The Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site: Research Agenda

Home , Broch of Burrian, Broch of Gurness, Burnt mound, Cairston, Calf of Eday, Clava cairn

The Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site Research Agenda

Edited by Jane Downes, Sally M Foster and C R Wickham-Jones with Jude Callister

Historic Scotland 2005 Published by Historic Scotland

ISBN 1 904966 04 7 © Individual authors Edinburgh 2005

Project grant-aided by Historic Scotland, Orkney Islands Council and Orkney Heritage Society, with support from Orkney College UHI As advisers to the World Heritage Committee, ICOMOS has drawn up guidelines for the management of World Heritage Sites and for research programmes to promote and co-ordinate research in the area. In Orkney this important task has been carried out with the contribution of a number of partners. It has been a collaborative venture involving many experts who have generously given freely of their time. I know that Historic Scotland has been delighted to support the Orkney College UHI in organising and co-ordinating the production of this Research Agenda for Scotland’s ﬁrst archaeological World Heritage Site, The Heart of Neolithic Orkney.

We very much hope that this Research Agenda will prove a model for Site managers throughout the world, as well as others dealing with the challenges and opportunities of their local archaeological inheritance elsewhere in Scotland.

Patricia Ferguson Minister for Tourism, Culture and Sport

5 Dedicated to Daphne Home Lorimer, prime mover in the setting up of Orkney Archaeological Trust and Chairman of the Trust 1996-2004

6 Contents

13 Foreword

15 List of contributors

17 Acknowledgements

Part 1: Agenda setting

20 Background 20 Description and status of the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site Jane Downes 21 The context and purpose of the Research Agenda Jane Downes 23 Formulating the Agenda – the Archaeological and Historical Research Co- ordination Committee Jane Downes 24 Structure of the Heart of Neolithic Orkney Research Agenda Jane Downes and C R Wickham-Jones

25 Management of the World Heritage Site 25 Boundaries of the Site and its buffer zones Jane Downes and Sally M Foster 29 Setting of the WHS Jane Downes and Sally M Foster 30 The Management Plan Jane Downes 31 Management issues and threats Sally M Foster and Management and Interpretation Group Protect and maintain Present and interpret Access 33 Management and research Sally M Foster and Management and Interpretation Group

35 Deﬁning the spatial and temporal research context of the World Heritage Site 35 Researching the landscape Dave Cowley, Jane Downes, Mark Edmonds and Landscape Group 37 Period-based research and temporality Colin Richards and Temporality and Period-based Research Group

7 Part 2: Resource assessment

40 History of prehistoric research Nick Card

46 Assessment of the prehistoric periods Nick Card 46 Pre-Neolithic Orkney The pre-Neolithic World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones 47 Neolithic Orkney The Neolithic World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones 56 Bronze Age Orkney The Bronze Age World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones 61 Iron Age Orkney The Iron Age World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones

66 Assessment of the historic period Sarah Jane Grieve with Julie Gibson 66 Orkney Viking period (c800-1065) The Viking period World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones 69 Orkney late Norse period (1065–1231) The late Norse period World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones 71 Late medieval Orkney (1231-1615) The late medieval World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones 74 Post-medieval Orkney (1615–1840) The post-medieval World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones 77 Modern Orkney (1840–1945) The modern period World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones

Part 3: Research themes

80 Artefacts, monuments and cultural identity Siân Jones, Colin Richards and Artefacts, Monuments and Cultural Identity Group 81 The materialisation of memory and identity 83 The social construction and constitution of monuments: questions of architecture, place, the human body and materiality 84 The past in the present: the rôle of monuments in the production of contemporary narratives, memories and cultural practices 86 Representing monuments: the place of archaeological materials in folklore, literature, map-making, art and other forms of visual depiction

87 The formation and utlilisation of the landscape Ingrid Mainland, Ian A Simpson, Richard Tipping, Palaeoenvironment and Economy Group, and Formation Processes and Dating group 89 Climate change and Holocene environments 92 Biogeography: migration, colonisation and extinction 93 Agricultural landscapes, diet and subsistence 95 Exchange circulation, status, identity and ritual activity

8 Part 4: Techniques 96 Introduction

96 Dating Patrick Ashmore and David Sanderson 96 Background 96 Radiocarbon/AMS Dating 97 Luminescence dating 97 Palaeomagnetic dating 97 Tephra 98 Cosmogenic nuclides 98 Radiogenic chronometers

98 Geophysics John Gater 98 Background 99 The World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones - summary of results 100 Development 100 Prospecting 100 Database

100 Field Survey Graeme Wilson

101 Underwater exploration Ian Oxley with Bobby Forbes 101 Background 102 Archaeological investigation of submerged environments in Orkney 102 Standards 102 Collecting known information 103 Assessing archaeological potential 103 Evaluation techniques 103 Excavation 103 Underwater methodologies

104 Aerial survey Kenneth Brophy

105 Geographical information systems Angus Mackintosh

106 Excavation Jane Downes and C R Wickham-Jones

107 Soil and sediment analyses Ian A Simpson 107 Background 107 Field survey 107 Thin-section micromorphology and associated techniques 108 Biomarkers 109 Modelling

9 109 Artefact analysis Andrew Jones and C R Wickham-Jones 109 Backgound 110 Ceramics Ceramics and community identities Ceramic technology and settlement histories 111 Stone tools Flaked stone tools Provenance and exchange Social context 112 Bone tools 112 Haematite and ochre

112 Experimental archaeology C R Wickham-Jones

113 Skeletal studies: human origins, diet and lifestyle C R Wickham-Jones

113 Ecofactual analysis C R Wickham-Jones

114 Palaeoenvironmental studies C R Wickham-Jones

115 Historical and cartographic sources Sarah Jane Grieve 115 Historical sources 117 Cartographic sources 117 Qualitative interviewing and participant observation Siân Jones and Angela McClanahan

118 Museum-based studies Anne Brundle

Part 5: Research strategy 120 Introduction

120 Sustainable research Sally M Foster

121 Research rationale Jane Downes and C R Wickham-Jones

122 Sample research 122 Sample research topics: artefacts, monuments and cultural identity Siân Jones, Colin Richards, Artefacts, Monuments and Cultural Identity Group, and Temporality and Period-Based Research Group 122 Archival assessment and synthesis 122 Architectural life histories 123 The creation of the monuments 123 The life histories of artefacts 123 Review and strategy for detailed physical and chemical studies of artefacts

10 123 Residue analysis 123 Period-speciﬁc research on social identity 123 Typological reviews 124 Experimental archaeology 124 Landscape survey 124 Boundaries 124 Astroarchaeological meanings 124 Visitor surveys 125 Contemporary experience 125 The rôle of archaeology in education in Orkney 125 Local history 125 Literary research 125 Folkloric research 125 Visual representations and the perception of landscape 125 Place-name research

126 Sample research topics: the formation and utilisation of the landscape Ingrid Mainland, Ian A Simpson, Richard Tipping, Palaeoenvironment and Economy Group, and Formation Processes and Dating group 126 Soil formation 126 Modelling of landscape changes over time 126 Monument formation processes 126 Agricultural and social landscape formation processes 126 A comprehensive programme of dating 126 Existing bioarchaeological data 127 Further excavation 127 Modelling climatic change 127 Initial post-glacial colonisation of Orkney 127 Use of plants, especially cultivated plants, in prehistoric Orkney 127 Non-economic values and activities apparent in bioarchaeological evidence

128 Sample projects All Discussion Groups 128 Background 128 Artefacts, monuments and cultural identity Site specific WHS specific Zone specific Orkney specific 130 The formation and utilisation of the landscape Site specific WHS specific Zone specific Orkney specific 131 Cross-theme WHS specific Zone specific Orkney specific

131 Prioritisation of research Julie Gibson

11 133 Communication and dissemination C R Wickham-Jones

134 Logistics and funding C R Wickham-Jones and Jane Downes

136 Management Jane Downes and C R Wickham-Jones

137 Concluding comments

Part 6: Appendices

138 Appendix 1: Select investigations at the monuments in the WHS Nick Card 138 Skara Brae 139 Stones of Stenness 140 Ring of Brodgar 141 Maeshowe

143 Appendix 2: Resources Nick Card

145 Appendix 3: Current student research relating to the archaeology of Orkney Nick Card

146 Appendix 4: Table of archaeological ﬁeldwork undertaken in Orkney 1945-2003 Nick Card

147 Part 7: Extended bibliography Nick Card

12 Foreword

The Orkney World Heritage Site is indeed Barnhouse, we understand very much one of the glories of prehistory, not just of more than we did 30 years ago when I was Scottish or of British prehistory, but of excavating at Quanterness and world prehistory. There can be few places investigating the Ring of Brodgar and more numinous than the walkway between Maeshowe. the Loch of Harray and the Loch of Stenness, with the Stones of Stenness on And as this admirable Agenda so clearly one side, with the Ring of Brodgar in indicates, our understanding of the World prospect, and with the most perfect of Heritage Site is enriched and amplified by Neolithic tombs, Maeshowe, only a few our increased knowledge of the Orkney hundred metres away. It is always a Islands as a whole at that period. The pleasure to celebrate these remarkable discovery and excavation of new monuments and their numerous settlement sites, and their thoughtful counterparts elsewhere in the Orkney integration into a more ambitious notion of Islands. the Neolithic landscape holds the promise of a much more comprehensive and This splendid volume is, however, very coherent view of Neolithic Orkney. There much more than a simple celebration. It is a potential for further research here sets out to use the impetus offered by the which is very well outlined in this report. It status of ‘World Heritage Site’ in a very is admirably open-ended and invites both active way. Of course it considers fully the the intelligent amplification of what we various problems offered by the already know and the acquisition of new management of what we now increasingly knowledge. realise to be a priceless heritage. But it does more than that. It seeks ways of The report has a second great merit. It understanding more fully just what that recognises fully that although it is the great heritage is, and of promoting the wider monuments of the so-called ‘Neolithic’ dissemination of that understanding. period that first attract us to the World Heritage Site, that Site and its landscape, For the archaeologist, Neolithic Orkney is like any land that has been lived and one of the wonders of the ancient world. It worked and loved for 6,000 years, is a is quite exceptional anywhere, and without palimpsest. That is to say it is an overlay: a parallel in Europe, to be able to visit the record of the life and work of more than a well preserved settlement sites, like Skara 100 generations of Orcadians. It carries the Brae and the Knap of Howar, and then traces of the first visitors to Orkney in the wonderful funerary monuments, like Mesolithic period. It has burials and Midhowe or Quoyness or Isbister, and settlements of the still (to us) rather then to go on to view these in a landscape obscure Bronze Age life of Orkney which in which the great central monuments, succeeded the great floruit of the Neolithic including the Ring of Brodgar, become period. With the brochs of the Iron Age increasingly intelligible to us in their and then the Pictish settlements we have a contemporary setting. For the pace of new period of abundant evidence which is discovery is considerable. Today, through soon succeeded by the Norse settlements the revelations of the settlement at and their Scottish successors. There are

13 ample indications of these phases within available in a very systematic way but also the World Heritage Area itself. But again it the theoretical perspectives which may be is to the Orkney Islands as a whole that developed to inform such research, it one has to look to obtain a fully diachronic offers an encouraging exemplar. Themes view, and to discern the full richness of of cultural identity and of social what the great Orcadian poet George construction are developed here in an Mackay Brown described as the tapestry of admirably pragmatic way. For sometimes the past of Orkney. in theoretical archaeology the theory is at a rather abstract level which does not quite This remarkable book is more than simply engage with the practicalities of day-to-day a ‘research agenda’, generously grant-aided archaeological research. Here the theory by Historic Scotland, the Orkney Islands has been brought to bear upon the rich Council and Orkney Heritage Society, with available data for early Orkney with the support from Orkney College UHI. In the promise of generating further relevant ﬁrst place it is an up-to-date review of the data, and hence new conclusions and state not only of the World Heritage Site perhaps even new theory. This is cutting- itself but of archaeology and of the historic edge research. I predict that it will be used heritage in Orkney today. To realise so quite widely, far beyond Orkney, as a comprehensively the vision that the true model of how such issues should be heritage encompasses the whole of Orkney tackled. The archaeology of Orkney is a is already an important contribution. Any research ﬁeld of quite exceptional richness, management plan has to be concerned not by international as well as national only with the physical integrity of the great standards. It is well served by this sites in guardianship but with the refreshing appraisal. remarkable totality of the historic resource Colin Renfrew which Orkney offers. By considering not only the research techniques which are Patron, Orkney Archaeological Trust

14 List of contributors

Orkney WHS Archaeological and Artefacts, monuments and cultural Historical Research Co-ordination identity Committee members Siân Jones Anne Brundle Jane Downes, Orkney College UHI (Chair) Donna Heddle Jude Callister (Assistant to the AHRCC) Tim Ingold Anne Brundle, The Orkney Museum Andrew Jones Steve Callaghan, Orkney Islands Council Angela McClanahan Nick Card, Orkney Archaeological Trust Tom Muir Dave Cowley, RCAHMS Frank Zabriskie Mark Edmonds, University of Shefﬁeld Sally M Foster, Historic Scotland Palaeoenvironment and economy Julie Gibson, Orkney Archaeological Trust Ingrid Mainland Donna Heddle, Orkney College UHI James Barrett Siân Jones, University of Manchester Robert Craigie Ingrid Mainland, University of Bradford Keith Dobney Tom Muir, The Orkney Museum Kevin Edwards Colin Renfrew, University of Cambridge Daphne Lorimer Colin Richards, University of Manchester Richard Tipping Niall Sharples, University of Cardiff Ian Simpson, University of Stirling Temporality and period-based research Colin Richards Symposium discussion group Kenny Brophy members Martin Carruthers (group leader in bold) Jane Downes Sarah Jane Grieve Landscape Colin Renfrew Dave Cowley Niall Sharples Laura Campbell Caroline Wickham-Jones Adrian Challands Mark Edmonds Formation processes and dating John Gater Ian Simpson Raymond Lamb Patrick Ashmore Rod McCullagh David Sanderson Angus Mackintosh Graeme Wilson Ian Oxley Management and interpretation Sally M Foster Dave Batchelor Steve Callaghan Nick Card Amanda Chadburn Steve Dockrill Julie Gibson

15 Contact list

Patrick Ashmore, Historic Scotland [email protected] James Barrett, York University [email protected] Dave Batchelor, English Heritage [email protected] Kenneth Brophy, University of Glasgow [email protected] Anne Brundle, Orkney Museums [email protected] Steve Callaghan, Orkney Islands Council [email protected] Jude Callister, Hoy, Orkney [email protected] Laura Campbell, Scottish Natural Heritage [email protected] Nick Card, Orkney Archaeological Trust [email protected] Martin Carruthers, Manchester University [email protected] Amanda Chadburn, English Heritage [email protected] Adrian Challands, Helspton, Cambs [email protected] Dave Cowley, RCAHMS [email protected] Robert Craigie, University of Sheffield r.craigie@sheffield.ac.uk Keith Dobney, University of Durham [email protected] Steve Dockrill, University of Bradford [email protected] Jane Downes, Orkney College UHI [email protected] Mark Edmonds, University of Sheffield [email protected] Kevin Edwards, University of Aberdeen [email protected] Sally M Foster, Historic Scotland [email protected] John Gater, GSB Prospection [email protected] Julie Gibson, Orkney Archaeological Trust [email protected] Sarah Grieve, Orkney College UHI [email protected] Donna Heddle, Orkney College UHI [email protected] Tim Ingold, Aberdeen University [email protected] Andrew Jones, University of Southampton [email protected] Siân Jones, Manchester University [email protected] Raymond Lamb, North Highland College UHI [email protected] Daphne Lorimer, Orphir, Orkney [email protected] Angus Mackintosh, University of Manchester [email protected] Ingrid Mainland, Bradford University [email protected] Angela McClanahan, University of Manchester [email protected] Rod McCullagh, Historic Scotland [email protected] Tom Muir, Orkney Museums [email protected] Ian Oxley, English Heritage [email protected] Colin Renfrew, University of Cambridge [email protected] Colin Richards, University of Manchester [email protected] David Sanderson, Scottish Universities Research and Reactor Centre [email protected] Niall Sharples, University of Cardiff [email protected] Ian Simpson, University of Stirling [email protected] Richard Tipping, University of Stirling [email protected] Caroline Wickham-Jones, St Ola, Orkney [email protected] Graeme Wilson, EASE [email protected] Frank Zabriskie, Birsay, Orkney [email protected]

16 Acknowledgements

The editors wish to thank the following people for their helpful comments on various drafts of the Research Agenda, and for their interest in the proceedings: Colleen Batey, Ian Baxter, Mary Baxter, Richard Bradley, David Breeze, Barbara Crawford, Merryn Dineley, Bobby Forbes, Jim Hansom, Richard Jones, Fidelity Lancaster, William Lancaster, Anna Mukherjee, Melanie Pomeroy-Kellinger, Anna Ritchie, Graham Ritchie, Alan Saville and Richard Tipping. In addition we would like to thank all those who took part in the Symposium and discussions since then. This volume pulls together the work and ideas of many and we are grateful to everyone who has played a part.

The editors are grateful to Kate Towsey, Liz Gilmore and Jennifer Thoms for the excellent work on the proof-reading and copy-editing. We would also like to thank all those who have helped in the search for suitable illustrations; photos are accredited individually in the captions.

Funding and support for the Symposium was received with thanks from Historic Scotland, Orkney Islands Council and Orkney College.

17 18 Acronyms

AD After Christ AHRCC Archaeological and Historical Research Co- ordination Committee AMS Accelerator mass spectrometry BC Before Christ BP Before present 14C (dating) radiocarbon DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid EM Electromagnetic conductivity EMEC European Marine Energy Centre FOAT Friends of Orkney Archaeological Trust GIS Geographical information systems GPR Ground penetrating radar HLA Historic Landuse Assessment HS Historic Scotland IBZ Inner Buffer Zone ICOMOS International Committee on Monuments and Sites IFA Institute of Field Archaeologists OAT Orkney Archaeological Trust OBZ Outer Buffer Zone OIC Orkney Islands Council OSL (dating) Optical stimulated luminescence PIC Property in Care LCA Landscape Character Assessment NMRS National Monuments Record of Scotland NMS National Museums of Scotland RCAHMS Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland SNH Scottish Natural Heritage SMR Sites and Monuments Record TL Thermoluminescence UK United Kingdom UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientiﬁc and Cultural Organisation WH World Heritage WHA World Heritage Area WHS World Heritage Site WHAGP World Heritage Area Geophysics Programme WWI World War One WWII World War Two ZVI Zones of visual inﬂuence

19 PART

1 Agenda setting

Background Historic Scotland. These sites are: ◆ the chambered tomb of Maeshowe Description and status of The (alternative spelling Maes Howe) Heart of Neolithic Orkney (Fig 2) World Heritage Site ◆ the stone circle and henge at Stones of Jane Downes Stenness (Fig 3) and nearby stone settings known as the Watch Stone (Fig In December 1999 The Heart of Neolithic 4) and the Barnhouse Stone (Fig 5) Orkney was inscribed by the United ◆ the stone circle, henge, adjacent Nations Educational, Scientiﬁc and standing stone and burial mounds at Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) as a the Ring of Brodgar (Fig 6) (alternative World Heritage Site (WHS). This spelling Brogar) inscription followed submission of a ◆ the settlement of Skara Brae (Fig 7). nomination in June 1998 by Historic Scotland (Historic Scotland 1998). The WHS are places or buildings of title Heart of Neolithic Orkney has been outstanding value – cultural and/or natural applied to six discrete sites in West – which deserve protection for the beneﬁt Mainland, Orkney, all of which are in the of humanity. The Heart of Neolithic care of the Scottish Ministers, through Orkney is now one of the four WHS in

2 3

5 6

2. Interior of Maeshowe © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. 3. Stones of Stenness © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. 4. The Watch Stone © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. 5. Barnhouse Stone © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. 6. The Ring of Brodgar © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. 4 7 7. General view of Skara Brae © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. 2000 Scotland and one of just over 700 in the with them demonstrate the domestic, ritual world. As such it ranks alongside some of and burial practices of a now vanished 5000 the most famous heritage sites in the year old culture with exceptional world, including Stonehenge and Avebury, completeness. (Historic Scotland 1998, 5) the Pyramids and the Great Wall of China. It is the first archaeological site in Scotland The Heart of Neolithic Orkney was to be honoured in this way since the other therefore inscribed as a WHS based on the three Scottish sites are St Kilda (inscribed UNESCO criteria that the sites making up for its natural values), New Lanark, and the WHS represent masterpieces of human the Old and New Towns of Edinburgh creative genius, exhibit an important (inscribed for their cultural values). interchange of human values, bear a unique testimony to a culture which has The significance of the Orkney WHS was disappeared and are an outstanding described thus in the Historic Scotland example of monuments which illustrate a Nomination document: significant stage in human history (von i) Maes Howe, Stenness, Brogar and Skara Droste et al 1995, Annex II). The Brae proclaim the triumphs of the human component sites also meet the test of spirit away from the traditionally recognised authenticity and integrity demanded by early centres of civilisation, during the half UNESCO, for, although all the millennium which saw the first mastabas of monuments have undergone maintenance the archaic period of Egypt, the brick temples to differing degrees since the latter half of of Sumeria, and the first cities of the Harappa the 19th century, this work is recognisable culture in India. and reversible (Historic Scotland 1998, 9). There are illustrated descriptions of the ii) Maes Howe is a masterpiece of Neolithic sites within the Nomination document peoples. It is an exceptionally early (ibid). architectural accomplishment. With its almost classical strength and simplicity it is a unique The context and purpose of the survival from 5000 years ago. It is an Research Agenda expression of genius within a group of people Jane Downes whose other tombs were claustrophobic chambers in smaller mounds. Stenness is a ICOMOS guidelines for the management unique and early expression of the major of WHS recommend that a research co- ritual customs of the people who buried their ordination committee be set up. The dead in tombs like Maes Howe and lived in suggested role of this committee is to settlements like Skara Brae. They bear devise research programmes and promote witness, with an extraordinary degree of and co-ordinate research in the area richness, to a vanished culture which gave rise (Feilden and Jokilehto 1993). The need for to the World Heritage sites at Avebury and research agendas in archaeology in general Stonehenge in England. The Ring of Brogar is seen to have become more pressing is the finest known truly circular late during the 1990s, since the publication of Neolithic or early Bronze Age stone ring and planning and policy guidelines (in Scotland a later expression of the spirit which gave rise National Planning and Policy Guideline 5: to Maes Howe, Stenness and Skara Brae. Archaeology and Planning (Scottish Office 1994a) and Planning Advice Note 42: iii) Skara Brae has particularly rich Archaeology - the Planning Process and surviving remains. It displays remarkable Scheduled Monument Procedures (Scottish preservation of stone-built furniture and a Office 1994b)). These made developers fine range of ritual and domestic artefacts. Its responsible for the funding of remarkable preservation allows a level of archaeological work ahead of development. interpretation which is unmatched on other Research agendas are important in this excavated settlement sites of this period in respect both to inform curatorial decisions Europe. Together, Skara Brae, Stenness and and to give relevance and context to Maes Howe and the monuments associated archaeological work undertaken.

21 In 1996 Adrian Olivier produced much larger, comprising some 2000 ha. Frameworks for Our Past, a survey of Avebury and Stonehenge each have their English Heritage research frameworks and own management plans (English Heritage an exploration of the definition, purpose 1998; 2000). A research agenda has been and future of research frameworks. This published for Avebury by the Avebury document was part of an English Heritage Archaeological and Historical Research initiative concerning the facilitation of Group, publication funded by English regional research frameworks. It included a Heritage (AAHRG 2001). English reconsideration of strategy in the light of Heritage has commissioned Bournemouth what had been achieved since the University Department of Conservation production of their national research Sciences to develop a research framework strategy: Exploring our Past; Strategies for for Stonehenge the Archaeology of England (English (http://apollo5.bournemouth.ac.uk/consci/ Heritage 1991). This has been followed up stonehenge/, visited Dec 2003). by the production of a research agenda for the Archaeology Division of English Olivier defines a research framework as a Heritage, now published, together with an piece of work which incorporates a implementation plan, as Exploring our Past resource assessment - defined as ‘a (English Heritage 2003). In 1997 Historic statement of the current state of knowledge Scotland published State-funded ‘Rescue’ and a description of the archaeological Archaeology in Scotland. As a contribution resource’, an agenda - defined as ‘a list of to discussions on future directions of the gaps in that knowledge, of work which Scottish archaeology this attempted to could be done, and of the potential for the identify, on a period by period basis, gaps resource to answer questions’ and a in knowledge. There have been moves strategy - defined as ‘a statement setting towards developing a research agenda for out priorities and methods’ (Olivier 1996, Wales, the first stage of which was a 5). conference held in September 2001 (Geary 2001). In England, some regional The overall aims of the Orkney WHS research frameworks have recently been Research Agenda are to lead to an developed or are in the process of being improved understanding of the WHS and developed - for example for East Anglia, its setting by: East Anglia Research and Archaeology: A ◆ defining the scope of research around Framework for the Eastern Counties (Brown the WHS; and Glazebrook (eds) 2000) and for the ◆ outlining the potential of the area to East Midlands, The East Midlands answer research questions; Archaeological Research Framework Project ◆ identifying gaps in knowledge; (http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/east midlands ◆ encouraging inter-disciplinary research research framework.htm, visited Dec into a broad spectrum of topics within 2003). Research agendas may also be used the WHS and its wider context; to look at specific themes in more detail. In ◆ encouraging research which will 1999 the Prehistoric Society published a contribute to enhanced management, research framework for the Palaeolithic preservation, conservation and and Mesolithic of Britain (Prehistoric interpretation; Society 1999) and a research agenda ◆ encouraging research with wider covering the Iron Age across Britain has methodological and/or theoretical been published (Haselgrove et al 2001). applications.

Stonehenge and Avebury were inscribed in In seeking to address these aims it was 1986 as a single UNESCO WHS known decided to adopt a different structure to as the Stonehenge, Avebury and the majority of the research documents Associated Sites WHS. This is perhaps the mentioned above. In particular, the period- most comparable WHS to the Orkney by-period approach to the deﬁnition of the example, except that the designated area is research themes has been eschewed in

22 favour of a more thematic approach. This the symposium, as did a number of other avoids the problems of repetition common delegates from government agencies, to many who seek to provide a multi- universities and independent specialists period view, it makes for a clearer (see list of contributors). The symposium discussion of the main issues of was seen as key to facilitating the archaeological research and takes account identification of the research issues. of the main trends of archaeological Discussion and workshops were structured thought and research today. The structure around a number of pre-set research of the document is set out in more detail strands into which participants were placed below (p 24). according to their area of expertise. These strands were: Landscape; Artefacts, Formulating the Agenda - the Monuments and Cultural Identity; Archaeological and Historical Temporality and Period-based Study; Research Co-ordination Formation Processes and Dating; Committee Palaeoenvironment and Economy; and Jane Downes Management and Interpretation. A member of the AHRCC led each discussion group In 2001 an Archaeological and Historical and wrote up the outcome of the Research Co-ordination Committee discussions in consultation with the (AHRCC) for the Orkney WHS was members of the discussion group. The established by Jane Downes of Orkney emerging document was circulated for College, UHI Millennium Institute comment among the Committee, to those (UHIMI) with encouragement and who attended the symposium and others funding from Historic Scotland and from who had expressed interest in the Orkney Islands Council. The Committee’s formulation of the Agenda. membership is drawn from Orkney College, Orkney Archaeological Trust, Jane Downes (Chair AHRRC), Caroline Orkney Heritage (incorporating the Wickham-Jones and Sally Foster edited the museum service), Orkney Islands Council, texts, while Jude Callister (Assistant to Historic Scotland, the Royal Commission Chair) circulated further drafts and co- on the Ancient and Historical Monuments ordinated responses. Further texts were of Scotland (RCAHMS) and the solicited from various authors for the Universities of Sheffield, Manchester, resource assessment, appendices of the Bradford, Cambridge, Cardiff and Stirling. Research Agenda and the techniques section of the strategy. The aims of the AHRCC are to promote, stimulate and co-ordinate research into all The process of producing this Research periods and relevant aspects of the World Agenda has already served to stimulate Heritage Area (WHA - see definition research in the WHS (eg the PhD below). Rather than the AHRCC devising studentship of Angie McClanahan on research programmes (Feilden and contemporary perceptions of the Jokilehto 1993), its job has been to work archaeology, Manchester University, with a wider group to draw up this funded by Historic Scotland, see below Research Agenda, which takes full Part 5; the PhD studentship on soil cognisance of national and international analysis at Stirling University funded curatorial and research considerations and jointly by Stirling University and Historic will help ensure that methods of research Scotland, see Part 3; and large scale are sustainable and compatible with the geophysical survey in the Brodgar and protection of WHS values. Stones of Stenness area by GSB Prospection for OAT, funded by Historic The principal mechanism for the Scotland and Orkney Islands Council, Part formulation of the Research Agenda was a 5). The work of the Committee will symposium which was held in April 2001. continue, both in the implementation of The majority of the Committee attended the strategy and in the periodic reviews of

23 this document so that the Agenda and monuments and interpretations were strategy retain relevance and currency. In shaped by the interest of individuals and this way, information gained from research by various strategies in excavation and will be relayed back into future research presentation. This is followed by a and management strategies as well as summary account of the current state of presented to the public at every knowledge which is structured opportunity through a variety of media as chronologically following the basis for appropriate. most previous research. In this way the gaps in knowledge of the WHS can be highlighted. There are admittedly tensions Structure of The Heart of between the static nature of the ‘time Neolithic Orkney Research slices’ outlined in the resource assessment Agenda and the more dynamic nature of the Jane Downes and C R Wickham-Jones research themes discussed in Part 3, but it is not difficult to move between the two The Research Agenda presents and approaches and this reflects the current considers the WHS in its broader trends of archaeological thought. archaeological, historical and cultural context. It includes the research strategy Each of the two general research themes is which presents ways by which research sub-divided into more specific fields from aims might be achieved. Together these which sample research topics have been two provide a research framework, which identified. These topics are by no means is not intended to determine a programme exhaustive. Specific research projects, of action, but rather to highlight issues and extracted from the research themes, and problems that could usefully be addressed. with an indication of how these might be prioritised, have been incorporated in the In the process of pulling together the strategy. research strands, significant overlaps became apparent with the result that the An extended bibliography has been strands were merged into just two broad included in the document. This comprises themes: a substantial amount of sources in addition ◆ Artefacts, Monuments and Cultural to those referred to in the text. Appendix 1 Identity lists, by individual site, select investigations ◆ The Formation and Utilisation of the undertaken within the WHS. In Appendix Landscape 2 the nature and location of These themes are discussed in detail below sources/materials pertaining to Orkney’s (Part 3). archaeology and history are described (eg museums, databases etc). Appendix 3 Although this might, at first glance, appear comprises a list of current postgraduate to be minimalist, this approach has led to student research relating to the the identification of central research issues archaeology of Orkney. Between the which cross both temporal and spatial resource assessment, the extended boundaries, so that a flexible and non- bibliography and the appendices, the prescriptive agenda can be produced. A Research Agenda will serve as an audit and period-by-period approach was felt to have a resource in itself for would-be the potential of being repetitive and researchers. Appendix 4 provides an confusing for discussion of research that exhaustive list of archaeological fieldwork aimed to cover the broad scope we (survey, geophysical survey, excavation) intended. Period-based information has, undertaken in Orkney since 1945, with however, a valid place in the resource bibliographic references where a site is assessment (Part 2). The resource published, location of finds, etc. assessment describes the history of research in the Orkney WHS, which is instructive in explaining how the

24 Management of the WHS Boundaries of the Site and its buffer zones It is the responsibility of the government to Jane Downes and Sally M Foster nominate WHS. Historic Scotland carries out this work in Scotland on behalf of the Any consideration of a research agenda Scottish Ministers. Historic Scotland is has to take into account the boundaries of also responsible for the preservation, the Site and their relevance to this. The conservation, management and extent of the WHS is defined by the interpretation of sites in State care, which boundaries of the component monuments in this case includes all components of the that are in State care (Figs 9, 10 and 11). Orkney WHS. WHS status brings no All of these areas are protected as additional controls and no additional scheduled ancient monuments under the funds. It is, however, an accolade for the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological whole community and the country as a Areas Act 1979; however the boundary of whole, and it is hoped that it will reinforce the scheduled area may be larger than the the international significance of Orkney’s property in (State) care (PIC). archaeology. In doing so, the WHS status Additionally, buffer zones were defined will undoubtedly also help to promote around the monuments. The buffer zones tourism. About 70% of tourists to Orkney were necessary for three reasons: choose to visit its archaeological monuments (Fig 8). Since tourism is the ◆ Although the WHS comprises discrete biggest source of income into Orkney, the sites, these are an integral part of a local economy should benefit considerably wider archaeological landscape of from the enhanced prestige brought by related sites (including non-WHS World Heritage nomination, although care sites), both visible and invisible. has to be taken to ensure that the Site does ◆ The wider landscape is privately not suffer as a result of increased visitor farmed and inhabited under disparate pressure. ownerships. The visual impacts of rural

8. The World Heritage Site attracts large numbers of tourists each year, as here at Skara Brae © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland.

25 9. Map of Orkney showing the location NORTH RONALDSAY of the World PAPA WESTRAY Heritage Site property maps (Figs 10 and 11) and extent of the WESTRAY National Scenic Area (NSA) © Crown Copyright SANDAY reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland.

ROUSAY

EDAY

STRONSAY

GAIRSAY

Bay of Skaill Skara A SHAPINSAY Brae I

N Kirkwall L Stromness A N D

HOY BURRAY FLOTTA

SOUTH RONALDSAY

STROMA PROPERTY MAPS

John O' Groats NSA BOUNDARY

Scrabster 0 5 km Thurso CAITHNESS 0 5 mls Scale:- 4cm to 10 km SCOTLAND

development, together with the has its own tier of two buffer zones: environmental and visual impacts of ◆ an Inner Buffer Zone (IBZ) drawn tourism, could impact adversely on fairly tightly around the principal sites World Heritage values and thus need themselves; some form of management or control. ◆ a larger, more general Outer Buffer ◆ The Orkney landscape is open and Zone (OBZ). treeless with wide vistas and views to and from the monuments. The intention of this layered approach was Inappropriately or badly sited to protect both the immediate settings of development within the broad area the sites and areas of high archaeological could erode the World Heritage values value, as well as their wider landscape of the sites, particularly cumulatively setting. Following advice from ICOMOS- and over time. UK, the boundaries of existing statutory designations were used to deﬁne the The WHS comprises two, geographically boundaries of these two levels of buffer separate areas (Fig 9). Each of these areas zone. Built heritage, nature conservation

26 10. Map showing location of the Ring of Brodgar, Maeshowe, Stones of Stenness, Watch Stone and Barnhouse Stone components of the World Heritage Site, as well as sites in the vicinity (for wider context 11. Map showing location of Skara Brae component of the World see Fig 9) Heritage Site (for wider context see Fig 9) © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland.

27 West Mainland

Skara Loch of Brae Harray

Loch of Stenness Ring of Brodgar Stones of Maeshowe Stenness

West Mainland

Mountain ridge of Hoy forming detached boundary of wider setting

12. Map deﬁning on visual grounds the wider and intermediate settings of the World Heritage Site (redrawn from Tyldesley 2001 © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland.

and landscape designations already cover rather than clarity to the process of all or parts of the area containing the protecting the World Heritage values of components of the Site. The buffer zones the Site. These statutory designations therefore contain many other scheduled would perform their required functions and unscheduled archaeological sites, as whether or not they formed part of the well as areas of ground that are protected buffer zones. ICOMOS guidelines issued for cultural and natural purposes (on a in 2000 now suggest alternative ways of scale of local to international significance). defining buffer zones that are better tailored to meet the needs of the Site, and In practice, the use of such designations to in due course Historic Scotland will define buffer zones has not been found to consider whether more appropriate offer a useful framework that works to boundaries for the Site and its buffer zones provide a uniform, coherent approach to might be desirable and practical (Foster the management and development control and Linge 2002). This could take into issues which centre on the needs of the account the visual setting of the site as well Site. The complexity of the various as the management of archaeological statutory aims and requirements, monuments and landscapes (see below). In consultation mechanisms and agencies of the meantime, Historic Scotland and control has been found to bring confusion others effectively treat the landward part of

28 Three types of setting were identified for the WHS: ◆ Immediate - where very small changes could markedly affect the intimate experience, ambience and enjoyment of the Site. This should be regarded as a flexible and changing area; ◆ Intermediate - where visible changes about the same size as a human figure (or larger) could affect the character, and people's perception and enjoyment, of the Site; ◆ Wider - where large scale built developments in the wider setting and/or approaches could affect people's image, perception and enjoyment of the Site.

Given the distance between Skara Brae 13. The landscape the IBZ as the Site, in the Brodgar area at and the rest of the WHS, two sets of surrounding Skara least, in the sense that this is the focus of intermediate settings were required. Since Brae (on far side of the bay, on the attention. Skara Brae lies in the relatively visually coastline below the confined Bay of Skaill and the rest of the farm) © Crown Copyright Setting of the WHS Site is in a more open landscape, different reproduced courtesy of Jane Downes and Sally M Foster methodological approaches proved Historic Scotland. necessary. At Skara Brae the intermediate In 2000 Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) setting was relatively easily defined, given and Historic Scotland became partners in a the topography of the surrounding low landscape capacity project that focussed hills, and there was naturally a close on the setting of the WHS. Building on correlation with landscape character units Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) (Fig 13). and Historic Landuse Assessment (HLA), the aim of the project was to provide In the case of the Ring of Brodgar/Stones guidance on if, how and where new of Stenness/Maeshowe, a single development could best be accommodated intermediate setting was created by in the area (Tyldesley 2001). The study amalgamating individual ZVIs. These assessed both landscape and visual aspects. boundaries were then adapted by In doing so it also explored how the two continuing outwards until strong physical processes of LCA (undertaken by SNH: boundaries were encountered, wherever Land Use Consultants 1998) and the HLA possible one that represented a boundary (undertaken by Historic Scotland and the between LCA or HLA types. RCAHMS: Dyson Bruce et al 1999) might be integrated. One significant outcome of The wider setting of the WHS was defined the project, of particular relevance here, by a combination of visual envelope and was the definition of a hierarchical tier of ZVI. These closely relate to the LCA settings for the WHS which has a character types because all rely on predominantly visual relevance (Fig 12). landform to define their extent. Skara Brae These settings were largely created on the was fitted into a single wider setting for the basis of visual envelopes (everything that WHS for, over the low ridges which form can be seen from specific view points, key the intermediate setting, there are views to monuments in this instance) and Zones of more distant hills. The natural basins of Visual Influence (ZVI), areas which are the Lochs of Harray and Stenness visually sensitive to different scales of topographically contain all elements of the change. WHS. The edges of the wider setting are

29 14. Overview of the therefore the lines of ridges along the The Management Plan natural basin containing the Lochs moorland hills that define the outer rim of Jane Downes of Stenness (left) the basin, a significant part of West and Harray (right), Mainland (Fig 14). However, there is one Historic Scotland produced a Management and the narrow isthmus of land significant addition – the mountain skyline Plan as an initial step towards the between the two on of north Hoy - an area which is conservation of the Orkney WHS, as which the Ring of Brodgar and Stones exceptionally sensitive in terms of the required by UNESCO (Historic Scotland of Stenness are winter solstice and Maeshowe (Fig 15). 2001). This was prepared in liaison and sited. In order to The wider setting therefore includes this consultation with a local Steering Group understand the World Heritage Site mountain skyline but omits intervening and Consultation Group. The Steering we have to look at land between it and the loch basin, as Group comprises Historic Scotland, its wider landscape context changes here would not affect the WHS. Orkney Islands Council, Orkney © Crown Copyright Archaeological Trust and Scottish Natural reproduced courtesy of It was concluded that the amalgamation of Heritage. The Consultation Group is made Historic Scotland. visual envelopes, ZVIs, HLA and LCA up of other parties interested in the area, techniques produced integrated, rational including the Orkney Tourist Board, and meaningful boundaries for the settings RSPB, land owners, coach tour operators of the WHS. and others with a specific interest in the area. Project Groups have been established to take forward specific issues. 15. The hills of Hoy provide a dramatic background to the World Heritage Site, as here at Maeshowe © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. The Management Plan is intended to provide a framework for an integrated and consensual approach to the issues involved in the management of the WHS. The overall aims of the Plan are: ◆ To safeguard the important cultural (and natural) heritage elements of the Site by identifying conservation and enhancement works and projects with a sustainable and beneficial approach. ◆ To inform people about the cultural and educational value of the Site. ◆ To increase their enjoyment of the Site. ◆ To identify how the economic and cultural benefits of Inscription can be used to the advantage of the Orkney community and businesses. (Historic Scotland 2001)

30 Encouraging the formation of a research 16: ensure that the policies for development on committee is one of the cited objectives in the Site and adjacent to it should lead to the Management Plan and many of the benefits for the economy of local people and of specific aims of the Management Plan are Orkney as a whole. relevant to the work of the AHRCC. The relevant aims are: 17: help develop sustainable tourism by encouraging dispersal of visitors to more of the 3: increase people’s recognition, understanding various visitor attractions in Orkney, and by and enjoyment of the Site and their evening out the concentrations of numbers at understanding and enjoyment of Orkney and particular times and locations. the rest of Scotland’s past. 18: ensure that policies relating to visitors to 4: ensure that management of the Site is the Site emphasise quality tourism and guided and informed by appropriate encourage longer stays and higher spending in knowledge of development of the Site and its Orkney. surroundings through time. 19: ensure that there are good facilities for 9: policies be directed towards positive people with disabilities by including provision measures for the enhancement of the Site and for their needs in all schemes for enhancement its Buffer Zones so that they benefit in at the Site (ibid). character, appearance and setting, while continuing to support the economy of Orkney Management issues and threats and the social well- being of those living there. Sally M Foster and Interpretation and Management Group 10: encourage appropriate and sympathetic land uses in the Buffer Zones in order to Management of the WHS has many protect monuments from degradation and different facets of which the main ones can from potentially damaging works that do not be broadly summarised as: require planning permission, and to protect ◆ protecting the resource and and enhance their setting. maintaining it in its optimum condition; 11: policies should recognise that cultural ◆ effectively and sympathetically heritage is more than the visible upstanding presenting and interpreting the Site; structures in the Site and Buffer Zones. ◆ facilitating visitor access in the most appropriate and safe manner; 12: establish an accurate picture of the ◆ research to increase understanding of condition and vulnerability of all monuments the resource and its management. in the Site and Inner Buffer Zones. The first of these can equally be applied to 13: all activities on the Site and all activities those monuments in the wider landscape, affecting the natural heritage in the vicinity of beyond the formal boundaries of the Site, the Site should be based on principles of which are in private ownership and for environmental sustainability. which, unlike the Site, no formal public access exists. Here the land is used almost 14: every effort should be made to integrate exclusively for agricultural purposes and enhance the interests of the cultural and (although the possibility of underwater natural heritage, balancing the respective archaeology in the lochs and sea cannot be needs of each other. excluded). The question of how research fits into management strategies is discussed 15: policies for development on the Site and in the next section. adjacent to it should reflect the international importance and the sensitivity of the Site and Protect and maintain its setting. Put simply, protecting the Orkney WHS and maintaining it in its optimum

31 17. Coastal erosion at the Bay of Skaill continues to uncover archaeological sites © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. sheep (at the Stones of Stenness and Maeshowe). Active efforts are made to deter rabbits at each part of the Site and the situation is closely monitored because of the damage they could so easily cause. At Skara Brae coastal erosion remains the most acute threat, not least to the scheduled archaeology that survives on either side of the sea walls that protect the condition means avoiding ground stone structures (Fig 17). Environmental 16. The popular Ring of Brodgar disturbance or disturbance of the fabric of conditions within House 7 at Skara Brae requires grounds the monuments and attempting to also need reviewing. At Maeshowe a maintenance and visitor management postpone natural decay processes. pressing question is whether present levels to address the Disturbance can be caused by humans, of moisture within the tomb are having an erosion that arises animals – cattle, sheep and rabbits – or the adverse impact on its interior, most due to the number of people who roots of inappropriate vegetation. Natural notably the Neolithic and late Norse visit it decay processes include decay of stone – a carvings. If so, what is the source of this © Crown Copyright particular concern if these are carved - and moisture and how can the problem be reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. coastal erosion. Any human interventions dealt with? into the ground or fabric of the Site and protected monuments in the wider Yet preservation of a monument’s physical landscape require prior consent from the integrity and unrealised archaeological Scottish Ministers (scheduled monument potential is still only one part of the consent) and can be controlled in this equation. Of inestimable signiﬁcance is the manner. setting of monuments. Protecting this entails far more than ensuring that More difﬁcult to prevent is the irreversible sightlines between (known) monuments ground erosion caused by the large are kept open, but involves preserving the number of visitors (Fig 16), a problem characteristics of the present landscape exacerbated when conditions are wet. This that create, nurture and reinforce our is a serious problem at the Ring of Brodgar appreciation of the monuments. Insensitive despite Historic Scotland’s repeated and modern intrusions can all too quickly regular efforts to manage visitor detract from this. Here David Tyldesley’s movements in a variety of different ways. exploration of landscape capacity in the Unlike the surrounding area where erosion context of the setting of The Heart of by animals and ploughing is causing Neolithic Orkney (Tyldesley 2001), not attrition of both the visible and sub-surface least its relationship to the techniques of archaeology, the only agricultural use of LCA and HLA, is particularly germane any part of the Site is limited grazing by (see above). 32 we can see how important it is that this understanding is commensurate with the standards of the 21st century and invigorated by research, as appropriate.

Access Alongside the ever-present threat of coastal erosion, facilitating visitor access in the most appropriate and safe manner is probably the most difficult of the immediate issues to be addressed at the WHS. Current issues include improving car and coach parking arrangements, 18. Information Much of the immediate and intermediate improving road safety for drivers and panels help visitors setting of the WHS is an archaeological pedestrians, and enabling better access and to understand the sites. Historic landscape of high value in its own right. In interpretation through the landscape for Scotland’s plans for the present context it is significant that pedestrians and cyclists. Resolution the World Heritage Site include Historic Scotland and others effectively involves the wider landscape, including relocation of such treat the IBZ at the Brodgar area as the archaeological interests around and panels in order to Site in the sense that this is the focus of between the different components of the minimise their impact on site attention. The WHS is best managed in a WHS (Historic Scotland 2001; Parkin et al setting holistic sense that embraces the wider 2002; Historic Scotland 2002). Aside from © Sally Foster. cultural and natural landscape, an the sub-surface archaeology which might approach that is more in accord with the be destroyed or compromised in the Orcadian perception of what is significant course of such works, the main (Foster and Linge 2002). Notably, most consideration is if, and if so how, this can efforts to improve visitor access and be achieved in a visually sensitive manner interpretation will impact on land beyond while still addressing the needs and the boundary of the Site proper. Historic demands of all interests, notably the coach Scotland’s responsibilities do not stop at operators, landowners, residents, visitors the boundaries of the WHS. It has a and archaeologists. responsibility to ensure that scheduled ancient monuments in private ownership Management and research are protected and seeks to encourage and, Sally M Foster and Management and where possible, facilitate their improved Interpretation Group management. The strategies of good managers will be Present and interpret informed by all available knowledge and Interpretation is an integral part of good understanding of the archaeology in heritage management (Fig 18; Australia question. Of particular importance is the ICOMOS 1999, Articles 1.17 and 25). ability to assess the various types and levels Knowledge and understanding of the of significance which accrue to the resource is a prerequisite of intelligent and resource in question and this is likely to effective presentation/interpretation and require research (Historic Scotland 2000, requires a practical approach that is Articles 5.1-2; Australia ICOMOS 1997, sensitive to both the setting of a place and Articles 26.1-2). All analyses inevitably proportionate to the needs of the site and lead to the recognition that we have its visitors. Too often the site managers or significant gaps in our knowledge and it is other well-intentioned parties could pose a important that these omissions are threat to a monument. In accordance with identified and acknowledged. By their very Historic Scotland’s mission statement and nature, these academic lacunae are not objectives for the nation’s heritage as a solely ‘archaeological’ or ‘academic’ in the whole (‘safeguarding the nation’s built traditional sense that more knowledge is heritage and promoting its understanding’) always desirable. They relate also to the

33 management of the monuments and our archaeologist, discusses the threat to understanding of the interplay of past and knowledge that preservation can pose present perceptions of the landscape. Such (Lipe 2001). While his topic was understanding has to take on board the archaeology on state-managed land in general theory and practice of heritage America, his arguments have wider management and how and if this applies to resonance. In summary, while excavation the specifics of the resource in question. is destructive, judicious excavation is For instance: essential to realise a site’s potential ◆ What is the relationship between what information and hence to increase its value now survives/is visible and what was to the public. Excavation will always be the once here? main archaeological research tool. ◆ What factors have influenced this and Through research we can make our ability to recover such information? connections between ‘them and us’, the ◆ What is the present condition and people of the past and present, between vulnerability of monuments? the practice of archaeology and the wider ◆ How does the modern visitor engage public. The more we know about a site, with what is here now and with what the greater its perceived value. Research, was happening here in the past? by feeding interpretation, keeps the reason ◆ If we understand the behaviour of for stewardship alive and provides the different categories of visitors at, and intellectual context for interpretation. In towards, the monuments, can we effect, not to allow the destructive process protect the monuments better? of excavation is to cut off archaeology’s ◆ How can we discover and understand lifeline, to fail to fulfil archaeology’s social what visitors do, and do not perceive? rôle. We cannot always postpone the Can this knowledge be used to inform future waiting for better techniques (how interpretation strategies (cf Ucko 2000, else do we develop them?) and to only 72)? ever excavate threatened sites trivialises archaeology’s contribution to society. If the We can conclude that good site research stagnates, so does our management requires ongoing, focussed understanding of ourselves. Lipe argues research. The nub of the matter is how that implementation of this is a two way much destruction of the resource is process: the managing authority needs to acceptable to achieve this? Put another put a higher value on knowledge; and way: how much of the Site is a critical researchers need to fit their interests within asset that should be conserved at all costs; the constraints of what responsible how much is a constant asset that might be management entails. subject to change providing that the overall character of the resource, notably its While Historic Scotland has never made a appearance, is maintained; and how much policy statement about research strategies is tradable, might be destroyed in return at its PIC, it has indicated how it sees its for other benefits? What is the Archaeology Programme funds being ‘environmental threshold’ beyond which deployed (Barclay (ed) 1997, 27; presently such an activity becomes unsustainable? being reviewed by Patrick Ashmore, (See English Heritage 1997, 3, 7-8 for responsible for Archaeology Programme). helpful definitions of historic As such, it has to be recognised that environmental capital.) Can we define and funding excavations for research purposes, achieve a form of research that is whatever their scale, whether on PIC or necessary, satisfying and sustainable? Part not, is for the moment an exceptional 5 (pp 120-21) suggests some parameters. activity. However, Historic Scotland has But before reaching that point we must since at least 1930 carried out research on explore further where the tensions reside. its properties where improved understanding of the monument is In a highly stimulating and eminently essential and where there can be positive quotable interview Bill Lipe, an American benefits for the visiting public (see for

34 instance Barclay 1990). In recent years Defining the spatial and these have been treated as a widely- temporal research context advertised spectacle and have included a of the WHS high educational component. The title of the WHS - The Heart of What does this mean for the Orkney Neolithic Orkney - is very much site and WHS? There are a range of scenarios in period specific and a concern of the which intervention may be considered Research Agenda (or of those producing appropriate: the Research Agenda) is to set any ◆ For its own sake, to understand better research into a meaningful and coherent the history of a monument, its framework. This involves exploration of relationship to the surrounding the temporal and spatial boundaries of the environment and other sites. individual components of the WHS and an ◆ For its own sake, to understand better identification of the intellectual frameworks the conservation needs of a monument. that could be employed. ◆ As a consequence of conservation needs. What if, for instance, the Researching the landscape modern roof of Maeshowe needed to Dave Cowley, Jane Downes, Mark Edmonds be replaced? and Landscape Group ◆ As a consequence of ‘development’, unavoidable intervention necessitated In legal terms the WHS is made of discrete by the requirement to provide facilities monuments, but we appreciate that there for the public and/or address health and are problems with defining their extent safety issues (revised access, car parks, and, as archaeologists, are uncomfortable walkways, etc). with how this cuts them off from the other elements of the wider landscape. It is essential to maximise the potential Landscape was a research theme that was each opportunity presents for research discussed in the Symposium in its own across the inter-disciplinary spectrum of right and which was found to be a unifying archaeology-heritage management and theme for all discussion, hence its beyond. In addition, opportunities to consideration in more detail in Part 3. involve the public are required. This has However, tensions were apparent in been rather neatly expressed by Tore definitions and interpretations of the Artelius of Göteborg University, Sweden concept of landscape and consequently in (pers comm) as the ‘four kronor principle’ its use as a theoretical framework or a (for which read four pounds). In other research method. There are many words, using each unit of currency spent perceptions of what constitutes landscape, to explicitly benefit science, education, including physical landforms, the cultural resource and the public. interaction of natural processes and human influences, artistic depictions, mosaics of It should also be remembered that Historic landuse or vegetation, patterns of social Scotland as the state archaeological body interaction and personal and group has a vested interest in the research and experience (Fig 19). Although it was felt development of improved tools for all that a fairly general view of landscape aspects of site management, whether it be would provide a framework which could techniques of excavation or tools for articulate other strands of research, the conservation or interpretation. Model case varying uses of the term and applications studies can be a successful way of achieving are explored here. such ends. The stated commitment of the government of looking into the possibility of Firstly, there is a need to define the providing training opportunities at UK geographical scope of research centred on WHS for those involved in conservation the WHS, given that there was a consensus work overseas should also be noted (DCMS that the scope needed to extend well 2002, Article 4.41). beyond the designated areas in order to

35 examined in order to build up a detailed landscape history and characterisation. In these cases a greater resource input is realistic. ◆ Individual components of the WHS (Figs 10-11) - It is appropriate to their designation that these small areas be studied in the greatest detail within the limits of what can be defined as sustainable research (see above). Much basic recording and research remains to be done, for example to establish 19. The Stones of place the WHS in context. This would detailed topographic and geophysical Stenness and the allow, for example, consideration of local surveys of all the sites. Ring of Brodgar have always offered variation in settlement or landuse patterns different experiences in both space and time and inclusion of the Secondly, methods need to be established to their visitors maritime and marine margins. WHS status for the identification of the archaeological or Add.15511 f3 Frederick Herm 1772, by permission obviously acknowledges the international historic landscape by measuring or mapping. of the British Library. importance of the monuments and places Throughout the process of developing the research firmly in the international context. Research Agenda, the need to understand Furthermore, the location of Orkney on a the development of the Orcadian landscape broad Atlantic European canvas is clearly was identified as a priority. Our current fundamental to many avenues of research. understanding of the contemporary However, the archaeological and historic landscape is a key to this, as the patterns of landscape is perhaps best studied at a earlier landscapes are articulated through more local level. A nested approach with the present. Unfortunately, the nature of the varying scales and inputs can therefore be archaeological resource hinders deeper suggested. understanding of landscape development. Most records focus on unitary monuments Suggested geographical frameworks are and are essentially a product of 19th- and listed below, in order of increasing earlier 20th-century patterns of fieldwork - resolution of study: there is a clear need for systematic and ◆ Orkney in the World (Fig 1) - The extensive survey to redress this imbalance. size and shape of Orkney’s place in the world changes through time and The development and character of the circumstance - it is therefore not Orcadian archaeological or historic possible to describe a single boundary landscape is poorly understood, though to Orkney’s world context. there is now a body of data relating to the ◆ Orkney (Fig 9) - Orkney contains a contemporary landscape (Land Use diversity of landscape types and Consultants 1998; Dyson Bruce et al 1999). monuments appropriate to general Evaluation and exploration is necessary to research issues such as survival and enhance the treatment of archaeological and recovery patterns, landscape historic landscapes. The establishment of a development and monument baseline of consistent data is seen as a distribution. Research centred on the priority for the WHS and buffer zones and, WHS can be set in an Orcadian context wherever possible, data should be assembled and can add to knowledge of sites in a systematic fashion that is GIS outside the WHS; conversely, research compatible to allow the ready integration into areas outside of the WHS can help with other data. The production of maps as our understanding of the WHS. part of this process can be very eloquent in ◆ Zones of Visual Impact (see above) illustrating how the landscape has (Fig 12) - In these smaller areas issues developed, for example in illustrating sea- such as local variation within the region level fluctuation or landuse change. (eg of settlements, artefacts) can be

36 20. This 1862 illustration by Farrer (1862, Pl I) shows monuments now forming part of the World Heritage Site in their setting. The view has changed little today © Crown Copyright: RCAHMS.

Thirdly, landscape is not merely a passive beyond the monuments, but in a receptor and reflector of human activities, consideration of movement, of experience a series of sites and traces which can be and of occupying and inhabiting the measured and mapped; it is constructed landscape, the dimension of time is socially and historically through practice. incorporated. Landscape is also experiential; from it we extract our sustenance, within it we Period-based research and experience the seasons and the passage of temporality time. There we find our families, friends, Colin Richards and Temporality and Period- rulers and vassals; within it our ancestors based Research Group are buried, and we gaze upon it. It is so large that changes in its character extend The designation of particular sites as ‘The beyond our vision and occur either so fast Heart of Neolithic Orkney’ instantly or so slowly they seem unimaginable. introduces questions of how we conceive the past as periods of discrete blocks of As Christopher Tilley put it, ‘The time and how we choose to value or landscape is redolent with past actions, it privilege certain blocks over others. Within plays a major rôle in constituting a sense of the WHS there is a contrast between the history and the past, it is peopled by three monuments of Maeshowe/Stones of ancestral and spiritual entities, forms part Stenness/Ring of Brodgar and the isolated and parcel of mythological systems, is used Skara Brae settlement (Figs 2-7). The in defining social groups and their henge monuments provide a focal point relationship to resources’ (Tilley 1994, for actions spanning thousands of years 67). The creation of the monuments, in while Skara Brae was covered by sand in this instance that constitute the Orkney the Bronze Age and left buried until the WHS, was undertaken in a landscape that mid-19th century, when a storm removed was understood in its own day in terms of the sand and exposed the site to view. history and the past. Each subsequent Equally, the attribution of WH status to generation ‘inhabited, interpreted and the monuments themselves (in the case of acted upon’ this landscape; each Stenness, Ring of Brodgar and Maeshowe) generation encountered its own could divorce them from the broader social archaeology (Barrett, J C 1999, 257), as conditions which led to their construction we do today (Fig 20). and use.

Landscape studies offer a rich vein of Clearly, we are interested in the social research potential which is wide in both conditions which led to the construction of geographic and temporal scope. Not only the henges and associated standing stones does research move beyond the site (which represent a truly monumental place speciﬁc to the spaces between and far in the Neolithic world and for ever after)

37 and their relationship to contemporary arbitrary disciplinary vogues occur where settlement and our attention should thus research projects into particular periods or move far beyond the individual parts of Scotland attract greater attention components of the WHS. Nevertheless, and more financial support than others. these monuments do deserve special Some periods leave none or few attention because they were built in upstanding remains and this has heavily different ways to convey very specific biased our understanding of the past. In meanings on a scale never seen before in Orkney, examples of this are the contrast Orkney. They are achievements of a very between the prominence of the Neolithic high order (and hence their selection as tombs and stone circles, and the Iron Age WHS). brochs, and the invisibility of Mesolithic and Bronze Age settlement. On the whole, period-based research continues to define the archaeological It is clear that in the buffer zones that profession in Britain today. Period-based surround the designated monuments lie a courses remain popular in archaeology number of sites of different construction degrees in British universities and the date. On the basis of such construction archaeological literature is subdivided and dates these sites can be attributed a characterised by period-based research. specific archaeological period. However, Indeed, the designation ‘The Heart of the problem arises of when was their ‘real’ Neolithic Orkney’ for the Orcadian WHS time? Some sites and monuments brings such definition into sharp focus. represent ‘construction’ over enormous However, there are a number of periods of time and right up to the present consequences inherent in such an they have been used in a variety of ways. approach and these are magnified by the Indeed, in many cases, sites and different discursive strategies which have monuments designated, for instance, as arisen within different archaeological Neolithic or Bronze Age have had special periods. This situation gives rise to a meaning and significance throughout their partial breakdown of communication histories (and for many continue to have between researchers operating in different such effect today, Fig 21). This realisation

21. The Neolithic ‘blocks’ of time, eg Palaeolithic, Neolithic, should provide an effective critique against site of Maeshowe is Medieval, etc. Research questions and ideas of purity and authenticity as applied also world- priorities differ between periods because of to archaeological sites. Moreover, it renowned for its collection of Norse theoretical differences in approach. This produces a real and valid problem for the runes (carved can have the effect of creating entirely interpretation and presentation of around 3800 years after the tomb was different forms of archaeology in adjacent archaeological sites because questions arise constructed) and overlapping blocks of time (eg Iron about what is actually being displayed and © Crown Copyright Age/Roman periods in England, Scottish the validity of the interpretation offered. reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. Iron Age/Later Iron Age). Furthermore, Another point involves a perceived paradox in the archaeological research of the WHS. The designation of such status to this part of Mainland Orkney is based entirely on the presence of four well- preserved sites or monuments (plus two related standing stones). Yet, their understanding in terms of conception and construction lies elsewhere, in the other contexts of life that provided the social conditions under which these monuments (Ring of Brodgar, Stones of Stenness and Maeshowe) could be built. The inclusion of Skara Brae in the WHS represents an additional context, as it is a settlement site,

38 22. Peering into House 7: Skara Brae provides a unique glimpse of domestic life 5000 years ago © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland.

whose presence in the WHS is based on its situation of the monuments at a particular high level of preservation (Fig 22). point in the Neolithic world. To recognise Qualities of preservation and the the basis for the ‘special’ nature of the ‘spectacular’ are of obvious importance WHS as simply the monuments (not least in the presentation of the past to themselves, denies the likely signiﬁcance the public) but do not necessarily form a attached to the area by, for example, the coherent basis for research. Mesolithic inhabitants of Orkney.

We suggest research into the WHS Together these points and issues highlight requires a shift away from a site-orientated the problems of research strategies that study to one more concerned with social focus on archaeological objects as defined practices and frameworks of by their date or period of creation. Such understanding. We have to consider how strategies would remain falsely fossilised at people engaged with their world and the some arbitrary point in time, totally physical experiences which provided both divorced from the present and we wish to the conditions under which ‘knowledge’ avoid this. Instead we would like to re- has been produced and the social establish social practices and ‘people relationships that allowed such material through the past’ as a central tenet of expressions as Maeshowe, etc. to be built. enquiry and to suggest some research themes which may counter some of the Preceding experiences must be taken into problems discussed above. account - it is very unlikely that the WHS monuments were set in a virgin landscape. The Agenda that we have produced is an There must be a history of Mesolithic or attempt to cross period-based boundaries earlier Neolithic inhabitation that helped to and spread research priorities across time make these places what they became and and space. Site specific and period specific we must therefore consider whether these research can be set within the broad areas in West Mainland Orkney had any research themes that have been identified special significance before the monuments and are detailed in Part 3. were constructed. Clearly an argument could be provided for a consideration of ‘place’ and ‘memory’ in terms of the

39 PART

2 Resource assessment

History of prehistoric development of thought and interpretation research related to the WHS, and demonstrates the Nick Card pivotal rôle that Orkney sites have played, and continue to play, in wider Ever since Jo Ben’s (1529) account of archaeological theory. some of the antiquities of Orkney and their ‘excavation’, the dramatic nature of the Until the mid-19th century most of this Stones of Stenness and the Ring of work amounted to little more than rather Brodgar, together with associated standing fanciful descriptions, interpretations and stones and mounds, have attracted the accounts of unscientiﬁc investigations attention of visitors who portrayed and (Wallace 1700; Pococke 1760; Low 1879; investigated them in various ways. Gordon 1792; Barry 1805; Neill 1805; Antiquarian and archaeological Hibbert 1823; Wood, W 1826). Within investigations were undertaken to varying this period, however, two important standards, as described below (Fig 23). studies should be noted. In 1772 Sir This work both informed and was Joseph Banks, on his way to Iceland, informed by investigations that were stopped off in Orkney. Although his undertaken elsewhere in Orkney. The investigations of mounds at Skaill Bay history of research in the WHS and the (Lysaght 1974) were little better than the wider Orkney context traces the average antiquarian, his surveys of both the Skaill Bay area, and the Rings of Brodgar (‘Circle of Loda’) and Stenness, exhibit an eye for detail (Fig 24). This was 23. A romantic, early 19th-century view of the Watch Stone and the Odin Stone by Elizabeth, Marchioness of mainly due to the work of Frederick Herm Stafford. Many antiquarian views of the World Heritage Walden, a naval architect and surveyor Site exist and they can be an important source of who accompanied Banks. Shortly after information about the monuments Crown Copyright: RCAHMS. Banks in 1789, the expedition of Sir John

40 24. A Plan of the Thomas Stanley visited Orkney and preserve a record of their construction and Circle of Loda in the surveyed and recorded many of the sites contents’ (Wilson Collection MS). Parish of Stenhouse (West 1970-76). Both Banks’ and Add.15511 f.10 Clevely One of the important documents to arise 1772, by permission of the Stanley’s work mark a trend towards more British Library. from this era was not an excavation report scientiﬁc and systematic investigations in but another survey. In 1852 Captain F W the islands. L Thomas, the commander of the Royal Navy survey ship Woodlark, produced the It was not until the mid-19th century, topographic survey of the Brodgar/ however, that archaeology entered its Stenness peninsulas he had undertaken in ‘Golden Age’ of antiquarian investigations. 1849 (cover and Fig 42; Thomas 1852). The translation of Thomsen’s ‘Three Age In his account he not only produced the System’ by Ellesmere (1848) allowed most accurate and detailed map to date, Daniel Wilson in his Archaeology and including many of the ‘minor’ monuments Prehistoric Annals of Scotland (1851) to in the area, but also chronologically give a clearer chronological perspective to correct, detailed descriptions. His work is many of the type sites and move away even more visionary when one takes into from the ubiquitous category of ‘Picts’ account his proposals for preservation of houses’. the monuments and treasure trove. Thomas was also involved in the The impetus for this period of excavation of the large Bronze Age burial archaeological investigation in Orkney was mound at Skae Frue and the emptying of a also due to agricultural improvements chambered tomb, the Holm of Papa following the collapse of the kelp industry Westray South. Unfortunately his in Orkney in the late 1830s (Thomson excavation techniques were more in line 1983). Vast new areas were brought under with fellow antiquarians than with the cultivation and, as George Petrie noted in standards of his other work. a letter to Daniel Wilson in 1849, perhaps hundreds of sites were disappearing The heyday of antiquarian investigations ‘without any attention being given to in Orkney, from the mid- to late 19th

41 century, is dominated by three main of Skaill House, briefly revisited Skara characters: George Petrie (1818-1875), Brae in 1913 and revealed parts of House factor of the Graemeshall Estate; James 2 (Stewart and Dawkins 1914). James Farrer, the MP for Durham and friend of Cursiter (1898b; 1923) cleared several the Earl of Zetland (a major landowner in brochs. His conclusions, that they were the Orkney); and Sir Henry Dryden (1818- work of Phoenician builders from Atlantis, 1899), the famous architectural illustrator. were a definite step backwards. A major Between them they were responsible for advance, however, was the founding of the opening up numerous sites, most famously Orkney Antiquarian Society in 1922. Maeshowe in 1861 (Petrie 1861a). Under the auspices of such local Although Farrer was the instigator of many luminaries as Hugh Marwick (Dickens of the excavations, his archaeological talent 1966), its first secretary, and J Storer was limited and many of his discoveries Clouston, the society flourished until the would have disappeared without any outbreak of war in 1939. The Proceedings record had it not been for the annotated of the Society provided a vital outlet for sketches of Petrie (Petrie nd). Dryden was discoveries and research in Orkney. also responsible for recording many of the sites they investigated, but in most cases he A new period of archaeological research based his drawings on Petrie’s sketches. was stimulated by the work of the Royal Petrie was also partly responsible for Commission on Ancient Monuments in publishing the results of the early Orkney from 1928 to 1937 and the arrival excavations at Skara Brae, following its of the distinguished prehistorian Professor exposure in a storm in 1850 (Petrie 1867). V Gordon Childe. Soon after Skara Brae Perhaps Petrie’s greatest contribution, was placed under the guardianship of HM however, was his reappraisal of various Office of Works in 1924, consolidation types of monument. In a quite radical work was started to stabilise the structures. article in 1863 he questioned the all- It soon became clear that further, consuming ‘Picts’ houses’ category of site, undisturbed structures existed. Childe, as a stating that they were ‘simply chambered representative of the Society of Antiquaries tombs which have been despoiled of their of Scotland, was invited by the Ministry of original contents at an early date’ (1863a). Works to oversee the clearing of these buildings by a local Kirkwall contractor, Despite being involved in over 30 James Firth (Fig 25; Childe 1930, 1931a; excavations from 1847 till his death in 1931b). Although Childe recognised the 1875, Petrie failed to develop his site as being Neolithic in character, he excavation techniques. It was left to his initially assigned a ‘Pictish’ date to the contemporaries to develop excavation village, partly based on the correlation in methods. William Traill, the owner of the distribution of Pictish symbol stones North Ronaldsay, not only differentiated and stone balls (eg Childe and Paterson between two clear periods of occupation in 1929, 277-9). This view was supported by the excavations at the Broch of Burrian J G Callander (1931a), the Director of the (Traill 1890), but also made the first National Museum of Antiquities, but inroads into palaeobotany with his records challenged by the local historian Hugh of tree remains in island peats (Traill Marwick (1929c, 26), who correctly 1868b). R S Clouston, a local landowner, attributed the site to a ‘pre-broch period’, showed a relatively systematic approach to and Stuart Piggott (1936, 201), who his excavations at Unstan in 1884 ascribed a Neolithic date to Skara Brae on (Clouston 1885) and rightly assigned the the basis of the pottery. tomb to the Neolithic. The presence of Childe in Orkney and the For almost half a century after Petrie’s work of the Royal Commission on Rousay death the impetus created by him seems to in 1928 provided the catalyst for Walter G have been lost, with few excavations being Grant (1886-1947), the whisky magnate, recorded. Mr Balfour Stewart, the tenant to embark on a series of excavations on

42 25. Work at Skara Brae under the direction of Gordon Childe (bottom left) Thomas Kent, © Orkney Archives.

Rousay, his home island (Reynolds and Initially it was attributed to the Iron Age Ritchie 1985). Initially this was in and it would be another 40 years before it collaboration with J G Callander. Together was correctly assigned to the Neolithic they excavated ten chambered tombs and (Ritchie, A 1983a). the broch of Midhowe on Rousay (Callander and Grant 1934a; 1934b; 1935; C S T Calder, an architect with the Royal 1936; 1937). Although their techniques Commission, was also active during this were still quite basic they did record the period, excavating several chambered position of artefacts and human bone. tombs and other sites on Eday and the After Callander’s death in 1937, Walter G Calf of Eday (Calder 1937; 1938; 1939). Grant continued his work. In general these Calder also produced the first latter excavations were never published comprehensive account of the Dwarfie and records for these sites relied on the Stane on Hoy (Calder and McDonald drawings of Grant’s draughtsman, David 1936). Wilson. The exception to this was Grant’s collaboration with Childe in the Many of these inter-war excavations were supervision of the excavation of the published and a move to a more systematic Neolithic settlement at Rinyo in 1938 approach to excavation was being made by (Childe and Grant 1939). The excavation refined techniques and the addition of was interrupted by the war, but the photographs, scale plans and section discovery of Beaker pottery drawings. But the overriding objective at stratigraphically later than Grooved Ware, many sites was to provide a monument for similar to that found by Childe at Skara public display; archaeological research was Brae, helped Childe review his chronology still of secondary interest. At the brochs of for Skara Brae. Midhowe and Gurness, their centres were still just basically cleared, although Childe’s investigations at Skara Brae also outbuildings and ditches were also provided the impetus for the excavation of investigated. At Skara Brae much of the the Knap of Howar on Papa Westray. In ‘mundane’ material from Childe’s 1929 the landowner, William Traill of excavations, such as undecorated pottery Holland, aided by his friend William and animal bone (now regarded as of Kirkness (Traill and Kirkness 1937), interest), was dumped without proper revealed the nature and extent of the site. examination. Other excavations were never

43 published. The Brough of Birsay was analytical and statistical techniques, prepared for public display throughout the allowed new questions to be asked of the 1930s, mainly under the supervision of Dr material remains concerning the economy, J S Richardson. The only surviving record environment and society that produced of this work is the diary of the site these monuments. This approach was foreman, Mr J Henderson. epitomised by the work of Professor Colin Renfrew. Throughout the early 1970s Despite such shortcomings, the results of Renfrew brought this new battery of these excavations provided crucial techniques to bear on Orcadian elements of forthcoming syntheses of archaeology with his excavations at Scottish and European archaeology. The Quanterness, Ring of Brodgar and Orkney material was incorporated by Maeshowe (Renfrew 1979). His results Childe into his pioneering works, The paved the way for many new ideas and Prehistory of Scotland (1935) and Scotland theories relating to Orcadian prehistory before the Scots (1946), and latterly Stuart and beyond. An aspect of this project was Piggott’s Neolithic Cultures of the British the pioneering work on burnt mounds by Isles (1954). John Hedges with his excavations at Liddle and Beaquoy (Hedges, J W 1975). The immediate post-war years started well for archaeology with the publication of the In 1972-3 Skara Brae was revisited by Dr Inventory volume for Orkney by the Royal D V Clarke (Clarke 1976a; 1976b). His Commission on Ancient Monuments main objectives were to obtain (RCAHMS 1946), the first systematic environmental and dating material. record of Orcadian archaeology. However, Samples obtained allowed an absolute date apart from Childe’s work at the chambered to be gained. As a result of coastal erosion, tombs of Maeshowe (1956) and Quoyness Clarke, D V (1977b) carried out further (1952), and the publication of Henshall’s work at Skara Brae in 1977 which allowed definitive work The Chambered Tombs of the settlement to be placed in its landscape Scotland (1963), archaeological context. In 1978 Clarke went on to investigations were very limited. Childe’s investigate the Links of Noltland on excavations at Maeshowe are notable as a Westray, another Neolithic settlement site, landmark in Orcadian palaeoenviron- originally discovered by Petrie. These mental studies. For the first time, samples excavations are as yet unpublished. were recovered from a site and studied for pollen and microfossil evidence. The Neolithic studies were further advanced by results were used to recreate the Neolithic excavations conducted by Drs Graham landscape. This work was a forerunner for and Anna Ritchie in the early 1970s. future environmental studies in the islands Excavations at the Knap of Howar by (eg Moar 1969; Davidson et al 1976; Anna Ritchie in 1973-74 (1983a) showed Keatinge and Dickson 1979). that the structures were early Neolithic not Iron Age. Meanwhile Graham Ritchie’s The present era of archaeological work in excavations in 1973-74 at the Stones of Orkney can be seen to start in the early Stenness (1976) finally provided important 1970s. Initially this was intrinsically linked evidence for its date and its relationship to to the development of the ‘New Grooved Ware. Archaeology’. The catalyst for the ‘New Archaeology’ was radiocarbon (14C) 1978 is marked in the history of Orcadian dating. In conjunction with tree-ring archaeology with the appointment of the calibration this allowed absolute dates to first Orkney or County Archaeologist, Dr be obtained for sites. Many basic Raymond Lamb, by the Orkney Heritage assumptions that had dominated the study Society. His most important contribution of prehistory, in particular diffusionist to the study of archaeology in the islands concepts, were finally laid to rest. Dating, was the creation of the Sites and in conjunction with a new battery of Monuments Record (SMR) for Orkney.

44 26. Excavation of Neolithic building at Pool, Sanday © J R Hunter.

This was the first systematic update of the threats from coastal and landscape erosion Royal Commission Inventory of 1946 and (Fig 26). Evidence from both sites has identified many previously unrecorded provided an opportunity to study in detail sites. His work continues to be built upon all aspects of the development of an island by his successor, Julie Gibson, appointed population over several millennia. The in 1996 by the newly formed Orkney long-debated relationship between Archaeological Trust. Neolithic Unstan Ware and Grooved Ware has also been clarified by the discovery of During the late 1970s and early 1980s both styles at Pool. excavations took place at the Howe, Stromness (Ballin Smith (ed) 1994) and Since the early 1980s the contribution of the Bu, Stromness (Hedges 1987) by John Dr Colin Richards to the study of Hedges and the North of Scotland Orcadian prehistory cannot be overlooked. Archaeology Service (NoSAS). These Richards was the first to use fieldwalking excavations radically altered Iron Age systematically as a method of identifying studies of northern Scotland. Up until then sites in Orkney. Following his discovery Iron Age research had concentrated on the and excavation of the Neolithic settlement architectural typologies of brochs and of Barnhouse (Richards forth), his associated structures. The Orkney numerous papers have attempted to excavations, not only provided evidence provide a theoretical framework in which for an extended chronology, but also to place his and others’ fieldwork. shifted the emphasis towards the social Richards, more than anyone else, has context of this style of architecture. The realised the potential of the rich, almost most important point to arise from these unequalled, quality of the archaeological excavations was the contemporaneity of record in Neolithic Orkney. More recently the brochs and their surrounding villages. in the late 1990s, in conjunction with Jane These were previously regarded as Downes and Richard Jones, Richards chronologically separate. initiated a new project in the Cuween- Wideford area of Mainland. This proposed Throughout the 1980s Bradford to address some of the many issues raised University was involved in a series of by the Barnhouse excavations. A excavations in Sanday, Orkney. At Pool programme of fieldwalking led to the (Hunter et al forth) and Tofts Ness discovery and excavation of two new, but (Dockrill et al forth) important work was very different, Neolithic settlements at carried out, primarily in response to Crossiecrown and Stonehall. In 2003, as

45 part of the same project, a settlement at the management and preservation of these the base of Wideford Hill (HY41 SW47), monuments. This project is ongoing with hinted at by antiquarian lithic collections the detailed survey and excavation of the (Rendall 1931; 1934b), was also located. Knowes of Trotty in Harray. For the first time in Orkney Neolithic timber structures were found. These Despite the huge legacy of known underlie a ‘Knap of Howar-style’ stone archaeological sites, Orkney continues to structure. The results of these excavations surprise both academic and lay people may yet again transform our with the plethora of new sites still being understanding of the Neolithic. Richards is discovered in the islands. In 1998 the first presently investigating the prehistoric undisturbed chambered tomb to be quarry at Vestrafiold, one of the possible discovered in Orkney for many years came sources of the standing stones of the to light at Crantit (Ballin Smith 1998; Brodgar area. 1999), while the ongoing excavations of the Iron Age ‘ritual complex’ at Mine Since the extensive investigations of burial Howe (Card et al 2000), and the mortuary mounds and ‘tumuli’ in the 19th century, structure and cemetery at the Knowe of the study of Orcadian prehistory has Skea, Westray (Moore and Wilson 2003), concentrated on the Neolithic and Iron have added other dimensions to life in the Age and tended to ignore both the Iron Age. Furthermore, geophysical survey preceding period and the intervening is proving immensely valuable in adding to Bronze Age. This was partly due to an the number of new sites and providing apparent lack of evidence. This imbalance further information about known sites. was partly addressed, for the Bronze Age, This is best evidenced in the recent and by the work of John and Melia Hedges in ongoing geophysical survey of the Orkney the 1970s, with their investigations of the WHS and surrounds (GSB 2002; 2003a burnt mounds at Liddle and Buckquoy and b). (Hedges, J W 1975) and the barrow cemetery at Quoyscottie (Hedges, M E 1977), and Bradford University’s work at Assessment of the Tofts Ness, Sanday (Dockrill et al forth). prehistoric periods In the 1990s Bronze Age burial mounds Nick Card again entered the research agenda. Jane Downes’ ‘Orkney Barrows Project’ Pre-Neolithic Orkney surveyed all known burial mounds and excavated a sample of them (Downes Orkney, like the rest of Scotland, has

27. Fieldwalking 1995; 1997a; 1997c; 1999; forth). This presented no clear evidence to suggest provides much project has not only led to a better human occupation before the end of the useful archaeological understanding of the Bronze Age funerary last glaciation, c10,000 BP. A single evidence © C R Wickham-Jones. landscape, but also the requirements for bifacial ﬂaked implement from Upperborough, Harray (Anon 1914) does have certain typological afﬁnities with Lower Palaeolithic handaxes. However, this is thought to be more likely of Neolithic/Bronze Age date (Saville 1997).

Mesolithic-type, ﬂaked stone artefacts have been recovered from several locations in Orkney, mainly as a result of surface collection (Fig 27; Saville 2000; Wickham- Jones and Firth 2000). Many post-war studies of these microlithic forms, mostly informed by the work of Lacaille (eg 1935), viewed them as ‘the survival of a

46 lingering, degenerate, Upper Palaeolithic Stenness and Sandwick areas. Saville’s tradition...’ (Livens 1956, 443). This was (2000, 95) re-examination of the lithics contrary to Lacaille who saw no reason not from the 1970s excavations at Skara Brae to attribute these forms to Mesolithic (Clarke, D V 1976a; 1976b) also identified activity in Orkney (1954, 169-70). Livens’ two pieces of ‘Mesolithic character’. Saville view however is still current amongst some considers that these may represent residual authors. Anna Ritchie stating, most Mesolithic pieces and may ‘hint of a pre- recently, that ‘… flintwork that looks existing Mesolithic site being disturbed by Mesolithic can turn up on Neolithic sites the Neolithic village’ (Saville 2000, 95). … where it is more likely to indicate the survival of old-fashioned ideas in toolkits than pre-Neolithic activity’ (Ritchie, A Neolithic Orkney 1995, 20). Renfrew (2000, 5), although not denying the possibility of sporadic Present 14C dating suggests that the Mesolithic visits to Orkney, contests the Neolithic in Orkney spans about 1500 idea of permanent Mesolithic settlement in years from the mid-4th millennium to Orkney. c2000 BC. This is usually divided into two general phases, an early and a late, each Recent reviews of the material by Saville characterised by differing styles of (1996; 2000), ‘… leaves no doubt of the decorated pottery and architecture. There existence of a fully Mesolithic presence on is overlap between the two phases and the Orkney’ (1996, 220). This view is shared transition period is generally considered to by Wickham-Jones, on the basis of the have occurred around 3000 BC (Renfrew lithic artefactual evidence (1994, 74) and 1979, 199-212; Davidson and Henshall fieldwork (Wickham-Jones and Firth 1989, 85-98; Hunter 2000; Hunter and 2000). Despite the lack of wholly MacSween 1991; and see Ashmore diagnostic implements, the flint assemblage 2000a). The earlier phase seems from below the chambered tomb at the characterised by Unstan Ware, the later Point of Cott, Westray has also recently phase by Grooved Ware. This phasing is been assigned to the Mesolithic (Findlay also generally reflected in the architecture 1997), as have new finds from Long of chambered tombs. In simplistic terms, Howe, near Mine Howe. Orkney-Cromarty cairns (both tripartite and stalled cairns) are assigned to the early Environmental evidence for Mesolithic phase, while Maeshowe-type tombs are activity is also scant. Bunting (1996a, 23) later (Davidson and Henshall 1989, 19- has interpreted an interruption of 51). Statistical analysis by David Fraser woodland in a pollen column from the (1983) appeared to support a possible West Mainland, as evidence for possible typological division between the Orkney- Mesolithic activity, c6,500 BC. On Hoy Cromarty cairns and the Maeshowe group. (Blackford et al 1996) a similar decline in This simplistic scheme is, however, woodland was also detected around 6,400 complicated by some tombs exhibiting BC. As with the Mainland evidence this features from both styles of architecture. was associated with concentrations of Further doubts have been cast on this charcoal, which have been interpreted as simple typological sequence by Ashmore possible evidence for people in Orkney in (2000a) and the important results of the Mesolithic. excavations at the Point of Cott (Barber 1997).

The pre-Neolithic World Heritage Site The architectural division is also mirrored and Inner Buffer Zones in the domestic sphere. The organisation Although no Mesolithic sites have been of space within the early Neolithic houses detected within the IBZ, many of the ﬂints of the Knap of Howar (Fig 28; Ritchie, A cited by Saville (1996; 2000) as ‘typical 1983a), Howe (Ballin Smith (ed) 1994, microliths’, have been attributed to the 10-13) and Stonehall is mirrored in

47 early investigations (Traill and Kirkness 1937) was finally dispelled by the excavations of the 1970s (Ritchie, A 1983a) which revealed its early Neolithic date. This imbalance between settlement and ritual evidence resulted in early studies failing to investigate or even consider the relationship between the two. Since the 1970s, however, this imbalance has been addressed with the excavation of the Neolithic settlement sites at Links of Noltland (Clarke, D V 1981), Howe (Ballin Smith (ed) 1994, 11-13), Barnhouse (Richards forth), Pool (Hunter et al forth), Tofts Ness (Dockrill et al forth), Crossiecrown (Richards et al forth), Stonehall (ibid) and, most recently, Wideford Hill (Richards et al forth). Numerous other potential settlement sites 28. Neolithic Orkney-Cromarty tombs, with chambers have also been identified by survey work, settlement at Knap of Howar, Papa being subdivided by upright slabs, while eg at Stove, Sanday (Bond, J M et al 1995; Westray the layout of Maeshowe-type tombs finds Morrison 1995). © Crown Copyright parallels in Grooved Ware settlements reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. such as Skara Brae (Richards 1991a). In the past the evidence from these settlements has been seen as representing a Development within the later Neolithic straightforward development from single period is evidenced by subtle changes in dispersed farmsteads in the early Neolithic house design (Richards 1996a, 199), towards nucleated villages in the late applied rather than incised decoration on Neolithic. A reappraisal of past Grooved Ware (Hunter and MacSween excavations and the results from Pool, 1991) and the construction of large Stonehall and Crossiecrown (eg Richards ceremonial sites, such as the Ring of 1999) would suggest, however, that a wide Brodgar, Structure 8 at Barnhouse variety of settlement forms characterised (Richards forth), Maeshowe and perhaps the entire Neolithic period in Orkney. The Structure 8 at Pool (Hunter 2000, 121-2). recent excavations at Wideford Hill (HY41 SW47) (Richards et al forth) have added For many years chambered tombs another dimension to the repertoire of dominated the study of the Neolithic in Neolithic settlement forms. Timber Orkney. In many ways this is posthole structures, both linear and understandable since until the 1970s only circular in plan, underlay a stone-built three settlement sites (Skara Brae, Rinyo early Neolithic structure, similar in size and the Knap of Howar) were known, and architecture to the Knap of Howar. compared to the plethora of chambered Although awaiting the confirmation of an tombs. As early as the late 19th century absolute date, these timber structures are chambered tombs were correctly assigned potentially the earliest habitation site yet to the Neolithic (eg Clouston 1885), found in Orkney. whereas, the recognition that Skara Brae was Neolithic only occurred almost 90 The study of chambered tombs has been years after its discovery. Not until Bronze augmented by Davidson and Henshall’s Age Beaker Pottery was found revised survey (1989) and by modern stratigraphically later than Grooved Ware, excavations at Quanterness (Renfrew at Rinyo in 1938, did Childe accept that 1979), Pierowall Quarry (Sharples 1984), Skara Brae was Neolithic. The Iron Age Howe (Ballin Smith (ed) 1994), Point of date attributed to the Knap of Howar by Cott (Barber 1997), Crantit (Ballin Smith

48 29. Example of 1998; 1999) and Bookan (Card forth). The integration of all of this new material Orcadian megalithic Results from these excavations have not has revolutionised the study of the art: Neolithic incised stone found at only shed light on possible funerary Neolithic (see Ritchie, A (ed) 2000). Brodgar Farm practices, be that excarnation (Renfrew Many basic questions regarding the Thomas Kent, © Orkney Archive. 1979; Hedges, J W 1983b) or inhumation Neolithic of Orkney have been addressed (Barber 1997), but also on contemporary and partially answered. For instance, social organisation. stratigraphical evidence from Pool has suggested the relationship between Cist burials are so characteristic of the Grooved Ware and Unstan Ware to be Bronze Age in Orkney that in the past they mainly chronological, rather than cultural have been automatically assigned to this (Hunter and MacSween 1991). period. The results of the excavation of the large, rock-cut chamber and cist at Sand Environmental and economic evidence has Fiold (Dalland 1999) implies that this also been greatly enhanced. A detailed tradition in Orkney perhaps had its origins picture of the Neolithic environment is in the Neolithic. being created and the impact of farming Until recently, megalithic ‘art’ was realised. The conventional picture of a recognised at only a handful of sites in landscape devoid of trees during the Orkney (Fig 29). Apart from some incised Neolithic and later prehistory (eg Tipping motifs noted by Childe at Skara Brae 1994, 24) is also being questioned (eg (Childe 1931a, 150-52; Shepherd 2000), Limbrey, in Buteux 1997, 10-11). The these appeared to be limited to mainly diversity of the Neolithic economy is now pecked motifs in a few chambered tombs clearer. In the past the Neolithic economy (Davidson and Henshall 1989, 81-3). The in Orkney was seen as being based on finest example of this is the magnificent, pastoralism. Modern excavations have spirally decorated, carved stone discovered emphasised the range of environments during quarrying work at Pierowall, exploited in the Neolithic (Clarke, D V Westray in 1981 (Sharples 1984). Recent and Sharples 1985, 72-8). Recent work has shown the wider use of excavations at the Links of Noltland, Skara megalithic art both in domestic and Brae, Tofts Ness, Pool and Knap of funerary contexts. Pecked motifs have now Howar have provided evidence for cereal been noted at the settlement sites of Pool production including wheat and barley. (Hunter 2000, 121) and Crossiecrown Evidence from Pool (Hunter 2000, 122-3) (Richards pers comm), while incised also hints at intensification in agricultural motifs have been found at both the production in the later Neolithic. This may settlement site of Barnhouse and several be related to evidence from Tofts Ness chambered tombs (Ashmore 1986; Bradley (Simpson and Dockrill 1996; Simpson et et al 2001; Ballin Smith pers comm). Pick al forth) where, from the late Neolithic, dressing of stone has also been recently manure and turf were added to the soils to noted at several sites in Orkney (Phillips maintain crop yield and minimise erosion. and Bradley 2000). The recognition that The exceptional quality and quantities of many aspects of Orcadian megalithic art the bone assemblages from settlement sites are paralleled in the Boyne Valley in in Orkney have not only demonstrated the Ireland would seem to emphasise the wide diversity of both domestic and wild possibility of direct contact between the animals being exploited, but also the two regions in the Neolithic. importance of this resource for the

49 The Neolithic World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones There are at present no absolutely dated early Neolithic sites known in the IBZ. Recent excavations at Maeshowe, however, suggest that an earlier structure underlies the clay platform on which the tomb was built. This has tentatively been identiﬁed as part of an early Neolithic house (Richards 1996a, 195; forth).

It has been suggested that the Ring of Bookan and the chambered tomb of Bookan form a sub-group of monuments within the larger Neolithic complex (Fig 30. The Bookan skyline from near the Ring of Brodgar 30), as perhaps do the Ring of Brodgar (some of the mounds relate to quarrying) and its surrounding large mounds, and © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. Maeshowe and the Stones of Stenness (Historic Scotland 1998, 34). As the production of artefacts. The only chambered tomb of Bookan has been comparable assemblages in size come from assigned to the early Neolithic on southern England, but almost exclusively typological grounds (Fig 31), the Bookan from ritual sites like Durrington Walls and ‘grouping’ has been thought of as early Mount Pleasant (Harcourt, in Wainwright Neolithic (ibid). However, the description 1979). The importance of the Orcadian of the pottery found by Petrie at Bookan bone assemblages has recently been tomb, with its ‘rudely formed raised addressed by Sharples (2000). moulding in a waved form’, implies Grooved Ware (Henshall 1985, 108; Despite the range and quality of evidence Davidson and Henshall 1989, 77-8) and from Neolithic sites in Orkney, there has perhaps suggests that the tomb at Bookan generally been reluctance by the ‘Wessex is late Neolithic. A possible example of an school’ of archaeological theory to address early Neolithic tomb is the elongated the Orkney material in its wider context mound of Fresh Knowe (HY21 SE12), (Renfrew 2000, 2; but see Sharples 1992 partially excavated in 1853 (Petrie 1857, and Barclay, G J 2000). Meanwhile new 58; see below). theoretical frameworks and landscape studies have been developed by those The rich variety of sites in the area relate working in Orkney. Colin Richards’ work to many aspects of the late Neolithic. at Barnhouse (Richards forth) has been Settlement is represented at Skara Brae, followed up by his landscape studies the initial phases of Barnhouse and around the Finstown basin, the Cuween- probably the new complex on the Ness of Wideford Project and a series of wide- Brodgar (see below); burial at Maeshowe ranging papers concerning his ﬁndings. He and the chambered tomb of Bookan; and has attempted to address issues such as the ritual at the henge complexes of the Ring cosmological and ideological perceptions of Brodgar and Stenness, and the later of Neolithic people. His excavations at phases of Barnhouse. Each aspect is dealt Barnhouse also provided material for Dr with separately below but, as shown Andrew Jones’s far reaching analysis of the especially by excavations at Barnhouse, all pottery and its implications for the sites are interrelated and share aspects of elucidation of social identity in the architecture, orientation, layout and Neolithic (Jones, A 2000; 2002). As material culture. Gordon Barclay, however, points out (2000), the regionality of the Orkney Since its discovery in 1850 (Fig 32), material should be recognised. excavations at the Grooved Ware village of

50 Skara Brae (HY21 NW12) have revealed a complex history of settlement throughout which general continuity was maintained by the process of demolition, construction and reconstruction. Recent excavations (Clarke, D V 1976a) have suggested that the remains here fall into two broad phases, though their precise interpretations need clarification (Fig 33). The first phase, starting c3000 BC, was characterised by free-standing structures with ‘beds’ recessed into the walls. The later buildings, though retaining the basic layout of the earlier structures (a central hearth, beds on 31. Bookan chambered cairn under excavation in 2002 © Orkney Archaeological Trust. both sides and a dresser opposite the entrance), were larger with the beds not recessed into the walls. These later structures were not free-standing but set into midden deposits. Two of the structures stand apart from the rest, Houses 7 and 8. Due to abundant debitage from stone working, its separation from the rest of the houses and its lack of beds, House 8 (Fig 8) has often been interpreted as a workshop (Childe 1931a, 49; Clarke, D V and Sharples 1985, 67), though this has been questioned by Richards (1990b, 37-40). House 7 (Fig 34), although resembling the layout of other houses, also seems detached. This, in conjunction with 32. An early painting of House 1 at Skara Brae (by John several other idiosyncrasies, such as two Cairns, Petrie 1867, pl xxix) female burials under the floor, suggests © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. that this structure may have had a special, 33. Plan of Skara Brae non-domestic function (Richards 1990b, © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. 35-7).

51 other houses in the village that were replaced as often as five times, House 2 remained in use throughout the history of the settlement. Like House 7 at Skara Brae, this structure was probably not domestic in nature. Despite the replace- ment of many of the houses, the basic plan of the village remained the same, with the houses arranged around a central open area. This area was divided into specific places for the manufacture of pottery and the working of bone, hides and flint.

The settlement at Barnhouse appears to have had a shorter life than that at Skara Brae and the evidence suggests that it was abandoned c2600 BC. When habitation 34. House 7 at Skara The discovery in 1984 of the settlement of of the site ceased, however, a single Brae, from wallhead monumental building was constructed to looking to entrance Barnhouse (HY31 SW61), in a landscape © Crown Copyright that was often viewed as purely ritual, was the south-west, partially overlying some reproduced courtesy of surprising. Excavations between 1986 and earlier houses (Fig 35). This structure will Historic Scotland. 1991 (Richards (ed) forth) revealed a be discussed below. highly organised settlement with its origin c3000 BC. The houses were free-standing The existence of other settlements within and similar in plan to those in the early the IBZ is implied by the recovery in the phase of Skara Brae, with beds recessed past of numerous, characteristically late into the walls, a dresser opposite the Neolithic artefacts (eg HY21 SE44 and entrance and a central hearth. As at Skara 52). Many of these are provenanced to the Brae and Rinyo, all the hearths were area around Bookan at the northern end of orientated on a south-east/north-west axis. the IBZ. The collection comprises of many An exception to this general plan was ﬂint tools, including over 40 scrapers, House 2. This was a double-sized arrowheads, maceheads, stone axes, structure, with six ‘bed’ recesses and built hammers and a piece of haematite to a higher standard than the rest. Unlike (Callander 1931a).

35. Aerial view of Barnhouse under excavation © Colin Richards.

52 The incised stone (HY31 SW25) found (Fig 36). Renfrew’s results suggest that near Brodgar Farm in 1925, with its sometime before c2500 BC (though as affiliations to similar stones from Skara noted by Barber (1997, 7) there was no Brae and Barnhouse, was considered to be demonstrated relationship between the perhaps indicative of another late Neolithic ditch and the burial mound) a natural settlement. This appears to have been knoll was partially levelled for confirmed by the partial uncovering in the construction. The tomb, however, was not spring of 2003 of a structure very similar the primary structure to be built. Recent to Barnhouse’s Structure 2 (Ballin Smith excavations revealed the remnants of an 2003). The ongoing geophysics earlier structure underlying the clay programme being conducted by the platform on which the tomb was built. A Orkney Archaeology Trust within the socket for a standing stone was also WHA (WHAGP) (GSB 2002; 2003a and discovered on the platform at the rear of b; Mackintosh and Damianoff 2003) has the tomb (Richards (ed) forth). This may shown that this structure appears to be have been part of a stone circle situated on part of an extensive complex of structures the mound, prior to construction of the covering the Ness of Brodgar to the south tomb (Richards 1996a, 197). The mound of Brodgar Farm. The importance of this that contains the tomb consists of a stone discovery, due to its location within the core covered with clay and stones with WHA and its proximity to the Barnhouse stabilising, internal walls (Childe 1956). Neolithic settlement, cannot be over- The central chamber is accessed through stressed. an entrance passage, presently over 15m long, and aligned with the midwinter Maeshowe (HY31 SW1) (Davidson and sunset. Four large slabs, one on each side, Henshall 1989, 142-6) is perhaps the finest form the main length of the passage. It has piece of Neolithic architecture in western been suggested that these may have come Europe. The tomb sits on a clay platform from a stone circle built on the site prior to surrounded by a broad circular ditch (Fig the tomb (Richards 1996a, 197). An 18). The bank outside of the ditch appears alcove in the passage houses a blocking to be mainly a later addition, though in stone, which when in place does not fully 36. 1970s excavation of the places excavation has shown it overlies a fill the passage. A small horizontal slit is ditch at Maeshowe substantial prehistoric wall (Richards (ed), left which, like the ‘light-box’ at by Professor forth). Both Childe (1956) and Renfrew Newgrange, Ireland, would allow light to Renfrew © Colin Renfrew. (1979) excavated trenches across the ditch penetrate the inner chamber at midwinter. The large, central chamber measures c4.7m square and its corbelled roof was originally c4.5m high. At each corner is a buttress flanked by a large standing stone. Three side cells are present in the sidewalls. When excavated in 1861 only a single fragment of human bone was found.

The only definite chambered tomb in the IBZ is the chambered tomb of Bookan (HY21 SE10) (Davidson and Henshall 1989, 103-4). This site was excavated by Petrie in 1861 (Petrie 1861a). Petrie discovered a rectangular central chamber surrounded by probably five smaller chambers. Orthostats were used to subdivide the interior. Human skeletal material was found in three of the side chambers, along with some pottery and a flint ‘lance-head’. This site was used by

53 Henshall (1963) as the type site for one of the scale of this mound (40m by 33m by her categories of chambered tomb. As 6m high) suggests that it may be a noted above, this site is often quoted as chambered tomb. being early in date (eg Ritchie, A 1995, 73), although the description of the pottery A cist burial (HY31 SW26), discovered in found by Petrie would seem more 1915 at Tormiston Farm close to reminiscent of Grooved Ware than Unstan Maeshowe, exhibits similarities to the large Ware. The site also shows similarities in cist excavated at Sand Fiold, Sandwick layout and architecture with Structure 2 at (Dalland 1999). Both were rock-cut and the late Neolithic settlement of Barnhouse. their construction allowed access to be Today the site survives as a dilapidated maintained. Radiocarbon dates and oval mound, c16m in diameter, within ‘megalithic’ architectural features suggest which some of the orthostatic chamber the Sand Fiold cist may have been built divisions are still visible. Excavation at and used initially in the Neolithic. A Bookan in 2002 (Fig 31) showed that the similar date has tentatively been suggested tomb excavated by Farrer and Petrie was for the Tormiston Farm cist (Dalland only the primary phase in the history of 1999, 408). the site. After the tomb had fallen into disrepair or been deliberately slighted, the It is also worth noting the substantial original cairn, c7m in diameter, was mound opposite the Standing Stones Hotel incorporated in a larger cairn, c16m in (HY31 SW24), which is situated just diameter and bounded by three concentric outside the IBZ. Until recently this was revetments (Card forth). The 2002 considered natural, but a reference from excavations also emphasised the apparent the late 19th century (Cochrane 1899, 88), idiosyncrasies of this site. The size and supported by results from a geophysical aspects of the architecture would seem to survey (Challands 2001), would imply that be noticeably different from other this is a chambered tomb. chambered cairns. Until the mid-19th century the Stones of The Ring of Bookan (HY21 SE7) has in Stenness (HY31 SW2) were considered to the past been categorised as a chambered be part of a semi-circular structure. The tomb (Henshall 1963). This suggestion crescent form of the surviving stones was has latterly lost favour and it was omitted probably the basis for the site being called from Henshall’s revised work (Davidson the ‘Temple of the Moon’. Thomas and Henshall 1989, 4). This was due to a (1852) was the ﬁrst to realise that they had reconsideration of the site by Graham perhaps originally formed part of a Ritchie (1985, J N G, 126) who thought complete circle of an estimated 12 stones, that the site had more in common with the although the semi-circular myth was still Stones of Stenness than the Maeshowe- prevalent in the 1950s (Marwick, H type tombs. This was based on the scale of 1952b, 20). Final conﬁrmation of the the encircling ditch (c13m wide by at least circular form of the monument awaited the 2m deep) and the size of the enclosed area investigations of the 1970s by Graham (45m by 38m). This is closer in size to the Ritchie (Ritchie, J N G 1976). Ritchie’s area enclosed at the Stones of Stenness investigations showed clearly that the four (44m in diameter) than that of Maeshowe surviving stones had been part of a circle (76m by 60m). Local tradition (W Firth, of 11 or 12 stones (there is some doubt Bockan Cottage, pers comm), however, about the 12th stone, though it is possible recalls a ‘chamber’ still being accessible in that the socket for this stone remained the early 19th century. Clearly excavation undetected). Round the ring of stones was is required to clarify the status of this site. a ditch, 6m wide by c2.3m deep, with a single causeway, 8m wide, on the north Although the remains of a cist can still be side of the ring. Outside the ditch traces of seen in the top of Salt Knowe (HY21 a bank were revealed. Within the circle a SE14), to the west of the Ring of Brodgar, large square hearth was found at the

54 centre, which overlay the setting for a evidence of an external bank, however, timber post. Between the hearth and traces of a possible bank are visible in one causeway across the ditch, various features area outside of the ditch. No samples were uncovered including the settings for suitable for dating were obtained. some upright stones and a timber Estimates for the date of its construction structure. Bones of cattle and sheep vary from ﬁrst half of the 3rd millennium recovered from the ditch and charcoal (Ritchie, A 1995, 79) to the latter half from the central ‘hearth’ provided 14C of that millennium (Historic Scotland dates of around 3000 BC for the initial use 1998, 22). of the site. These dates are in agreement with the incised Grooved Ware found Several standing stones are located, or there. A date of c2150 BC from the recorded in the area. The Barnhouse Stone bedding trench of the timber structure (HY31 SW12) lies on a direct line with the implies continued use of the site passage of Maeshowe, some 800m south- throughout most of the 3rd millennium. west of the tomb. Several new dates from the basal ditch ﬁll have recently become available (Ashmore It has been argued that the Watch Stone 2000b, 125; Ashmore 2001, 125). (HY31 SW11), along with the pair of standing stones at Lochview (Fig 38, At the Ring of Brodgar (HY21 SE1) 60 HY31 SW10), the Stone of Odin stones were originally erected to form a (removed in 1814, Marwick, E W 1976) near perfect circle, c104m in diameter (Fig and the Comet Stone (HY21 SE13), 37). The stones were encircled by a ditch formed part of an avenue between the crossed by two opposing causeways on the Ring of Brodgar and the Stones of north-west and south-east sides. Recorded excavation of the site is limited to the three 38. The standing stones at Lochview © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. trenches excavated by Renfrew (1979) in the early 1970s, two across the ditch and one outside the ditch. Although geophysical survey (Bartlett and Clark 1973b) located several anomalies within the central area of the circle none have been investigated. Renfrew’s excavations revealed that the ditch was originally some 10m wide and up to 3.4m deep. Unlike the Stones of Stenness, excavation revealed no

37. Aerial view of the Ring of Brodgar © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland.

55 Stenness (eg Ritchie, A 1995, 82). overuse of soils in the late Neolithic and an Alternatively, the discovery of sockets for inability to compete in a changing society twin stones at the Watch Stone where access to resources was paramount, (discovered during roadworks in 1929) all leading to a growing isolation. and the Stone of Odin (Richards (ed) Alternatively Clarke, D V et al (1985, 92) forth), suggests that the pairing of stones have suggested that the existing power might indicate a series of portals or base in late Neolithic Orkney prevented ‘symbolic doorways’ linking the two the adoption of new ideas, such as Beakers henges (Richards 1996a, 199). This and metalwork, in order to maintain their apparent physical link between the two authority. This led to a growing atrophy in stone circles, paralleled at Stonehenge and Orcadian society. Recent research is Avebury, may help to explain the addressing this imbalance and leading to a functioning of the Brodgar ceremonial greater understanding of Orkney in the complex (Parker Pearson 2000, 212-13). Bronze Age.

As noted above, when habitation ceased at The early Bronze Age is traditionally Barnhouse, a single large structure, linked to the introduction of Beaker Structure 8, was built (Fig 35; Richards pottery. Although sherds of Beakers have (ed) forth). Although reflecting some been found at the settlement sites of Rinyo features of late Neolithic houses, like a (Childe and Grant, W G 1939; 1947) and central hearth and a dresser opposite the Links of Noltland (Clarke, D V and door, the scale of the structure was Sharples 1985), and inside the chambers monumental. The internal floor area of Calf of Eday Long (Calder 1937) and measured c7m by 8m. It was surrounded Knowe of Yarso (Callander and Grant, W by a clay platform bounded by an outer G 1935), these limited discoveries were wall, elements paralleled at Maeshowe, viewed as epitomizing the growing while the elaborate entrance arrangement, isolation of Orkney in the early Bronze including a passage some 3m long and Age. (There is some doubt over the Beaker flanked by upright stones with a hearth at from a cist in Birsay (HY22 NE1) (Clarke, its threshold, mirrors aspects of the Stones D V et al 1985, 92).) Recent discoveries, of Stenness. The interconnection between however, have produced Beaker pottery these monumental sites is further from around the tombs at Howe (Ballin emphasised by the alignment of the two Smith (ed) 1994, 24), Holm of Papa entrances to the Barnhouse ‘hall’. The Westray North (Ritchie, A forth), at the outer entrance, through the surrounding settlement site of Crossiecrown and outer wall, faces Maeshowe. The inner possibly Tofts Ness (Dockrill et al forth). doorway was aligned on the midsummer Traditional views of the transition from sunset, the opposite to that of Maeshowe, late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age may which points towards the midwinter also need to be reappraised once the sunset. evidence from Crossiecrown (Downes and Richards 2000, 165-7) and Links of Bronze Age Orkney Noltland (Clarke and Sharples 1985) is fully evaluated. The Bronze Age in Orkney has been characterised as an impoverished period Burnt mounds, defined here as those sandwiched between the apparent frequently crescentic-shaped deposits of splendour of the Neolithic and Iron Ages. burnt stone and fuel ash, are found Despite the plethora of burial evidence in commonly throughout Orkney. A rapidly cists and round barrows, the lack of disappearing feature of the Orkney settlement evidence and ‘exotic’ items has landscape, they have (following Hedges, J led to the view that this was ‘a dull time’ W 1975) been widely accepted as (Ritchie, A 1995, 95) in the prehistory of ‘middens associated with dwelling and Orkney. The apparent demise of Orkney cooking facilities’ (Hedges, J W 1975, 82) has been linked to climatic deterioration, and dated to the middle and late Bronze

56 Age and early Iron Age. Due to a lack of 1983; 1984; 1987; 1989). On Hoy the other settlement types, burnt mounds have complex of structures along the Whaness often been viewed as filling the gap in the Burn (RCAHMS 1989, 8), including two settlement record (eg Cowie and Shepherd enclosed settlements and sub-peat dykes, 1997, 159). However, the lack of seem likely to be Bronze Age in date. conventional occupation material and their location in areas of wet ground hint at As in the rest of Scotland, there would specialised functions that have yet to be appear to be a movement towards the established (eg Buckley (ed) 1990; Moore enclosure of land during the Bronze Age in and Wilson 1999b). Recent research by Orkney. Survey work (eg Nayling 1983) Iona Anthony in Orkney (Robertson et al has discovered sub-peat dykes in many 2000) has highlighted the possible locations and field systems were found in extended date range of many burnt association with the settlement of mounds, from the late Neolithic to the Spurdagrove (Hedges, J W 1980). On a medieval period. larger scale, the massive linear earthworks known as ‘treb dykes’ (Lamb, R G 1983; Recent excavations at Tofts Ness (Dockrill RCAHMS 1980, 9) may also date to this et al forth), Spurdagrove (Hedges, J W period. 1980), Skaill (Buteux 1997) and St Boniface (Lowe 1998) have provided As with the Neolithic, the traditional view 39. House structure insight into the (as yet limited) evidence of the Bronze Age economy being within the Bronze Age complex at relating to settlement and economy from dominated by pastoralism is no longer Tofts Ness, Sanday the Bronze Age in Orkney (Figs 39 and tenable. A mixed subsistence economy © S J Dockrill. 40). Survey has also augmented this list appears to have been the norm. Evidence 40. Recovery of with numerous potentially Bronze Age for cultivation in Bronze Age Orkney animal bone at Tofts settlement sites being identified by comes in the form of ard marks (eg Tofts Ness, Orkney © S J Dockrill. Raymond Lamb (RCAHMS 1980; 1982; Ness, (Fig 67); Dockrill et al forth; Simpson et al 1998a), pollen (eg Liddle, Hedges, R E M 1975) and the wooden yoke from White Moss, Shapinsay (Hedges, J W et al 1993). The importance of cultivation in Bronze Age Orkney is also implied by the common occurrence of ard points both in domestic and funerary contexts (Downes pers comm).

Funerary evidence has tended to dominate the study of the Bronze Age since burial mounds are the most numerous prehistoric monument in Orkney. In a survey of all Bronze Age burial sites listed in the Orkney Records undertaken by Jane Downes in 1993-4 (Downes 1997a), 229 burial mound sites were found to survive. That is a total of 550 burial mounds spread amongst sites which range from single mounds to cemeteries of several mounds. This total does not include ﬂat cemeteries or unmarked graves. Although many Bronze Age burials were excavated in the 19th century, there is a growing body of evidence from more recent work that allows a better understanding of these monuments (eg Hedges, M E 1977;

57 The Bronze Age World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones The Bronze Age archaeology of this area is dominated by funerary evidence. The late Neolithic ceremonial sites of the Ring of Brodgar, the Stones of Stenness, Maeshowe and the Ring of Bookan appear to have acted as a focus for Bronze Age burial, whilst respecting the earlier monuments. The importance of this area is emphasised not only by the number of satellite burial mounds, but also by the range of different types of mound, and the scale of some of the mounds. This variety of Bronze Age burial mound is best 41. Varme Dale, Hedges, J W 1981; Neil 1981b; Downes paralleled in Wessex at Stonehenge and Rendall. The Orkney 1994; 1995; 1997c; 1999; forth; Barber et Avebury. Barrows Project is looking at Bronze al 1996; Dalland 1999). Recent studies, Age burial in Orkney especially Jane Downes’ ‘Orkney Barrows When the Royal Commission surveyed through a Maeshowe in 1934, nine mounds were combination of Project’, have emphasised the variety and excavation and complexity of burial rites (Fig 41). recorded in the ‘immediate vicinity’ of survey Cremation and inhumation were both Maeshowe (HY31 SW21). Today only © J Downes. employed throughout the period, with one visible mound survives, the others burials being placed in cists, pits and even having been removed by ploughing or clefts in rocks. Excavations have also destroyed by the construction of a military highlighted the amount of information that camp to the north of Maeshowe during the can be retrieved from sites that have Second World War (WWII). already been ‘investigated’ or that have suffered from recent farming practices. Thomas’s (1852) survey of the Brodgar Excavation at the barrow cemetery of area noted two mounds close to the Stones Linga Fiold (Downes 1995) revealed that of Stenness, on the shore of the Loch of primary burials often survive previous Harray (HY31 SW35) (cover). A copy of investigations. Area excavation between a presumed earlier map of the area, the mounds also exposed secondary showing the sixpenny land of Stenness burials, pyre sites and a mortuary structure (Orkney Archives D23/10), shows six where there were no surface traces. mounds in this vicinity and refers to them as ‘Clovy Knowes’. Since Thomas’s survey The ‘Barrows Project’ is ongoing with the land has been taken into cultivation investigations at the Knowes of Trotty, and today no surface traces of these Harray, a large linear cemetery. In 1858 mounds survive. amber and gold artefacts were recovered from a cist in the largest mound (Petrie The splendour and continued importance 1860). These grave goods are unusual for of the Ring of Brodgar is emphasised by Orkney but they ﬁnd parallels in the rich the number and scale of the burial mounds Wessex graves of the early Bronze Age. It erected in its vicinity (Fig 42). Salt Knowe may be argued that these items were (HY21 SE14) (Fig 43), to the west of the heirlooms and cannot be used to date the henge, is only paralleled in scale (c40m in cemetery. However, the location and diameter by 6m high) by Maeshowe and layout of the cemetery would imply an the largest mound at the Knowes of early Bronze Age date (Downes pers Trotty. Whether Salt Knowe was built to comm). The exceptional quality of these contain a Bronze Age burial or a ﬁnds in a Scottish context implies that chambered tomb awaits investigation. Orkney in the Bronze Age was not as According to Thomas (1852, 110), this isolated as previously thought. mound was investigated prior to 1700 and

58 elongated form of this mound suggests that it covers a chambered tomb rather than a Bronze Age burial.

The hollow centre of the South Mound (18m in diameter by 1.8m high) (HY21 SE15), close to the southern lip of the ditch at the Ring of Brodgar, bears witness to investigations in the past. No records of these excavations survive. To the south of the henge at least nine smaller barrows 42. Detail of Brodgar nine silver fibulae were found. S Grieg survive (HY21 SE16), ranging from 4.5m area in 1849 (see (1940) speculates that this was Viking to 12.8m in diameter and up to 1.1m high. also cover; Thomas 1852) ring-money. It seems possible that these Some have obviously been investigated © Crown Copyright ‘fibulae’ came from the cist-like structure but no finds have been reported. The reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. still visible on the top of the mound. recent geophysical survey (GSB 2002) of the area has clarified the extent of these 43. Salt Knowe The two large mounds to the east of the mounds and located a series of associated © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of circle, Fresh Knowe (38m by 26m by features. Historic Scotland. 5.7m high) and Plumcake Knowe (22m in diameter by 3m high), were both To the north of the Ring of Brodgar, close investigated by Farrer and Petrie (Petrie to the present shore of the Loch of 1857). Two short cists were found in Stenness, is the best preserved of only four Plumcake Knowe, one containing a steatite recorded disc-barrows in Orkney (HY21 urn ‘one-third part filled with pieces of SE3). Although the outer bank on the calcined bones’, the other ‘an urn of baked south-west side has been cut through by a clay … five inches in diameter and five cart track in the past, the central barrow inches deep’ (Petrie 1857, 60). The (15m in diameter by 0.8m high) and its excavations at Fresh Knowe by Farrer and encircling ditch and bank (overall diameter Petrie concentrated on the north end of c30m) are still well defined. There are no this ‘elliptical’ mound. Despite ‘a very records of any excavations at this site. considerable cut or trench made across it Recent geophysical survey (GSB 2003b) … it did not lead to any discovery’ (Petrie of this site suggests that the central mound 1857, 58). Petrie notes only that it was is revetted. Two hundred metres to the carefully constructed. The unusual north of the disc-barrow lies a small

59 cardinal points of the compass’, containing the inhumations of two adults and a child. Until 30 years ago a group of seven barrows (HY21 SE4) existed about 250m to the west of the Ring of Bookan. The mounds varied from 4m to 10m in diameter. A cremation in a cist was recorded from one of them (Callander 1936). Since the Ordnance Survey visit in 1966 ploughing has levelled the mounds.

Within the IBZ around Skara Brae a tumulus (HY21 NW16) was documented on the 2nd edition Ordnance Survey map of 1903, about 100m in front of Skaill House. The Royal Commission in 1928 recorded this as being a mound 23ft in diameter, dug into on the west side for a considerable depth (RCAHMS 1946, 268, no. 719). Today this possible burial mound only survives as a slight mound on top of a probable natural knoll close to the Skara Brae Visitor Centre. This mound is possibly an outlier of the extensive barrow cemetery surveyed by Low, Banks and Walden in the late 18th century in the Links of Skaill (HY21 NW15) (Lysaght 1972).

44. Skae Frue from mound (HY21 SE19). When recorded by Apart from the upstanding barrows, Bookan the Royal Commission (RCAHMS 1946, numerous unmarked cists and burials have © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of 264) it was ‘outlined at the base by a been recovered from the IBZ. Historic Scotland. setting of stones’. Today there is no Unfortunately only a few have been evidence of this setting and the mound recorded. Of most note was the presumed survives only as a low mound, c8m in Bronze Age cist cemetery discovered close diameter by 0.3m high. to Brodgar Farm in 1925 (Marwick, H 1925b). Six cists were uncovered in The remaining burial mounds in the association with a slab bearing eight bands Brodgar area may be seen to cluster of incised decoration (Fig 29). Three of around the Ring of Bookan. There are the cists held uncremated bone. This site, presently three mounds (HY21 SE9) however, may need to be reassessed in appearing to form a grouping at the top of light of the recent discovery of a presumed the hill at Wasbister, south of the Ring of Neolithic complex in the vicinity. During Bookan. The mound closest to the quarry recent building work at the house of is probably the result of quarrying activity. Lochview a deposit of undisturbed Both of the other mounds exhibit evidence cremated bone was found adjacent to a of being investigated in the past. No sherd of Bronze Age pottery (HY31 reports survive of these excavations. SW72). There were no surface features to Skae Frue (HY21 SE8) is a large mound indicate the presence of a grave (Card (24m in diameter by 2.4m high) that lies 1998a, 71). Local knowledge would also c100m downslope to the south-west of the seem to indicate the past presence of Ring of Bookan (Fig 44). Excavations in numerous ﬂat cist burials around the the mid-19th century (Thomas 1852, 22- Bookan area. While breaking in the land 5) revealed three cists ‘placed at the for cultivation in the late 1960s and early

60 45. The results of 11.5m in diameter. In the autumn of 2003 geophysical survey at the geophysical programme in the WHA Wasbister (the circular house in the revealed that this structure lay in the centre is about 19m middle of a ‘major settlement site of in diameter) © GSB Prospection. around four hectares in extent’ (Fig 45, GSB 2003b).

In comparing the Wasbister house to the various Bronze Age houses of Shetland, it is interesting to note the apparent similarities between some of these structures and House 8 at Skara Brae. The differences between House 8 and most of the rest of the houses at Skara Brae are usually interpreted in terms of function, with House 8 being seen as a workshop. However, as Richards (1990b, 40) notes, there is no evidence to suggest this structure was not a dwelling. 1970s the farmer at Bockan Farm is reputed to have ploughed up ‘several’ cists The Dyke of Sean (HY21 SE68) that (Harrold pers comm). crosses the Brodgar peninsula, although marking the medieval parish boundary, Until recently other possible evidence for may have its origins in this period. Bronze Age activity in the area was limited to two possible burnt mounds at Kokna- Iron Age Orkney Cumming (HY31 SW28) and Wasbister (HY21 SE20). No evidence for the The Iron Age in the north of Scotland has existence of Kokna-Cumming now its origins in the first half of the 1st remains, but it was reported as standing millennium BC. Despite possible Roman close to the pair of standing stones of influence or contact (Fitzpatrick 1989) and Lochview (HY31 SW10), by the shore of the presence of Roman imports, the lack of the Loch of Harray (RCAHMS 1946, 319, Roman occupation means that the Iron No. 899). A low, grass-covered mound at Age continues uninterrupted through into Wasbister, c6m in diameter by 0.3m high, the latter half of the 1st millennium AD. In next to the seasonal lochan north of the northern Scotland the Iron Age is generally Ring of Brodgar, is now indicated by subdivided into early (up to c200 BC), geophysical survey not to be a burnt middle (c200 BC- AD c300) and late (AD mound, as had previously been thought c300-c800) (Foster 1990; Barrett and (GSB 2003b). Foster 1991). The later Iron Age is often also referred to, here and elsewhere in As early as 1928 the Royal Commission Scotland, as early historic, early medieval, (1946, 263) briefly considered the two Dark Age or Pictish. The term Pictish is ‘contiguous’ cairns at Wasbister (HY21 most usually applied in Orkney to material SE18) to be hut-circles. Due to their size, dating from around AD 600. Christianity however, this idea was shelved and until was introduced to Orkney during the Late recently the site was described as a pair of Iron Age. Although the study of this later denuded cairns. Comparisons with some period still relies primarily on the recently excavated sites in Shetland archaeological record, historical references (Downes and Lamb, R G 2000) and the also start in this period. Western Isles indicate that this site is probably a Bronze Age double house. The The study of the northern Iron Age has larger northern house is 19m in overall until recently been dominated by ‘That diameter, the smaller southern structure tower of Scottish prehistory - the broch’

61 46. Part of the Iron 1987), Howe (Ballin Smith (ed) 1994), Age complex at Pierowall (Sharples 1984), Quanterness Pool, Sanday © J R Hunter. (Renfrew 1979) and Tofts Ness (Dockrill et al, forth) have provided a ‘native pedigree for the northern brochs’ (Hingley 1992, 13) and dispelled the need for brochs being introduced by outsiders. The emphasis has shifted towards understanding the social context of Iron Age architecture (eg Barrett and Foster 1991; Parker Pearson et al 1996; Sharples and Parker Pearson 1997; Armit 2003).

A distinctive feature of the Orcadian and 47. 1920s Caithness Iron Age is the occurrence of excavations at Dale contemporary villages around brochs. This earth house, Harray, as photographed by has been seen as suggesting a more Thomas Kent centralised hierarchical or politically © Orkney Archives. sophisticated culture than other areas of (Hedges, J W and Bell 1980). Early studies Atlantic Europe. However, it seems more of brochs were concentrated on typological likely that it reflects densities of population and evolutionary classifications and the and the inherent fertility of the land analysis of attributes of broch towers by forcing people into more compact simple statistics. This approach was settlement patterns (Sharples pers comm). determined by the lack of stratigraphic excavation and reliable dating evidence Recent excavations and surveys have also and gave rise to many theories explaining emphasised the possible range of non- their origins by migration or invasion broch-type settlement in the Orcadian Iron (Childe 1935; Mackie 1965; 1983), and Age. The results from Pool, Sanday their function in terms of comparisons (Hunter et al forth) have not only provided with medieval castles (Curle, A O 1927). one of the most important site sequences However, excavations at Bu (Hedges, J W for the region (Fig 46) but have also 62 helped to bridge the gap between earlier (J Gibson pers comm). Underwater survey roundhouse type structures and late Iron by Bobby Forbes in the Stenness Loch area Age cellular structures, as found for has recently led to the discovery of two instance at Buckquoy, Birsay (Ritchie, A small islands with causeways. Excavations 1977), while shedding new light on other at Brettaness, Rousay (HY33 SE12; previously excavated non-broch structures Marwick, J 1984, 20) have shown that like Howmae, North Ronaldsay (Traill some date to the late Iron Age period in 1890). Evidence from Pool is also Orkney. A wider date range is evident from suggesting a revised chronology for the elsewhere in Scotland. ‘farm-mounds’ (Davidson et al 1983; 1984; 1986) of Sanday and North Recent excavations have also provided new Ronaldsay. Traditionally dated to later insights into the environment and than AD c800 it now seems likely that economy, and the inter-relationships many may have their origins in the Iron between the two. By 1300 BC the climate, Age (Hunter 1990, 191-2). soil types and vegetation were very much like the present day (Davidson and Jones The ubiquitous earth-houses or souterrains 1985, 35). Childe, as early as 1946, (assumed to be Iron Age although none suggested an expansion of agriculture in are scientifically dated) are no longer seen the Iron Age (Childe 1946). Recent as isolated features in the Iron Age research in the Northern Isles strongly landscape (Fig 47). Excavations at Howe suggests that the Iron Age was a period of (Ballin Smith (ed) 1994, 33) and Grain agricultural development and (Haigh 1983) have proved their intensification with an expansion in arable association with ground-level structures. cultivation and, particularly in the later Their interpretation as storage for grain Iron Age, the introduction of new crop (Foster 1989a, 35) seems unlikely in an species (Simpson et al 1998b; Ballin Smith Orcadian context (Ballin Smith (ed) 1994, (ed)1994; Bond, J M 1998; 2002; 2003). 273). The contents of some of these A change from the use of domestic midden structures (eg at Rennibister (HY31 SE3) material as fertiliser to the use of animal where many human remains were found), manure occurs as part of the expansion in and the growing evidence for the arable agricultural (Simpson et al 1998b). importance of underground structures in The use of animal manure as fertilisers the Iron Age (eg Mine Howe, Card and would require that the animals be stabled Downes 2003), suggests that interpretation or corralled, with a concomitant of their use as ritual structures is worthy of intensification of stock keeping at this time. further consideration. At the same time, a greater emphasis was placed on domesticated animals with a Since Raymond Lamb’s survey of decline in the reliance on wild fauna, promontory sites in the northern isles specifically red deer (Ballin Smith (ed) (Lamb, R G 1980b) little consideration 1994; Gilmour and Cook 1998). This has been given to these sites in the context development of agriculture may be related of Iron Age settlement in Orkney. The to the apparent centralisation of settlement dating of the promontory fort at Crosskirk, in the middle Iron Age, the development Caithness (Fairhurst 1984) to the pre- of broch-type structures and the broch period may have important emergence of an Iron Age elite basing its implications for similar sites in Orkney. power on the redistribution of agricultural surpluses (Dockrill 2002). However the Crannogs are an aspect of settlement apparent focus of most of this absent from the record in Orkney (eg intensification appears to relate to the post- Ritchie, A 1995) but they are present in the broch settlements (Bond J M 2002) which landscape. At present only two are listed in may necessitate a rethink of present site the NMRS database. Recent studies of hierarchy models. aerial photographs imply that this is a much-underestimated resource in Orkney The Iron Age, before the introduction of

63 Christianity, has often been viewed as a Knowe of Skea, Westray may be period within which society was more addressing this imbalance with the remains concerned with the ‘mundane’ aspects of of over 60 individuals being recovered, life. This is largely due to a lack of some dating to the early 1st millennium evidence across Scotland for burial in the AD and providing exciting new evidence earlier Iron Age, or other structures to for Iron Age burial practices (Wilson pers which a ritual purpose can be attributed. comm). Formal burials attributable to the This imbalance in the evidence has partly later Iron Age are more widely recognised been redressed by research showing that (Ashmore 2003). Excavations at belief systems can manifest themselves in a Hermisgarth on Sanday (Downes 1997b) variety of ways, for instance in the have shown that inhumation in cists and orientation of buildings, the use of cremation were both practised in the late architectural spaces and structured Iron Age and that burial in long cists does deposits within pits (eg Hill 1995). The not necessarily imply the adoption of discovery and ongoing excavation of the Christianity. The burials of this period can ‘ritual’ complex at Mine Howe (Card and occur in low, kerbed cairns (eg Morris, C Downes 2003) has shown that overtly D 1996, 50-53) or flat cist cemeteries ritual sites do exist. The similarity of the (Kaland 1993, 312-14). The cemetery of well-like structure at Mine Howe to so- long-cist burials from Moaness, Rousay called wells often found within brochs in are dated to the Pictish period (ibid). Orkney and Caithness emphasises the These were part of the same cemetery in potential of the ‘religious’ as part of many which several pagan Viking burials were domestic structures. Anna Ritchie (2003) discovered. Because none of the Pictish has also suggested a ritual function for burials were conspicuously marked and several small alcove structures previously they had not been disturbed by the burials thought of as domestic. of the Viking period, it has been interpreted as evidence for the continuity of the A total of 12 Pictish symbol stones have Pictish population into the Viking period. been found in Orkney (RCAHMS 1999). Until recently few of the Orcadian stones The introduction of Christianity to were securely provenanced. The discovery Orkney, probably sometime between the of the symbol stone at Pool (Hunter 1990, late 6th century (Ritchie, A 1995, 117-18) 185-7; Hunter at al forth) in a secure and the early 8th century (Thomson 2001, stratigraphical context has not only allowed 13-22), is perhaps the most influential confirmation for the stylistic dating of some event in the Pictish period. The strength of stones, but also shed new light on their Christian organisation and its integration possible function and meaning. Ogham within secular power structures in Orkney script has been found on various objects in at an early stage has been argued for on Orkney. Difficulties in both reading and the basis of the evidence for a ‘Peterkirk interpreting ogham have recently been system’ (Lamb, R G 1995, 22; but see addressed by Forsyth (1995; 1997). Thomson 2001, 19-20) with the postulated presence of a resident bishop, Evidence for burial in the Iron Age of perhaps on Papa Westray, sometime in the northern Scotland as a whole has been 8th century. lacking (Hingley 1992, 16). Where found, the disposal of bodies seems almost casual The Iron Age World Heritage Site and and ad hoc as at Howe, Stromness (Ballin Inner Buffer Zones Smith (ed) 1994, 281). The introduction The evidence for Iron Age activity within of extended inhumation in long cists was the IBZ is limited. Perhaps the most thought only to arrive with the adoption of important site is the remains of a probable Christianity (Close-Brooks 1984, 96). broch, Big Howe (HY31 SW31). This was Until recently there was a dearth of formal partially leveled around 1900 when ‘it was burials attributable to the earlier Iron Age. found to be a broch’ (Cursiter 1923, 52). However, ongoing excavations at the When Thomas (1852) surveyed the site he

64 48. Geophysical survey results showing banks and ditches at Big Howe (survey covers area of 100m2) © GSB Prospection.

described it as being ‘very large’ and During the excavations at the Stones of ‘requiring considerable excavations to Stenness (HY31 SW2) (Ritchie, J N G make out its detail’. Although the site 1976) sherds of Iron Age pottery were appears to survive as only a low but recovered from two pits near the centre of extensive mound, just south of the Stones the henge. A third pit provided wood of Stenness, the recent geophysical survey charcoal dated to AD c560. Fifty-one Iron of the area (GSB 2002) has shown that Age sherds were also recovered during the considerable detail of the site still survives re-erection of Stone 5, in 1906 (MacKie (Fig 48). What appears to be an outer 1976b). Hingley (1996; 1999) has recently ‘light bulb – shaped’ enclosure surrounds discussed the significance of the reuse of an inner circular enclosure c40m in Neolithic monuments in the Iron Age. diameter which is thought to contain the broch structure. The magnetic responses The Ring of Bookan (HY21 SE7) has from the intervening area between the two always been dated to the Neolithic (see enclosures, are ‘consistent with midden above). However, recent excavations of the heaps, hearths and structures’. ritual complex at Mine Howe have shown that such earthworks can also date to the Another possible contender for broch Iron Age. Investigation at the Ring of status is the large mound at the north end Bookan is required to clarify the nature of of the Bridge of Brodgar (HY31 SW20). this monument. This has been interpreted as a possible Neolithic/Bronze Age burial mound and a A long-cist burial below a stone cairn Neolithic carved stone ball has been (HY31 NW30.02) was excavated due to provenanced to the site (Anon 1885, 139, coastal erosion at the Bay of Skaill. This no. 18). However, other finds from the site has been 14C-dated from AD 540 to AD include a ‘grooved stone, possibly a sinker, 710 (James H F 1999, 771-5). Continuing with figures of fishes, a seal etc. scratched erosion exposes additional stonework at upon it’ (Noble 1888) which may suggest stratigraphically the same layer. At Skara a late Iron Age date. The results of the Brae, the ‘intrusive burials south of Hut 7’ recent geophysical survey around this Childe (1931b, 58-60) excavated may also mound (GSB 2002) would appear to be of Iron Age date. support its interpretation as a broch.

65 Assessment of the historic Mighty in 1065 is generally regarded as period signifying the end of the Viking period in Sarah Jane Grieve with Julie Gibson Orkney (Crawford 1987, 219).

Orkney Viking period (c800- One of the main debates surrounding the 1065) Viking period concerns the relationship between the incoming Vikings and the The Viking period in Orkney is generally native Picts. There are two opposing views accepted to have begun at the close of the which illustrate the wide range of current 8th century when records show that the opinion. There is no doubt that (with the Vikings turned their attention to the British exception of modern ones) place-names in Isles; those who raided the north of Orkney stem almost completely from the Scotland came mainly from the west of Norse. An argument based on this Norway. In time these Norse men settled proposes that the Vikings exterminated all the coastal fringes of the north and west of the Picts. At the opposite extreme an Scotland. By 900 the earls of Møre in alternative view suggests that Vikings and western Norway had established an Picts integrated with little violence (based earldom, based in Orkney, which later mainly on archaeological evidence from included Shetland and Caithness and at the site of Buckquoy) (see Smith, B 2001, 49. Remains of a times areas within mainland Scotland, the 7-32 and Bäcklund 2001, 33-48 for details Viking building with Hebrides and Ireland (Taylor 1938, 138-9, of the opposing views). The truth may be central hearth at Pool, Sanday 189). The death of Earl Thorﬁnn the somewhere in between. © J R Hunter. The Orkney Viking period is considered proto-historic as there are some documentary sources pertaining to the period but none of any detail and none from Orkney itself. Most of our knowledge of the Viking period in Orkney comes from: archaeological investigations; later documentary sources, namely the Orkneyinga Saga, written in Iceland c1200 and detailing the history of the earls of Orkney; and place-name evidence. This period in Orkney has been studied in detail and a general picture can be formed of Viking period Orkney from these studies.

The main Viking period settlements excavated in Orkney are: in the Birsay Bay area; the Brough of Birsay (HY22 NW1; Morris, C D 1989), Buckquoy (HY22 NW11; Ritchie, A 1977), Brough Road (HY22 NW14; Morris, C D 1989) and Saevar Howe (HY22 NW5; Hedges, J W 1983a); Skaill in Deerness (HY50 NE19; Buteux 1997) and Pool in Sanday (HY63 NW17; Hunter et al forth). Excavations show that the Viking settlers frequently built their homesteads on or near to Pictish settlement sites (as seen at Skaill, Pool and Brough of Birsay). These dwellings were longhouses in which accommodation for people and a byre for the animals were

66 integrated under one roof (Fig 49). The 1938, 189), further suggests he was early houses were built in the main of attempting to develop governmental stone and turf, roughly rectangular with structures and, if correct, places him ‘well the longer walls bowed. The living in the forefront of 11th-century political accommodation surrounded a long central development’ (Crawford 1987, 80). hearth with the byre at the lower end of the building. At each of the sites there Skaill Bay in Sandwick, the location of part were also other smaller buildings of the WHS, was evidently a focus of associated with the dwelling house. It is Viking activity and settlement. The place- likely that the house would have name ‘Skaill’ comes from the Norse name accommodated a single-family unit. The skali which refers to a feasting hall for a earliest Viking houses have been dated to military retinue (Thomson 2001). the 9th century. The majority of Viking Furthermore, reference to the subdivision settlements have been recognised on sites of Svein Asleifarson’s great drinking hall close to the shore and as a result many by his sons in Orkneyinga Saga, chapter sites, such as those in the Bay at Birsay, 108, is made by the 13th-century writers have been subject to coastal erosion and to symbolise the end of the period of are thus incomplete. These coastal Vikings in Orkney (Pálsson and Edwards farmsteads were ideally situated to exploit 1981, 15). The name is thus likely to be a the maximum number of resources while signifier of Viking activity. The original not encroaching on the best farmland, and skali settlement in the bay at Skaill has not are often to be found near good bays been identified, but there are other allowing ease of access and indications of a Viking presence here. One communication. ubiquitous aspect of Viking society is the hoarding of precious metals in the ground, Birsay Bay is the main area of Viking sometimes beneath settlements or perhaps settlement investigated in Orkney (Morris, related to prominent landscape features. C D 1989; 1996). It is probably not a There have been six hoards found in coincidence that a large amount of Orkney and three single finds. The hoards archaeological material has been may have been deliberately placed in the discovered in this area for it was the largest ground to be recovered later and they earldom estate and the seat of the first could indicate a period of unrest or Norse bishopric in Orkney. The bay at warfare when it was thought safer to hide Birsay was a Pictish settlement focus prior portable wealth. From Skaill came a hoard to the arrival of the Vikings (Ritchie, A (HY21 NW14) that is the largest Viking 1977, 192; 1988, 5) and it was located on hoard yet to be discovered in Scotland. It the route from Norway to the Irish Sea. was found in the 19th century in a rabbit The first documented reference to Birsay burrow at the Castle of Snusgar (HY21 is in the Orkneyinga Saga where it states NW21), a large mound at the north end of that Thorfinn ‘lived usually in Birsay, and the Bay of Skaill. It has been suggested had Christ’s Kirk built there’ (Taylor that this hoard may represent ‘the capital 1938, 189). At the end of the Viking of the local chieftain who lived in this period the earldom of Orkney was a well- prime settlement location, buried by him established power (Crawford 1987, 63). … before setting out to increase his wealth The achievements of Thorfinn the Mighty on an expedition from which he never reveal the developments which had taken returned’ (Graham-Campbell and Batey place within Orkney society in the 250 1998, 246). Ongoing work by David years since the first Vikings settled. His Griffith of Oxford University at the Castle tour of Scandinavia, Germany and Rome of Snusgar may shed light on this (Griffith and the papal approval of a bishop for 2003). Orkney, provide indications of the wealth and power he had created. That he ‘turned In recent years the increase in his mind to the government of his land and environmental analysis has allowed many people, and to the making of laws’ (Taylor new discoveries to be made concerning the

67 economy and environment of the with the burials has provided an estimated Scandinavian people living in Orkney. date range from the middle of the 9th to From samples taken from the Birsay the middle of the 10th century, with most (Morris, C D 1989; 1996) and Pool burials centring around late 9th to early (Hunter et al forth) excavations it has been 10th (Graham-Campbell and Batey 1998, possible to gain a better understanding of 154). The largest group of Viking graves the resources exploited by these first yet discovered in Britain lay behind Scandinavian settlers. It appears that these Pierowall, in Westray (HY44 NW13 and settlers had a mixed economy combining HY45 SW5). Raymond Lamb argues that pastoral and arable farming, while also their presence, read together with the exploiting the seasonal wild resources of a Orkneyinga Saga designation of Pierowall variety of fish, shellfish and birds (Morris, as ‘thorp’, suggests the presence of a C D 1989, 271). The livestock remains mercantile settlement (Lamb, R G 1993a, from the sites in Birsay reveal that cattle 82). were predominant but there were also sheep, goat, pig, horse, fowl and domestic There is some archaeological evidence for dog and cat present (Morris, C D 1989, two small chapels in use in Orkney by the 10). The animals were being slaughtered mid-10th century, at Newark in Deerness on site and at a young age that suggests (HY50 SE3) and at the Brough of that the majority of the animals were used Deerness (HY50 NE14; Barrett et al for meat rather than for dairying or as a 2000b, 13-14). In addition to the wool resource. At Saevar Howe and Pool archaeological evidence there is one cereals have also been found, the most documentary source which, if believed, is predominant being six-row barley and evidence for a Christian community within cultivated oats. The discovery of small Orkney in the mid-9th century. The querns suggests that there was flour source is the Vita Findani, which describes production on site while the Viking Age St Findan being captured by Vikings in horizontal mill at the Earls Bu, Orphir Ireland, escaping his captors in Orkney suggests larger scale milling (Graham- and being taken to a bishop who spoke his Campbell and Batey 1998, 192-4). The language (Thomson 1986, 279-80). This introduction of flax in this period at most reference has been thought to relate to a of the sites suggests that it was a crop monastic establishment in Papa Westray brought in by the Scandinavians (Bond but the identification is by no means and Hunter 1987). Fish and marine conclusive (Lowe 1998, 8-9). The most resources were important in this period explicit piece of documentary evidence for and the evidence from Birsay shows that Christianity in Orkney in this period gadids were the predominant fish species comes again from the Orkneyinga Saga. In and limpets the most common shellfish 995 Olaf Tryggvesson met with Earl (Morris, C D 1989, 8-9). Many varying Sigurd and said ‘It is my will that thou species of wild bird were also being have thyself baptized and all those under exploited. thee, else thou shalt die on the spot and I shall bear fire and flame through all the Orkney has the largest number of pagan Isles’ (Taylor 1938, 149). This date is graves from any region within Scandin- taken to be the official conversion of the avian Scotland. There are a variety of Norse in Orkney to Christianity and, along forms of burial, including boat burials, with the evidence outlined above, it seems such as Scar (HY64 NE7; Owen and likely that by the close of the 10th century Dalland 1999), large numbers of there were several Christian foundations inhumations within cemeteries, eg within the Islands. Westness (HY32 NE7; Kaland 1993) and, more unusually, cremations. The It is important to realise the position of most common form of pagan burial in Orkney as a real power within the north of Orkney was inhumation. Analysis of the Scotland in the Viking Age and to be many varied grave-goods found associated aware of the profound effect the Norse

68 settlement had on the Islands. This power Orkney late Norse Period can be illustrated in the far-reaching (1065-1231) international connections between Orkney, Scandinavia and western Europe. This This period sees the further growth of the power would fade by the 13th century but earldom as a power in the north. This the legacy of the Vikings continues even power was at its peak during the rule of today. Earl Rognvald Kolsson, when the development of the medieval institutions of The Viking period World Heritage Site urbanisation and centralisation began to and Inner Buffer Zones take place. The 12th century has been There are at present no known Viking regarded as Orkney’s Renaissance period settlement sites in the IBZs, yet evidence is and this is reflected in the quality of the there for Viking period activity, buildings erected, as best exemplified by St represented by three burials and one Magnus Cathedral (HY41 SW10) in deposit of silver rings. The silver rings Kirkwall (Crawford (ed) 1988, 11). were found ‘in one of these hillocks near However, the period also saw the decline the circle of high stones’ (Wallace 1700, of the earldom and the end of the line of 58) at some time earlier than 1700 Norse earls. By 1240 the earldom had (Graham-Campbell 1995, 95-6). Thomas been much reduced and had lost its (1852, 110) suggests they may have been position of power in the north. The last found in Salt Knowe (HY21 SE14). The earl of Orkney was murdered, his son find consisted of nine silver plain drowned, and many of his relatives penannular arm-rings, of the ring-money (consisting of many of the powerful chiefs type, which have been dated within the 9th in Orkney) drowned in a boat accident and 10th centuries (Graham-Campbell (Thomson 2001, 132-3). These events left 1995, 95-6). Two burials discovered in a convenient blank in the power-base of 1930 during excavations at Skara Brae Orkney and as a result the kings of (HY21 NW12) were proposed by Childe Scotland and Norway were able to assert (1931a, 58-9) as pre-Christian, possibly more influence upon the islands. Viking, although they could equally be Iron Age in date (p 65). From the mound The Orkneyinga Saga portrays a eroding to the west of Skara Brae, a 19th- hierarchical society in Orkney with the earl 50. The Round century discovery of a burial (HY21 Church, Orphir, part in control but reliant on a group of good- of a lordly estate NW13) accompanied by a bone comb, men for support. These men were often complex comb case and other goods, has been given earldom estates and in return © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of dated typologically to the 9th century or supported the earl and possibly performed Historic Scotland. later (Morris, C D et al 1985). administrative functions within the earldom. There is no mention in the Orkneyinga Saga of farmers or tenants and only in 1492, the date of the earliest extant rental for Orkney, is it possible to get a clear understanding of the layout of the land in Orkney.

Archaeological evidence has much improved knowledge of the types of settlement within Orkney in the Late Norse period. The excavations at Skaill in Deerness (HY50 NE19; Buteux 1997) and at Tuquoy in Westray (HY44 SE5; Owen 1993) have both revealed relatively high status sites with large dwellings, most likely of a hall-house type construction, dating to the 12th century. Owen (ibid) suggests

69 that Tuquoy may also be compared with the town as the secular and ecclesiastical the more grandiose 12th-century Bishops’ centre of Orkney, and it is from this period Palace in Kirkwall (HY41 SW12) and onwards that Kirkwall becomes the focus possibly the Wirk, Rousay (HY33 SE17). of activity. Both the earls and the bishops Tuquoy, Westray and Skaill, Deerness, (Lamb, R G 1993a, 46) would have both provide evidence of rich farm estates encouraged the development of the with large houses, outbuildings and market. The refinement and collection of associated churches, as does the Earls Bu taxes based on the land may also have in Orphir (Fig 50). The combination of been started soon after the move to residence, farm and church can also be Kirkwall (Thomson 2001, 219), in seen in Wyre, in an agglomeration of conjunction with the re-organisation of the fortified residence - Cobbie Roo’s Castle, church. Saint Magnus and the cathedral farm and church (HY42 NW4, 5). The indicate the status of Orkney in the 12th excavations of a late Norse settlement at century and suggest a sentiment of Westness in Rousay (HY32 NE17) national identity. The fact that the earl and revealed a pair of rectangular stone the bishop both went on crusade in c1150 buildings which were built close together, also indicates the power of both secular gable end on to the sea and linked by a and ecclesiastical government (Taylor paved area or kloss. It seems that the one 1938, 281). building was a dwelling and the second divided into two byres (Kaland 1993, 308- The position and the influence of the 12). Nearby, and apparently of a similar church changed significantly within this date, was a naust (HY32 NE32) consisting period. In 1065 the first bishop’s seat was of a large stone boathouse with a cleared erected in Birsay and the ‘magnificent landing area running ashore from a church’ (Taylor, 1938, 189) was either sheltered bay. This settlement may have located on the Brough of Birsay or under been the predecessor to the Wirk, the present parish church in Birsay (HY22 mentioned above. The farm mound NW8). There were already small private situated at Beach View in Birsay (HY22 chapels in use in the islands and NW19) revealed a late Norse structure throughout the 11th and 12th centuries which had been modified and in-filled with these chapels appear to have increased midden, along with a possible separate greatly in number. It is possible that there byre and a building with a corn drying kiln was some form of pre-parochial system in dating to the 12th or 13th century. This place, although there has been little is extremely important in that it is the research into this area (Lamb, R G 1997, earliest corn kiln in Orkney (Graham- 16). It is probable that, after the cathedral Campbell and Batey 1998, 190-91). The had been consecrated, the church was buildings outlined above exemplify the reorganised and centralised and the increasing wealth of the local chiefs and parochial system put in place. The church the range of functions performed at their lands increased greatly in this period, homesteads. through endowments and also probably through the establishment of tithe The growth and development of the town payments (Thomson 2001, 252). of Kirkwall is also evident during this period. Kirkwall held one of the earls’ Defining the exact location and status and residences as early as 1046 (Taylor 1938, date of churches and of the very many 183). In c1136 St Magnus’s relics were chapels is not easy and will rely largely on translated from Birsay to the market town archaeological evidence. For instance, of Kirkwall (Taylor 1938, 221), followed recent accidental discovery of a medieval in 1137 by the foundation of St Magnus cemetery at and below parts of Skaill Cathedral. Consequently the bishop’s seat House, Sandwick, with burials 14C-dated to moved from the rural centre of Birsay to between the 11th and 14th centuries the developing town. The deliberate move (HY21 NW40; James 1999), reinforces to Kirkwall by Earl Rognvald established Clouston’s suggestion (Clouston 1918a) of

70 a chapel at this location. This may indicate material (Lowe 1998, 9-10). Evidence for an earlier focus of settlement at this end of the import of wood was discovered in a the bay, the opposite end of the bay from waterlogged deposit at Tuquoy that the present day church of St Peter (HY21 contained pine, maple, larch and spruce. NW26). There is also evidence for the import of antler combs from Norway as found at The economy in this period was similar to Brough of Birsay, Beachview and Orphir that of the Viking period, with samples (Graham-Campbell and Batey 1998, 223). again showing evidence of a mixed pastoral and arable economy and a The late Norse period World Heritage continued exploitation of wild resources. Site and Inner Buffer Zones However, a new development in the Late The Late Norse period in the IBZs is Norse period was the intensification of fish represented entirely by runic inscriptions, processing. Excavations at St Boniface in which include four inscribed stones in Papa Westray (HY45 SE26; Lowe 1998, addition to the magnificent collection in 152-5), and Quoygrew in Westray (HY45 the Neolithic chambered tomb of SW7), provide evidence of this Maeshowe (HY31 SW1) (Fig 51). This is intensification of fish production, but the the greatest collection of runic inscriptions increase is not matched by an apparent outside Scandinavia: approximately 33 increased intake of fish in the diet of the inscriptions and eight carvings which date locals thus suggesting that these fish were from the 12th century (1125-75). For a being exported (Barrett et al 2000b, 17, detailed analysis and bibliography of these 19). These fish processing sites are related runes see Barnes 1994. The Brodgar rune 51. Early view of to a particular type of Iron Age/medieval stone (HY31 SW3) was found in a field- the interior of Maeshowe showing settlement focus known as a farm mound. dyke on the farm and is now held by the the Norse runes This type of site is also found in National Museums of Scotland (Farrer 1862, Pl II) Scandinavia and is formed of an (RCAHMS 1946, 319). A stone found on Crown Copyright: RCAHMS. accumulation of organic settlement the south side of the Stenness Loch with two twig runes inscribed is also now held in the National Museums of Scotland (RCAHMS 1946, 319). A twig rune and a small incised cross were discovered on an extant stump of one of the stones in the Ring of Brodgar (HY21 SE1) during restoration work (Ritchie, A 1996, 136-7). However, Barnes and Page (forth) have expressed some doubt as to the authenticity of these. The final runic inscribed stone was found at Skara Brae in 1982 and had been used face down as a paving slab for 19 years (HY21 NW12.01). This stone now resides in the Orkney Museum. It is thought that the stone weathered out of the site in 1963. It bears three twig runes and three poorly formed futhark (Ashmore and Johnsen 1984).

Late medieval Orkney (1231- 1615)

There is a wealth of source material for this period and the Stewart earls especially have been well researched. The increase in

71 evidence from historical documentation is Orkney permanently to the Crown and matched by a reduction in that from installing a new tacksman. The Sinclairs archaeological investigation. For this remained a powerful family in Orkney reason the majority of the evidence until the Reformation. presented in this section comes from historical sources. Robert Stewart was granted the earldom, the castle of Kirkwall and the position of The political scene at the start of this Sheriff by the King in 1565. The Stewart period is confused and poorly documented rule has been widely documented and is due to the problems of various parties generally regarded as corrupt and competing for the earldom of Orkney. aggressive in the extreme (Anderson 1982; After a period of disruption, the Angus 1992). Robert ensured his position by earls were given the earldom, followed by obtaining the bishopric lands of Orkney the Strathearns and the Sinclairs. Several from Bishop Adam Bothwell and by the of the Sinclair family moved to Orkney ruthless taking of all common land and all and granted land to their kin, thus there newly settled land. When Patrick, Robert’s was a modest influx of Scottish gentry. son, became earl he immediately This was the first major stage of Scottish demonstrated his violent and aggressive movement into Orkney after the end of the character (Thomson 2001, 277-8). His Norse line of earls. In 1468 the islands of extravagant lifestyle was paid for by the Orkney were passed to the Scottish crown rents collected from the islands but this as a mortgage for the dowry of Margaret could not meet the cost of his lavish of Denmark. This was not an unexpected building programme. In 1606 James VI occurrence, since changes in the internal restored the episcopate in Scotland and as politics of Scandinavia meant that Orkney a result Bishop Law was appointed to was politically and economically closer to Orkney and given the bishopric lands. Scotland. The transfer of ownership Patrick did not want to share power within probably had little effect on those residing the islands and eventually this led to his in Orkney as Scottish influence was downfall when, in 1615, he was beheaded already growing and few changes were and his son Robert was hanged for made initially to the way in which the treason. islands were governed. In 1470 the King of Scotland bought the earldom of Orkney From the 13th century Scotland had had from William Sinclair and annexed it to an increasing influence on the Orkney the crown, leasing it as tacks (short-term bishopric and, despite Norwegian attempts leases) until it was granted to Robert to counteract Scottish infiltration in the Stewart in 1565. 1300s, by the 15th century all the clergy in Orkney were Scottish and the Scottish The Sinclairs remained in Orkney after calendar was in use (Thomson 2001, 1468 and, although they no longer held the 153-4). In 1472, as a result of the title of earl, they retained a large amount of impignoration (pledging of Orkney to land. There were several branches of the Scotland), the bishopric of Orkney was Sinclair family in the north of Scotland placed under the jurisdiction of St and much internal feuding occurred. This Andrews (ibid, 220). The main change in feuding culminated in the Battle of the church, however, took place as a result Summerdale (HY31 SW14), in 1529, of the Reformation. Unlike many parts of when the Orkney Sinclair family met Earl Scotland, the transition within Orkney was Sinclair of Caithness at Summerdale in quite smooth, mainly due to the actions of Stenness and where the Orkney branch Bishop Adam Bothwell (ibid, 247). A most was victorious (Thomson 2001, 233-46). important change for Orkney resulting After the battle there was continued unrest from the Reformation was not religious; which led to James V travelling to Orkney rather it was a change in land ownership. in 1540. His return to Scotland was Bothwell created large feudal estates out of followed by an act of Parliament uniting the bishopric lands and feued them to his

72 family, which was the first instance of island group. While a degree of island large-scale feuing in Orkney. This resulted identity was maintained, as can be seen in the introduction of alien gentry who with the Sinclairs’ swift adoption into overshadowed the local gentry in terms of Orkney society, the increasing political and estate size and, as a result, the power base trade connections with Scotland eventually changed dramatically. In the years 1614 affected all aspects of Orkney life. The and 1615 Bishop Law created a further change of language from Norn - a form of fourteen feus from the bishopric lands and Scandinavian language spoken in Orkney these were also given to Lowland Scottish at the start of this period - to the stable gentry (ibid, 304). It was Bishop Law who and complete adoption of Scots by end of helped to bring about the downfall of the 18th century (see Barnes 1998) marks Patrick Stewart, and a part of this action the progress of Scottification which had resulted in the abolition of Norse law in started with the Sinclairs. The economic Orkney. Bishop Law also reorganised the deterioration was in part due to misrule earldom and bishopric land in Orkney, but also to climatic deterioration and reassigning and consolidating hitherto changing external political circumstances. interspersed strips of earldom and The population was able to continue to bishopric land into more coherent blocks pay their rents and skat (land tax) even within the parish system. One parish that through the rule of the Stewart earls, but was changed to hold only bishopric land even this was to change in the following and udal land was Sandwick (ibid, 298). decade. This made the collection of taxes much easier for the king and for the bishop. The late medieval World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones There was a Europe-wide deterioration in Three sites which may belong to this climatic conditions after 1300, resulting in period are to be found within the Stenness a decline in farming and a decrease in IBZ: an earthwork which may be a parish population (Thomson 2001, 169). The boundary marker; the church; and a high situation in Orkney was worsened by status dwelling. plague in 1349. In the 1492 Rental much of Orkney’s land was tenantless and The Dyke of Sean (HY21 SE68), an uncultivated, reflecting the seriousness of earthwork which may be medieval (Lamb the decline. After the low point of the R G pers comm) extends from the shore 1460s the economy slowly began to of the Loch of Stenness to near the recover, although any profits from the land modern shoreline of the Loch of Harray. It were exacted in taxes. The trading almost coincides with the modern parish connections with the north had been boundary between Stenness and Sandwick. depleted considerably, due to the growth The location of the parish boundary is of power of the Hanseatic League in surprising in that the natural boundary at Norway and the movement of the Crown the Bridge of Brodgar would seem a more to Denmark (ibid, 190-91). However, natural division. There is no information grain was still exported and timber concerning the Dyke of Sean itself, imported. The Stewart earls, in their turn, although there is an interesting tradition placed severe restriction on trade and ferry that may be connected to it. The tradition traffic (Anderson 1982, 142), ensuring any concerns a ‘Lady of Brodgar’ who (in dues or fines went to the earldom, addition to moving into the church just including the right to shipwrecked cargo. before her death, presumably to establish her right to burial there) donated lands, This period saw the reduction in political including the lands of Brodgar, to the power of the earldom of Orkney from that church of Stenness on the condition that of a semi-independent and highly she be buried in the Stenness church. influential part of the Scandinavian Peter Leith (1937) discusses the kingdom to that of the administration of a correlation between the tradition and peripheral and poverty-stricken Scottish historical documentation and suggests that

73 the boundary of the Dyke of Sean might steeple, which was built on the west end have been built to mark the establishment and is comparable to two other towered of the parish boundary incorporating the churches in Orkney thought to be of this lands of the donation. As noted above, date. Limited excavations made by however, the origins of this earthwork may Clouston in 1928 confirmed the existence date back to the prehistoric period. of the semi-circular tower or steeple (which demonstrated deficiencies in some The present parish church of Stenness respects in Aberdeen’s sketch) and which (HY31 SW19), which is still in use, has was based upon rectangular foundations. been rebuilt on the same site on at least Clouston also identified two subsequent three occasions. A sketch of the church is re-builds which widened the original recorded in Aberdeen’s drawing of 1784, church, which he estimates as being 52. The Earl’s Palace at Birsay, built c1574 published in Low (1879). The church was ‘approximately 23ft wide, with the tower (Barry 1805) originally dedicated to the Holy Cross, and on the middle of the gable of the church’ © Orkney Archives. is not reliably dated, but it may have a (Clouston 1929, 69). Whatever the many 53. Detailed 17th- Late Norse foundation. The arguments for uncertainties relating to the precise dating century plan of the this are based on descriptions of the of the phases of the church on this site, the Earl’s Palace at Birsay foundations being clay-bonded (evidenced existence for a pre-Reformation church National Archives of Scotland, RHP35836. by Pococke 1887, 144) and on its tower or here seems certain. Weight is added to this by the evidence of a ‘Roman Catholic priest’s gravestone’ which once existed in the graveyard and bronze buckles, thought to be 14th-century, that were found in a grave within the church (Fraser, J 1926, 22).

There is a tradition of a large mansion house called the Palace of Stenness which had its own water source piped up from the loch and was so tall that the ships coming into Stromness could be seen from the top storey. Leith adduces arguments that this was the high status building sold in 1563 to the Bellendens, along with the land which was later referred to as ‘the manse’ (Leith, P 1937, 41-4). An annotation on Thomas’s map of 1849 locates this building to the south-east of the kirkyard and states that the foundations are still perceptible. There is no longer any sign of the building.

Post-medieval Orkney (1615–1840)

There were many changes within the islands in the period from the end of the Stewarts to the 1840s. The start of the period is marked by famine and severe poverty, which is followed by a slow improvement in conditions in the 18th century. This improvement accelerated with the growth in kelp and linen manufacture and the ﬁshing industry. As a

74 cultivation and the number of beggars increasing dramatically. In 1629, after a decade of famine, plague came to Orkney and, as a precautionary measure to prevent the spread of the disease, all trade was stopped. Further famine in the early 1630s brought the islands to a standstill and yet taxes were still demanded, and sent, to the Crown. Famine returned at the close of the century when again many people died and land again ceased to be cultivated (Thomson 2001, 307-9). Due to these circumstances, the land systems in Orkney changed very little, with land going out of 54. Kelp making near result of this growth the lairds and the use rather than being brought into use. Stromness tenants became wealthier. During the 18th Thomas Kent, © Orkney Archives. century there were a few attempts at Conditions improved dramatically for the agricultural improvement, although the population from the 1720s with the majority of investment was made in kelp development of the kelp (Thomson 1983) and linen production. This period of and linen industries, which provided extra economic success dwindled in the 1830s income for the tenants. The deep-sea with the kelp and linen industries in fishing industry also developed in the decline and as a result many landowners 1700s, along with the Hudson’s Bay were faced with large debts. Company and the whaling ships, both of which required labourers to work in The Stewart earls were the last earls to try northern climes. New technological to create a power base from their lands in advances enabled longer trips at sea and Orkney (Figs 52 and 53; Thomson 2001, thus increased the demand for labour 395). All earls and tacksmen after the abroad, so there was a shortage of male Stewarts held substantial estates elsewhere labour in the islands during parts of the and were thus less interested in improving year. The linen and kelp industries Orkney’s condition; their main concern provided work for the women of the was to collect rent. This created islands, and so both men and women resentment within the islands as well as became slightly more prosperous. poverty; there was little connection Extensive archaeological evidence for the between those exacting the taxes and those kelp industry remains in the form of paying them (Thomson 2001, 395). shallow, stone-lined pits along the coast of Orkney (Fig 54) while, in contrast, the The first decades of the 17th century were linen industry is archaeologically almost particularly difficult for the working invisible. population of Orkney. Extremely poor weather conditions, combined with high However, the 1830s saw the collapse of the taxation, led to the exhaustion of both the linen and kelp industries in Orkney as both land and the people. The situation was products could be obtained more cheaply further compounded by the continued use elsewhere. Kelp continued to be produced of the medieval agricultural system of but never reached the same prices again. runrig. This system involved the division Straw plaiting was begun in Orkney in the of each township into equal rigs (strips) of early 1800s but it too was in decline by the land that limited the crops that could be 1830s. The Hudson’s Bay Company grown and the yields obtained. Between merged with the North West Company in 3,000 and 4,000 people are estimated to 1821 and no longer employed as many have died in the islands as a result of the Orcadians. There were several bad fishing climatic deterioration in the 1620s and years in the 1830s as well, which affected 1630s, with land also going out of the cod fishing and lobster exports. Orkney

75 a punishment for Jacobean sympathies after the 1745 uprising, including Trenaby in Westray and Sound in Shapinsay; others survived, and those lairds who came through the Jacobite repercussions saw an increase in wealth due to the increase in local industry. They thrived from kelp and linen proﬁts in the early 19th century.

The small lairds and the ministers were bent on improving physical and moral conditions within the islands. As a result 55. Skaill House, was again in a low economic period and some attempts were made at agricultural Sandwick many of the lairds who had invested improvements by the lairds, such as the © Crown copyright, Historic Scotland. heavily in kelp and linen were faced with introduction of new crops (potatoes), the large debts. As a result of the end of the enclosure of some areas and some 18th-century boom there was a large expansion into the commons. In Birsay unemployed labour force in the islands. there was an early attempt at ‘planking’ The lairds needed money and this c1748, a system where the land was combined with a large available labour divided into equal value units. By the late force and the growth of communications 1700s much of Orkney’s farmland had to bring about the start of the farming been divided into ‘planks’ of revolution of the 19th century. approximately one Scots acre. However, several farmers often shared these planks From the 17th century the lairds had and they were further divided up into rigs, increasing power and wealth which they so the run-rig system continued to be expressed in the erection of small mansion used, although to a lesser extent houses. These were either newly built or (Thomson 2001, 333-5). Many of the renovated older properties; examples ministers encouraged education and were include Breckness House, Stromness often found teaching and helping the poor. (HY20 NW5); the Hall of Tankerness During the 18th century many churches (HY50 NW81); Langskaill in Gairsay were rebuilt, some with laird’s aisles, (HY42 SW8); and Skaill House in reflecting the close relationship between Sandwick (HY21 NW17). Skaill House church and secular authority. As provides a good example of the way in mentioned above, the decline in the local which a small mansion house and estate industries in the later 19th century affected grew and developed in this period (Fig the lairds badly and put many into major 55). The oldest surviving part of Skaill debt and, as a result, the estate land House was built by 1628; the central wing became the focus of attention. was then built by George Graham who enlarged the mansion house at Skaill The post-medieval World Heritage between 1615 and 1643. In 1670 the Site and Inner Buffer Zones house was modernised and a walled garden The Stenness area was not one of the parts was constructed in the 18th century. of Orkney where early improvements were William Watt (1787-1810) of Skaill House attempted and so would have been extended the estate and modernised the tenanted out and farmed using the run-rig home farm, as well as experimenting with system. Captain Thomas’s map of 1849 kelp production, sea fishing and quarrying. (cover; Thomas 1852) gives an overview William Graham Watt (1810-1866) of farms, field systems and types of land abolished run-rig on the estate and cover in relationship to the major enclosed the commons. There was a flax monuments of the Brodgar area. This mill and a dovecote on the estate (Irving cartographic evidence has recently been 1997). Several of these lairds’ properties augmented by the results of the WHAGP. were laid waste when they were burned as This survey has revealed surviving

76 evidence for post-medieval field systems squared under David Balfour, who between the Stones of Stenness and the imposed a grid of 10-acre fields across Barnhouse Stone (GSB 2002; 2003b). almost the whole island. This system replaced Thomas’s earlier attempts at Modern Orkney (1840-1945) squaring and the acreage of arable land in Shapinsay increased from 748 acres to There were a number of events which led 2248 (Thomson 2001, 386). In Eday, by to the introduction of widespread large- contrast, the laird’s primary interest in the scale agricultural improvements in Orkney land was as a shooting estate, which led to around 1840. The main occurrences were much of the land being left under heather. the collapse of the boom economy of The marked contrast between Shapinsay 1770-1830, the steady population increase and Eday today exemplifies the landscape and the increase in communications. The legacy left by the 19th-century lairds. landlords of this time have had a major Clearances did not occur to any great influence on the development of today’s extent in Orkney, with the notable landscape. Agricultural improvement exception of Rousay, where the entire methods were widely known and, because tunship of Quandale has been left as a of the increased number of available fossilised pre-Improvement landscape labourers, it was possible to concentrate on under a sheep-run. Although the the improvement of the land. The first improvements must have been difficult for action taken was the division of the many of the tenants and cottars, and in commons; this took place from the early many areas the numbers of tiny and 1800s and was complete by 1860 (Bailey ultimately unsustainable settlements of the 1971, 120). Labourers were employed to poor now mark the landscape with their drain and enclose the land and slowly a ruins, the long-term effects were new landscape of large square fields was fundamental to Orkney’s establishment as created. As noted by George Petrie in a a leading agricultural area. letter to Daniel Wilson in 1849, these improvements had a drastic effect on The agricultural expansion was many archaeological sites. Probably contemporary with the significant hundreds of sites were removed ‘without development of the herring industry, any attention being given to preserve a which not only employed many locals for record of their construction and contents’ the short 12-week fishing season but also (Wilson Collection MS). As part of this dramatically increased the population of squaring system the cottars were relocated Orkney during those weeks. Stronsay, by their landlords; an early example Stromness (Fig 56) and St Margaret’s resulted in the building of the estate village Hope were the main settlements to benefit at Shoreside in Shapinsay c1780 to house directly from the herring industry, and the 56. Fishing station, Stromness the cottars and tenants of Thomas villages of St Mary’s, St Margaret’s Hope, Thomas Kent, © Orkney Balfour’s estate (Thomson 2001, 339, Burray and Herston were all created as a Archives. 386). This estate was later completely result of the herring industry. Even after 1918 there were 300 drifters and a population increase of 4,000 in Stronsay during the fishing season (Thomson 2001, 369).

The mid-19th century was a time of development and widening horizons. The newly created land system produced better yields and allowed a larger variety of crops to be grown. Cattle exports from Orkney increased greatly in the period 1846-75 and the egg industry also developed and expanded vastly, in part due to the

77 knock-on effects were felt after the First World War (WWI). The Orkney lairds had been affected by the Crofters’ Commission and the rights to compensation that had resulted in the fossilisation of rents at low rates. This, combined with the increases in taxes in the early 1900s, led to the majority of the large estates being divided and sold after 1919 (Thomson 2001, 416-20). The sitting tenants, who had benefited both from the low rents and the increased sales of produce due to war shortages, were now able to buy the land from the lairds. This created a new class of owner-occupiers in Orkney and, while the rest of the country 57. Scapa seaplane establishment of a regular steamboat was in economic decline, the farming station service to the islands which allowed for population of Orkney maintained itself Thomas Kent, © Orkney Archives. easy export. The greater yields resulted in through the export of eggs and beef, and the investment in new machinery and improved rotation of crops. larger farm buildings, not to mention larger profits. The infrastructure on War, itself, had a marked effect on the Mainland Orkney was also improved with islands (Fig 57). In WWI the importance the building of roads and the establishment of Scapa Flow as a naval defence was of a regular post coach and travelling second to none. As a result there was a shops (Bailey 1971, 123). Tourists came great increase in the population with the to Orkney attracted by the idea of a remote arrival of large numbers of troops. retreat (as described by Sir Walter Scott) However, the majority of the armed forces although, ironically, it was the was based on ships and seldom came development of transport which both ashore (Brown and Meehan 1968, 58-68). allowed them to arrive in relative ease and, Nonetheless, there were several bases at the same time, diminished the very located in the islands, including two in isolation which they came to seek. This Stenness: the Standing Stones Hotel was also the period when antiquarianism (HY31 SW107) was commandeered for began (pp 40-46; Wickham-Jones 1998, the headquarters of the Houton Bay Air 181) as landlords investigated the Station, while the Loch of Stenness was archaeological remains on their land. used as a seaplane base (HY31 SW71) These explorations were often destructive, with a subsidiary airstation located at although it was during this period that Gernaness, a peninsula on the west side of Watt of Skaill discovered Skara Brae and the loch (Hewison 1995, 28; 2000, 113). Farrer opened Maeshowe. The main effect of the rise in population was the increased demand for food which By the 1880s the agricultural and fishing led to increased profits for the local boom had ended and, as a result, many farmers. In WWII there was a land-based landowners were again left in debt. A garrison of c60,000 stationed in Orkney decrease in population after 1861 meant and this had a dramatic effect on the there was a labour shortage and servants landscape and the people (Bailey 1971, could therefore demand better conditions. 134). There were many camps and bases As a result of this the social balance was built in the islands and soldiers were to be greatly altered and the days of the seen everywhere. The Churchill Barriers, dominance of the laird and minister were built by prisoners of war, permanently coming to an end. The economy did not linked the islands of Burray and South deteriorate to any great extent but Ronaldsay to the Mainland. The effect of remained static until 1919 when the such a great increase of population led to

78 farms. It is perhaps ironic that the landowners who advanced the farming system were those who benefited the least. The World Wars, although resulting in many losses and tragedies, brought the outside world into closer contact with Orkney and, both at the time and subsequently, greatly increased the wealth of the farmers. As a result of the significance of Scapa Flow, the population who remained in the islands benefited when they might otherwise have experienced economic decline.

The modern period World Heritage Site and Inner Buffer Zones The perspective of the landscape of today is dominated by the changes that took place over this period. The dividing of the commons and the squaring of land affected the Stenness area, especially at the south end of the Loch of Harray where the better farming land is located. The beginnings of antiquarianism in the mid to late 1800s resulted in the investigation of Skara Brae by the laird of the Skaill estate, and the opening of Maeshowe. The 19th- century meal mill at Tormiston (HY31 SW60), which is now used as a visitor centre for Maeshowe, is an excellent example of a prosperous three-storey mill with overshot wheel, examples of which 58. Aerial the improvement of the infrastructure in can be found widely in Orkney. WWII had photograph of the islands which had remained unaltered an effect on the IBZ in Stenness. There Maeshowe in 1965 showing the remains from the agricultural expansion period of was an army camp at Tormiston which of some WWII the previous century. By the 1940s most of was sited adjacent to Maeshowe (Fig 58), buildings in the destroying several prehistoric burial immediate vicinity the owner-occupiers had paid off their Crown Copyright: loans and were secure in their own farms mounds in the process (HY31 SW21), and RCAHMS: John Dewar due to the proﬁts made supplying food to which used the Brodgar peninsula as a Collection. the increased population from 1914-18 training area (Fig 59), along with the small 59. Military training and 1939-45. In addition, the scuttling of holms in the loch of Harray and much of at the Ring of the non-arable land in the surrounding Brodgar during the German High Seas Fleet in Scapa WWII Flow in 1919 has left Orkney with an area (Hewison 2000, Appendix II; Leith, P By permission Imperial War unparalleled underwater archaeological K I 1997, 42-3). There was also a Museum. heritage resource; recreational diving is searchlight station, forming part of the currently a mainstay of the Stromness defences of Scapa Flow during WWII, economy (Oxley 2002, 865). located next to the present Buckan Cottage (HY 285 144) and a seaplane base at The period of agricultural improvement Gernaness (HY31 SW71) in the Stenness from 1840 to 1880 completely recreated Loch. It was during this period that the the landscape of Orkney and, by monuments of the WHS came into State introducing a better system of agriculture, care (Stones of Stenness and Ring of enabled the islanders to increase their Brodgar in 1906; Maeshowe in 1910 and wealth and to eventually buy their own Skara Brae in 1924).

79 PART

3 Research themes

Artefacts, monuments and a single people. For the most part this cultural identity interpretation is based on long-standing Siân Jones, Colin Richards and Artefacts, artefact and architectural typologies. For Monuments and Cultural Identity Group instance, it is argued that ‘…the layout of the early houses at Skara Brae is Identity, as an expression of human reminiscent of the chamber plan at behaviour, is central to the status and Maeshowe’ and ‘Barnhouse settlement in integrity of The Heart of Neolithic Orkney the buffer zone near Stenness and WHS and this is articulated through the Maeshowe contains similar carving, and artefacts, of which one element comprises was built by people who used the same the monuments. For this reason ‘Artefacts, kind of pottery and other artefacts as those Monuments and Cultural Identity’ is seen at the earliest excavated village at Skara as an overarching theme of central Brae’ (ibid, 7). This might suggest that we importance to this document. The know a great deal about these areas, or at importance of artefacts and identity is least that our framework of knowledge is clearly evident in the nomination well established and all that is required is document (Historic Scotland 1998), which the identiﬁcation of further empirical sees the shared artefact types and research areas, but it is not so. architectural features of this group of monuments as the product of a single As in all areas of archaeological enquiry coherent cultural tradition associated with the study of artefacts and cultural identity is far from static so that this research agenda cannot merely advocate the ongoing collection and taxonomic classiﬁcation of artefacts within established typologies. Indeed, the problems created by a simple taxonomic approach, which treats objects as isolated categories and extracts them from their physical contexts, life histories and relationships with each other, need to be explored and overcome. All new projects require the critical examination of existing categories and the assumptions associated with them, eg culture and identity, ritual and domestic, Grooved Ware and Unstan Ware pottery (Fig 60).

60. Grooved Ware pottery from Stenness © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland.

8000 The static objectification of artefacts and place in society both past and present, and monuments can best be avoided by their potential for adding to present adopting a biographical, or cognitive, knowledge of the WHS. The remit for the approach. Objects, like people, have social research covers both the WHS and related lives, they relate to other objects and these sites as well as artefacts in their broader relationships change as they move through spatial and temporal contexts. In this way both time and space. Any study should specific research projects can be placed include research on these relationships: on within broader regional and comparative manufacture, durability, refashioning over frameworks in order to provide the WHS time and ultimate deposition; and on the with meaning in the wider world. These social practices in which they are themes crosscut many of the traditional embedded (see Appadurai 1986; Ingold specialisations into which the study of the 2000; Jones, A 1997; Jones, S 1997; past has been divided, such as artefact Mackenzie 1991). analysis, oral history, or monument typology. Such divisions are increasingly The landscape within which the artefacts found to pose problems for the and monuments of the WHS exist construction of archaeological provides not only an essential framing interpretation. At this point it is important device within which to study their complex to remember that, as with the definition of life histories but it may also be one of the landscape, there is no universal main driving forces behind their creation. archaeological ‘truth’: new studies and new In this respect, the experiential landscape work on old studies will constantly come is of equal importance to the physical. The up with individual interpretations. This is a natural world of the past - terrestrial, factor that must be taken into account in celestial and maritime - was observed and the presentation and management of the experienced in many different ways and WHS (discussed above, Part 1). for many different reasons, just like the world of today: the eye of the farmer may The materialisation of memory perceive a fertile agricultural landscape and identity where the eye of the tourist perceives a picturesque photograph to show the This theme focuses on the artefacts and neighbours. It is important to recognise monuments associated with the WHS and this and take account of the ways in which its buffer zones, it considers their landscape change through time has been biographies and their subsequent rôles in articulated, recorded and interpreted, for the production of memory and identity in this has played an important rôle in the past. Although the temptation is to establishing and perpetuating the cultural stress the Neolithic, this research theme identities of the societies with whom we encompasses the entire social lives of these are concerned. artefacts and monuments (ie across all periods, in order to examine the ways in To do this involves the conception of which they are reconceptualised, reused landscape as a tapestry or woven fabric and refashioned). (see Ingold 2000) into which artefacts, monuments, people and resources are This research theme can be divided interwoven. Importantly, this tapestry is between artefacts and monuments. It never static as human (and natural) considers their production as well as their activity ensures that components are life-histories. Artefacts are traditionally constantly reworked or ‘darned’ over time. regarded as the portable elements of life and this theme is interested in circulation Taking these overarching arguments as a and movement, as well as deposition, in starting point, four specific themes of order to explore their rôle in the creation research (below) have been identified of relationships and identities. which draw together information on the Monuments, on the other hand, are less nature of the materials, their changing mobile, though they can be changed in

81 61. Artist’s reconstruction of a ceremony at the Stones of Stenness. This was just one phase in the monument’s use Drawing by Alan Brady, © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland.

structure and design. As such, it is the and residue analysis, which have been durability of the monuments, their various carried out on assemblages from some sites architectural forms and their changing but not others. rôles, that are of concern in order to consider their place in the creation of Currently, within the WHS this theme of memory, tradition and identity. research has centred on the late Neolithic period and has been restricted to ceramic Extensive research has been carried out on analysis and social practices within the Orcadian monuments and artefacts Barnhouse village. This study, though throughout the 20th century (eg Renfrew limited, gives a good idea of the potential 1979; Childe 1930; MacSween 1992), but awaiting, should research like this be very little of this has focused speciﬁcally expanded to cover other artefact types, on the social lives of artefacts and more sites and different periods. At monuments and their rôle in the Barnhouse, aspects of production can be production of memory and identity. A linked with particular households. For number of studies of this kind have instance, the procurement of materials for emerged over the last few years (see inclusion within the ceramics of individual Hingley 1999; Jones, A 2002; Richards households can be shown to have taken 1993a; 1996a; 2004), but for the most part place from separate locations within the it concentrates almost entirely on the landscape and this ties in to the basic Neolithic which, as we have seen, does not residential structure of the village. fully explain the WHS as we see it today Interestingly, this contrasts with the and it is very uneven in the facets covered. decoration of the vessels as individual In artefact studies, this kind of research decorative schemes tend towards an overall often involves the application of specialised village or communal identity (Jones, A techniques such as petrological analysis 2002; Richards 2004).

82 Given the wealth of archaeological beyond the WHS monuments. The evidence in Orkney, which comprises both inclusion of monumental construction habitations and monuments ranging introduces an understanding of ‘landscape’ chronologically from the Neolithic to the that must appreciate the full significance of present day, there is a place for period the ways in which the people in the past specific research, but it would be of more engaged with the physical world that they value as part of a larger programme of inhabited. In particular, the engagement of research designed to examine the changing the people with the resources is important nature of social identity. One important for these comprised materials encountered theme, for example, would consider the in different places, at different times and ways in which material culture has been under different social conditions that were used in different ways and in different brought together to create the ‘monument’. contexts in order to create a variety of Only through a close understanding of identities and, indeed, how these identities their world could people create the have articulated together to form groups architecture and material components of (Fig 61). In this way, the changing nature the monuments. For the archaeologist, this of social identities in the past can be appreciation demands a more critical view considered. For instance, one starting of the nature of the monuments (and point is provided by the presence of a indeed of all areas of architecture) in terms broch, Big Howe, adjacent to the Stones of of how they were constructed, what Stenness. This immediately raises materials were employed and the on-going questions of social identity relating to the social significance of the act of builders and later users of Big Howe, and construction. their own use of the past around them. Regardless of the intentions of the This perspective, transcending period builders, once architecture comes into boundaries, enables an exploration of the being its social meanings are open to re- ways in which sites, monuments and interpretation and negotiation through landscapes are reconceptualised, reused social practice and human experience. and refashioned in the dynamic production Here the rôle of architecture, as a planned of identities and cosmologies. physical entity that embodies both cultural concepts of order and a mechanism of The social construction and control, becomes important because thus it constitution of monuments: can restrict and control human movement questions of architecture, place, so that the human experience becomes the human body and materiality structured in specific ways. Herein lies a profound conceptual difference between This research theme moves on from the those monuments that are built to be used above to focus attention onto the people and viewed on completion and those that who used and experienced these artefacts are used and viewed during a prolonged and monuments. It looks at the social use period of construction. At Maeshowe, for and human experience of monuments, but instance, we see a concern with the final it also places more emphasis onto the form of the site and with the human actions and context of construction. It experience of that form. It appears that an aims to get away from the old idea that enclosing ditch was central to the design of construction comprises simply a Maeshowe, but what we see is in fact the mechanism by which to erect a monument. careful sculpting of natural features so that It suggests that we should regard it more a cut ‘ditch’ is only present on the western, as an ongoing ‘project’ and one which, southern and eastern portions of its importantly, never quite leads to the final supposed circuit. In other words, the final form that we recognise today. A good appearance of the site was of more example of this lies in John Barrett’s work importance than the act of cutting the at Avebury (1994). Consequently, this ‘ditch’. Equally, there is a dramatic theme draws in people, places and things contrast between ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ at

83 Maeshowe, revealed by the impressive articulated through social practices, must masonry of the interior when contrasted be changed accordingly. Here architectural with the unprepossessing exterior mound representation provides a focus of further (Figs 2 and 15). These architectural study in order to look more deeply at the devices indicate a monument that was built use and later lives of the monuments. This with great attention to the visual imagery must include approaches to bodily of the site. In this light the different nature experience: how was the form of a of the monuments sited within the WHS monument designed to control its use? and its buffer zones requires careful How could this be manipulated and consideration and we can see that the altered? In order to be successful in concept of ‘monument’ as applied to the providing insight to any built monument, a WHS may be extremely problematic. clear and detailed knowledge of architecture is necessary. Artefact studies Studies like this drastically alter our are also important here for they have a rôle understanding of the ways in which people to play as evidence of the ways in which engaged with the various monuments people have moved through and treated a during the Neolithic, but it appears that landscape or site. Of course, this work is such distinctions blur through prehistory. not restricted to individual sites but Once the monuments were constructed, should, in the long run, embrace the entire later generations would engage ever landscape. Rather than limiting such differently with the ever changing studies of human experience to single architecture of the landscape. The main chronological periods (eg Richards point to draw here is the fluidity of human 1993b), a more rewarding line of enquiry experience within the monumental would involve comparing and contrasting landscape of the Stenness-Brodgar people’s encounters with the built promontories. As monuments came into environment over longer periods of time. being and were altered, standing stones were erected and demolished, cist graves Without doubt this small part of Mainland were dug and covered over, and burial Orkney took on huge significance at least mounds were constructed, so the during the 3rd millennium BC, as well as, landscape and people’s lives within it perhaps, at later times. This directs changed. This is important for memory attention to the earlier occupation of this and landscape: some buildings and area and how the landscape was conceived monuments were actually built from the at the time when construction began. What materials of others, while others were built made these places so special that they were from specific materials only available in transformed through a process of distant places. The choice of material was spectacular monumentalization? Why was obviously of vital significance and some this location chosen? How were they used were chosen and brought over long before the construction of the physical distances with considerable effort. Today remains that we see today? These must be we, the managers and researchers of this key questions for any full understanding of place, perceive this striking area as a the WHS. Under this scrutiny it is clear palimpsest of sites to be revealed through that our knowledge of the early Neolithic is archaeological activity, but, to the as thin as that of later prehistoric periods generations inhabiting Orkney in the 2nd in this region. and 3rd millennia BC, this was a place of addition and change, of memories and The past in the present: the rôle remembering. This is a theme that has of monuments in the production repercussions for today and it is discussed of contemporary narratives, in more detail in the next theme. memories and cultural practices

As these different understandings of ‘place’ This theme shifts the focus of attention to and past come into existence so the human more recent times, to look at the rôle of the engagement with the landscape, as WHS in Orkney today. The relationship

84 between archaeological heritage and understanding of people’s engagement discourses of authenticity, identity and with the WHS, and related sites and place in modern societies has become an institutions (including museums). At important field of research. Empirical and present little research of this type has been historiographical studies have provided carried out in Orkney (but see new insights into the relationship between McClanahan 2004). Ethnographic work archaeology and national identity in has taken place in Orkney (eg Forsythe particular countries (Díaz-Andreu and 1980), but few of the studies focus on the Champion (eds) 1996; James, S 1999; archaeological monuments and their place Kohl and Fawcett (eds) 1995; Meskell in contemporary society. Existing studies (ed) 1998). However, understandings of concerning archaeological remains and how specific archaeological remains are archaeological practice have been small in involved in modern societies in a more scale though their results show great general way, for example in the promise, such as the interview study construction of multiple identities and in concerning local attitudes towards the the reinforcement of interests, have excavations at Stonehall and Crossiecrown received less attention (although see (Jones and McClanahan 2000). In this Bender 1998; Herzfeld 1991). This is, respect, it is, of course, important to nevertheless, an important theme that include the preconceptions and involves both archaeological enquiry and expectations of those outwith Orkney who, heritage management. Such issues are while not tourists per se, have played a particularly pertinent in relation to the major rôle in the designation and WHS given its importance to the local management of The Heart of Neolithic communities and the ways in which the Orkney as a WHS. assignation of a heritage status like this can transform the ways in which people This theme is important for there are large experience and engage with the gaps in our knowledge both as to the ways monuments. Existing research relating in which archaeological monuments figure directly or indirectly to the WHS consists in people’s personal narratives and of heritage management, tourist and memories and as to how they are consumer surveys usually involving embedded in people’s daily practices and questionnaires or focus groups (see perceptions of landscape. Research such as Historic Scotland 2001 for discussion of this is vital if we are to understand the rôle the results). To date this research has played by the archaeological monuments provided very basic quantitative data that in the construction of identities, whether often focuses on the visitor to the islands personal, local, regional or national. In this rather than on the local resident. Recent respect the work initiated by McClanahan surveys have, for instance, been concerned is of particular interest. with the proportion of tourists that are attracted to Orkney for its archaeological Another key area of research related to this heritage, and the relative attractions of theme lies not just in the monuments Maeshowe, Skara Brae, Stones of Stenness themselves but in the work done on them. and Ring of Brodgar. However, there is Whether it be research, management or considerable scope for more detailed presentation of the archaeological heritage, anthropological and sociological research the work undertaken by the various into the relationship between institutions impacts upon the local archaeological materials, practice and community, but we have, as yet, a very knowledge on the one hand and the hazy idea as to the nature of this impact. narratives, memories and cultural practices Research on this would contribute to an of both locals and visitors on the other. understanding of local values and interests and fulfil UNESCO’s expectation that This information is important and both development be guided by policies that interview-based and ethnographic research respect the cultural life of the community. can provide a more fine-grained More specifically, it would provide a body

85 62. The Ring of of knowledge that can inform the the landscape. There are obvious Brodgar c1780 development of sensitive and effective connections with the other themes in terms © Robertson Collection management strategies for the WHS. For, of the issues and subject matter which can just as it is impossible to manage a site be addressed, but this theme concerns unless we understand it, it is also research of a different nature, focussed impossible to manage the relations that upon texts and images rather than upon people have with sites (including the people. Substantial studies of Orcadian limitation of potentially damaging folklore have been carried out (eg Marwick, activities) unless we understand the values E W 1975; Muir, T 1999). However, few and actions of those people. of these focus directly on folktales concerning or containing reference to the Representing monuments: the archaeology, or more specifically on the place of archaeological materials WHS (though see Marwick, E W 1976 for in folklore, literature, map- an exception). Similarly, there are, to date, making, art and other forms of no thematic studies which focus on the visual depiction representation of Orcadian archaeology in literature: most studies of Orcadian The final theme moves away from people literature focus on the work of specific to consider once more the archaeological authors. There has been much work on artefacts and memory. In this case the changing representations of landscape, but focus centres upon art and literature as the again few of these consider Orkney receptacles of tradition. The monumental specifically, much less the representations scale and aesthetic and mystical qualities of of archaeology (Figs 62 and 63). the WHS monuments have had a powerful hold on the imagination and representation There is, therefore, great scope for research of the Orcadian landscape in visual/textual on the representation of archaeology in materials. These representations in turn literature and the visual arts in Orkney, and influence people’s sense of place and on the ways in which changing ideologies identity, objectifying their relations to the have influenced our constructions of land and to archaeological remains within landscape, history and identity.

86 63. Ring of Brodgar, Painting by Stephen Seymour Clancy (2000) © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland.

The formation and From the end of the last glaciation there was utilisation of the landscape a gap of at least 1500 years before humans Ingrid Mainland, Ian A Simpson, Richard first become detectable as potent forces in Tipping, Palaeoenvironment and Economy the landscape of Scotland. A general lack of Group, and Formation Processes and Dating evidence has meant that Orkney was thought Group to have been entered by and affected by humans even later, but this may well reflect During the last glaciation Orkney may the biases of modern scholarship (and this is have been part of a peninsula that now an important research issue). stretched from Caithness to Shetland (Lambeck 1993; 1995). It is not entirely The people who inhabited the world of the clear whether it was ice-covered at c20000- WHS did not live in isolation and the 18000 BC or whether the glacial deposits, physical world around them was not itself common for instance in the Finstown-Evie static. The relationship between the two is area, reflect an earlier glacial period. Since complex and dynamic, but it is essential to the onset of rapid deglaciation around understand it if we are to interpret fully the 13000 BC, Orkney has been gradually history of the WHS through the ages. The inundated by the sea. This process may second overarching theme for research in the have been halted or reversed during the WHS thus comprises research into that Loch Lomond re-advance, which ended physical world and its application in terms of around 9600 BC, and since then it has human activity. These studies are of human- operated unevenly. It is, however, landscape interaction but the key is to focus important to recognise that the islands on the dynamism of that relationship. The were, in the late Devensian, hills on a WHS occupies a multi-period agricultural larger landmass. Current orthodoxy is that landscape, emphasising the need to focus on Orkney was separated from the Scottish long-term changes in land organisation and land mass between about 9500 and 7000 land management as well as on the BC (Verhart 1995). Thereafter a transformations of monuments and sites, continuing combination of erosion and from the pre-monument site through to inundation has led to the island pattern present-day conservation management seen today. 87 Rousay

Orkney Shapinsay Mainland

Hoy

N 20th Century Water NMRS Chambered Cairn 19th-20th Century Other Land 10 km Prehistoric-Present Sea

64. The broad brush mapping of the contemporary landscape and its historic components is a useful means of appreciating general patterns and processes. This map of West Mainland Orkney is derived from the period component of RCAHMS' Historic Landuse Assessment and highlights the predominately 19th- and 20th-century character of the Orkney landscape. Within this zone of the landscape, survival of upstanding earlier material is largely limited to discrete monuments such as the chambered cairns shown on the map, while the majority of sites have little to show on the ground surface. The areas identiﬁed in yellow on the map are those areas of rough grazing in which there may be the upstanding remains of sites dating from the Neolithic to the present Crown Copyright: RCAHMS.

88 activity. Critical to all formation process and anthropogenic processes. In order to research is comprehensive application of discriminate between the two we need to absolute dating methods. understand the environmental and cultural drivers of landscape formation processes Although there is now a body of data including: relating to the understanding and ◆ climate change; management of the contemporary ◆ processes of glaciation and deglaciation; landscape, ie Landscape Character ◆ sea-level change and the history of Assessment (Land Use Consultants 1998) Orkney as an archipelago; and Historic Landuse Assessment (Fig 64; ◆ changing water levels and conditions in Dyson Bruce et al 1999), the development the Loch of Stenness and the Loch of and character of the Orcadian Harray (both part of the WHS IBZ); archaeological or historic landscape is ◆ human activity and the interplay poorly understood, and the establishment between natural and anthropogenic of baseline levels of understanding of processes. archaeological (ie past) and contemporary patterns and processes must be a priority. The related palaeoeconomic research gives us a valuable insight into the plant Palaeoenvironmental data plays a key rôle and animal resources available to and in elucidating the nature of the landscape exploited by human populations living and environment within which Skara Brae, within Orkney and the various economic Maeshowe, the Stones of Stenness and the strategies employed by these peoples Ring of Brodgar were situated and both through time and spatially, between operated, and it provides evidence for different settlements: for example, long-term environmental change in pastoral vs. arable farming; agricultural response to climatic and anthropogenic intensification; resource diversification and factors within the WHS and its buffer other buffering strategies for dealing with zones, as well as in the context of the environmental and/or social marginality. wider Orcadian landscape (Fig 65). The Moreover, in addition to elucidating past mechanisms that add, remove or transform human diet and subsistence, bioarchaeo- materials within landscapes and logical evidence is crucial for exploring the archaeological sites include both natural social significance of animals and plants in 65. Taking a core society and how this was articulated. to obtain palaeoenvironmental material To fully understand past environments © C R Wickham-Jones. and economies within the specific context of the WHS, it is important that research focuses on palaeoenvironmental and palaeoeconomic trends within the wider context of Orcadian archaeology, both spatially and temporally.

Climate change and Holocene environments

The major impetus in research into climatic reconstruction has come in recent years from: 1. the recognition that Holocene climate change has been abrupt and frequent; 2. the identiﬁcation within the North Atlantic region of major, repeated and abrupt climatic events and observed

89 terrestrial environmental repercussions; Some of these events, but not all, are 3. the suggestion that these events identified in Greenland ice core studies produced impacts on resource (O’Brien et al 1995), but what effect did availability, access and the viability of they have in Orkney? Some have been human coastal and other communities; recorded in marine sediments around 4. a concern to quantify the cyclicity Orkney (Klitgaard-Kristensen et al 1998; and rates of climate change in order to Kroon et al 2000) and certainly the biggest predict likely events to be faced in the impact, at c8100 cal BP, is known to near future; have disturbed vegetation and lake 5. the need to define past climates that environments elsewhere in Europe (von might serve as analogues for the future. Graffenstein 1998). Very recently, the In Scotland research has been majority of these events have been concentrated in the Western Isles where identified within the terrestrial lake the scale of past impacts on previous sediment record across northern human communities is now better Scotland (Tisdall 2000), but more understood. Recently, however, the detailed correlative records are needed research interests of many archaeologists to quantify the impact at a local, have diverged from those of the palaeo- Orcadian, level. climatologists towards an exploration of internal, societal-induced change, with We are only just beginning to understand hostility to arguments that appeared the scale of these events, but Bond, G et overtly environmentally determinist. These al’s (1997) dates coincide with many linkages are, however, useful and need to previously recorded episodes of significant be re-established. stress on human populations in northern Scotland. The most recently observed The most exciting data-set relating to discontinuities relevant to the WHS climate change comes from North Atlantic programme from western Scotland are ocean sediments, where Bond, G et al those suggested by Mithen (2000) at (1997) suggested that severe disruptions to c8200 cal BP and Schulting (1998) and ocean circulation have occurred Richards and Hedges (1999) at c5900 cal throughout the Holocene at regular BP. These changes may well have led to intervals of around 1500 years. These resource crises, mediated through abrupt major impacts occurred at c11100, 10300, shifts in coastal, nearshore and/or marine 9400, 8100, 5900, 4200, 2800 and 1400 resources driven directly by North Atlantic cal BP, though other workers have found ocean change. The impacts need not more frequent oscillations in North always have been disadvantageous to Atlantic circulation patterns (Bianchi and human communities: the major climatic McCave 1999; Chapman and Shackleton deterioration at c4200 cal BP appears to 2000). These fluctuations are likely to have have coincided with colonisation of upland impacted directly on sea temperature. areas (Tipping 1994), perhaps through Bond, G et al (1997) suggest that sea- reductions in woodland cover and surface temperatures may have dropped expansion of montane grazed grasslands by around 2˚C during each event. Early and heath (Davies et al forth). Holocene (11100-8100 cal BP) events may have differed from later Holocene We do not know whether each mid- events (Stager and Mayewski 1997), and Holocene climatic event generated a the event at c8200-8000 (8100) cal BP is human response, though it has been known to be exceptionally severe, around suggested that this was likely given their 6±2˚C in central Greenland (Alley et al probable scale (Rahmstorf 1995). Our 1997). Other effects that have been understanding of the broad-scale impacts modelled but not demonstrated include on human populations are, at present, marked changes in the amount and limited because they can only be inferred intensity of precipitation as well as through correlation between different increased storminess. regions and from different parts of the

90 climate system. It is likely, however, that date the presence and impact of the first externally applied forces, such as a climatic human inhabitants of Orkney (Edwards shift, act as prompts in the teaching and and Whittington 1997). Anthropogenic rehearsal of adaptive strategies, so that modification of the environment, including frequent stresses lead to the reinforcement the kinds of grazing and arable practices of new strategies. This is an important discussed above, is more likely to be connection between people and climate in detected at the local rather than the which ideas of ‘social memory’ play a vital regional scale, particularly if sample sites rôle (McIntosh et al 2000). are located in proximity to known settlements or structures and are carefully Climate change involves the complex placed across the landscape. A key priority interaction of many processes and in for future palaeoenvironmental research Orkney the nature and relative isolation of within Orkney must, therefore, be the archipelago may have magnified its increased sampling both on- and off-site, effects. Changing precipitation, air including buried soils as well as peat and temperature and marine conditions all loch sediments. In this way the worked together to determine both reconstruction of local vegetation resource availability and human access. development can be integrated with the Travel by sea and access to marine excavation of settlement sites and the resources were both vulnerable to interpretation of off-site structures, such as changing storm frequency and intensity. field systems and boundaries. Abrupt climate change is likely to have driven the rates of sea-level change in the A further issue is the identification of sea- past, much as it does today. level change, a critical element in understanding landscape development and With regard to vegetation, earlier use. Palaeoenvironmental analysis of inter- palaeoenvironmental research in Orkney tidal peat deposits is an important source has established broad-scale post-glacial of evidence for marine inundation, as was vegetation sequences for the area. By the demonstrated by Keatinge and Dickson late Neolithic (late 4th/3rd millennium (1979) at the Bay of Skaill. At least 15 BC) the scrub birch-hazel woodland, further inter-tidal peat deposits are known which had developed in the 9th/8th in Orkney; analyses of these would allow millennium BC, had given way to a largely insight into both the timing and impact of grass and heathland vegetation, sea-level change at various locations comparable to present day Orkney throughout the island group. Sediments (Davidson and Jones, R L 1985; Keatinge from the Stenness and Harray lochs may and Dickson 1979). Recent research, also prove informative. In all cases, though broadly confirming these trends, research should attempt to make full use of has emphasised a greater degree of local the wide range of palaeoenvironmental variation in vegetation cover (Bunting proxies; although there has been some use 1994) as well as indicating that Orcadian of molluscan evidence (eg Evans 1977), woodland may have been more species other sources such as insects, diatoms, rich than previously envisaged (Dickson ostracods or even avian and mammalian 2000). evidence have been under-utilised. In this respect the application of research on On- and off- site palynological and other diatoms to the development of a curve for palaeoenvironmental analyses allow sea-level change in Shetland (Dawson and invaluable insight into long-term processes Smith 1997) is exciting and bears great of vegetation change and landscape potential for development in Orkney. development at both a regional and local scale. Moreover, in the absence of detailed Chronologically the data on climate change archaeological evidence, off-site and the development of the Orkney palaeoenvironmental data currently landscape is still poor. The record of provides the only means to quantify and vegetation change in the few Orkney

91 pollen columns is generally not well tied and some are identified above. One change into 14C dates. As with dates for to existing directions might lie in increased monuments, many existing 14C ages were work below present water levels where measured when techniques were less improved technologies are reinforced by refined so that their usefulness is limited, an expanded awareness of surviving for instance the ten dates from Keatinge deposits. In particular, the Bay of Skaill and Dickson's study in 1979. Better offers great potential in the form of chronologies from 14C and tephra are suitable sediments in close proximity to required. Bunting suggests, for instance known archaeology, as do the Lochs of (Bennett et al 1997) that the vegetation on Stenness and Harray. On land, the the hills of West Mainland, Orkney application and refinement of work which (predominantly Betula-Corylus with Salix, can then fit into known wider Alnus, Quercus and Pinus), shows evidence interpretations will continue to provide a of modification by hunter-gatherers after sound basis for our understanding of about 8000 BP. She argues that this was change within the human communities. compounded in the Neolithic to the extent that woodland cover was finally lost Biogeography: migration, around 5000 BP. More, and stronger, colonisation and extinction dating sequences are needed, however, to demonstrate the scale of such changes: did Archaeological research into the they cover wide areas, or were they of biogeography of island communities allows mostly local impact? unparalled insight into the dynamics of migration, colonisation and extinction over Clearly, there is great scope for further long time scales and, moreover, may work on palaeoenvironmental issues in provide evidence for contacts, such as 66. North Ronaldsay relation to the WHS. We have only just trading and exchange networks, between sheep. Studies into begun to grasp the scale of development past societies as well as human population this ancient breed give important and change within the Orkney landscape movements. Although recent research palaeoenvironmental and the complex relationships between this suggests that Orkney may have been joined information Thomas Kent, © Orkney and the local communities through time. by a land bridge to Scotland during the Archives. Many areas could be targeted for research early Post-glacial (McCormick and

92 Buckland 1997), the extent to which the communities within island groups. Human colonisation of Orkney by its Holocene and/or animal migration and colonisation fauna was achieved naturally or represents is of interest in later periods also, the most deliberate or accidental introduction by obvious being the settlement of Orkney in humans remains unclear. Clutton-Brock the 1st millennium AD by peoples and (1979), for example, suggests that red deer perhaps also livestock of Scandinavian are unlikely to have reached Orkney origin. naturally and hence must reflect human introduction, while McCormick and Of equal importance is the question of Buckland (1997) indicate that this species species extinction in Orkney, particularly may have been able cross over the land for the larger mammals such as red deer bridge prior to inundation. Interesting also and fox, but also for species with highly in this context is the presence of pine specific habitat requirements, such as martens at Pierowall Quarry, Westray birds. Long-term trends in local or (McCormick in Sharples 1984). regional extinction will provide useful insight, of interest to conservation A further dimension is provided by the biologists as well as archaeologists, into marine resources which are abundant in human and climatic impact on island the archaeological middens. The history of ecosystems, including factors such as the marine species is of interest in its own population pressure, intensification of right, but it can also shed important light farming, anthropogenic or climatically not only on diet and exploitation and, by induced reduction of preferred habitat and inference, aspects of technology, but also changing attitudes to animals. on the predominant conditions and currents of the Orkney waters. As there are Agricultural landscapes, diet and marine resources from a number of subsistence middens of differing dates, there is information to be gathered on Archaeobotanical and archaeozoological environmental changes within the analyses at settlement sites in Orkney have Orcadian seas from some 5000 years ago established the palaeoeconomic basis for to the present. Orcadian society from the Neolithic onwards, indicating reliance on a mixture It is generally accepted, however, that of arable and pastoral subsistence farming there was no indigenous domestication augmented by (unusually frequent within Orkney and that the cattle, sheep instances of) utilisation of a variety of wild and pig present on early farming sites resources (eg Clarke, D V and Sharples reflect a ‘Neolithic package’ of introduced 1985; Ritchie, A 1983a; Davidson and species (Fig 66). Noddle (1983) suggested Jones, R L 1985; Ballin Smith (ed) 1994; a Scandinavian origin for the cattle and Rackham et al 1996). Nevertheless, it sheep on metrical grounds. Little further could be argued that, with a few work has been undertaken to evaluate exceptions (Barrett, J H 1995; Bond, J M more fully the origins of the domestic, or 1995; Guttmann 2001), such research has indeed the wild, fauna represented on early in general done little more than establish Orcadian sites, despite the considerable the range of species cultivated or exploited. potential of such research to assess the Moreover, it tends to emphasis continuity origins of the first farmers themselves, with the present or the recent past (eg particularly given recent developments in Renfrew 2000; Rackham et al 1996) rather biochemical analyses within archaeology than attempt to explore how subsistence (DNA, isotopes, trace elements, etc). farming, social relationships with animals Haynes et al (2001) have, for example, and other palaeoeconomic activities may recently demonstrated how DNA analysis have varied through time or between of the Orkney vole could potentially be contemporary sites in response to social or used to explore human migration and economic forces either in Orkney or colonisation as well as contacts between further afield.

93 Agriculture, arable cultivation, the grazing of domestic animals and the collection/cultivation of fodder, is one of the primary factors behind human modification of the natural environment (Fig 67). Farming practices have been implicated in environmental change at various periods in Orcadian prehistory (Davidson and Jones, R L 1985; Whittle 1989; Dickson 2000). Yet, very little is known about the articulation of cultivation or grazing practices within the wider landscape in particular periods and how this may have changed over time: was early cereal cultivation, for example, restricted to small-scale intensive plots, as has been suggested elsewhere in the Neolithic (Barclay, G J 1997; Halstead 1989) and, if so, when and why did more extensive arable cultivation practices develop; how were grazing animals managed, intensively within enclosures or paddocks, or were more extensive grazing practices, such as transhumance or outfield systems, employed; indeed, at what point 67. Ard marks - traces of prehistoric agriculture at Tofts did the in-field, out-field system, evident in Ness, Sanday early historic periods, develop? Exploration © S J Dockrill. of these issues requires an integration of This in part reflects the archaeological on- and off-site environmental evidence evidence available, which is often restricted for animal management (Bunting 1994; to one or two settlement sites with large Mainland forth), cultivation and manuring archaeofaunal or archaeobotanical practices (Hillman 1981; Bond, J M 1998; assemblages per ‘period’; in the Neolithic, Simpson et al 1998a; 1998b) with for example, interpretation is currently structural evidence such as barns, byres mainly based on only one fully published and field enclosures. site, Knap of Howar (Ritchie, A 1983a), due to inadequate publication of the work Several phases of agricultural intensificat- at Skara Brae and Links of Noltland, and ion of varying scales, including expansion to the lack of survival of bone at sites such or resource specialisation, have been as Barnhouse and Stonehall. However, the indicated in the Northern Isles, in existence of large Neolithic bone particular during the early 3rd/late 2nd assemblages in Orkney should be stressed millennium BC (Hunter 2000; Sharples as an invaluable resource which is unusual 1992), the early 1st millennium AD in a Scottish context. (Bond, J M 1998; Simpson 1998) and the later 1st /early 2nd millennium AD The Orcadian middens contain not only (Barrett et al 2000b; Simpson 1997; 1994; terrestrial information but also bird bone 1993). Agricultural intensification and and marine resources, both fish and shell resource specialisation may arise from a fish. In this way, they have the potential to variety of socio-economic factors, provide vital detail of wider aspects of the including population pressure, a response environment, human exploitation of that to marginal environments or environ- environment and, as information from mental change, the development of different sites is added, of changes hierarchal societies or of commercial through time. economies.

94 Further research is needed to address how 2000). It is argued that insight into such representative the economic trends processes can potentially be achieved identified in particular time periods are for through the identification of structured Orkney in general, as well as within a spatial patterning in animal or plant wider archaeological context, and, assemblages in terms of the representation moreover, to evaluate more fully what of particular species, age groups or body resource specialisation reflects within parts within specific deposit types, areas of environments, like that of Orkney, which a settlement or between sites of differing are marginal for arable agriculture (see, for function, as well as through associations example, the contrasting explanations between biological and artefactual given for high level of livestock infant evidence. Hill (1995), Grant, A (1991) mortality in the Northern and Western and Campbell, E (2000) have Isles by Halstead (1998), McCormick demonstrated how such detailed (1998) and Bigelow (1992)). taphonomic and contextual analyses can be used to elucidate ritual and symbolic Insight into human diet has traditionally attitudes to animals within the British Iron been gained through archaeozoological and Age. Similar approaches to environmental archaeobotanical evidence. Recent evidence have been used to explore kinship developments in archaeological relations (Zeder and Arter 1996), gender biochemistry, specifically isotopic analysis relations (Hastorf 1996), social status and of human skeletal material and lipid ethnic identity (Crabtree 1991) in various analyses of ceramics and other artefacts, archaeological contexts. are, however, providing new and often more detailed insights into human dietary Very little attempt has been made to behaviour in the past (Dudd et al 1999; address such issues within Orcadian Richards and Hedges 1999). Barrett et al archaeology. In the Neolithic, (2001) have recently used isotopic analysis environmental data has typically been used to explore changing diet during the Viking to infer palaeoeconomic activities, and in colonisation of Orkney. Further such particular subsistence farming strategies, research within Orcadian archaeology, (Clarke, D V and Sharples 1985) unless particularly if integrated with more derived from funerary and monumental conventional bioarchaeological sources, is contexts where ritual interpretations likely to allow invaluable new evidence for prevail (eg Renfrew 1979). Notable past foodways, as well as more specific exceptions are Sharples (2000) and Jones, questions, such as the varying utilisation of A (1998) who both explore the symbolic dietary resources by different segments of rôle of animals in Neolithic society through past societies (eg Hastorf 1996). a consideration of faunal evidence from settlement and funerary contexts. In later Exchange circulation, status, prehistoric and early historic periods, identity and ritual activity where archaeological evidence is mainly derived from settlement sites, the There is a growing recognition within reconstruction of subsistence farming archaeology that bioarchaeological data practices is again emphasised (eg Ballin does not merely reflect human diet and Smith (ed) 1994; Rackham et al 1996). subsistence or past environmental Sharples (2000) and Jones, A (1998) have conditions, but that archaeobotanical and demonstrated the viability of non- archaeozoological assemblages will often economic analyses of bioarchaeological have been structured in response to a data within the context of Orcadian variety of non-economic values or archaeology; arguably further research activities, including social status and addressing such issues is required. identity, ritual activities and socially- embedded exchange of animal and plant resources (Crabtree 1991; Marshall 1994; Grant, A 1991; Hill 1995; Campbell, E

95 PART

4 Techniques

Introduction with many of the available 14C ages, many of which were obtained several years ago. This section is designed to provide a brief Tephra layers have been exploited to guide to the range of techniques relevant provide dates only at a few to archaeological and historical research in palaeoenvironmental sites. The results of the Orkney WHS. Space allows for only a thermoluminescence (TL) dating are few cursory introduction to individual and can be difficult to interpret because of techniques and information will quickly go the errors involved. Optically stimulated out of date as new techniques are luminescence (OSL) dating has not been developed and existing ones refined. In used until very recently; nor has order to keep up to date readers should palaeomagnetic dating. refer to the Institute of Field Archaeologists who provide excellent up- Radiocarbon/AMS dating to-date information on professional standards and health and safety issues for Increasing opportunities exist for obtaining all archaeological work. Their standards larger numbers of 14C dates on a wider have been carefully developed to provide variety of materials than hitherto possible, guidelines for professional archaeologists partly as a result of recent investment in and any work related to the WHS should the UK laboratory resource by the research be undertaken according to their councils, and partly as a result of the use requirements. In addition to their of smaller, more precise samples. This can Standards and Policy Statements, the IFA benefit both our understanding of the produce a series of technical papers archaeological communities and our outlining new developments (see interpretation of the world in which they www.archaeologists.net for information, lived. A range of stable isotope visited Dec 2003). Alternatively, readers investigations can be added to the might contact the specialist below directly. generation of systematic data sets from human and animal remains associated with Dating relevant archaeological monuments, in Patrick Ashmore and David Sanderson order to provide information on aspects such as diet and economy, as well as on Background the context of the monuments. In this respect, the increasing use of specific This section assumes a basic knowledge of biomolecules for dating and dietary studies the dating techniques most commonly is very relevant. At a wider level, high applied to archaeology, or under resolution dating should be applied, development. Dating information provided wherever possible, to reconstructions of for the period of the WHS monuments is sedimentary and vegetational records. ambiguous for a number of reasons. Another field of study involves the AMS Radiocarbon dates suffer from a plateau in dating of residues, eg on sherds of pottery. the calibration curve between about 3400 While the precise relationship between the and 3100 BC, the dating of various archaeology and the date may (and only different types of samples from tombs and may) be more direct here, this technique is settlements, and the large errors associated still being refined.

9600 However, the precise relationship between The OSL dating of sedimentary materials a 14C date and the specific activity of has the potential to provide an absolute archaeological interest needs to be chronology for a wide series of carefully considered (Fig 68). All too often sedimentary material associated with the the date provides an age that is only a archaeological deposits. This is of prime proxy for the archaeology, as when old, or importance and there are key opportunities heart, wood is used to date the human use for its application, such as in an of that wood. Bone may be an exception, examination of the environmental history but despite recent advances by Groningen of blown sand in the Bay of Skaill, at Skara it is possible that poorly preserved bone Brae and its hinterland. New OSL dating samples may include carbon from sources opportunities associated with ditches, cut other than the animal concerned. With features and other prepared surfaces could regard to the dating of environmental also be explored. Developments in the samples, it is vital to understand the extension of OSL methods to dating potentially complicated taphonomic optically bleached lithic surfaces should be processes that led to the formation of monitored. It is of considerable importance particular sedimentary basins or peatlands to successful use of this method to before samples are taken. establish early contact with the luminescence laboratory. Luminescence dating Palaeomagnetic dating The luminescence dating of heated materials provides an opportunity to place Opportunities for palaeomagnetic dating of ceramics and burnt stones in their hearths and other heat-affected contexts, chronological setting. As such, it is of great and silts in ditches, should be identified value both to further analysis of existing and investigated. This is particularly material and to study newly excavated important for those periods when there are material. Specific projects of interest here plateaux in the 14C calibration curve. have been listed in the strategy (below). Work should take advantage of recent Tephra instrumental and procedural developments to improve overall dating precision where Different ash fall-outs from separate this is critical to archaeological volcanic eruptions have specific 68. Hazelnut shells interpretation. Less well contexted material signatures. As the ash tends to be provide a good is still relevant as dosimetric reconstruction distributed across a wide area, the sample for radiocarbon dating can be used to look at the environments of existence of minute ash layers can provide © C R Wickham-Jones. critical settings. dateable markers within sedimentary sequences, peat and possibly within sand and colluvium accumulations. At a most basic level, the tephra layers may be used to establish contemporaneity of events over wide areas. At a more detailed level, as the dating of the eruptions is refined, refined dates can be applied to the results from previous studies. The potential of tephra in Orkney is illustrated by the Saksunarvatn ash layer recorded by Bunting (1994) in pollen columns from West Mainland, which coincides with the arrival of Corylus avellana in the islands at around 9,200 BP. Tephra dating is best used in conjunction with other dating methods to ensure that the correct tephra layer has been identified.

97 Cosmogenic nuclides Fluxgate gradiometry has worked extremely well on a number of sites in The potential rôles of cosmogenic nuclides Orkney and for this reason it has become (3He, 10Be, 27Al, 32Si, 36Cl) in the preferred technique in recent projects supplementing an understanding of around the WHS. Since 2002, some 61 landscape formation history, sedimentary hectares of magnetic survey has been records and the origins and utilisation of carried out within the Brodgar IBZ archaeological materials in the WHS and (WHAGP) by GSB Prospection Ltd its surroundings, should be considered. (GSB 2002; 2003a; 2003b). In 2003 David Griffith of the University of Oxford Radiogenic chronometers instigated the first phase of the Birsay/ Skaill Bay Landscape Project (Griffith Radiogenic chronometers (eg 40Ar/39Ar, 2003). This work included geophysical 86Rb/86Sr, etc) may have potential in survey around Skara Brae, partially studies of the origins and use of lithic covering the same area surveyed in 1973 resources by early communities associated (Bartlett and Clark 1973a). with the monuments of the study area. Specifically, they can be used to pin the Prior to 2002, the use of geophysical various lithic materials down to particular techniques at the WHS in Orkney was sources, which has important implications piece-meal and unco-ordinated. Only in for the study of technology, mobility and 2003 were records compiled of all the social cohesion in the islands. geophysical work that has been carried out in the Islands (see Appendix 4). The earliest investigations, in the 1970s, were Geophysics performed by the late Tony Clark and John Gater other members of the Ancient Monuments Laboratory, at English Heritage (Bartlett Background and Clark 1973a; 1973b; Clark 1973). Bradford University also carried out Geophysical techniques are but one tool pioneering surveys in the wider WHS available to fieldworkers and geophysical landscape, led initially by Arnold Aspinall. work should never be viewed in isolation, a However, these surveys were largely fact that is often overlooked. Geophysics experimental in nature and little was uses techniques of remote sensing in order published, except as footnotes or as to provide an idea of surviving isolated images, for example the survey at archaeological remains. It is of particular the Stones of Stenness (in Clark 1996). value because it is non-invasive and avoids This site was re-surveyed in the 1990s by the need to disturb and possibly destroy John Gater (Fig 69; GSB 1999a) but, material. Despite the range of geophysical apart from this work, none of the main techniques available, magnetometry (largely monuments had been investigated fluxgate gradiometers) and resistivity geophysically using modern survey (normally twin probe, with selective instrumentation until 2002. Extensive electrical imaging) are the tried and tested resistance surveying has been carried out techniques that are most suited to the first in the vicinity of the Barnhouse settlement stage of geophysical investigation (see near Stenness (Challands, in Richards (ed) David 1995; Gaffney et al 2002). Ground forth), but the location or extent of other penetrating radar (GPR) and geophysical surveys, in the buffer or wider electromagnetic methods (EM), and zone has not been previously documented. perhaps caesium magnetometers, are likely to play important supporting rôles, but Compared to the WHS of Stonehenge and techniques like seismic and gravity surveys Avebury (see David and Payne 1997; are unlikely to feature highly in Orkney David 2000) geophysics in Orkney, up given the existing archaeological until 2002, had a very poor profile, despite questions/criteria.

98 69. The results of the largely favourable geological and The World Heritage Site and geophysical survey at pedological conditions. It is worth noting, the Stones of Inner Buffer Zones - summary of Stenness (the ditch however, that the majority of geophysical results of the henge – the survey work at the English WHS sites has dark annular feature – is about 55m in only been carried out in the past decade or ◆ Ring of Brodgar Both the interior of external diameter) so; Stonehenge itself was surveyed for the the monument and the numerous © GSB Prospection. ﬁrst time in 1993-4 (Payne 1994). mounds in the immediate vicinity have been surveyed magnetically (though the Perhaps of greater interest, though, is the steep slopes and overgrown vegetation fact that most of the geophysical work at precluded survey on the larger Stonehenge and Avebury has been mounds), and the work has been development-led: for example, in advance extended across the ﬁelds to the north of the upgrading of the A303 trunk road of the Ring of Brodgar (GSB 2002). and prior to the construction of a new Perhaps the most exciting result is the visitor centre. Most of the surveys were discovery of an extensive settlement carried out prior to the establishment, by complex surrounding the pair of English Heritage, of local research Bronze Age houses (HY21 SE18), agendas. By contrast, following the north of the Dyke of Sean (Fig 45; Research Agenda meeting in April 2001, a GSB 2003b). major geophysical project (the WHAGP) ◆ Stones of Stenness Apart from a has been instigated by the Orkney spectacular complex of igneous dykes Archaeological Trust (funded by Historic crossing the landscape, magnetic survey Scotland and Orkney Islands Council) and has provided more information on the this has already dramatically increased the possible extent of the settlement at amount of geophysical work on the Barnhouse, mapped the site of the Big Orkney WHS. Howe Broch (Fig 48) and discovered another dense concentration of In discussing the potential of geophysical archaeological activity, indicative of techniques at the Stonehenge WHS, David prehistoric settlement, on the Ness of and Payne (1997, 107) stated: ‘Our Brodgar (GSB 2002; 2003a). assumption is that the entire surveyable ◆ Maeshowe The area north of area should be covered in as much detail Maeshowe is badly affected by 20th- and by as many compatible and relevant century war activity, though a number techniques as possible…but it is necessary of archaeological features have been to be more selective.’ While compromises mapped (GSB 2003a; 2003b). The must also be true for the Orkney WHS, area south, west and east of the there is no reason why total coverage monument needs investigation. should not be an ultimate goal. In fact the ◆ Skara Brae At Skaill Bay the Castle of new project already goes a long way Snusgar has been surveyed and, in towards realising this aim. addition, a trial area adjacent to Skara

99 Brae PIC was covered (Grifﬁth 2003). survey, carried out within Orkney since Although an igneous dyke dominated 1945 (Appendix 4). This will now serve as the results, some potentially a database of surveys in Orkney as a archaeological anomalies were located. whole.

The landscape surrounding the monuments of the WHS contains Field Survey numerous ‘mounds’ of potential Graeme Wilson archaeological interest that would clearly benefit from geophysical investigation. The Many of the monuments within the WHS recent results at the mound opposite the exhibit complex relationships with each Standing Stones Hotel are a testament to other, as indicated, for example, by this (Challands 2001). It would be a similarities in design and art work seen at relatively easy to establish the origin of Skara Brae and at Maeshowe. Even now, these mounds, whether man-made or the major monuments remain visible, natural, and also assign a tentative function although there is much still to be (eg burial, occupation, burnt mound or discovered about their wider context. broch) that would help our understanding Where, today, these monuments inhabit a of the archaeological landscape. landscape divided by modern roads and fields, they were once surrounded and Development linked by numerous settlements, burial sites, field systems and boundaries. Traces All proposed developments with the wider of past landscapes have already been WHS zone should be preceded by recognised in and around the WHS, but geophysical investigation, or at least a undoubtedly many more await discovery. study to assess the suitability of techniques New investigation of the wider hinterland, in individual cases. This principle applies using field survey, offers the potential to regardless of the scale of the project: the locate and map previously unrecognised erection of display boards and rabbit-proof sites, thereby enhancing our understanding fences, for example, can have a marked and appreciation of this rich landscape. effect on geophysical investigations. This is seen as a prerequisite to any ground Optimum results are obtained from field disturbance. survey when a concentrated programme of work is carried out. This might consist of a Prospecting rapid programme of walk-over survey within a designated area, immediately Geophysical techniques have been widely followed by topographical survey to map employed in helping to locate new the findings. More localised and intensive archaeological sites using a combination of survey, for example post-ploughing or magnetic scanning, magnetic susceptibility artefact scatter collection, could follow on sampling and detailed sample survey from this. Coastal survey is instrumental to blocks. These strategies were largely locate sites which are being uncovered by formulated to investigate development- the sea. threatened sites, but they could be adapted to carry out exploratory surveys in the Field survey techniques are rapid and cost- same way that fieldwalking exercises are efficient and they produce results quickly. carried out. Walk-over survey (Fig 27) is a good first stage of work, comprising a methodical Database visual examination of every parcel of land within a designated area. Probable findings Following the Research Agenda include structural remains and earthworks, symposium, a compilation has been made concentrations of artefacts, building of all fieldwork, including geophysical materials and midden deposits; they may

100 also include evidence of past land use in survival is demonstrated (eg Moore and the form of cultivation marks or soils. The Wilson 1998). results of an initial walkover and coastal survey are best presented at a scale of Survey work related to the WHS should 1:25,000. At this scale the locations of all aim to be as inclusive as possible and not monuments, findspots, artefact related to one specific period. While there concentrations, etc, within the study area is much to be understood about the can be shown in relation to one another. monuments in their original setting, it is Smaller scale mapping may also be useful equally important to appreciate the in order to illustrate the outlines of sites influence of both earlier activity and later together with larger landscape features, experience and use. The remains of all such as field systems. Both levels of survey periods should be recorded in order to are suitable for inclusion on a GIS system provide a comprehensive history of land (see below). use. Close analysis and interpretation of the results will be needed to decode the More detailed topographical survey can palimpsest of landscape features and then take place, at a level of detail unravel individual strands of evidence. sufficient to generate plans at smaller, This may be most effectively carried more useful scales, appropriate to the out using a programme of GIS and in needs of the survey. The survey of tandem with a dedicated series of individual monuments should be carried 14C dates. out using a grid, with measurements at regular distances. The results should be Field survey should be regarded as a first digitised, so that they can be used in a step or baseline from which further work variety of formats, including contour can develop. The results will be most plans, 3D models of landscape and useful if they are integrated with other interactive presentations. A digital archive strands of work such as excavation, has other advantages in that it can be geophysical survey and historical research. reused and re-manipulated as the project GIS is a useful way to do this. Field survey requirements change. is also an essential tool for the monitoring of sites and the landscape within which In addition to conventional mapping and they are sited, and thus it is a vital part of site description work, survey should also site management. include provision for comprehensive photographic recording. The examination of the wider hinterland and the location of Underwater exploration new sites will provide new foci of interest Ian Oxley with Bobby Forbes within the landscape and the connections within it can then be better appreciated. A Background visual record will greatly enhance the exploration of intra-site relations and the Most, but not all, land-based place of sites within the surrounding archaeological techniques can be adapted natural landscape. for use underwater, though they may take a bit longer and thus be more expensive. Although much of the WHA lies away This includes both an initial appraisal and from the sea, coastal and lochside survey more detailed work. A wide variety of has an important rôle to play with regard routine evaluation methods are available to the investigation of the wider landscape. and these include geophysical and other Work already undertaken near to Skara remote techniques. More detailed Brae and around the mouth of the Loch of techniques include intrusive investigation Stenness has revealed a number of hitherto methods such as coring and excavation. unknown prehistoric sites. The importance Recent interest in underwater archaeology of the uncultivated coastal edge, as means that the techniques are rapidly opposed to the farmed hinterland, for site developing.

101 Archaeological investigation of environment of the lochs. The great submerged environments in potential of submerged archaeological Orkney remains is now acknowledged. With regard to the WHS, it is important that any Landscapes in general have undergone research agenda include an underwater considerable changes due to long-term strategy. climatic changes and also in the short term due to changing agricultural practices. Standards Consequently, there have been signiﬁcant changes in both coastal and freshwater As with land-based archaeology, all work shorelines with either a corresponding must take place subject to stringent quality exposure or submergence of the adjacent and health and safety controls. These can landmass. Remote sensing studies for the be found through the professional channels European Marine Energy Centre off the of the Institute of Field Archaeologists west coast of Orkney have revealed the (IFA) and the standard Health and Safety existence of the submerged coast line regulations for Diving. formed during the last glacial period. Studies in other areas have shown that the Collecting known information underwater environment can provide conditions ideal for the preservation of Compared to terrestrial sites, the available materials that may have long since information on submerged sites in Orkney deteriorated in a terrestrial context. is sadly scant. Preliminary site surveys at Voy, a relatively short length of loch shore The WHS is bordered by two of the main at the western end of the Loch of lochs in Orkney. Harray Loch, a body of Stenness, has revealed upstanding sites fresh water, and the Loch of Stenness from a variety of periods previously not 70. The lochs of which, at present, has a brackish water recorded. Increasing information on Harray and Stenness, environment (Fig 70; see also Fig 14). marine archaeological sites is becoming with the Brodgar available as greater resources are isthmus between, Remote sensing techniques used in the from Bookan mapping of the submerged cultural developed. Information on known sites © Crown Copyright heritage of Scapa Flow (ScapaMAP) are can be obtained by consulting the national reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland. equally applicable to the shallower and local inventories (the Orkney SMR

102 and the National Monuments Record of poor and there is a high potential for Scotland (NMRS)), though there are previously undiscovered sites. In these inconsistencies in these records. cases assessment of potential is vital, both Information may also be available from as a research tool and as a part of the local maritime interest groups and management process. There are, as yet, no Orkney’s museum service (The Nautical formal guidelines for assessing marine Archaeology Society; Dive Boat Operators archaeological potential. Group, Orkney; and Orkney Heritage). Information held locally in private or semi- Evaluation techniques official hands should not be forgotten The importance or significance of sites Information on the location of areas of must be assessed before any intrusive seabed protected under the Protection of (archaeological or geotechnical) Wrecks Act (1973) can be obtained from evaluations are permitted because such Historic Scotland. The presence or activities may unwittingly damage absence of these designated historic wreck archaeological deposits. Visual evaluation, sites does not necessarily mean that other or seabed inspection of identified features, sites do not exist which require (or merit) is often the only effective way to estimate attention. It is important to consider archaeological importance. Intrusive circumstantial evidence which may methods which involve the disturbance of indicate whether such remains are present the archaeological context may be and whether they might be affected by any necessary to evaluate the date, nature, development proposals. extent, condition and preservation of the archaeological evidence, but they should Assessing archaeological only be undertaken after the development potential of an acceptable project design.

There are a number of strategies that can Excavation be employed in order to assess the archaeological potential of an area under Excavation is the most damaging form of water. Inferences can be made from intrusive investigation. Although it is a historical evidence and reference to the valid technique on land, trial trenching by presence of sites and features on land in divers is usually time-consuming and adjacent areas. Some idea of the area’s expensive. Speciﬁc small-scale excavations past can generally be gained from may be necessary (and more practical) to evaluating known evidence of maritime test deposits. There are many different activity and occupation prior to rises in sea techniques for underwater excavation, and level (Firth et al 1997). The concept of a most are similar to land excavation, but ‘maritime cultural landscape’ encourages they employ different tools and take taking a broad view of sources of advantage of the unique properties of the information which may indicate the underwater environment. Techniques of presence of sites, for example early maps underwater excavation are described in and charts, place-names and folklore various texts (eg Green 1990; Dean et al (Hunter 1994). 1995).

The possible presence of submerged land Underwater methodologies surfaces has to be considered and the use of predictive survey in areas of potentially Not all land-based archaeological good preservation should be assessed. techniques can be directly transferred Certain combinations of chemical, physical underwater, but it is fair to say that a and biological characteristics are known to greater standard of archaeological work is indicate the good preservation of achievable underwater than is commonly archaeological material (Oxley 1995). In believed. A comprehensive description of many places information on known sites is the techniques and methodologies

103 commonly used in the practice of Aerial survey archaeology underwater can be found in 71. Aerial Kenneth Brophy photograph of the other publications (ibid). It should be Brodgar peninsula in noted that there is often a considerable 1946. Aerial Aerial survey allows the recovery of difference in effectiveness between a photographs give a information about new sites and new useful overview of technique which is common practice and information about existing sites. The view sites in the one which is still in the experimental landscape from the air gives a wider picture than that Crown copyright MoD. stages. from the ground (Fig 71) and this helps to

104 make sense of the archaeological Mainland and some islands of Orkney, landscape. Aerial survey not only looks at including much of the WHS, has almost upstanding remains, it can also indicate certainly resulted in the degrading and sub-soil remains through a variety of flattening of earthworks; and, of course, factors, such as variations in crop growth other more ephemeral constructions, such which reflect variations in soil moisture as timber-works, are impossible to pick up over buried walls or ditches (known as above ground surface. Orkney thus has cropmarks), or the visibility of shadows great potential to yield cropmarks. This is from depleted mounds in low sunlight. aided by the state of the land: Orkney is Aerial photographs can be either oblique relatively flat and covered in a fair or vertical and existing archives of material percentage of arable land with cereal from previous flights can be a valuable crops. source of information in addition to new, purposely directed flights. A programme of concentrated aerial reconnaissance should be one of the In contrast to the rest of Scotland, Orkney research priorities in the WHS, not only to has suffered from a lack of concentrated discover cropmarks of new sites, but also aerial reconnaissance. In parts of lowland to look for new elements to familiar sites. Scotland aerial survey has caused a As well as oblique aerial photography revolution in our understanding of the targeted to archaeology, it is vital to assess prehistoric landscape, but other areas have the archaeological potential of the existing been neglected. This has been largely due vertical photographic record: eg Royal Air to logistics – RCAHMS flights leave from Force and Ordnance Survey coverage Edinburgh airport, so journeys to Orkney since the 1940s. Aerial photography has take several long 'steps' northwards, often proved itself to be a powerful and lasting a few days and, once there, they are economical tool of prospection that can dependent on good weather, something cover large areas relatively quickly. that is not easy to predict. There are also Importantly, in an area of such familiar no suitably equipped, or qualified, archaeology as the WHS, it allows a new sponsored or local flyers operating in perspective. The WHS provides an area of Orkney as in, for instance, Highland great archaeological potential, but it is a Region or Aberdeenshire. diminishing resource and it is essential that aerial photography be utilised to the full. Nevertheless, limited aerial reconnaissance has been carried out in Orkney, partly through private flyers like John Dewar Geographical information (who provided spectacular colour images systems of WHS sites during flights in the 1970s Angus Mackintosh and 1980s) and also some limited reconnaissance by RCAHMS since 1976. Geographical information systems (GIS) This has tended to concentrate on known, are a form of spatial database used to upstanding monuments, especially relating seamlessly integrate and analyse large and to rural architecture, WWI and WWII disparate digital data sets. They therefore defences and the oil industry. have great strengths for archaeology. Conventionally, the data might comprise Neolithic Orkney has benefited from the digitised topographic data, the results of above-ground survival of traces of past geophysical survey, aerial photographs etc, monuments in the form of earthworks and but it can also include extended textual standing stones. However, there is good records, other forms of digital images, as reason to believe that sub-surface traces well as audio and video files (Fig 64 has await discovery, as shown by remnant been produced from a GIS-based system). artefact scatters on field surfaces and the discovery of new sites such as Barnhouse. A GIS to meet the needs of the WHS The concentration of agriculture on should be flexible enough to embrace a

105 72. Shovel-pitting in advance of excavation on Stronsay © C R Wickham-Jones.

broad range of data related to a variety of irreplaceable, and government policy seeks themes and interests. One theme would be to protect the resource with guidelines and to look at issues relating to cultural advice (Scottish Ofﬁce 1994a; 1994b) resource management, such as an which advocate in situ preservation, if investigation of the visual impact of new possible. If not possible, all aspects of buildings on the fringes of the WHS. The excavation should be undertaken with a integration of the local SMR and NMRS view to sustainability (see pp 120-21). with the results of current and future archaeological ﬁeldwork would be another. Conditions of survival and types of sites The modelling of sea-level changes and the within the WHS and surroundings vary effect of these on the archaeological record tremendously and still continue to surprise. it also important, as are cultural history Those proposing excavation should ensure interviews with members of the local they undertake as much assessment as community. It is important to remember possible in advance (desk-based that a GIS can hold written, taped and assessment, remote sensing, sampling and videoed information. evaluation as necessary and appropriate), in order to minimise the occurrence of unforeseen circumstances. As in any Excavation project, specialists should be involved at an Jane Downes and C R Wickham-Jones early stage in project planning. Sampling strategies should be detailed to include as Excavation is, perhaps, the best known of wide a variety of specialisms as is archaeological techniques. Excavation appropriate to incorporate the research techniques are many and diverse and they aims of those specialists (Fig 72). are well covered in the archaeological literature (eg Roskams 2001). Excavation Because of the destructive nature of is only one stage of any project – excavation, consideration should be given excavation produces materials which have before the inception of any excavation to be analysed and reported upon, and the project as to whether the research results as a whole must be disseminated. questions could be answered by looking at The archaeological resource is a site elsewhere in Orkney. Projects

106 undertaken in the WHS, and related research design, through ﬁeldwork projects elsewhere in Orkney, should be methods and recording to dissemination designed with wider applications in mind, and archiving. Importantly, excavation whether that be methodological, projects must be properly resourced geographic, heritage management or other through all these stages of work. applications.

Any excavation that is undertaken in the Soil and sediment analyses WHS or the immediate environs (IBZs) Ian A Simpson will have enhanced management, interpretation and public access issues. Background Excavation may be required ahead of actions in the Management Plan, in Analyses of site formation processes, particular those concerning improvement historic and prehistoric land resources, of visitor access, visitor management and utilisation and palaeoenvironmental erosion at the WHS monuments. Research contexts are key research themes excavations undertaken should incorporate associated with the Orkney WHS. One relevant management issues and wider approach to these issues is through soil applications for management, and may and sediment analyses. Previous soil and also provide opportunities for long-term sediment analyses in the Northern Isles, monitoring following reinstatement of and the North Atlantic region more sites. generally, have developed and tested a number of methods that have potential for Excavations in the WHS and immediate application within the Orkney WHS. The environs will be inevitably high profile and use and potential of these methods is highly visible because of the status of the summarised below. WHS and the large amount of visitors to it. It is important that opportunities for Field survey public access, display or leaflets at the time of excavation are considered early in High quality soil survey and geological planning stages and are maximised. survey maps and descriptions for Orkney Prompt dissemination in an accessible already exist at a scale of 1:50,000, and form to inform both heritage managers these provide a foundation from which to and the public is essential. design land resource assessments (Soil Survey for Scotland 1981; British Any excavation undertaken in the WHS, Geological Survey 1936-1994). Soil no matter what the impetus or source of surveys have, for example, identified funding, should be carried out by those significant areas of relict ‘deep top’ soils in who have a knowledge of the history of West Mainland Orkney, and these have research of the WHS, and of the broad been demonstrated to be ‘plaggen’ soils aims of the research framework (this containing significant information on early Research Agenda) for the WHS. That way arable land management practices and the all archaeological investigations, including relationship between arable activity and those ahead of developer/management livestock husbandry (Simpson 1997). activities, can be designed to maximise opportunities to contribute to overall Thin-section micromorphology research aims, and can be placed within and associated techniques the research framework that this document provides. Thin-section micromorphology allows the microscopic examination of undisturbed Excavation projects must adhere to the soils and sediments (Davidson and highest professional standards (eg IFA Simpson 2001; Courty et al 1989), Standards: www.archaeologists.net) and permitting formal description of soil and work from the formulation of a robust sediment components (Bullock et al 1985).

107 The use of experimental and ethno- be applied to the study of ‘offsite’ soils historical approaches to validation, and sediments, contributing in particular combined with chemical microprobe to the identification of manuring and analyses of key features (Davidson and cultivation practices associated with early Simpson 2001; Macphail and Cruise field systems. Fuel residue inputs, the use 2001), means that the interpretation of of turf and intensities of cultivation, have thin-section components is becoming all been identified in early arable soils, increasingly robust. As a result, this which range from the Neolithic to the technique contributes information to an early modern period. These observations, increasing range of archaeological when integrated with biomarker analyses, questions. provide powerful new insights into early land management strategies (Simpson In a North Atlantic context, 1997; Simpson et al 1998a; Simpson et al archaeological midden stratigraphies in 1998b). Orkney have been examined to elucidate distinctions between specialised fishing communities and farm-fishing sites over Biomarkers various time periods (Simpson et al 2000; Simpson and Barrett, J H 1996). Proton Innovative organic geochemistry induced X-ray emission microprobe techniques applied to soils and sediments analyses with associated micro-focus are now making a major contribution to synchrotron X-ray scattering analysis has the understanding of early land been used to establish the origin of management practices in Orkney and the crypto-crystalline products of bone North Atlantic region. These techniques decomposition at these sites, providing include the identification of free soil lipids the potential to retrieve archaeologically which permits the identification of significant information from sites with organic materials used in manuring poor preservation (Simpson et al 2000; strategies – human manures, omnivorous Adderley et al forth). Fuel residues in manures and herbivorous manures - complex midden stratigraphies can also within arable and hay production systems be identified using thin-section (Bull et al 1999a; 1999b; Simpson et al micromorphology, and quantified in two 1999b). These have now been verified in dimensions using image analyses experimental and ethno-historical techniques, and in three dimensions using contexts. Observations from the Northern high resolution X-ray computed Isles suggest a focus on the use of tomography (Adderley et al 2001; household wastes in maintaining arable Simpson et al 2003). Similar analyses land fertility from the Neolithic through could be applied to the study of to the early Iron Age, with a switch to the occupation surfaces, and these would use of animal manures from the late Iron provide information on the in situ spatial Age through to the early modern period. patterning of micro-artefacts and ecofacts Advanced biomarker analyses using in three dimensions, allowing new insights compound specific stable isotope analyses into the functions of archaeological sites. (δ15N on amino acids and δ13C on n- Currently, and of direct relevance to the alkanoic acids) have further suggested Orkney WHS, thin-section differentiation between manured micromorphology analyses are being grasslands, unmanured grasslands and applied to midden stratigraphies at Skara continuous cereal cultivation, together Brae (Simpson, forth). There is further with the differentiation of terrestrial and scope to consider fossil soils beneath a marine sourced organic inputs to monument as a way to assess the archaeological soils (Simpson et al 1997; environmental conditions prior to 1999a). These techniques can be applied monument construction (Barclay, G J et and developed further within the WHS to al 1995; Simpson and Davidson 2000). identify the range and intensity of arable Thin-section micromorphology can also and grassland management strategies.

108 Artefact analysis Andrew Jones and C R Wickham-Jones

Background

The Neolithic sites contained within the WHS zone comprise some of the best- preserved Neolithic sites from western Europe. They were, in some cases, in use for over a millennium from a period spanning the beginning of the Neolithic and into the Earlier Bronze Age. Their information comprises not only unusual details of architecture but also, because of the remarkable preservation, much of the 73. Post-excavation work plays a vital Modelling suite of objects, everyday and otherwise, role in that made up daily life. This sort of detail archaeological Modelling is an essential tool for research is rare elsewhere in Europe. As such these research © C R WIckham-Jones. into the historical and archaeological sites provide us not only with a series of dimensions of land sustainability. Recent windows into the daily life of different research using the CENTURY agro- people at various points over the period, ecosytem model has demonstrated but they also provide researchers with a accurate predictions of crop yields and soil unique picture of social change. nutrient status in historical arable contexts in the Northern Isles (Adderley et al Using the material culture from these sites, 2000). This allows exploration of a range archaeologists can examine the myriad of of arable land management strategies to be ways in which people conducted their daily made, in particular the levels of manure life (Fig 73). Studies include: how people input required to minimise loss of soil related to their surrounding environment; nutrient status and to maintain subsistence how they interacted; how they expressed or surplus levels of grain yield. Most themselves culturally and artistically; how recently, the CENTURY model has been they dressed and made their tools; how applied in pre-modern Iceland to examine they farmed, hunted, ﬁshed and gathered; the relative rôles of climate and manuring how they cooked and ate; and how they strategies in determining arable crop articulated a relationship with a wider, yields, concluding that management of soil spiritual, world. nutrient status was the primary limiting factor (Simpson et al 2002). Grazing Artefact analysis includes many different models which explore the relationship processes and specialisations and Orkney between vegetation productivity, grazing provides an ideal laboratory within which preferences and vegetation utilisation, to develop its varied applications. The have also been successfully used in the individual techniques are too many to list Northern Isles and North Atlantic region in detail here, though some are mentioned (Simpson et al 1998b). Increasingly, these below. The use of residue analysis models are being related to historical provides a good example of the way in patterns of land degradation and which new techniques are constantly under discussions of early land management development. In recent years much work strategies (Simpson et al 2001). There on residue analysis has been developed is real potential within the Orkney WHS outside of Britain, but new research is area to use modelling to consider early beginning to redress the balance and land management strategies, their Orkney is well placed to play an important economic and environmental rôle here because of the rich variety of consequences, and to explore ‘what if…’ artefacts preserved in the Orcadian management scenarios. middens. Residue analysis comprises the

109 recovery and identification of traces that In Orkney, research into the use of the are assumed to relate closely to the uses of ceramics as an expression of social identity different artefacts. It involves the study of is concerned with the relationship between residues (sometimes microscopic) that the production of early Neolithic bowls have built up and been preserved on and Unstan Wares, and that of late artefacts of various different materials. Neolithic Grooved Wares. The materials Bone, pottery and stone have all been used in the production of the pottery can shown to harbour residues when the be examined using petrological thin- circumstances are right. There are many sections. This technique has been ways in which residues can build up: burnt traditionally used to ask questions remains on pottery; the incorporation of concerning the locality of pottery stray grains and pollen into the fabric of a production and the nature of pottery pot; traces on stone and bone tools; and exchange. However, work at the late alterations of the actual fabric of tools. Not Neolithic settlement at Barnhouse has surprisingly, residue analysis incorporates taken a different approach (Jones in many different techniques in the quest to Richards (ed) forth). By using information record and identify these remains. from multiple thin-sections derived from Scanning electron microscopes, chemical pottery from many locations within the work on lipids and starches, pollen analysis settlement, a more detailed picture of and more detailed work such as isotope pottery production could be produced. studies all have a part to play. Once the This indicated that each household was residue work has been done, there are making pottery from specific raw obvious benefits from the incorporation of materials, suggesting that pottery the information into wider data sets so that production in the Neolithic was organised aspects such as content might be played by individual households. Using this into the pottery research outlined above. technique, the Barnhouse analysis was able to trace the life histories of the Grooved The following discussion is intended to Ware vessels from production to depo- give some idea of the wide range of sition. Petrological links were established techniques involved in artefact analysis and between the locations of production and to look at how some of the techniques those of deposition, not only within the might be applied, but it is not an attempt settlement, but further afield in Orkney, at to be comprehensive. sites such as the Stones of Stenness and the Quanterness passage grave.

Ceramics This research has provided important evidence of the relationship between Ceramics and community identities people and their environment. By taking it Ceramics are critically important for further, researchers can build up a picture archaeological interpretation because they of the complex web of links between are used for the processing, consumption vessels deposited on the various different and storage of food. While this activity types of site, so that material from the may seem mundane, it is fundamental to henges and passage graves can be related all human life and it has been shown to be to that deposited in the settlement sites. vital to the expression of social dimensions Furthermore, the links between since in most cultures food plays a crucial contemporary settlements can be rôle in the expression of afﬁliations examined. between people: at the household; kin group; community; and inter-community Ceramic technology and settlement level. Not only this, but the production of histories pottery using speciﬁc materials, in Orkney has one of the best records of different styles and with distinctive Neolithic settlement in Europe. decoration, is generally associated with the Furthermore, many of the earlier expression of social identity. prehistoric settlements that have been

110 excavated are deeply stratified with explanation. Sadly, the lack of basic work, sequences of remains that run from the including elementary publication, on all early Neolithic to the early Bronze Age. As but a few of the most recently excavated a consequence there are good sequences of assemblages, has limited the use of this pottery for this period. However, the sort of wider analysis. Work on lithics material record is not matched by our elsewhere, and on other artefact types in understanding; there is still a poor grasp of Orkney, shows the great benefits that the nature and periodicity of settlement would accrue from such work. histories. How long were houses inhabited for? How did house and settlement history Provenance and exchange change? How, and why, were settlements Other types of stone artefact include both abandoned? New research at Southampton ground and decorated stone, but once University is addressing this (Jones forth). again there has been little work on the characterisation and analysis of ground One approach is to combine the stone tools in comparison to that on pottery examination of architectural history with production and circulation. There are an examination of the changes in ceramic many stone tools of note from Orkney: technology. Subtle changes in the including one of the major concentrations production of pottery can be identified of pestle maceheads in Britain; together both petrologically (see above) and with a number of other macehead forms; technologically, and these can be defined carved stone balls; stone axes; and a variety in relation to changes in settlement history. of coarse stone tools, such as Skaill knives. In this way a detailed picture of the social processes involved in the establishment, There are many different aspects to the evolution and abandonment of settlements analysis of stone tools, but one important can be drawn up. facet would be to look at provenance and exchange through a detailed examination Alongside the technological examination of of stone tool petrology and sourcing. This pottery in relation to settlement histories, has wider application in terms of the will be a thorough assessment of the nature nature of interaction networks both within and quality of the existing 14C record Orkney, and between Orkney and other related to the Neolithic settlements. If regions (Shetland and the Scottish necessary, work will include the mainland). Primary research ought to development of a parallel research commence with the construction of a local programme to obtain increased dates. database of sources, so that coarse stone tools and stone axes which are likely to be Stone tools of local origin can be assessed. In this respect it is interesting to note that Flaked stone tools preliminary comparison of the rock Flaked stone tools comprise one of the sources for pottery production at main sources of artefact information for Barnhouse with the sources of stone tool much of Neolithic Scotland. Their study materials here suggest a close connection. has widened greatly in recent years with Detailed analysis of the stone tool the development and application of lithologies is necessary to clarify this techniques of analysis that take into connection. account the many fields of information available, such as raw materials, Social context procurement, technology, use and reuse, The recovery of many ground and movement and deposition. Orkney offers decorated stone tools from settlement sites an outstanding opportunity in this respect and other excavations in Orkney provides because the lithic record is derived from a another opportunity: that of looking at the background of unique richness. In this use and deposition of these pieces. This way, information from the stone tools can should include work on individual sites as be set into much wider contexts of social well as inter-site comparisons. Elsewhere

111 74. Faceted in Scotland artefacts like these are often Experimental archaeology haematite from found as stray finds with little or no Skara Brae C R Wickham-Jones © Arlene Isbister. context, so that social interpretation is limited. In this way, information from Experimental archaeology has a Orkney could be used to amplify the respectable history (Coles 1973). It is a picture elsewhere. useful archaeological tool that assists archaeological interpretation at various Bone tools levels from the analysis of the practicalities of building to that of tool manufacture and The sites of the WHS and elsewhere in use. It can also be applied to more Orkney have provided a repertoire of dynamic situations, such as social prehistoric bone tools that is unique in organisation. Experiment can never show quality and context. Yet this strand of precisely how things were done in the past, evidence remains almost unresearched. but it can help archaeologists to Potential analysis ranges from understand how they might have come straightforward investigations of species about. It helps the archaeologist of the 21st selection and technology related to the century to step back and broaden their different types of bone tool that were used, understanding of the range of ways in through stylistic comparisons of tool types, which things might have been done. to contextual and spatial information that may be built up both at the level of an A particularly valuable facet of individual site and between different sites. experimental archaeology is the potential More complex research includes work on that it offers to broaden archaeological use and residues. This is a new line of work to include the wider community. research that is currently under Some experiments involve many people, development for lithic tools and promises others involve just a few individuals, but interesting results when applied to other the value of experiment is that it brings materials. different specialisations and skills to bear upon archaeological interpretation. Haematite and ochre Builders, silversmiths, cooks and weavers have all played a vital rôle in recent Pieces of haematite and ochre have long archaeological experiment in Orkney and been known from sites such as Skara Brae, the list of potential skills is almost endless. but their analysis is only recently under development and it promises new, and The value of experiment lies not just in its exciting, information (Fig 74; Isbister pers use of related expertise but also in its use comm). Ongoing work is looking at the as an interpretive tool (Fig 75). uses of haematite as a pigment and its Archaeological sites and finds can be relation to prehistoric art as well as other difficult to relate to the everyday life of the uses such as in medicines. Archaeo- past. Nothing can beat the practical logically, a major facet of this work is to demonstration of ancient skills, the actual ensure that all excavators are aware of the experience of entering a reconstructed potential of these often apparently building, or the fun of trying something undistinguished finds. out for oneself. Experiment, in the form of

112 Skeletal studies: human origins, diet and lifestyle C R Wickham Jones

Recent scientific advances have produced exciting results from the study of human skeletal material. This is wide-ranging research that incorporates many different skills, and much of it is still under development. Orkney contains one of the best collections of human bone from Neolithic Scotland as well as skeletal material from more recent periods. The quality of the human bone record from Orkney including, as it does, both isolated bones and well-stratified skeletons from a range of periods, provides great potential for the development and testing of these methods. This would not only benefit archaeology, but also our knowledge of Orkney. Likely information includes various different aspects of mobility and origin (the birthplace and movements of individuals, as well as possible DNA links), as well as information on diet, such as the relative importance of fish versus meat. In addition, studies of disease and life-style through the bones are undergoing rapid advances and this should be applied to the Orcadian material.

Ecofactual analysis 75. Pre-heating a experience, is particularly valuable for C R Wickham-Jones Grooved Ware-type children, but also, of course, of great vessel at Stonehall © Bill Brown and Richard interest to the adult community. Complementing the rôle of artefact studies Jones. in archaeological interpretation is the rôle Experiment in Orkney is itself of ecofactual analysis. Ecofacts comprise longstanding, from the elucidation by the natural finds from a site, including Petrie of the manufacture of Skaill knives shells and animal and fish bones, (Petrie 1868), to the Minehowe Knowhow unworked antler and so on. Though they event in 2002. Despite this, British have been collected, and influenced, by archaeologists rarely include experiment as humans, ecofacts are not worked. They are a valid part of their studies in the same not tools per se, and their relationship with way that takes place elsewhere, eg in the human community is complex. The Denmark high quality of preservation in Orkney (http://www.english.lejrecenter.dk/ visited means that many sites have a good range December 2003). The introduction of of ecofacts and their analysis has a lot to more archaeological experiment to offer. Many different strands of ecofactual research related to the WHS would not analysis are under development and only benefit archaeological knowledge in Orkney offers an ideal ground to test and the WHS, but also the place of Orkney further these studies. within the archaeological profession as a whole.

113 Ecofacts have much to tell us, not only Palaeoenvironmental about the world in which the people of the studies past lived, but also about the ways in C R Wickham-Jones which they manipulated and harvested that world (Fig 76). They tell us about the Palaeoenvironmental evidence provides a environment and about economy. Shellfish whole suite of information which studies, for example, can throw light on complements that from the archaeological the specific coastal conditions in the areas site. It may be obtained from the site itself that were harvested. They tell us about the or from its surroundings, and it helps to harvesting techniques and preferences of flesh out the picture of the world in which the people and they may give us our ancestors lived. Palaeoenvironmental information on diet and other activities information is derived from many sources such as medicines and the extraction of such as pollen, charcoal, beetle and dye. Studies of animal and fish bones mollusc remains, and it runs alongside the provide information on climatic study of the ecofactual material. There are conditions, husbandry practices, butchery many specialised publications on the techniques and diet. They help us to different strands of palaeoenviromental compare the relative importance of wild evidence (Dincauze 2000; Simmons and farmed foods and this in turn may be 2001). tied in to years of environmental difficulty. There are also deeper ways in which these Palaeoenvironmental evidence is important resources may have been embedded into because it does not only touch upon the the life of the community, such as in the world in general, but also upon the specific apparently ritual importance of red deer or relationships between people and that other animals, and birds, at some Neolithic world. For example, anthropogenic sites, and it is important to recognise this if burning episodes may be seen in the we are to get a full picture of life in the charcoal record, woodland management past. can be shown through pollen studies, and beetle remains have been used to infer 76. Articulated animal bone at periods of disuse and abandonment at Tofts Ness, Sanday © S J Dockrill. settlement sites.

114 The palaeoenvironmental record from information on townships and farms Orkney is a rich one, wherein there is (especially the place-names and rental evidence both for the WHS in particular values) from which it is possible to and the rest of Orkney. It is important to recreate much of the 15th-century include it in any archaeological work that agricultural landscape of Orkney. Previous takes place. This should not only apply to scholars have used these Rentals tried and tested methods, but also to the retrospectively to postulate land settlement application and development of new patterns for the Norse period, and avenues of research. although the medieval taxation system was relatively static, this is now considered to Historical and cartographic be a misapplication of the rental sources information. Sarah Jane Grieve There are a number of medieval sources Historical and cartographic sources such as Decrees, Dispositions, Sasines and provide a basis for understanding the Charters as well as estate papers, some of evolution and development of the medieval which were collected and published as and modern landscape and therefore Records of the Earldom of Orkney (Clouston significantly enhance our understanding of (ed) 1914). Other papers are to be found the WHS and its context. in the Old-Lore Miscellany series (1892 onwards) and the Orkney Archive, and all Although these sources are not without of these provide further information on the problems, a critical appreciation of the nature of: land division; the emergence, agendas and biases allows them to be used development and dissolution of estates; to further knowledge at a landscape- boundary delimitations; and other issues holistic level as well as a more site-specific pertaining to settlement and land. These level. sources provide a wealth of information which has not, as yet, been systematically Historical sources or critically assessed to any great extent, though scholars such as Clouston ((ed) There are very few early historical sources 1914; 1927; 1932a), Marwick (1929d), relating to Orkney. The first major source and especially Thomson (1996), have is the Orkneyinga Saga written AD c1200 shown the potential of these sources for in Iceland and detailing, in typical saga studying the development of the medieval prose, the lives and exploits of the landscape of Orkney. Norwegian earls of Orkney (Taylor 1938). The importance of this source should not Later sources, more readily available, be underestimated; it not only provides include the Old and New Statistical information on the settlement patterns of Accounts, which in many instances provide 12th-century Orkney, but it was also the the first recorded description of basis for a number of influential studies in monuments and sites. The level of detail in the early 20th century in Orkney which these was very dependent on the particular developed the concept of a Viking ‘Golden interests of individual parish ministers, Age’. Other Scandinavian sources with however, for example they give only very reference to Orkney include Hakonar Saga, basic descriptions of the monuments in The Icelandic Annals and Historiae Stenness, though there is more detail of Norvegiae (Dasent 1894; Storm (ed) 1880; those in Sandwick (OSA vol 14, 134-5; Storm (ed) 1888). OSA vol 16, 451-2, 458-61; NSA vol 15, 68; NSA vol 15, 53-8). There are several The first indigenous sources are a series of Tours of the Northern Isles and taxation rentals, the earliest dating from Descriptions such as those by Ben (1529), 1492, which detail the earldom and Wallace (1693), Brand (1883), Low bishopric lands of Orkney (Peterkin 1820; (Cuthbert 2001), Barry (1805) and Tudor Thomson 1996). These provide useful (1883); and the detailed work of the

115 77. ‘Druidical remains near ecclesiologists Muir (1885), Neale (1848) studies into Udal Law. This development Stenhouse Lake, Orkney’s’, an and Dryden (in MacGibbon and Ross resulted in many excellent, and some example of an early 1896) which provide information on suspect, studies of Orkney and pictorial record of a monument standing monuments. These sources are ‘Orkneyness’ and has inﬂuenced scholarly © Robertson Collection. the result of the antiquarian movement thought throughout the 20th century. which developed throughout the 19th These early 20th-century articles, when century and they are useful because they used critically, can provide valuable not only provide detailed descriptions of information for future research. sites now lost or ruinous, but they also preserve folklore and traditions which have Over recent years the RCAHMS has been since become obscure. A more ambiguous completing an extensive survey of all WWI source from this period lies in the various and WWII remains in Orkney, bringing collections of watercolours and drawings together contemporary documentary depicting monuments and churches such sources (including photographs and oral as those in the Robertson Collection history interviews) and modern surveys of (privately owned) (Fig 77), the Dryden the surviving structures. This collection of watercolours (Orkney Archives) and information is able to provide a useful Aberdeen’s sketches (Orkney Archives). insight into how the WHS was utilised An increased interest in antiquarianism, during both World Wars. Publication of spurred by a growth in nationalism in the the results of this survey work is due in the late 19th century and early 20th century, is near future but can be accessed in the exempliﬁed in the large number of studies meantime through the RCAHMS. focussing on the ‘Norseness’ of Orkney, including Clouston’s History of Orkney Orkney is fortunate to have both a (1932a); Marwick’s series of place-name photographic and sound archive, based articles published in the Proceedings of the within Orkney Archive. The Sound Orkney Antiquarian Society (eg 1923b; Archive holds recordings from as far back 1931); and most overtly in Johnston’s as the 1950s, with Ernest Marwick’s formation of the Viking Society and his collection, copies of recordings made by

116 Alan Bruford of the School of Scottish Qualitative interviewing and Studies, and holds the archive of participant observation recordings made for BBC Radio Orkney. Siân Jones and Angela McClanahan These have been supplemented with a variety of more recent oral history projects Research into the beliefs and values of which have included oral history and local communities in relation to folklore-based work. The Photographic archaeological remains and sacred sites has Archive has a vast collection of led to productive developments in terms of photographic material which covers the heritage management, legislation, research WHS. Both archives have the potential to practices and visitor management. In this yield useful information which should be work participant observation and the base from which any future oral history qualitative interviewing are important or folklore research is developed. methods to acquire knowledge. This approach involves a variety of methods Cartographic sources derived from anthropology, sociology and heritage management, including The early cartographic sources, including questionnaires, focussed interviews and sea charts, estate maps and maps formed participant observation, and it is seen as an during the Division of the Commons, important contribution to challenge provide useful and important information conventional aspects of heritage on early land systems. When combined management policies (eg see Bartu 1998; with the Rental information, they help to Moser 1999). Though it started out in the provide an enhanced understanding of context of post-colonial countries with pre-improvement Orkney (as shown in vocal indigenous minorities/local Thomson 1996). The most important communities, it is now seen as a early charts for Orkney are Mackenzie’s productive part of the process of heritage Charts of 1750, which include township management in Britain. boundaries, manor houses, large farms and churches. These not only preserve the The method of research requires township areas but also provide a source of engagement with various different place-names. A significant later source is communities and individuals, such as local the Ordnance Survey first edition maps inhabitants, farmers, archaeologists, and the Original Name-Books, which often visitors, tourist organisations, etc, in a preserve accounts and locations of variety of social settings, and this is previously unrecorded sites, authenticated achieved through the overarching by local testimony. framework of ‘multi-sited’ ethnography (see Marcus 1998). This anthropological The above sources provide significant strategy is intended specifically to observe contextual information, which not only the behaviour and social engagements of provides insight into the medieval groups and individuals in different places. landscape of Orkney but also charts the It centres on spending significant amounts progress of antiquarian study and shows of time in different cultural settings (both the impact that this has had on our physical and virtual; for example, an understanding of the monuments and the archaeological site vs. an internet landscape in which they stand. To ensure discussion forum), viewing each that these sources are used to their full place/situation as an individual field ‘site’. potential, an inventory of the material Within each site a combination of specific available for the Orkney WHA would be a methods can be employed: participant welcome addition to the SMR or the observation; direct observation; focused Orkney Archives. qualitative interviews; historical and documentary analysis; and questionnaires.

117 78. Museums provide a place for Participant observation involves living Studies of this type are taking place in study as well as for display amongst, and participating in, the activities Orkney (currently by Angela McClanahan © C R Wickham-Jones. and daily lives of the specific communities as a PhD studentship, supervised by Siân which are the focus of research and it is Jones, Manchester University and funded widely regarded as yielding the most in- by Historic Scotland; McClanahan 2004) depth insights and understandings of and they will provide in-depth knowledge people’s beliefs, traditions and practices about people’s beliefs, perceptions and (for an overview see Jorgensen 1989). practices as they relate to the WHS. More Interviews comprise an important part of broadly, the rôle of the WHS in the this in order to deal with specific issues: development and transformation of a sense they may range from impromptu, of place and local identity can be explored informal, but focused, conversations that in relation to other historic sites in Orkney take place during routine interaction, to and elsewhere. At a national (or formal semi-structured interviews that international) level the WHS offers a have been specifically arranged. In the detailed case study to explore the wider context of the WHS, the incorporation of issues concerning the impact of relevant textual material relating to archaeological monuments, and their archaeological sites and monuments (eg in research, management and presentation, leaflets and on display boards), heritage upon a contemporary society. management policies, community and agricultural organisations, folklore, newspaper articles etc, is important. This Museum-based studies work draws not only on contemporary Anne Brundle practice, but it is also important to provide a historical dimension through the use of Museum collections hold original oral and written historical evidence. In this archaeological and historical material, and way it is possible to provide a historical associated information. They have great context for people’s beliefs, traditions and research potential. Previously published practices. material can be usefully re-examined with 118 reference to new information or parallels which may be obscure. These collections, sometimes overturning materials covered by such reports might previous assumptions (eg Forsyth 1995; well reward further study (Fig 78). Heald 2001). The principal archaeological collections from excavations in Orkney are It is more difficult to study unpublished in the Orkney Museum and the National assemblages, particularly those from older Museums of Scotland, but there are a excavations. Researchers may have to rely surprising number of other museums, on the advice of museum curators, or elsewhere in Britain which also hold some personal networks, to get access to of the older Orkney material. information not yet in the public domain. Information about individual finds and Access to museum collections is hampered small assemblages should be available by museum catalogues, many of which are through museum catalogues. incomplete and unpublished. The Museums Registration scheme includes a Sadly, research visits to museums are rare, general requirement for registered as are detailed enquiries. They need to be museums to address catalogue backlogs, encouraged. Museum collections are the and the Orkney Heritage Development public heritage; they and their associated Plan 2000-2003 included a commitment information should be as freely available as by Orkney Islands Council to establish a is possible within the limits of the five-year plan to address this issue, but, at conservation needs of the material and of present, only part of the Orkney the museum resources of time and space. Museum’s archaeological collection is catalogued by the museum; most of the With regard to the WHS, priority should remainder is accessible only through be given to putting together a catalogue of excavation archives and published reports. all relevant museum holdings and their location. Past archaeological research in Museums hold material from published the WHS has created a wealth of material and unpublished excavations and isolated from which more information can be finds. For the published material, there are gained. This includes material derived post-excavation reports. Some of these from sites elsewhere across Orkney, as well include wide-ranging re-evaluation of a as material from the WHS itself. Finds class of material (eg MacSween 1997). from previous excavations are a valuable Other specialist reports are produced with archaeological resource, the material limited resources, so that it is not possible remains of sites that have been wholly or for the authors to look at comparative partially excavated away. There is a still a material in other collections, or to find great deal to be learned from them.

119 PART

5 Research strategy

Introduction will change with time, but we have set out a method by which priorities can be The preceding chapters demonstrate the drawn up. lengthy history of archaeological and related research concerning the WHS. We hope to see research moving forward This is not surprising in an area that is within an ethos of sustainability which is, defined as being of such great archaeo- we feel, the spirit that best safeguards the logical significance. It is also clear that future well-being, and our understanding, research relevant to the WHS comprises of the WHS. The following paragraphs not only projects that look at the Neolithic, outline this approach. but also those that cover both preceding and all other periods, up to and including the present day. It all adds up to an Sustainable research impressive foundation for future research. Sally M Foster The preceding texts have combined the work of many authors in setting out a ‘Scotland’s built heritage should be comprehensive review of existing managed in a sustainable way, recognising knowledge of the WHS, identifying that it is an irreplaceable resource’ research themes, relevant techniques and (Historic Scotland 2000, Article 3). How gaps in knowledge. It is to the credit of the should this be applied in the context of extraordinary quality and character of the research in general, for the Orkney WHS archaeological remains that such a broad in particular? As a starting point, it is group of specialists could be assembled useful to paraphrase the Council for and persuaded to contribute. British Archaeology’s definition of sustainable development: ‘sustainable A research strategy should provide research meets the needs of today without priorities and methods for implementing a compromising the ability of future research agenda, and so this strategy has generations to understand, appreciate and been formulated as a means by which the benefit from the historic environment of Research Agenda might be put into action. the WHS and its environs’ (Clark 1993, The strategy is intended to help those 90). With this in mind there is only one responsible for funding decisions to place serious point at which there is the danger individual projects within a wider context of research not being sustainable and that and assess the value of the proposed is through the destructive process of research, and to provide a means by which archaeological excavation, as recognised those who intend to carry out research can above (pp 33-5). However, there are many best plan their research. ways in which the sustainable qualities of excavation, and indeed of non-invasive Broad research themes were identified and research, can be enhanced. Drawing upon discussed in Part 3; this section starts to the broad principles for conservation set break that down into a series of managable out in the Stirling Charter (Historic topics and projects. We have not tried to Scotland 2000), and Historic Scotland’s prioritise individual projects because the (2002) policy on sustainable management specific factors leading to prioritisation of the historic environment, it is possible to

12000 identify a set of principles that should periods of the monuments in the Site. underpin any research in the WHS and ◆ Investigation should, where possible, surrounding areas. contribute to the understanding of the ◆ Research aims should include the broader environment and the impact of conservation of the WHS for the human actions on natural resources benefit and enjoyment of present and through time. future generations. ◆ Appropriate measures should be taken ◆ Research should recognise that the to assist all people, particularly the local resource is irreplaceable and seek to community and tourists, to enjoy, ensure that all aspects of its practice are appreciate, learn from and understand as sustainable as possible. the WHS. ◆ There should be a general presumption ◆ All research should aim not only to in favour of preservation. Intervention address the specific requirements of the should be the last resort, after all other WHS and its environs, but to constitute avenues of research have been examples of best practice with wider explored, and then it should be applicability. minimal. ◆ The precautionary principle should It is also important not to lose sight of the apply; unless it is possible to assess the fact that significant, if less visually impact of any interventions or other impressive, archaeology lies on the actions on the cultural and natural doorstep of the WHS, and indeed is to be heritage resource, including that which found throughout Orkney. With an eye to is not to be disturbed, then potentially sustainability, undue concentration of damaging actions should be avoided. effort on the WHS should never be ◆ In the case of invasive work, prejudicial in the long-run to other arrangements should be made for long- archaeological (and associated social) term monitoring of the condition of the interests. The first question to be asked of site once works have been completed, any research proposal must be whether it in order to understand better the can really only be addressed through work consequences of such intervention and in the WHS. It is vital to continue to ask feed this knowledge into future questions of what has happened in the past strategies. and what we are doing now, but we have ◆ As in all aspects of archaeological work, to make sure that individual research the highest standards must apply, not designs be assessed against a broader least with regard to recording, ensuring research agenda, the horizons of which that there are proper records before, extend well beyond the WHS itself. during and after work. ◆ Parties should work together to share Research rationale knowledge and resources, find solutions Jane Downes and C R Wickham-Jones to common questions or problems, and maximise benefits, not least by ensuring Research can be related to various basic that research objectives address the themes within archaeology and, as set out broadest possible spectrum of interests, above, this document has chosen to including those of heritage managers. eschew the traditional period, subject, or ◆ Addressing back-logged research must management-based themes for two be a priority in order to make all broader themes into which all traditional available information widely accessible. themes can be bound. ◆ Those undertaking research, particularly in the case of excavation, Artefacts, monuments and cultural identity must have the highest quality looks both at groups of artefacts, such as knowledge, skills, technologies and pottery, and at the monuments themselves, resources available to them. All periods such as the stone circles. In doing so it of human activity should be valid removes the distinctions of scale often subjects for research, not just the main applied by archaeologists to their material.

121 The interplay between the different series of manageable actions that combine elements of archaeology is examined to see to provide wider information. The broad how they related and were used to scale topics have been set out first, but it construct a world, both at various times in should be emphasised that this list is by no the past and in the present. In this way all means exclusive. It is not intended as an archaeological finds within the WHS are end point in itself, but rather as stimulation recognised as valid research objects in their to the individual reader. own right, whatever their size or period. It is also recognised that at any one time in Sample research topics: the past there have been previous pasts to artefacts, monuments and which people have related. At the same cultural identity time, the rôle of archaeology in the world Siân Jones, Colin Richards, Artefacts, of today is a source of interest. Monuments and Cultural Identity Group, Temporality and Period-Based Research The formation and utilisation of the Group landscape looks at the different processes that have gone on to produce the Archival assessment and landscape of the 21st century. Under this synthesis research theme it is appropriate to stop the process at any one particular time, in order Successful research depends on a good to highlight that period or process: for knowledge of the artefact assemblages and example early Holocene climate change or related archival material held in museums. the introduction of agriculture. By building At present there is no archive of relevant up a series of slices of information, material. The finds from Orcadian sites are projects that work within this theme will be scattered across many museums, within contributing to the wider picture. Scotland and further afield, and in some cases finds from a single site reside in It is recognised that research relating to the several different locations. A basic WHS will not only take place in the WHS. assessment and synthesis of museum-based The WHS has never existed in isolation; it material (to include both finds and archive is part of a wider system. Information from material) in relation to the WHS and its outwith the WHS has great bearing on the buffer zones is necessary. An inclusive and WHS, both as part of its natural setting accessible archive, perhaps in the form of a and at an individual level as detail from web-based index, would provide a vital tool sites elsewhere can be used to explain gaps as a starter for any research. in our knowledge of the WHS sites. From the perspective of Orkney, there are thus Architectural life histories four geographical frameworks for research that may be set out, though they are not Much research has been carried out on the intended to convey any sense of project architecture of the Neolithic sites and value: monuments included with the WHS area ◆ site-specific research; and its buffer zones. This has, however, ◆ WHS-specific research; largely ignored the length of time over ◆ zone-specific research; which these monuments have survived and ◆ research that is specific to Orkney as a their differing rôles throughout that time. group of islands. There is a great need for research which explores the durability of the architecture Sample research over time, and the ways in which these sites and monuments have been re- For the purposes of this document, thought, re-fashioned and reused. This examples of research have been divided research extends beyond the Neolithic to into broader topics and then set out as include sites and monuments from other specific projects. In this way it is possible periods, and especially the dynamics of to see how research might go forwards as a their relationships to the Neolithic remains.

122 The creation of the monuments possible to find a chemical indicator for barley but as yet it is impossible to say Detailed studies of how the monuments whether this implies porridge, ‘bread’ or were created – including both the beer. Work so far has been small scale and mechanics of construction, and the there is a general lack of comparative or selection and acquirement of suitable control data. The high concentration of materials, as well as a consideration of Neolithic pottery in the WHS and the act of construction as an ongoing surrounding area mean that a large project project. incorporating pottery from several sites would be valuable.Work on residues and wear on lithic tools has been shown to be The life histories of artefacts of value to archaeology, notably in the identification of ancient plant remains, The production, use, consumption and though this has largely been ignored in deposition of artefacts. Ultimately this Britain. In the context of the early farming research should extend beyond site specific communities who built the monuments of projects to comparative and synthetic the WHS, examination of the survival and research. This might, for example, look at identification of starch grains would be of networks of production, circulation and particular relevance. Residue work on bone consumption. Most artefact studies focus tools is currently being developed for on particular materials and it seems Britain. The survival of a unique suite likely that there is useful information of well contexted bone tools in Orkney to be gained from trans-material means that the application and studies. development of this work has especial relevance here. Review and strategy for detailed physical and chemical studies of Period-specific research on artefacts social identity

This research should focus particularly on Broader programmes of research can be existing museum collections and address linked to examine the changing nature of questions such as: social identity through different times and ◆ What is the status of current analytical locales. techniques? ◆ What artefacts might benefit from analysis? Typological reviews ◆ Where are these artefacts currently Typology is a complex tool of artefact housed? research and many existing typologies have not been reviewed for a long time. The Residue analysis most popular basis for typology is shape, sometimes combined with manufacture, This is a specialised study incorporating a but this has rarely been examined in the variety of techniques. Residue analysis light of recent knowledge and techniques. locates, extracts and identifies ancient What, for instance, do the different pottery residues from a range of tools, including types mean? If the apparent mutually- tools made of stone, bone and pottery. exclusive distribution of collared Unstan The high quality of artefact survival in Wares and of flanged-rim bowls is real, Orkney means that the development of what else does it involve and what residue analyses holds particular potential. implication does this have for our Work to date on pottery has shown that interpretations of Orkney’s Neolithic? the survival of lipid/organic residues is Similar work could look at the distribution variable but well worthwhile. Further work and meaning of different lithic is, however, needed. For example, it is assemblages, bone tools and so on.

123 Experimental archaeology ◆ research into the construction of boundaries, including both Experiment is vital if we are to fully techniques and organisation, as well as understand the remains of the past. It materials; provides an important dimension to the ◆ the elaboration of the purpose of build-up of a lifestyle picture, forces boundaries and how they may reflect investigators to consider practical elements variously stability or change within the of interpretation, social questions and social, economic, religious and political environmental issues, and helps to form a life of the world around them; dynamic link between an excavation and ◆ research into the use of boundaries the post-excavation study of artefacts. In through time, including an examination comparison with work elsewhere, it has of maintenance, change, reuse, been largely neglected in Britain. dislocation and abandonment, including Experiment also provides an excellent an exploration of the existing Sound medium for education and interpretation. It Archive for references to boundaries; is of particular value in that it broadens the ◆ an understanding of the ways in which base of archaeological expertise to include boundaries may affect the present-day craftspeople. This is of especial interpretation and experience of relevance to Orkney where there is a largely landscape, both in the past and today untapped source of local expertise. (see also Formation and Use of Landscape). Landscape survey Astroarchaeological meanings Including studies of both the experiential and the physical landscape – terrestrial, It is generally accepted that certain celestial marine and celestial. There is a need for events were important to prehistoric clear and detailed knowledge of the people with concomitant consequences for relationship between the sites and the our interpretations of monuments and for landscape. Experientially, this should culture. Research into the WHS should include research on how the landscape was take account of this. Events such as the viewed, inhabited and negotiated, and it prediction of eclipses, the appearance of should compare and contrast results the moon at ‘maximum standstill’, the through different periods of time. heliacal rising of certain stars or asterisms, Physically, further exploration and like the Pleiades, the sun touching a special evaluation of the landscape, both in the mountain, or the periodic appearance/ Neolithic and more recent times, would disappearance of a planet are all of serve to enhance our understanding of potential significance. One approach is to the archaeological and historic landscapes collect surveys that integrate landscape and (see also Formation and Use of Landscape). ‘skyscape’ (ie skyline measurements, prominent features, favoured or limited Boundaries ranges of visibility, etc) and to try to correlate these with data from The landscape has been used and neighbouring sites. This, more or less, is compartmentalised from the earliest times the classical approach. Another approach to the present day, but little is known of might pay more attention to both how those divisions were manifested and quantitative and qualitative details of manipulated. This must include both the landscape and combine these with architectural, physical, divisions and findings from the specialised analysis mental boundaries; and it should look at of finds. their changes through time. Visitor surveys Useful research includes: ◆ establishing the date of boundary Little exists by way of baseline statistics for dykes; visitors to unstaffed monuments. This data

124 is required to inform site management and experiences relating to the monuments interpretation as well as to monitor and would also prove valuable and extend the assess visitor impact. This should relate to period of study beyond current living contemporary experience (see below). memory. This should include traditions of folklore and land use. Contemporary experience Literary research There is a general lack of research on the attitudes and experiences of residents and Orkney has a strong and long literary visitors within the WHS and surrounding tradition, but little is known of the area. Little is therefore known as to how influence of Orcadian archaeological sites the monuments figure in people’s memo- on this. Conversely, the influence of ries, identities and attitudes. Research in literature on archaeological research is also this field might involve two specific unknown. Both constitute useful areas of techniques, each with its own time-frame: research, necessary for a rounded picture ◆ interview-based research would provide of the part played by the WHS over the immediate results and should be ages. considered a high priority. In particular, this might look at the impact of WHS Folkloric research status and its associated management and presentation demands; Again, there is a strong tradition of ◆ ethnographic research over a longer folklore in Orkney, and archaeology plays period of time, involving participant a prominent part in this, but its rôle has observation should provide more never been quantified in detail. A detailed and fine-grained insights. synthesis and analysis of folklore concerning both archaeological materials The rôle of archaeology in in Orkney in general, and also the education in Orkney monuments within the WHS and IBZ in particular, would be of great interest. An assessment of the current rôle of archaeology in education in Orkney, and Visual representations and the of the educational potential of the WHS, is perception of landscape important if the aims of increasing public education and enjoyment of the WHS are There are many artistic representations of to be fulfilled. This should include an the archaeological landscape, and these examination of the ways in which artefacts derive from Orcadian artists as well as from the WHS (both from existing from many who visit from further afield. museum collections and newly excavated This resource has been little studied, sites) can be used in education and however. Studies of the representation of display. landscape, and the historic material within it, in a variety of media, are important Local history because they can provide a clear insight into the ways in which the perceptions of Little is known of the place of the landscape and monuments changed archaeological sites and landscape in the through time. This may then be used to local history of the area. In this respect, the examine the rôle of visual representation use of oral history techniques to focus in constructing a sense of place and specifically on the archaeological identity. monuments and antiquarian/archaeological practices would provide great insight into Place-name research the ways in which personal memories and narrative have been informed by the Existing work on place-names took place archaeology. An exploration of the existing some time ago, and a critical evaluation Orkney Sound Archive for memories and would be worthwhile, especially in

125 conjunction with speciﬁc research Monument formation processes focussing on archaeological sites and monuments both within and beyond Elucidation of the processes of monument the WHS. formation, from the pre-monument soil conditions through their construction and Sample research topics: the alteration, to the introduction today of new formation and utilisation of materials to the monuments as a part of the landscape conservation and management, is Ingrid Mainland, Ian A Simpson, Richard important. It is important to recognise the Tipping, Palaeoenvironment and Economy group varied opportunities offered by the and Formation Processes and Dating group different groups of monuments; indeed, the presence of mounds and banks of Soil formation different ages creates a great potential for a better understanding of the soil chrono- One priority is to establish the non- sequences, based on fossil soils under the anthropogenic component of soil formation monuments. as a baseline. During rapid inundation terrestrial deposits may have been Agricultural and social landscape preserved underwater. The complex formation processes patterns of currents in the archipelago mean that the pattern of islands has The survival of old land surfaces under changed over time so that some deposits monuments and colluvium of various may have been lost. Nevertheless, it is likely dates in the Bookan, Wasbister and that pockets of early soils survive and it Brodgar locality presents various may be possible to identify sealed remains opportunities for the multi-period analyses of soils and sediments in contexts such as of small areas. It may be possible to the currently brackish Loch of Stenness recover information about land division that will allow characterisation of purely and land use and their variations in time non-anthropogenic soils. Other (see also Artefacts, Monuments and preservation contexts may include the Cultural Identity). currently fresh-water Loch of Harray. Good soil baselines will facilitate the A comprehensive programme of identiﬁcation of natural and anthropogenic dating changes in subsequent periods. In addition, the study of soil formation processes must This should be designed to provide an both acknowledge and contribute to our absolute chronological framework and it understanding of wider landscape changes. should include past landscapes, monument formation, use and reuse and the broader Modelling of landscape changes environmental context. It should make use over time both of newly available samples and dating techniques, as well as samples from older This is an important component of the excavations and existing dating techniques. research framework. The major changes in It is of crucial importance to reconsider the the coast line at Skara Brae, both before taphonomy of samples from old and after the construction of the excavations before any dating is settlement, are well known; and the pattern undertaken. of aeolian deposition there can be retrieved for recent times through documentary Existing bioarchaeological data research. The shapes of the Lochs of Stenness and Harray have changed over Excavation in Orkney over the last time, though it is not clear when the hundred years has created an unusually originally fresh-water Loch of Stenness rich resource of bioarchaeological was linked to the sea (see also Artefacts, evidence, albeit mainly faunal, which could Monuments and Cultural Identity). potentially be used to address many

126 research issues. To facilitate future the development of models of climate investigations, there is a need to compile change, and a number of appropriate an inventory of this material indicating, at basins for this sort of analysis lie within the very least, where the collection is the WHS and its buffer zones. stored, some basic information on the contents of the collection (eg faunal Initial post-glacial colonisation of material and carbonised seeds), date of Orkney excavation, recovery methods (ie hand recovered or sieved), whether the An understanding of the initial post- collection has been analysed and the glacial colonisation of Orkney is location of any archive or published important if we are to understand reports on the material. properly the basis for the flowering of culture that led to the monuments of the Further excavation WHS. Very little information is currently available on this and it should be This would be aimed specifically at the accorded a high priority. It should be recovery of large, well-stratified and well- recognised that rising patterns of sea-level preserved bioarchaeological assemblages mean that submerged sites are likely to and is necessary to implement many of the play an important rôle in the recovery of research themes identified. If analysis is to information relating to the initial settlers move beyond the site-specific of Orkney and their world. interpretations of archaeofaunal and archaeozoological remains, there is a need Use of plants, especially to target excavation towards varied cultivated plants, in prehistoric contemporary sites within the Orkney archaeological landscapes, and in particular to ensure the analysis of Current understanding of the balance environmental data from sites of varying between plant and animal diet in Neolithic function. It can be argued that analysis of Orkney and later is based more on bioarchaeological evidence from multi- inference than on sure data. Further period sites would allow useful insight into recovery and analyses of plant remains long-term palaeoeconomic trends and from archaeological contexts are necessary processes, and economic strategies, thus and isotope analysis of human bone would avoiding period-specific biases. be very useful.

Modelling climatic change Non-economic values and activities apparent in Precipitation is a major driving force bioarchaeological evidence behind climatic change (Vassijev et al 1998) and the least ambiguous results are There is much scope for a reappraisal of to be obtained from the analysis of lake- existing data, and the targeting of future level changes (rises and falls) in upland, or recovery strategies, to investigate the gradually (or only modestly) representation of particular species and anthropogenically modified catchments. In their associations with particular contexts the last four years a sedimentological and or artefacts. Existing work has approach to interpreting lake-level change highlighted the potential non-economic has been developed and this has resulted value of certain species in various different in the first continuous Holocene contexts (eg sea eagle at Isbister; red deer chronology for precipitation in the UK, at Noltland) and this is worthy of further from west Glen Affric in northern development. This research would be Scotland (Tisdall 2000). This approach focused on aspects such as the uses the spatial and temporal changes relationship of various species to social between lake sediment and fen peat from identity, symbolic significance, ritual and transects of correlated cores. It allows for concepts of wild/domestic. Changes in

127 practice through time should not be 5. A study of each monument to produce forgotten, nor the changing interplay a history, not only of its construction between humans and animals/plants in but also of its alteration and use different settings. through time to the present day. 6. Experimental studies relating to Sample Projects individual types of artefact, eg of the All Discussion Groups manufacture and use of pottery. This should include work on the source Background materials and could be extended to look at the relationships between The projects below have been drawn from different types of artefact, such as the the contributions made by those attending sources used in pottery production and the symposium and members of the stone tool production. AHRCC at various stages in the 7. Residue analyses to determine the consultation process. The list is not function of various artefacts, such as intended to be exhaustive, nor is it set out pottery, bone or stone tools. in any order of priority. Rather it is 8. An examination of the preparation for intended to act as a stimulus to those site construction relating to individual research workers and funding bodies who monuments: is there evidence of have an interest in the future of The Heart ground preparation and/or the use of of Neolithic Orkney. An attempt has been introduced materials to create a made to classify individual projects to the platform? If materials were imported to themes and scale of research outlined the site, what is their nature and origin? above but, as readers will quickly realise, 9. Maeshowe: examination of the this is, in practice, difficult. Nevertheless, it complex construction of the core cairn. is worthwhile because it helps to give a What rôle did its revetting walls play guide as to the scale and direction of each during natural consolidation of mound project. material and thus shrinkage after construction, and how did this relate to Artefacts, monuments and the built walls of the chamber? Was cultural identity the choice of mound material made with consolidation in mind? Site specific 10.Maeshowe: what is the hydrological 1. Refinement of the dating of the status of the mound and how does that monuments of the WHS through the affect its long-term stability? compilation of a comprehensive dating 11.Maeshowe: conventional geophysics is programme for the monuments and of limited value here but the mound their surrounding landscape. New would serve as a test-bed for GPR, dates should include the use of a wide electrical imaging and seismic study, range of dating techniques. In while the base of the mound and addition, a register of all dateable and platform would benefit from intensive dated material should be built, as well survey. as a re-consideration of the taphonomy 12. Skara Brae: analysis of the middens to of all existing dates. examine their development, use and 2. New excavation to establish the modification over time. Fuel residue chronological position of important analyses of midden deposits will be complexes of monuments, such as important both in identifying the those at Ring of Brodgar and original fuels and understanding the Maeshowe. importation of material to the site. 3. A study of the mechanics of construc- 13. Skara Brae: functional analyses of the tion of the different monuments. various occupation surfaces. 4. Examination of the possible meanings 14. Skara Brae: analyses of site taphonomy attached to the actions of monument including the decomposition products construction. of bone, (calcium, iron and phosphate

128 features) and of shell (calcium programme to cover whole of the carbonate features), the use of turf or WHS. other materials for roofing, and the 29. The evaluation of the results of decomposition of stone. fieldwalking. 15. Examination of the impact of earlier excavation and conservation measures Zone specific on the sites. 30. A programme of astro-archaeological 16. Assessment of the impact of the research relating to the major introduction of new turf material and monuments and their relationship with associated biological agents for the the surrounding land. managed sites. 31. Exploratory geophysical survey of the 17. Assessment of the impact of the buffer zones to locate new introduction of new stone material for archaeological sites, using a managed sites. combination of magnetic scanning and magnetic susceptibility sampling across WHS specific detailed sample survey blocks. 18. Compilation of an archive/synthesis of 32. All future developments with the wider museum-held material relating to the zones should be preceded by WHS. appropriate geophysical investigation. 19. Compilation of an updated inventory 33. Systematic topographic survey of the of historical, pictorial, oral history and setting of the WHS in order to record cartographic sources relating to the new sites and provide a wider WHS. landscape context to the monuments 20. Compilation of a database of of the WHS. photographs relating to the monuments 34. Field survey along the coast adjacent to of the WHS. This should contain Skara Brae and along the shorelines of information on current locations and be the Lochs of Harray and Stenness, as suitable for annual updating. well as coastal survey within the OBZ, 21. New excavation to establish the in order to record eroding sites. chronological position of important 35. The continuation of a fieldwalking complexes of monuments related to programme to cover whole of the IBZ. the WHS, such as the site at Bookan. 36. The evaluation of the results of 22. Investigation of the importance of the fieldwalking. WHS area to preceding non-farming 37. Systematic underwater survey and groups. evaluation of Harray and Stenness 23. Exploratory geophysical survey of the lochs, the results to be integrated with WHS to locate new archaeological those of land-based survey. sites, using a combination of magnetic scanning and magnetic susceptibility Orkney specific sampling across detailed sample survey 38. The petrological and macroscopic blocks. examination of stone tools from 24. Survey by geophysics of specific sites Orkney, along with a contextual related to the WHS area, such as analysis. ‘Stenness Palace’. 39. Analysis of the relationship between 25. Construction of a detailed oral history the sources of materials used for of the WHS monuments in Orkney. artefacts in Orkney and known sources 26. Examination of the rôle of the further afield, such as the (Group monuments of the WHS in XXII) axe production site at the contemporary Orcadian society. Beorgs of Uyea on Mainland Shetland. 27. Examination of the place-names of the 40. A detailed study of the bone, antler WHS. and shell tools of Neolithic Orkney, to 28. The continuation of a fieldwalking include information on manufacture,

129 style, use and deposition. The formation and utilisation of 41. An examination of the social meaning the landscape of specific artefact styles. 42. An examination of the meaning and Site specific function of Beaker pottery in Orkney. 59. An examination of the pre-monument 43. An examination of individual artefacts landscape: soil conditions immediately and monuments as period specific before monument construction. indicators of social identity. 60. An examination of the evidence for 44. Intra- and inter-site studies of artefact pre-monument construction activity: is manufacture, use and deposition. there any evidence for activities prior 45. The examination of the use of natural to the construction of individual pigments, such as haematite, in monuments, such as agriculture, prehistoric Orkney using experimental funerary activity, the building of and other techniques. settlements, or the erection of stone 46. Skeletal studies: Orkney holds an settings? unparalleled skeletal record for some 61. Skara Brae: an examination of the periods of prehistory and recent sequences of sand accumulation and advances in techniques mean that this soil formation. could be used to shed light on many 62. Skara Brae: Geophysics to assess the different aspects of great relevance to effects of coastal erosion by helping to the WHS, such as diet, illness, mobility define the extent of the site along the and origins. seashore and the limits inland. 47. Investigation of the size of the 63. An examination of local drainage: what population in Orkney through time, changes in local drainage are and the changing effects of population associated with monument pressure. construction, within and around 48. Investigation of the evidence for, and individual sites? What rôle did the date of, the initial post-glacial construction of drains play in settlement of Orkney. alleviating the potentially negative 49. Investigation of the mobility and impacts of new drainage regimes? connections with the wider world What effects did new drainage regimes among the first inhabitants of Orkney. have on soil stability and bearing 50. Investigation of the advent of farming strength of soil? and nature of transition from hunter- gatherers in Orkney – what were the WHS specific relationships between the two groups? 64. Compilation of an inventory of existing 51. Investigation of the nature of Bronze bio-archaeological data for the WHS. Age settlement in Orkney. 65. An examination of agricultural history 52. Investigation of the nature, date and within the WHS: were materials function of burnt mound sites in imported to create cultivation beds? Orkney. 66. Analyses of pre- and post-depositional 53. Investigation of the nature, date and taphonomic history for faunal function of souterrains in Orkney. assemblages in Neolithic cairns and 54. Mapping and investigation of crannog settlement sites. sites in Orkney. 55. Investigation of archaeology as an Zone specific educational tool in Orkney. 67. Production of an agricultural history of 56. Investigation of the influences of the WHS and buffer zones through archaeology on literature in Orkney. related techniques such as detailed soil 57. Investigation of the influences of analyses and palaeo-environmental archaeology on art, both historical and analysis. modern, in Orkney. 68. Production of a detailed plan of land 58. An evaluation of existing research into boundaries in and around the buffer the place-names of Orkney. zones and an examination of their

130 construction, morphology, functions suitable for the addition of new work. and meaning. 81. Compilation of a database of aerial records relating to the WHS in Orkney specific particular. 69. The construction of a detailed history 82. The analysis and publication of back- of field management strategies in logged research, particularly regarding Orkney through hand-auger survey of unfinished excavation projects in the known deep topsoil areas within West WHS. Mainland, in order to provide depth 83. A season of concentrated aerial distributions of these cultural soils reconnaissance in Orkney targeting the which can then be related to settlement WHS. sites. This should be combined with survey to identify new areas of deep Zone specific topsoil. 84. Compilation of a GIS system relating 70. The location of buried, fossil, plaggen- to the WHS and the buffer zones to type soils of prehistoric age, as at Tofts combine information on field survey, Ness, Sanday could be undertaken and topographical history, monument related to soil development in the location. WHS, for example in the wind-blown 85. Desk-based assessment of the sand areas of Sandwick. archaeological value of the current 71. The recovery of palaeo-botanical data aerial records, including both vertical and an examination of the rôle of and oblique photographs. plants in prehistoric Orkney. 72. Investigation of the date and nature of Orkney specific the deglaciation of Orkney. 86. Establish a research centre for 73. A programme of palaeo-environmental archaeology in Orkney, under the work across Orkney to investigate the auspices of an Archaeology Institute environmental history of the Holocene. for the Highlands and Islands: to act as 74. Investigation of sea-level change in an umbrella organisation for research Orkney through the Holocene, on the WHS. including information on submerged 87. Establishment of a post of community landscapes. archaeologist. 75. The survey of submerged areas to 88. Compilation of a database of aerial recover information on archaeological records relating to Orkney in general. preservation. 89. The analysis and publication of back- 76. Investigation of the faunal history of logged research, particularly regarding Orkney with reference to both wild and unfinished excavation projects in domestic species. Orkney. 77. Investigation of woodland usage and 90. Study of history of archaeological management during the Holocene. research on Iron Age onwards in 78. The colonisation of Orkney by its Orkney. mammalian fauna, especially in 91. A review of existing evidence relating relation to human migration. to the Late Neolithic - early Bronze Age in Orkney, together with targeted Cross-theme fieldwork/artefact-based research in order to investigate this poorly WHS specific understood period. 79. The production of an enhanced SMR specific to the WHS. This should be on-line and designed for maximum Prioritisation of research public accessibility. Julie Gibson 80. Compilation of a database of all existing geophysics work in the WHS. This volume has not tried to prioritise This should be held centrally and research either by theme or topic, or on a

131 project by project basis. Instead, we have ◆ Is the proposer competent and is the devised a mechanism that takes account of project adequately resourced? a variety of archaeological, historical and ◆ Does the project offer an enhancement related projects. This mechanism may be of knowledge and understanding? used to assess, prioritise and further ◆ Does the project lead to the destruction research. In this way, all types of project of the resource and if so is the can be considered and relevance given to destruction necessary, acceptable and changing priorities. This method accepts inevitable? that priorities change so that it is not ◆ If it is a destructive project, should it be possible to set out here a list of priorities done within the WHS and buffer that will last into the long-term future. zones? Instead, the table below outlines a scoring ◆ What mitigation strategies are in place system based on a series of Threats and to ensure that damage is limited? Opportunities which can be tailored to meet ◆ What are the sustainable outcomes of the needs of future management. the project?

This strategy assumes that a basic check After this has been done, the following on sustainability will be considered ﬁrst. table functions as a mechanism to enable This check should take account of the the factoring in of the many elements in following factors: order to assist in the validation of a

Threats and opportunities Range of options: Score Low – high 1-10

Threats - timescale of loss of information slow/chronic – rapid/catastrophic - extent of loss of information slight – total - amount of damage anticipated if no action taken very little – total destruction

Opportunities Management Opportunities - securing preservation for some time less than 10 years – perceived as permanent - methodological application limited – wider

Importance of site/landscape - scale of importance very local – international

Funding opportunity - type partial – total - value for money bad – good

Educational opportunities and community access - academic quality poor – excellent - academic publication local – international - range of inclusion community excluded – community participation - applicability to WHS interpretation poor – good - range of dissemination narrow – wide

Developing understanding (range and depth of applicability) - theoretical approaches poor – good - methodological development poor – good - conservation issues and techniques poor – good

132 particular project, or to prioritise people do not have the specialised competing designs for a project. This table knowledge of the researchers who work is intended as a guide for those who are within the WHS, interpretation is crucial working on the development of research to any WHS. This is not the place for a projects and also as a guide for those who detailed discussion of interpretative fund them. It is not a dogma. techniques, but for the purposes of this Using this table to prioritise projects, a document all interpretation can be project to record folklore in and relating to regarded as education, thus bringing the WHS might currently score very highly together two powerful tools of in this table, especially if local volunteers communication. As such, interpretation were used, and if the results were takes place in different places (on-site and sustainable and accessible through the off-site) and it takes place on different local archives and an internet resource. levels (from the activity group of the Where invasive archaeology is involved primary school pupil, to the tour of this system of prioritisation, working specialists). together with the sustainable approach, encourages the development of high Archaeologists working in Orkney are quality projects offering value for money. generally well aware of the value of public Furthermore, it emphasises community communication and education. Orkney in participation and the need for widespread the 21st century is a society highly aware access. of the rôle of the past, and most archaeologists who work here have spent time on public lectures, open days, Communication and seminars and demonstrations. This is of dissemination particular importance in an area such as C R Wickham-Jones Orkney where many finds are still made each year by members of the public, Research will inevitably lead to the particularly within the farming community. collection of new data regarding the WHS, This should not be allowed to drop and it but this is of limited value if it never could be developed further to include reaches the public arena. Data has to be systematic work within the education communicated to be useful. system, if support be found. At the Communication is an integral part of any moment archaeological contributions to research project. There are many methods schooling are given on an ad hoc basis but for data communication: publications; it is clear that there would be considerable lectures; electronic dissemination; use of benefit were it to be developed. In this the media such as radio and television. All respect, the development of a Young have a respectable history regarding Archaeologists Club in Orkney, which has information relating to Orkney. Two levels been given limited support by the Orkney of dissemination are relevant: academic Islands Council, is an important step and public. Academic communication forward, as are Historic Scotland’s comprises more attention to the details of proposals for a WHS Ranger Service. the data themselves; public communication comprises more attention to interpretation. Professional communication is important if Both may be used by people as they see fit we are to make the most of our research and both are clearly necessary if knowledge opportunities. This includes not only pre- and management of the WHS is to project communication but also post- advance. Public communication has a clear project work. The archaeological sites of rôle in education, itself a vital aspect of the Orkney (and indeed elsewhere) have been archaeological approaches to the WHS. dogged by the failure of many excavators to process and publish their results. Yet, if World Heritage Sites are designated to the results are not made available to the wider benefit of all, including the varied world, the site is lost. It is not uncommon audiences of the future. Given that most in the early 21st century to meet

133 professional archaeologists who know collaboration. The Mine Howe excavation nothing of the rich midden and artefactual project, for example, makes use of remains of Neolithic Orkney, simply specialists from Orkney College and because of the failure to publish a few key Orkney Archaeological Trust, the sites. As we have seen, the Heart of University of Bradford, and the National Neolithic Orkney plays a crucial rôle in Museums of Scotland as well as various our understanding of its times and this is a individual consultant archaeologists. situation that must be rectified. It is, at the Funding for projects such as this is drawn time of writing, approaching solution with from a complex suite of grants including the publication of the Barnhouse volume, research grants, local authority money and and work on the 1970s excavations at national funding from bodies such as Skara Brae is once again underway, but Historic Scotland. Projects like this are not there are still other sites to be published unusual in Orkney and they have an and professional archaeologists must be enhanced value. One aim of this Research careful to ensure that this state of affairs Agenda is to promote the continuation and does not happen again. further development of that ethos by bringing together scholars of different Interpretation relies on research to disciplines from a variety of institutions as provide the data which it will work into well as independent researchers. information. It is fluid, constantly changing as new research gives precedence to new Careful project design is obviously central ideas. Interpretation is nothing without to the success of any research. No matter research, but it will stagnate if not fuelled what the scale of a project, precise by criticism and questioning, both of questions and targeted work are essential which rely on access. There is thus a in order to base it on a sound design. This vicious circle in that a key contribution to extends to the actual undertaking of the research comes from its very audience. project. Vigilant project management and When research is placed in the public monitoring are vital parts of any project arena, the enhanced levels of criticism and whether it be a student thesis or a large questioning that result themselves play scale excavation and interpretation vital rôles to ensure that interpretation exercise. It is also important that the initial remains meaningful and moves forward. design includes all stages of research – for For interpretation to be of maximum instance, an archaeological project runs benefit it is thus essential that it can take from desk-based research, through field account of change: whether this is in the investigation and post-excavation to renewal of text on interpretation boards; publication, artefact conservation, the the regular updating of guidebooks; new formation and storage of an archive and lectures; ongoing training of interpreters; the deposition of material in a museum. or the devising of new workshops. These The construction of comprehensive project are all vital to the success of the WHS in archives and their deposition in a central Orkney. point, such as the Orkney Museum, or the NMRS, provides a vital source of data for future generations. Once destructive Logistics and funding excavation has taken place archives C R Wickham-Jones and Jane Downes provide the only means for testing or enhancing interpretation; they should thus Previous research agendas for other areas incorporate access to more recent work. (eg Brown and Glazebrook 2000) have emphasised the necessity for research Financially, past archaeology has been initiatives to work together. Isolated both rescue- and research-led. Both the research projects can lead to duplication impetus for projects and the sources of and redundancy, or limited information. funding have been divided. Rescue work Research in Orkney is generally strong on took place because a resource was under cross-institution and cross-discipline threat, whether by developers or nature,

134 and it was funded either by the developer Developer funding is another example of or by national bodies such as Historic single-organisation funding for an Scotland. Research work, on the other archaeological project. It is, however, an hand, was driven by the desire to fill infrequent source of major funding in perceived gaps in archaeological Orkney. Commercial pressures here, as knowledge and usually funded by money elsewhere in Britain, tend to make it hard from a variety of places including national to maximise the potential of such work. and local research bodies, as well as Many projects, however, work to a national and local authorities. In reality, package of funding including money from the perceived importance of Orkney as an Historic Scotland, Orkney Islands Council, archaeological resource has been such that and research funds. Work such as this research has always played an important currently includes both university projects rôle even where considerations of and projects run by commercial units. destruction were the main stimulus for work. Today, the concept of sustainability The smallest scale of project might and the requirement to make best use of comprise an individual research student, scarce resources render such a distinction working on a closely defined project for a unhelpful and it is likely that future student thesis. In some cases students work projects will make use of funds drawn with minimal funding - just enough to from a wide and varied field. finance travel and accommodation; other students use money from one or other of Funding is one of the most obvious the research bodies, whether they be logistical factors to affect research in the university specific funds (eg the Munro WHS. Quite apart from the various Fund of the University of Edinburgh) or potential sources of funding for medium research bodies (eg the Society of archaeology, an important concept here is Antiquaries of Scotland), or larger the oft quoted ‘value for money’ that is so Councils (eg the British Academy). Some important to agencies such as Historic students gain partnership funding, such as Scotland. It makes sense to ensure that a University grant plus money from funds are used carefully so that both data Historic Scotland, and this is especially and interpretation can be maximised. useful for wider projects such as PhD Nevertheless, it can be difficult to define theses. Other students come to work on what, precisely, individual agencies mean training excavations such as Mine Howe. by ‘value for money’. Indeed, different Excavations like this (funded by a wide funding bodies may well judge it in package, see above) provide important contrasting ways. Historic Scotland note teaching opportunities not only for young that post-project review should be an professionals but also for volunteers who, integral element of any value for money while they do not intend to draw a living assessment, and have set out the following from archaeology, wish to develop their criteria for any one project (Historic skills in it. There is an active body of Scotland 1996): it must be necessary; it archaeological volunteers in Orkney, co- must be done at an appropriate scale; it ordinated under the aegis of the Friends of must be well planned; it must be efficiently Orkney Archaeological Trust. Volunteer executed; it must be well and promptly work does not just include excavation: reported; it should not be overly complex; post-excavation work is equally important it should not be overly intensive. and takes place throughout the year, whether in Orkney Archaeological Trust, Larger archaeological projects can the Orkney Museum or for commercial sometimes involve single organisation archaeological contractors. funding, such as the contract work funded by Historic Scotland which covers the As has been emphasised throughout, investigation of findings of human remains research into the WHS includes many by a commercial archaeology unit (at the disciplines and these can each open doors time of writing, AOC (Scotland) Ltd). to different sources of funding. Some

135 projects, as noted above, combine foundation of information to assist the disciplines and thus call on an even well-being of the monuments, as broader base of funding. Some of the recognised in the Management Plan. larger funding bodies, such as the Leverhulme Trust, positively encourage At this point the importance of inter-disciplinary work, thus opening the communication becomes apparent as this way for more projects of significant can be where the interests of different international value. There are plans in groups diverge. The formation of the Orkney for the creation of a research AHRCC was designed to take account of centre for archaeology in Orkney, under the views of all parties and this has been the auspices of an Archaeology Institute played into the writing of the Research for the Highlands and Islands. When this Agenda. As noted above, Orkney has an comes into existence it will be a useful active tradition of inter-communication umbrella body to help co-ordinate funding between interest groups and it is important bids and house information. to continue this. The existence of the AHRCC as the most appropriate umbrella It is important that individual research under which individual projects can thrive projects do not take place in isolation but is vital, and it is recommended that this rather add to the collective whole. In that Committee continues to function both as a way the limited resources that are available body which can facilitate communication for archaeological and historical research about projects as well as advise on projects can be maximised, and the finite resource and research directions, and can review that is archaeology can be carefully and update the Research Agenda. managed (see p 35). Furthermore, the importance of making findings accessible The quality of individual research projects and publishing results cannot be overstated is of central importance - the highest for it is by this means that a wide research standards and all relevant techniques have community centred around the Orkney to be employed right through to WHS can be maintained and sustained. publication and archiving. This is not to say that all projects should emanate from Management within the Committee, just the opposite. Jane Downes and C R Wickham-Jones Outside projects and ideas are necessary to keep up the stimulus that enables The well-being of the archaeological management and interpretation to move resource is of paramount importance and forwards. The rôle of the Committee is to to this end Historic Scotland has already maximise the context and implementation produced a Management Plan (Historic of any research project. In this context the Scotland 2001). This Research Agenda possible development of a new Institute of has been produced to be used hand in Archaeology is exciting, with its potential hand with the Management Plan. Research rôle as a co-ordinator for bodies such as projects such as those outlined above the AHRCC and as a centre for the provide two sorts of information: they exchange of information and ideas. While provide information that contributes to our the physical facilities of an Institute would understanding of the rôle of the offer important benefits for the storage, monuments at various times in the past; processing and analysis of materials, the and they provide information on the virtual facilities of a talking-shop are just as physical make-up and current conditions important. of the monuments as well as on any changes that have taken place with time. Orkney is a relatively isolated northern Both types of information can be played archipelago and it has both a perceived into the management practices in use at and a real geographic isolation, which can the WHS in order to benefit that act as a drawback for researchers from management. In this way good elsewhere. This adds to the value and management can be built up on a broad importance of effective communication. In

136 this respect an Institute, with a dedicated Concluding comments web of electronic communications, could be a vital lynchpin for the way forward for Research is vital to the well-being and research in the WHS. Not only might it development of The Heart of Neolithic provide basic information on the locations Orkney WHS. It may seem from this of information, artefacts, or archives; it document that there are many gaps indeed could also help to co-ordinate research and in our knowledge of the WHS, and this is avoid repetition and redundancy; and at so, but we do know much: otherwise The the same time help with centralised Heart of Neolithic Orkney would not exist equipment and facilities as well as ﬁnancial as a WHS. This section has tried to look at and project development advice. The some of the realities behind research in the vision is one where local expertise is tied WHS and to set out possible directions into outside specialisations, and forward. It is not intended to be collaboration between residents and prescriptive, but rather to inform those visitors is encouraged to thrive. In this way who have an interest in the area of ways the shared sense of ownership that lies at they might undertake research. Only time the heart of the World Heritage concept will tell whether our deliberations of the can truly ﬂourish. early 21st century were running in the right direction.

137 PART

6 Appendices

Appendix 1: Select investigations at the monuments in the World Heritage Site Nick Card Skara Brae (HY21 NW12; OR 1246) Note: the investigations listed here extend to the IBZ, that is the scheduled area, rather than the much smaller boundary of the area in State care (the PIC).

1850-68 Following the exposure of the site by a severe storm in the winter of 1850, William Watt, the laird of Skaill, conducted a series of investigations. Four of the houses were cleared (Petrie 1867; Traill 1868a). 1888 A Viking long cist containing a male inhumation was discovered c200m to the west of the PIC (Watt 1888). 1913 Mr Balfour Stewart, the tenant of Skaill House, revealed parts of House 2 (Stewart and Dawkins 1914). 1924 The site was placed under the guardianship of H M Commissioners of Works. 1925-6 Work starts on sea-wall defences. 1927 Preservation of the structures starts under the supervision of J Wilson Paterson (Childe and Paterson 1929). 1928-30 Excavations conducted by V Gordon Childe, in conjunction with conservation measures. Four phases, two major and two minor, were identiﬁed (Childe, 1930, 1931a, 1931b; Childe and Paterson 1929). 1972-3 Excavations by D V Clarke and A Ritchie addressed many unanswered questions posed by Childe’s work. Environmental and 14C samples were recovered. Two major phases were identiﬁed (Clarke 1976a). 1973 A geophysical survey was carried out to the south and west of the PIC (Bartlett 1973a). 1977 Eroding walls and a ‘stalled’ structure excavated by D V Clarke, c25m to the west of the PIC (Clarke 1977b). 1978 A photographic and resistivity survey was undertaken of the eroding settlement mound to the west of the PIC (Morris et al 1985). 1982 Comparative survey work continued at eroding settlement site to west of WHS (DES 1982, 17). 1982 A rune stone was found face down during conservation work at Skara Brae (Ashmore and Johnsen 1984). 1993 A Neolithic butchery site was revealed by storms to the west of the PIC. Excavations undertaken by C Richards (Richards, forth). 1998 Geophysical survey and excavation were undertaken in the proximity of an eroding drystone wall and associated middens c200m west of the PIC (DES 1998, 71). 2000 During a watching brief to observe the removal of old fence posts to the south and east of the PIC, midden deposits were encountered close to the south side of House 7. Cobble tools, Skaill knives and a bone point were recovered (DES 2000, 66).

13800 2003 A new magnetometry survey immediately to the south of the PIC is undertaken (Grifﬁth 2003).

Stones of Stenness (HY31 SW2; OR 1366)

A full history of the Stones of Stenness up to 1976 forms an integral part of J N G Ritchie’s excavation report (Ritchie, J N G 1976).

1700 First reference to the stones (Wallace 1700). 1701 Brand mentions the site during his tour (Brand 1883). 1760 Richard Pococke, Bishop of Ossory both illustrates (British Library, Add. Ms 14257, f 79v) and describes the site (Pococke 1887). First reference to the number of standing stones (four erect, one recumbent) and to the surrounding ditch (fossee). He estimates that there were originally eight stones. 1769 Robertson (1769) refers to the tradition that the moon was worshipped at the Stones of Stenness and that victims were tied to the Odin Stone. 1772 Sir Joseph Banks and his party illustrate (Fig 24; Cleveley, J, British Library, Add. Ms 15511, f10), survey (the first measured plan) and describe the site (Lysaght 1974). 1774 George Low, minister of Birsay and Harray, mentions the site on his tour through Orkney and Shetland (Low 1879). First account of the ‘Promise of Odin’. 1781 Alexander Gordon, Principal of the Scots College in Paris, visits and describes the stones (Gordon 1792). Gordon considers the original number of stones as seven. 1789 The Stanley expedition surveys, illustrates and describes the site (West 1970-6). 1805 Barry in his History of the Orkney Islands (1805) attributes the stones to the ‘Scandinavians’ and gives credence to a ‘dolmen’ in the centre of the circle. 1805 Hibbert makes the first reference to the stones as the ‘Temple of the Moon’. He also notes their similarity to the ‘Druid’ stone circles of England (Hibbert 1823). 1805 Neill visits and describes the site during his tour of the Northern Isles (Neill 1805). 1814 Sir Walter Scott visits the site and later includes it as a scene in his novel, The Pirate (1821). Scott’s description, in conjunction with Barry’s (1805), gives rise to the myth of a ‘dolmen’ in the centre of the circle. 1814 Partial destruction of the Stones of Stenness and removal of the Stone of Odin by Captain W MacKay, the tenant farmer (contemporary correspondence relating to this is held in the Orkney Library, D2/17/4). 1848 Petrie briefly describes the stones in one of his notebooks (MS 542). 1849 An accurate survey was undertaken by Captain F W L Thomas as part of his general survey of the Brodgar area (see cover). He is one of the first authorities to speculate that there were originally 12 stones forming a circle. He also sketches the ‘cromlech’ in the centre of the circle (Thomas 1852). 1879 Tudor gives a detailed description of the site (Tudor 1883). 1885 Visited by General Pitt-Rivers (notebooks in Public Records Office, PRO Work 39/15), in his capacity as Inspector of Ancient Monuments. He is accompanied by his illustrator, W S Tomkin, who produces sketches of each stone (notebooks in Public Records Office, PRO Work 39/16). 1905 A survey and report for the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings was undertaken by the architect Basil Stallybrass. He recommends re-erection of the fallen stones (Stallybrass 1906).

139 1906 Monument taken into State care; re-erection of stone no. 5 (Spence 1906). 1907 Re-erection of stone no. 7 and creation of the ‘dolmen’. 1929 Discovery of a stone socket close to the Watch Stone during roadworks. 1972 Top stone of the dolmen removed. 1973 Geophysical survey (Clark 1973) of the Stones of Stenness, was followed by the excavations of Dr J N G Ritchie (Ritchie 1976). 1991 Relocation of the socket for the Stone of Odin and another nearby socket (Richards 2004). 1997 RCAHMS take detailed aerial photographs of the site (D 16529 CN; D 16530 CN; D 16533 CN). 1998 Fieldwork was carried out to investigate the acoustic properties of the site (Watson and Keating 2000). 1999 A new geophysical survey is undertaken by J Gater (GSB 1999a). 2001 Historic Scotland commissions a new detailed topographic survey of the PIC (Archival Drawing no. 555/285/34).

Apart from the illustrations listed above in connection with other work, a full catalogue of early illustrations of the Stones of Stenness and the Stone of Odin, by J N G Ritchie and E W Marwick, forms Appendix 11 in Ritchie 1976, 52-5.

Ring of Brodgar (HY21 SE1; OR 1314)

1529 First mention of the Ring of Brodgar (Ben 1529). 1650’s Cromwellian troops dig into Salt Knowe (Thomas 1852). 1700 Wallace briefly describes the Ring of Brodgar and considers it a ‘High-Place in Pagan Times’ (Wallace 1700). 1760 Richard Pococke, Bishop of Ossory, both illustrates (British Library, Add. Ms 14257, f.77v.) and describes the site (Pococke 1887). His illustration shows the stones as being balanced on the inner lip of the ditch, with no representation of the causeways (Ritchie, J N G 1988, 342, fig 15.2). 1769 Robertson (1769) refers to the tradition that the sun was worshipped at Brodgar. 1772 The Sir Joseph Banks expedition produced a series of illustrations and a survey of the Brodgar area (Fig 24). On the plan (Ritchie, J N G 1988, 343, fig 15.3) produced by Frederick Herm Walden, the expedition surveyor, both causeways are shown and upright and fallen stones are differentiated. Walden refers to the Ring of Brodgar as the ‘Circle of Loda’. The mounds around the ring are also plotted for the first time (Lysaaght 1974). 1774 Low briefly describes the site and speculates that the surrounding ‘tumuli’ were formed from the earth from the ditch (Low 1879). 1781 Gordon records 16 stones still standing and with eight being recumbent (Gordon 1792). 1789 Sir John Henry Stanley’s expedition produced plans (Ritchie, J N G 1988, 344, fig 15.4), drawings and descriptions of both the Ring and some of the surrounding mounds. Like Walden’s plan, fallen and upright stones are differentiated and the causeways are shown (West 1970-76). 1805 Barry briefly describes the circle (Barry 1805). 1805 Hibbert in his description of the site makes reference to it as the ‘Temple of the Sun’ (Hibbert 1823). 1805 Neill estimates that there were originally about 60 stones of which ‘fourteen are still complete and standing on end’ (Neill 1805). 1848 Petrie briefly describes the circle in one of his notebooks (MS 542). 1849 Captain F W L Thomas produces the most accurate plan to date of the whole of the Brodgar area (see cover). Within the detailed description of the site he

140 notes ‘thirteen erect and perfect; ten others are nearly perfect, but prostrate; and……stumps or fragments of thirteen more’ (Thomas 1852). 1851 Sir Henry Dryden and George Petrie accurately planned the site (Ritchie 1988, 345, fig 15.5) and also produced a panorama of the stones (ibid, 347, fig 15.6), differentiating between upright and fallen stones (NMRS ORD 89/10- 13). 1853 Partial excavation of Fresh Knowe was undertaken by Farrer and Petrie. ‘A very considerable cut…. was made across…the north end, but did not lead to any discovery’ (Petrie 1857). 1854 Plumcake Knowe was opened by Farrer and Petrie, who discovered two cists, one containing a large steatite urn (Petrie 1857). 1875 A plan of the stones was made by Captain W St G Burke of the Royal Engineers. This included accurate elevations of many of the upright stones (reproduced in RCAHMS 1946, ii, 301, fig 376; Ritchie 1988, 348 fig 15.7). 1885 Visited by General Pitt-Rivers (notebooks in Public Records Office, PRO Work 39/15), in his capacity as Inspector of Ancient Monuments, and accompanied by his illustrator, W S Tomkin (notebooks in Public Records Office, PRO Work 39/16). 1905 A survey and report for the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings was undertaken by the architect Basil Stallybrass. He records 13 upright, 3 part upright, 11 prostrate, 10 stumps and one in fragments. His report initiated remedial work to the site over the next 3 years (Stallybrass 1906). 1906 The site was taken into State care. Remedial work on the re-erection of the stones commenced. 1907 The Office of Works surveys the site (MW/1/1248). 1908 Runes were discovered on one of the stones during remedial work (Cursiter 1908; Olsen 1909). 1929 Charles Calder produces a plan for the RCAMS (RCAHMS 1946, ii, 300, fig 374). 1971-4 A and A S Thom undertook a series of surveys and observations relating to their theories about the Ring of Brodgar being used as a lunar observatory (Thom and Thom 1973; 1975). 1973 A geophysical survey (Bartlett 1973b) was followed by A C Renfrew’s excavations. Three small trenches were opened, two across the ditch and one in an attempt to identify an outer bank (Renfrew 1979). 1980 Stone 17 of Calder’s RCAHMS plan was shattered when struck by lightening. 1985-6 The heights of the stones are remeasured (Ritchie, J N G 1988). 1997 RCAHMS take detailed aerial photographs of the site (D 16524 CN; D 16525 CN). 1998 Fieldwork was carried out to investigate the acoustic properties of the site (Watson and Keating 2000). 2000 Historic Scotland commissions a new detailed topographic survey of the PIC (Archival Drawing no. 551/042/32). 2002 A new magnetometry survey is undertaken within and around the site as part of the WHAGP (GSB 2002).

Maeshowe (HY31 SW1; OR 1365)

1153 Maeshowe is broken into by Harald Maddadarson (Orkneyinga Saga) and ‘Viking’ (Norse) crusaders under the leadership of Earl Rognvald Kali. 1650’s According to Hibbert (1823) Cromwellian soldiers dug into the mound but found nothing.

141 1805 Hibbert gives the first real account of Maeshowe, but interprets it as a target raised for archery practice (Hibbert 1823). 1849 Captain F W L Thomas gives the first accurate description of the site. Although his survey of the Brodgar area does not extend as far as Maeshowe, he includes an elevation of the mound (see cover; Thomas 1852). 1861 Farrer breaks into the mound. An account of his ‘investigations’ is published by Petrie (1861a). Petrie concludes that the mound was probably raised by others before the runes were cut. 1862 Farrer catalogues and numbers the runic inscriptions (Farrer 1862). Mr Balfour, the owner, begins work to reinstate the collapsed roof of the tomb and installs a gate in the chamber entrance. The site is visited by Dr E Charleton who publishes an extensive account on his visit and interpretation of the runes (Charleton 1865). 1864 Stuart (1864) not only describes the runes, but also gives scholarly consideration to the date, nature and history of the structure. He makes comparisons with Newgrange and concludes that Maeshowe was built for a much earlier Celtic chieftain than the runes would imply. 1885 Visited by General Pitt-Rivers (notebooks in Public Records Office, PRO Work 39/15), in his capacity as Inspector of Ancient Monuments. 1905 A survey and report for the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings were undertaken by the architect Basil Stallybrass. He makes recommendations for the preservation of the site (Stallybrass 1906). 1910 Maeshowe is taken into State care. 1954-5 V G Childe (1956) conducts a series of excavations on behalf of the Ministry of Works. He discovered the revetted structure of the mound and the artificial nature of the platform on which the mound was constructed. He regarded the surrounding bank as being modern. 1973-4 The Department of the Environment excavations, directed by C Renfrew, concentrated on the retrieval of samples for 14C analysis. Two trenches were opened across the ditch, the outer bank and the platform (Renfrew 1979). 1986 A previously observed incised motif is reinterpreted as being Neolithic, rather than being part of a runic inscription (Ashmore 1986). 1990 Geophysical survey was undertaken between the tomb-mound and the ditch (Richards forth). 1991 In advance of minor remedial works, excavations by C Richards discovered a covered drain underneath the clay platform outside of the entrance to the tomb. Also discovered was a socket for a standing stone on the platform and a collapsed stone wall under the turf bank surrounding the ditch (Richards forth). 1994 Michael Barnes produces the definitive work on the Maeshowe runes (Barnes 1994). 1998 Fieldwork was carried out to investigate the acoustic properties of the site (Watson and Keating 2000). 1998- Ongoing research on the winter solstice by Victor Reijs and Charles Tait. 1999 In addition to the Neolithic carvings noted in 1986, a series of Neolithic incised motifs were identified within the chamber and passage (Bradley et al 1999; 2001).

142 Appendix 2: Resources Nick Card

Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS), John Sinclair House, 16 Bernard Terrace, Edinburgh, EH8 9NX. RCAHMS is the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland. It is an executive non-departmental government body ﬁnanced by Parliament through the Scottish Executive under the sponsorship of the Architectural Policy Unit. The RCAHMS holds the National Monuments Record of Scotland. Canmore and PASTMAP allows on-line access to the database of the NMRS, http://www.rcahms.gov.uk

Sites and Monuments Record is housed at the Orkney Archaeology Trust, Archaeology Centre, Orkney College, East Road, Kirkwall, KW15 1LX. Work is under way to make the SMR publicly available on the Internet.

Kirkwall Library, Junction Road, Kirkwall. The library houses the Orkney Room, which holds a comprehensive collection of books and articles relating to Orkney, the Orkney Archive which houses numerous documents, maps etc, and the Radio Orkney Sound Archive.

Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Royal Museum, Chambers Street, Edinburgh. The entire contents lists, and digital copies, of Archaeologia Scotica, the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and out-of-print monographs, are available on the website of the Archaeology Data Service at: http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/library/psas/

Museums and institutions holding signiﬁcant archaeological collections from Orkney Orkney Museum (formally Tankerness House Museum), Broad Street, Kirkwall, Orkney, KW15 1DG National Museums of Scotland (NMS), Chambers Street, Edinburgh, EH1 1JF Historic Scotland, Longmore House, Salisbury Place, Edinburgh, EH9 1SH British Museum, Great Russell Street, London, WC1B 3DG Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, Hillhead Street, Glasgow, G12 8QQ Marischal Museum, Aberdeen, AB9 1AS Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 5BD

Museums and institutions holding minor archaeological collections from Orkney Berwick Museum (Foxon, nd) Cambridge University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Carrick House, Eday, Orkney Free Church College, Aberdeen (Foxon, nd) Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow Manchester Museum (Foxon, nd) Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (Foxon, nd) Scapa Flow Visitor Centre and Museum, Lyness, Hoy, Orkney Stromness Museum, 52 Alfred Street, Stromness, Orkney, KW16 3DF Tomb of the Eagles Visitor Centre, Liddle Farm, South Ronaldsay, Orkney

Scottish Wetlands Archaeological Database (SWAD) The Scottish Wetlands Archaeological Database (SWAD) is a Historic Scotland- commissioned project designed primarily to produce a fuller understanding of the

143 potential of Scottish wetland archaeology. As it now stands there are over 6,000 records in the database. The database is available at http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk

English Heritage Geophysics Survey Database, although covering mainly English sites, also holds reference to early geophysical work in Orkney. http://www.eng-h.gov.uk/SDB/

Historic Scotland’s Radiocarbon Data Base. List of Scottish radiocarbon dates This searchable database of Scottish 14C dates can (in 2004) be found on the Historic Scotland web site: http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk under Archaeology: Carbon Dating Search. Despite its title it is up to date for dates paid for by HS until about AD 2000. It does not include many dates recently obtained from developer-funded excavations, nor some of those obtained with funding from outwith Scotland, for instance recent dates obtained for the early medieval cemetery at Newark, Orkney.

Tephra Base is a tephrochronological database hosted by the Department of Geography, Edinburgh at http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/tephra/

ScapaMAP (Scapa Flow Marine Archaeology Project) is a multi-disciplinary, multi- institution, international project involving government agencies, industry and the academic community, designed to document a unique marine archaeological area in the waters of Scapa Flow, Orkney. http://www.icit.demon.co.uk/scapamap1.htm

144 Appendix 3: Current student research relating to the archaeology of Orkney (last revised 2003) Nick Card

Queen’s University, Belfast Russell, C Domestic Architecture in Atlantic Scotland 2000 BC-AD 1000 PhD University of Bradford Challinor, C A Holistic Approach to the Identification of Dairying in the Later Prehistoric and Protohistoric Northern Isles PhD University of Bradford Milnes, J An Investigation of Iron Age Settlement Sites in the Northern Isles through the Indicators of Craft Specialisation and Material Wealth PhD University of Bradford Walmsley, C The Contextual Analysis of Faunal Assemblages from Orkney PhD University of Bristol Mukherjee, A The Links between Grooved Ware Pottery and Pig Exploitation and Processing PhD University of Cambridge Baxter, M A Re-interpretation of Neolithic Mortuary Practices at Isbister and Quanterness PhD University of Cardiff Pannett, M The Origins and Development of the Neolithic in Caithness and Orkney PhD University of Glasgow Anthony, I Characterisation and Dating of Scottish Burnt Stone Mounds PhD UHI Millennium Institute Grieve, S Origins and Early Development of the Parish in the Orkney Earldom. PhD University of Manchester Carruthers, M Within, Without, Below and Beyond. Place, Deposition, and Identity in the Many Dimensions of Orcadian Iron Age Monumental Architectures and Landscapes c.800BC-AD200 PhD University of Manchester MacKintosh, A Small in Size, Large in Meaning: A Re-evaluation of Late Neolithic Social Life in the Stenness- Brodgar area of Western Mainland, Orkney PhD University of Manchester McClanahan, A Archaeology and Culture: an Ethnography of Heritage and Identity in the Orkney Islands PhD University of Reading Stammers, J Walking between Worlds PhD University of Sheffield Craigie, R Pollen and Related Studies of Inter-tidal Peats, Rousay, Orkney MPhil University of Sheffield Downes, J Burial Technology and Ritual in a Landscape Context PhD University of York Ashby, S Trade and Identity: Antler Combs in Early Medieval Europe PhD University of York Harland, J A Study of the Spatial and Temporal Patterning in Zooarchaeological Record of Late Iron Age to Medieval Northern Scotland, with Specific Reference to the Site of Quoygrew, Westray, Orkney PhD University of York Rahn, B Locational Analysis (GIS) and the Anthropology of Orcadian Iron Age Society PhD

145 BIBLIOGRAPHIC 1974 1993.007 Hunter, F 1993 and A and Ritchie, A nyc = not yet catalogued NMS = National Museums of Scotland NHM = Natural History Museum, London OM = Orkney Museum nds fi nya = not yet allocated nyr = not yet received N/A = not applicable negl = negligible 14 eldwork Key to fi excavation HY22 NE30 OR 2522 HY256278 Wilson, B OM 1985.135 Hedges, J W 1981 Birsay, QuoyscottieBirsay, Saevarhowe barrowsBirsay, Spurdagrove settlementBirsay, St Magnus settlementKirk Bronze Age Iron Age/NorseBirsay, the Brough excavation Bronze AgeBirsay, the Brough excavationBirsay, the Brough ecclesiastical excavationBirsay, the Earl's ecclesiastical medievalPalace ecclesiastical medievalBirsay, the Earl's ecclesiastical medieval excavationPalace medieval excavationBurray, the Bu Sands HY22 NW5 excavation ?settlement HY32 SW10Burray, the Ruff excavation OR 1663 residential HY22 SE2 OR 1587 YES ?Pictish/Norse rescue HY246270 residential HY302227 OR 1711 barrow medieval Hedges, J W HY22 NW1 HY22 NW1 HY253247 Hedges, M medieval excavation OR 1338 modern OR 1338 Hedges, S E OM HY22 NW1 excavation OM HY239285 HY22 NW4 HY239285 OR 1338 excavation nya OR 1666 Hunter, J R 1984.323 Cruden, S HY239285 1980.002 ND49 NE18 HY248277 Hedges, J W 1983a Morris, C D NMS OR 2370 Hedges, M E 1977 NMS/OM Barber, J HY22 NW6 OM 1982.050 ND485975 NMS Curle, C L 1982 OR 1664 HY22 NW6 various HY248277 ND49 NE9 OM OR 1664 Hedges, S E 1980 OR 1790 Lewis, J H HY248277 1996.116 Hunter, J R 1986 OM ND453966 Ballin Smith, B OM Barber, J 1996 post-excavation Downes, J OM 1989.038, 1996.020 negl 1996.020 Morris, C D 1996 Morris, C D 1996 Downes 1999 Appendix 4: Table of Archaeological Fieldwork Undertaken in Orkney 1945-2003 Nick Card Fieldwork in Orkney since 1945 (by parish) PARISH & SITE Birsay, BeachviewBirsay, BeaquoyBirsay, Brough Rd settlementBirsay, Buckquoy burnt mound multiple medieval Bronze Age settlement excavation late prehistoric excavation Iron Age excavation excavation YES HY32 SW11 HY22 NE19 OR 1588 OR 2527 HY301220 HY247275 HY22 NW11, OR 1669 various Hedges, J W Morris, C D HY245282 HY243288 OM OM Ritchie, A Morris, C D 1979.128 1995.052 OM OM Hedges, J W 1975 Morris, C D 1996 1976.036 1989.036 Ritchie, A 1977 Morris, C D 1989 NAME TYPEBirsay, GarsetterBirsay, Point of cist PERIODBuckquoyBirsay, Point of Buckquoy FIELDWORKBirsay, Queenafiold Bronze Age settlement cist GEOPHYS. informal NMRS No. Iron Age SMR No. Bronze Age excavation NGR excavation DIRECTOR MUSEUM HY22 NW12 geophysical survey YES CAT. No. OR 1670 HY22 SE36 OR 1727 HY243284 REF. HY265250 Wainwright, F T OM Ritchie, J N G OM nyc various 1986.029 Morris, C D 1996 Ritchie, J N G Griffith, D N/A Griffith, D 2003 146 et al BIBLIOGRAPHIC 1980 1987 2000 Mason, P OM 1995.13 cemetery cemetery NAMEDeerness, Hornip's Point TYPE boat noust/Deerness, Newark Neolithic/ Deerness, Newark settlement/ PERIOD medievalDeerness, Skaill settlement/ tombDeerness, the Brough FIELDWORK medieval ecclesiastical excavation multi settlementDeerness, the Riggan multiperiod medieval GEOPHYS.o' Kami excavation medieval excavationEday NMRS No.Eday excavation excavationEday, SMR No.Eday, Green NGR broch HY50 SE3 YESEday, SetterFirth fieldwalking OR 1176 HY50 SE3 sub-peat dykesFirth, Damsay Iron Age HY50 NE19 Bronze Age DIRECTOR burnt mounds HY50 NWFirth, Moan HY574041 HY50 NE14 OR 1176 various OR 2033 barrow Firth, Stonehall survey excavationCpost-excavation OR 1165 OR 1147Firth, Torrieday Brothwell, D MUSEUM HY574041 HY588064Firth, Wideford Hill Neolithic HY544063 CAT. No. HY595088 excavation cist settlementHarray, Howe Lowe, C Gelling, P NHM settlement cistHarray, Geroin Hunter, J R Morris, C D REF. excavationHarray, Hindrafiold Neolithic NeolithicHarray, Knowes of OM cist OM cist OM negl survey Bronze Age cistTrotty excavation Bronze Age YES HY50 NE20Harray, Upper excavation excavation fieldwalking Bigging various 1989.81 OR 1150 excavation nyr 1985.72Harray, Werne Bronze Age post-excavation YES Bronze Age HY53 NE28Holm, Blomuir Bronze Age HY591074 YES survey Buteux, S 1997 Holm, Blomuir excavation Morris, C D OR 748 excavation barrows excavation Gelling, P(Craebreck) cist post-excavation HY31 SE38 various cist HY41 SW17 cist Hunter, J R 1993 HY595369 OR 2344 various Bronze Age OR 2348 OM HY31 NE22 Downes, J Richards, HY363125 HY31 SE31 excavation cist Bronze Age HY407126 OR 2564 Bronze Age Bronze Age OR 2573 Richards, C excavation nyc Richards, C HY368155 nya excavation HY31 NW57 excavation YES HY353127 various OR 2569 Richards, C Bronze Age nya Nayling, N nya Hedges, J W Sanderson, D post-excavation excavation HY325186 HY31 NW42 N/A OR 1642 negl nya OR 2317 Wilson, B various HY342174 HY31 NW56 HY328174 Downes, J 1999 HY40 SE16 OR 2568 negl Downes, J Lamb, R G Lamb, R G OR 707 post-excavation HY321180 post-excavation HY329175 HY40 SE20 N/A OM nya HY471032 Appleby, A Toolis, R OR 926 Nayling, N 1983 Hedges, J W 1981 Robertson post-excavation Whitworth, S OR 2315 Lamb, R G nyc OM HY472031 HY328192 N/A nya OM Hedges, J W 1981 Ballin Smith, B Lamb, R G 1985.136-47 OM post-excavation Hedges, J W 1981 1981.030 RCAHMS, 1984 ongoing OM 1983.019 Lamb, R G 1981 nyc post-excavation Whitworth, S 1997 post-excavation post-excavation PARISH & SITE DeernessDeerness survey survey various various Lamb, R G Steedman, K A N/A N/A Steedman, K A RCAHMS, 1987 147 et al et al BIBLIOGRAPHIC Wilson, G 1997a 1999a 1998 1984 Freeman, C 1987 1991 Wilson, G 1998 PARISH & SITE NAMEHolm, Hamly HillHolm, New HollandHoy and Walls settlementHoy, Graemsay TYPEHoy, GraemsayHoy, Graemsay, Sandside PERIODNorth RonaldsayNorth Ronaldsay geophysical survey FIELDWORK YESNorth Ronaldsay, GEOPHYS. cistTorness NMRS No. surveyOrphir HY40 SE46 SMR No.Orphir OR 2395 survey NGR coastal surveyOrphir, Cava HY499045 Viking barrows surveyOrphir, Gyre Farm Gater, J (GSB) DIRECTORsteading excavation N/AOrphir, Lavacroon Bronze Age survey MUSEUM survey coastal survey CAT. No.Orphir, the Earl's BuOrphir, the Earl's Bu various REF. cistPapa WestrayPapa Westray various HY20 NE28 medieval GSB 2001d various OR 2456Papa Westray, fieldwalking Bronze Age various excavationKraa-tooies coastal survey HY266061 survey excavationPapa Westray, HY75 NE2St Boniface Hedges, J W various OR 223Papa Westray, fieldwalkingSt Tredwell's various barrows Card, N unknown HY756553Papa Westray, various geophysical survey EASEHolm of Papa settlement YES Downes, J Lamb, R G HY30 SW2 Bronze Age settlement/chapel N/A HY30 SW12 multiperiod survey Iron Age OR 1426 HY30 SW2 survey survey OR 1416 N/A N/A N/A Card, N HY30 SW4 coastal survey HY334045 excavation Hedges, J W 1978 OR 1426 HY341046 EASE various OR 1424 various Batey, C E Lamb, R G HY334045 Simpson, D A N/A HY332044 YES NMS various Johnston, P G N/A OM Batey, C E N/A Card, N 1999b N/A HY45 SE4 HY45 SE3 Downes, J 1997b RCAHMS 1989 Moore, H and OM HY45 SE26 nyr OR 850 Richards, C OR 820 EASE geoph-survey OR 847 HY496509 1984.65 HY494544 Card, N 1999a Hunter, J R YES HY487527 post-excavation various Bowman, A RCAHMS 1980 Downes, J various Moore and Wilson Batey, C E and N/A Lowe, C Johnson, P G N/A N/A N/A OM EASE various 1997.030 Richards, C 1985 Lamb, R G Moore and Wilson Hunter, J R Lowe, C 1998 Bowman, A 1991 N/A Downes, J 1997b N/A Hughes, T N/A RCAHMS 1983 Moore, H and 148 et et al 1986 BIBLIOGRAPHIC Wilson, G 1995 1947 1993 Wilson, G 1997b al and Edwards, K 1997 PARISH & SITE NAMEPapa Westray, the Holm of PapaPapa Westray, the Knap of HowarRendall, Ferndale tomb TYPERendall, Gitterpitten settlementRendall, Ha' cist barrowsRendall, KewingRendall, Lower Neolithic PERIOD NeolithicEllibister cist Bronze Age cistRendall, Riff excavation excavation FIELDWORK excavation Bronze AgeRendall, Sandyha'Rendall, South Ettit excavation GEOPHYS.Rendall, Tammas cist cist cist cist YESKirk NMRS No. Bronze Age Bronze AgeRendall, Varmedale excavation excavationRousay SMR No. barrows HY32 SE8Rousay, Egilsay & HY55 SW2 HY45 SE1 Bronze AgeWyre NGR Bronze Age Bronze Age Bronze Age OR 666 excavationRousay, Brettaness OR 1129 excavation excavation excavation OR 1130 Bronze AgeRousay, Kirk Brae broch and chapel Iron Age/ medieval HY393207 crannogRousay, Egilsay, HY504522 excavation HY483518 DIRECTORMidskaill chapel/burials geophysical survey Downes, J Ritchie, A HY42 SW 19 Ritchie, A YES multiperiod OR 2041 Iron Age YES MUSEUM OR 2881 excavation CAT. No. nya HY424203 OM excavation HY384203 NMS HY31 NE7 HY42 SW11,12 cist HY41 NW9 OR 1765-6 HY41 NW HY32 SE20 HY41 NW2 Marwick, E W REF. OR 2677 HY425209 Will, R (GUARD) OR 664 OR 1777 OR 2594 OR 2369 OR 663 nyr HY401222 Martlew, R HY422197 HY399194 HY386212 HY424193 HY406198 fieldwalking Bronze Age Robertson, J Marwick, E W Marwick, E W Hedges, J W HY32 NE24 Gibson, J OM excavation post-excavation Downes, J Ritchie, A 1983a HY33 SE12 Downes, J 1999 OR 460 nya survey OM OR 468 nyc nya nya HY395278 HY397332 1985.148 post-excavation Marwick, J Hedges, J W 1981 Martlew, R 2000 Marwick, J Hedges, J W 1981 HY43 SE9 negl post-excavation nya OR 2042 Hedges, J W 1981 Hedges, J W 1981 post-excavation various Downes, J 1999 HY462300 EASE various post-excavation post-excavation Jones, A nya Lamb, R G N/A Moore, H and Jones, A 1995 RCAHMS 1982 Rousay, RinyoRousay, St. Mary's/ Wirk settlement settlement/ Rousay, Westness NeolithicRousay, Westness cemetery excavationRousay, Westness religious Viking animal remains excavation Viking survey HY43 SW20 excavation OR 633 assessment HY440322 HY32 NE7 Childe, V G OR 545 YES NMS HY376293 HY33 SE16, 17 OR 486-7 HY32 NE7 Kaland, S HY373302 OR 545 Lowe, C NMS HY376293 OR 2376 Childe and Grant EASE HY380290 N/A Buckland, P Kaland, S H Lowe, C 1984 Moore, H and Buckland, P SandaySanday farm mounds survey/sampling survey various various Davidson, D A Lamb, R G N/A Davidson, D A RCAHMS 1980 149 et al et al BIBLIOGRAPHIC Wilson, G 1999a Dockrill, S J 1991 forth Dalland, M 1999 Bond, J M 1995 1983b et al Bronze AgeBronze Age 6, 13 6, 13 Bronze Age Bronze Age NAMESandaySanday, Elsness TYPESanday, Elsness barrowsSanday, Hermisgarth farm buildings various PERIODSanday, Loth Road historical burials Neolithic/Sanday, Loth Road FIELDWORK survey survey Neolithic/ Sanday, Ness of Iron Age burialsBrough geophysical survey GEOPHYS.Sanday, Northskaill YES excavationSanday, Pool NMRS No. multi settlement Bronze AgeSanday, (near Pool) multiperiod SMR No. excavation HY63 NE5, settlement surveySanday, Quoyness YES various multi settlementSanday, Scar multiperiod NGR OR 307, 309 HY676375 multiperiod tomb HY63 NE5, YES excavation survey HY64 SE55Sanday, Stenchme multiperiod geophysical survey Martlew, R OR 307, 309Sanday, Stove YES YES HY676375 OR 2371 burial DIRECTOR excavation cist Neolithic HY63 SW9 YESSanday, Stove N/A HY662428 Downes, JSanday, Tofts Ness settlement HY64 SE12 YES various MUSEUM OR 368Sanday, Tofts Ness excavation YES Viking Downes, J CAT. No. OR 386 various HY63 NW17 settlement Bronze Age Neolithic N/A HY605345 settlement OR 290Sanday, Tofts Ness REF. HY694444 excavation HY64 SE6Sanday, Tofts Ness OM excavation Neolithic Peace, R excavation multiperiod various Neolithic/ HY619378 OR 2373 Riding, M settlement OR 264Sanday, Tresness survey fieldwalking Martlew, R 1999 Hunter, J R HY626384 2000.002 soil-sampling YES OM RCAHMS multiperiod Neolithic/ HY654425Sandwick various tomb HY63 NE1 N/A Hunter, J R Sandwick Downes, J 1997b OM geophysical survey Time Team Downes, J 1997b Sandwick, Bookan excavation YES OR 308 HY64 NE7 N/A nyrSandwick, Castle N/A Neolithicof Snusgar OR 259 HY63 NW9 tomb 1997.033 HY677378 nya HY74 NE1 YES OR 136 HY63 NW9 HY74 NE1 HY677458 Childe, V G post-excavation survey post-excavation OR 399 HY74 NE1 OR 136 OR 399 Hunter, J R HY612353 Neolithic Dalland, M HY74 NE3 Riding, M 1987 OR 2597 NMS OR 399 HY762473 HY612353 Bond, J M HY757464 N/A OR 399 HY758439 excavation RCAHMS 1996 OM HY757464 Hunter, J R Dockrill, S Morrison, J Guttman, E Robertson, J HY757464 post-excavation Stevenson, J YES 1992.022 N/A OM Dockrill, S fieldwalking HY73 NW4 N/A Owen, O and geophysical survey Childe, V G 1952 HY21 SE10 OR 330 YES 2000.003 OM Hunter, J R and OR 1322 geophysical survey HY711375 Morrison, J 1995 YES HY286141 1997.029 Ballin Smith, B Card, N Dockrill, S J 1984 post-excavation OM HY21 NW21 RCAHMS 1980 post-excavation post-excavation OR 1255 various 1984.221 nyr HY236196 Ballin Smith, B various Griffith, D N/A OAT/ GSB post-excavation Richards, C N/A Griffith, D 2003 ongoing Richards, C 1985 PARISH & SITE Sanday coastal survey various EASE N/A Moore, H and 150 et al BIBLIOGRAPHIC Wilson, G 1995 1985 Clark, A J 1973a Wilson, G 1997 Carruthers, M Bronze Age burial PARISH & SITE Sandwick, Lingafiold barrow Bronze Age excavation HY21 NE19 OR 1279 HY264153 EASE Moore, H and NAMESandwick, LingafioldSandwick, Sandfiold barrows TYPE cistSandwick, Skaill Bay Bronze Age settlement/ Sandwick, Skaill Bay excavation PERIODSandwick, Skaill medieval cist Neolithic/ Sandwick, Skaill House FIELDWORK excavation survey settlement YESSandwick, Skara Brae settlement Iron Age prehistoric GEOPHYS.Sandwick, Skara Brae HY21 NE19Sandwick, Skara Brae NMRS No. settlement Neolithic excavation YES excavationSandwick, Skara Brae settlement OR 1279 cemeterySandwick, Unigarth settlement SMR No. Neolithic geophysical survey HY264153Sandwick, Verron Neolithic YES souterrain HY21 NW30.0 YES medievalSandwick, Vestrafiold HY21 NW35 NGR Neolithic OR 2514 excavation Downes, JSandwick, Vestrafiold barrows OR 2328 broch excavation Iron AgeSandwick, Vestrafiold quarry HY229187 HY21 NW12 excavation geoph-survey HY242195 HY21 NW30.01Sandwick, Voy OR 2514 tomb OR 1246 OM DIRECTOR Bronze AgeShapinsay Morris, C D excavation HY21 NW 30.02OR 2514 Iron Age Dalland, M HY229188 YESShapinsay, HY231187 Neolithic excavationBurroughston HY229187 MUSEUM N/A 2000.001 Neolithic Simpson, BShapinsay, Wardhill excavation Bartlett, A D H OM CAT. No. excavation HY21 NW12 James, HSouth Ronaldsay HY21 NW12 N/A cairn post-excavation YES HY21 NW12.02 excavation OR 1246 OR 1246 nya OR 1246 broch REF. HY21 NW40South Ronaldsay, 1997.032 HY231187 YES HY231187Banks HY231187 OR 1251 HY22 SW9 HY21 NW29South Ronaldsay, YES medieval Dalland, M 1999 Iron Age Griffith, D HY234185 Clarke, D V Richards, C OR1258Cairns o' the Bu OR 1205 HY22 SW7 Morris, C D South Ronaldsay, HY21 NW22 James, H excavation HY246174 reconstructionIsbister HY242221 NMS HY22 SW10 nya N/A OR 1203 OR 1256 brochSouth Ronaldsay, survey Bartlett, A D H and OR 1206 Cruden, S cist Downes, JLiddle Simpson, B 1998 HY239218 HY231197 YES negl HY204218 survey Richards, C Iron Age EASE nya Richards, C James, H 1999 tomb coastal survey Bronze Age HY52 SW6 HY52 SW4 N/A geoph-survey excavation post-excavation OR 1081 nya burnt mound OR 1123 Griffith, D 2003 post-excavation nya Bronze Age Neolithic YES HY508174 HY541210 excavation post-excavation Downes, J excavation Hill, J ND48 NE14 Downes, J 1999 OR 1869 YES nya post-excavation ND48 SE3 various ND454869 post-excavation nya post-excavation ND48 SE2 OR 1883 Carruthers, M various various OR 1882 ND463832 N/A ND48 SE1 ND465841 Simison, R OR 1881 Hedges, J W Downes, J 1999 Forbes, R ND470845 post-excavation Simison, R OM EASE Lamb, R G N/A 2003 OM 1979.24 N/A N/A Hedges, J W 1975 1990.112 Hedges, J W 1983b post-excavation RCAHMS 1987 Moore, H and 151 1998 et al et al BIBLIOGRAPHIC Ballin Carruthers, M Hunter, J R and Hunter, J R Carruthers, M 2003 1982 OM 1988.207 Lamb, R G 1986 et al Card, N and Card, N and Haigh, D Haigh, D with PARISH & SITE South Ronaldsay, NAMESt Margaret’s ChapelSouth Ronaldsay, supposed chapel modernMossetterSouth Ronaldsay, TYPEMuckle Skerry excavationSouth Ronaldsay, Switha souterrain PERIODSouth Ronaldsay, Windwick Iron AgeSt Andrews FIELDWORKSt Andrews, Minehowe geophysical survey ND49 SW9 GEOPHYS. YESSt Andrews, Round souterrainHowe NMRS No. OR 1799St Andrews, Bronze Age/ Iron Age ND48 NW16Peters Bay ND445934 SMR No. ritualSt Andrews, OR 1850 excavation Ballin Smith, BSt Ninians Chapel NGR survey ND447860St Ola and Kirkwall OM broch Iron AgeSt Ola, Cleat chapel broch Carruthers, M YESSt Ola, Crantit DIRECTORSt Ola, 1985.20 N/A excavation survey Iron AgeCrossiecrown medieval Iron Age cist ND48 NE8St Ola, Grain survey tomb MUSEUM Smith, B 1980 earth house excavation YES OR 1864 CAT. No. geophysical survey geophysical surveySt Ola, Holland settlement YES YESSt Ola, Holland ND459867 Neolithic REF. Bronze Age YES HY50 NW38 Bronze Age burial Carruthers, MSt Ola, Kirkwall souterrain excavation HY50 NW6 HY50 SW21 OR 63 2003 souterrain excavation excavation nya fieldwalking OR 61St Ola, Kirkwall, OR 20 HY50 NW8 Iron Age variousBroad Street HY510060 Iron Age Neolithic/ Bronze Age OR 2 YES HY537045 YES HY509062 excavation excavation Downes, J geophysical survey Gater, J (GSB) YES Gater, J (GSB) HY508059 settlement HY40 NW17 various HY41 SW154 N/A HY41 SE15 N/A OM OR 2358 OR 2365 Downes, J various Iron Age HY41 SE24 OR 1536 2003 HY423137 HY439099 Hunter, J R nyr OR 765 HY470117 OM excavation Downes, J Ballin Smith, B HY41 SW24 HY41 SE13 N/A excavation HY477113 Marwick, E W OM OR 2329 various OR 1538 nyr ongoing Hunter, J R Carruthers, M nya HY442116 GSB 2001c GSB 2001b HY477112 Lamb, R G nyr N/A N/A and Smith, B Neil, N R J ongoing N/A HY41 SW133 OM OR 2386 post-excavation OM Dockrill, S J 1982a Richards, C HY449108 1982.315 post-excavation 1982.193 Lamb, R G Hedges, J W 1981 nya Smith, B 1983 Carruthers, M 1984 Neil, R J N 1981b various RCAHMS 1987 post-excavation McGavin, N OM 1986.6-9 McGavin, N A St Ola, Kirkwall, the Earl's Palace residential medieval excavation HY41 SW11 OR 1564 HY450108 Cox, E OM nyc Cox, E

152 BIBLIOGRAPHIC Ballin Smith, B GSB 2004 forth forth Bartlett, A D H and Ritchie, J N G PARISH & SITE St Ola, Kirkwall, NAMEthe WatergateSt Ola, OrquilSt Ola, Pickaquoy residential TYPESt Ola, Quanterness burnt mound souterrainStenness Bronze Age medieval tomb/ settlement NeolithicStenness prehistoric PERIODStenness, Barnhouse geophysical survey YES excavationStenness, Brodgar excavation excavation settlementFarm FIELDWORKStenness, Little Neolithic HY41 SW13Barnhouse GEOPHYS.Stenness, Lochview OR 1561 excavationStenness, Maeshowe NMRS No. burial HY441112Stenness, Maeshowe tomb settlementStenness, Maeshowe SMR No. tomb HY41 SW41 tomb HY41 SW4 Aspinall, A; GSB HY40 NW 7 YES tomb N/A NeolithicStenness, Nether NGR Bronze Age OR 1528 OR 1571Onston Neolithic excavation HY428097 NeolithicStenness, Odin Stone Neolithic HY418129 HY31 SW61 excavation fieldwalking Neolithic standing stones excavation OR 2388 DIRECTOR Simpson, D A Neolithic Renfrew, A C geophysical surveyStenness, Ring of HY449107 geophysical survey excavation YES none Brodgar YES HY308127 excavation YES NMS Ballin Smith, BStenness, Ring of excavation cist MUSEUM Richards, CBrodgar Aspinall, A 1973; OM CAT. No.Stenness, Ring of HY31 SW24 YESBrodgar HY31 SW72 OR 1381 YES nya REF. Stenness, Stones of henge 1984.16-17 Bronze Age OR 2587 HY31 SW1Stenness HY302116 HY31 SW1 1984 HY31 SW1 excavationStenness, Stones of henge HY302128 HY31 SW40 OR 1365 various Challands, AStenness Renfrew, A C 1979 OR 1365 Neolithic OR 1365 OR 1395Stenness, Stones of henge Card, N HY318218 HY318128Stenness N/A various YES HY318128 HY306126 Neolithic survey hengeStenness, Summersdale Childe, V G barrow Richards, C Renfrew, A C post-excavation Richards, C Neolithic nya excavation HY303128 henge unknown nya Neolithic Bronze Age nya Ballin Smith, B survey henge YES OAT/ GSB Neolithic excavation excavation Richards, C N/A Challands, A 2001 HY21 SE1 OR 2880 Neolithic geophysical survey YES HY293117 nya OR 1314 Renfrew, A C 1979 HY21 SE1 post-excavation geophysical survey YES HY295133 Ballin Smith, B Richards, C (ed) OR 1314 Childe, V G 1956 HY31 SW2 Richards, C (ed) HY21 SE1 Bartlett, A D H HY31 SW15 HY295133 HY31 SW2 OR 1366 HY31 SW2 N/A OR 1375 post-excavation OR 1314 ongoing Renfrew, A C OR 1366 HY307125 OR 1366 HY347105 HY295133 HY307125 Southampton Clark, A Richards, C 1985 HY307125 Wainwright, F G Historic Scotland Ritchie, J N G Gater, J (GSB) N/A NMS N/A N/A post-excavation Renfrew, A C 1979 Clark, A J 1973b 1976 Ashmore, P 1974 Clark, A 1973 GSB 1999a 153 et al et al BIBLIOGRAPHIC Wilson, G 1998 1993 1994 Dickson, C 1989 Wilson, G 1997a Hunter, J R Hunter, J R Wilson, G 1998 C RHeadland R 1992 Neolithic NAMEStromness, ArionStromness, Breckness broch cist TYPEStromness, Bu brochStromness, Bu of settlementCairston Iron Age PERIODStromness, Deepdale Bronze Age Iron AgeStromness, Howe standing stones Neolithic excavation excavation FIELDWORK excavationStromness, Mousland multi settlement multiperiod cemeteryStromness, Redlandhill burial excavation cist GEOPHYS.Stromness, Seatter excavationFarm NMRS No. medievalStromness, Warebeth Bronze Age SMR No. settlement Bronze Age excavationStronsay excavation HY20 NW9 HY21 SE23Stronsay, Linga Holm NGR HY20 NE11 Iron Age excavation OR 1459Stronsay, Millfield OR 2378 HY21 SE25 OR 1467 settlement HY225093 HY256144 excavation HY21 SE41Stronsay, St Nicholas settlement OR 1483 HY269093 DIRECTOR NeolithicChapel OR 1495 Ballin Smith, B Macgillivray, EWalls HY271116 Mesolithic/ Hedges, J W OMWalls and Flotta HY276109 OM HY20 NE10 MUSEUM survey HY21 SW6 Burton, J excavation CAT. No. OM OR 1466 HY21 SE Ballin Smith, BWalls and Flotta, OR 2359 nycFara 1985.125-6 chapel HY272096 OM REF. HY231126Walls and Flotta, negl OR 2314 HY20 NW17 1982.33 YESHackness Battery survey Stevens, T (AOC) OR 1461 nya Downes, J HY265132Walls and Flotta, 1982.202 gun battery/ medieval Ballin Smith, B Hedges, J W 1987 Rysa Little HY237082 cairn HY21 SE58 Lamb, R G L 19th C/ surveyWalls and Flotta, Ballin Smith, B HY62 SE22 OM Bell, B J excavationthe Loft OR 2520 OMWestray OR 437 HY267128Westray Bronze Age nyc Burton, J 1980 HY659250 YES OM 1987.04 excavation survey Richards, C post-excavation Wickham-Jones, survey Lamb, R G 1987 OM HY62 NE14 nya 1987.137 Downes, J 1994 YES OR 174 Bell, B J and nyc HY669291 various ND39 SW9 survey OR 2050 Lowe, C survey various Wickham-Jones, C ND337915 Richards, C 1985 OM Archaeology survey various survey survey various Card, N nya various nyr various Lamb, R G N/A post-excavation Card, N N/A various EASE EASE post-excavation N/A various Lamb, R G Card, N 2002 N/A N/A N/A various RCAHMS 1984 Hunter, J R Hunter, J R Card, N 1998b N/A N/A Moore, H and Moore, H and RCAHMS 1989 Lamb, R G N/A 1982 1984 RCAHMS 1983 PARISH & SITE Stromness coastal survey various EASE N/A Moore, H and 154 1996 et al BIBLIOGRAPHIC PARISH & SITE Westray, Berst NessWestray, Cleat mortuary structure Iron AgeWestray, Gill PierWestray, Kestro / settlement burnt moundBaikie excavationWestray, LangskaillWestray, Links of Bronze Age settlement YES VikingNoltlandWestray, Links of excavationNoltland farmstead Iron Age/Norse HY44 SW2Westray, Links of excavation excavationNoltland OR 719 settlementWestray, Links of medievalNoltland HY441418 settlement Neolithic/ Westray, Peterkirk HY44 NE10 Bronze AgeWestray, Pierowall EASE settlement excavation Neolithic/ broch OR 705Quarry Bronze Age HY44 NE11 HY44 SW9 excavationWestray, Point of Cott YES settlement tomb HY450492Westray, Quoygrew OR 706 OR 729 Bronze Age surveyWestray, Rapness settlement nya Lehane, D Iron Age HY467466 HY44 SE11 Bronze Age HY438429 fieldwalking burial tomb/ settlement Neolithic OR 1041 Iron Age Barrett, J medieval Neolithic/ EASE excavation HY44 NW33 excavation HY450432 OR 1976 YES YES excavation Bronze Age excavation survey/ nya excavation EASE HY428493 HY33 NW33 nya HY44 NW33 ongoing OR 1976 excavation HY44 NW33 Clarke, D V OR 1976 HY44 SE2 OR 1976 HY428493 HY428493 nya OR 724 NMS HY428493 Dunwell, A HY44 NE3 Richards, C HY44 NW32 Lehane, D 1990 HY45 SW4 HY499401 EASE/ Barrett, J OR 914 OR 906 post-excavation OR 677 N/A nya HY54 SW11 NMS EASE ongoing HY438490 HY465474 OR 884 HY443506 Sharples, N Barber, J HY500404 Barrett, J post-excavation post-excavation nya Barber, J OM OM nya post-excavation Dunwell, A 1995 post-excavation 1981.001 OM 1997.031 Sharples, N 1984 Barber, J 1997 nyc post-excavation ongoing Barber, J NAME TYPE PERIOD FIELDWORK GEOPHYS. NMRS No. SMR No. NGRWestray, Tuquoy DIRECTOR settlement MUSEUM Viking CAT. No. REF. excavation HY44 SE5 OR 710 HY454431 Owen, O nya nya post-excavation 155 00

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