth and concentration of sub-surface ice. A classification scheme is presented and the details of over 7000 craters are recorded. The region covers a variety of terrain types, ages, latitudes, and altitudes. The ratio of the ejecta diameter to the crater diameter, used as a indication of the ejecta mobility, is investigated as a function of each of these variables. The morphological characteristics of the craters are also examined, with an emphasis being placed on features that may be indicative of sub-surface ice. The results of the analyses are used to construct a more comprehensive account of the distribution and importance of water within the Elysium region than has yet been possible. Evidence of a widespread ground-ice of variable depth and concentration is presented. The ice-distribution is shown to be dependent upon latitude, though its concentration varies with depth and is strongly influenced by geological considerations. Important differences have been detected in the distribution of Southern Highland and Northern Lowland ground-ice. In addition, the ice is enriched at depth in the Elysium Lavas, and nearer to the surface in deposits to the northwest of Elysium Mons and in the Vastitas Borealis Formation. This distribution suggests that several ice-emplacement mechanisms have operated on Mars, including both the enrichment of the deeper ice by juvenile water from beneath the Elysium Volcanic Province, and the redistribution to the Lowlands of a highly concentrated ice-reservoir from a great depth within the Highlands. 7 C ontents 1 Mars: The Volatile Question 20 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 20 1.2 The volatiles of M a rs ......................................................................................... 21 1.3 Geological evidence of w a te r ............................................................................ 22 1.4 The martian en v iro n m en t ............................................................................... 24 1.4.1 Astronomical variations influencing the atmosphere ..................... 26 1.4.2 The early martian atm osphere ......................................................... 27 1.5 The initial water inventory of M a rs ............................................................... 32 1.5.1 Estimates derived from the current atmospheric composition . 33 1.5.2 Geochemical calculations ................................................................... 34 1.5.3 Geological estim ates ............................................................................. 35 1.5.4 Estimates of the initial carbon dioxide inventory ........................ 36 1.5.5 S u m m a ry ................................................................................................ 39 1.6 Atmospheric loss processes and martian water sinks ................................ 40 1.6.1 Impact erosion of the atmosphere ...................................................... 40 1.6.2 Other atmospheric loss processes ...................................................... 41 1.6.3 S u m m a ry ................................................................................................ 42 1.6.4 The polar regions ................................................................................... 43 1.6.5 Chemical reactions with the regolith ............................................... 44 1.6.6 Ground-ice ............................................................................................. 44 1.7 The search for g ro u n d -ic e ............................................................................... 45 1.7.1 The theoretical distribution of g ro u n d -ice ...................................... 45 1.7.2 Geological evidence of the distribution of ground-ice .................. 48 8 9 1.8 The proposed detailed survey ........................................................................ 53 1.9 Outline of the t h e s i s ........................................................................................ 54 2 The Elysium Region: general geology and water-related landforms 56 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 57 2.2 The location of water-related landform s .................................................... 59 2.3 Volcanic features .............................................................................................. 59 2.3.1 Apollinaris P a t e r a .............................................................................. 60 2.3.2 Hecates Tholus ..................................................................................... 61 2.3.3 Albor Tholus ........................................................................................ 63
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