Charles Edison Fund Edison Innovation Foundation

Fuel Cells Experiments, Activities, and Useful Information

Presented by: Charles Edison Fund Edison Innovation Foundation

Prepared by: Harry T. Roman Educational Consultant, Teacher and Inventor

1 © Charles Edison Fund, 2008 Table of Contents

Chairman’s Letter...... 3

Introduction to Fuel Cells...... 4

History of Fuel Cells...... 5

About Fuel Cells...... 6

Areas of Fuel Cell Development...... 9

Where Fuel Cells Could be Used...... 11

Experiment--Electrolysis in Action...... 13

The Catalyst Challenge for Fuel Cells...... 15

Activities and Discussions...... 16

Learn More About Thomas Edison...... 17

Exhibit A- Fuel Cell History Timeline...... 18

About the Author and EIF...... 20

2 Chairman's Letter

Fuel cells have the potential to transform how we generate on-site electricity. The technology dates back to 1839, and its modern usefulness is certain. Fuel cell powered cars are probably one of the most dramatic new applications for them.

This short book contains experiments, activities, and charts / tables that can help you better understand the fuel cell message. There also are references to other sources of information for follow-up. We hope you enjoy and benefit from all this data. The booklet is designed for classroom use by teachers, as well as individual student and home school learning and experimentation.

If Thomas Edison were alive today, he would be an ardent fuel cell enthusiast, having extolled the virtues of alternate energy back in the early 1910’s. He was the world’s greatest inventor. His name is synonymous with creativity and innovation. Thomas Edison not only recognized opportunity, he created it. As the man responsible for the invention of the motion picture, recorded sound, power generation and the light bulb, and the creation of the first extensive R&D facility, he has arguably created more value than any other single human in history. It has been said that Edison is responsible for anywhere from 3% to 5% of the world’s GNP, over $500 billion for the U.S. alone. Two scientific discoveries in his laboratories later led directly to radio and modern electronics, paving the way for today’s telecommunications boom.

So join us in this spirit of Thomas Edison. The experiments have been designed to be easy, economical to perform, and insightful. Have fun and learn!

The Charles Edison Fund (“CEF”), incorporated in 1948 by Charles Edison was, and continues to be, an endowed philanthropic institution dedicated to the support of worthwhile endeavors generally within the areas of medical research, science education and historic preservation. It both operates programs and makes grants to support these endeavors. Since its inception CEF has served as an extension of the benefactions and aspirations of its Founder, a man of discerning foresight, rare achievement and background. The undersigned, as Chairman and President of CEF, committed the funding to create and print this booklet.

The Edison Innovation Foundation (EIF), a sister organization to CEF, is a not-for-profit organization that supports the Edison legacy and encourages students to embrace careers in science and technology.

You can learn more about Thomas Edison and how to support our non-profit efforts through our website at www.charlesedisonfund.org and www.thomasedison.org.

John Keegan Chairman & President, Charles Edison Fund Chairman & President, Edison Innovation Foundation

3 Introduction to Fuel Cells

In the energy world, the less steps it takes to use or convert one energy form into another, the more elegant the system and also the more efficient. Consider the process steps it takes to convert the energy in gasoline to motive power for a car:

• Convert chemical energy of gasoline to thermal energy (combustion) • Convert thermal energy to mechanical power (push pistons) • Convert mechanical energy to mechanical energy (rotational motion to rotational motion in crankshaft, transmission, transaxle/differential. This last step involves multiple transformations and trade-offs between torque and speed [i.e.gears].

It is even more complex for making electricity from coal, oil, or natural gas. All these conversion steps tend to rob the process of efficiency. A car is only about 18-22% efficient, that is 18-22% of the energy in the gasoline makes the wheels turn. All that heat radiating from a car is wasted gasoline energy, as is the sound of its operation (engine running, wheel sounds, exhaust noise…etc.).

What makes energy conversion processes like photovoltaics or solar cells so attractive is they are an example of direct energy conversion…..sunlight to electricity. This process makes no pollution, because energy is not wasted at conversion interfaces or process steps. Batteries are like this too, converting chemical energy directly to electricity; and so is the subject of this book……fuel cells…..which also converts chemical energy directly to electricity.

Fuel cells have the potential of being able to achieve energy conversion efficiencies in the range of 28-40%. Now that would be an interesting alternative to the internal combustion engines we now use in our cars. Fuel cells and batteries are direct energy conversion cousins. Thomas Edison had a visceral feel for this. He long ago, 100 years to be exact, championed the use of battery powered vehicles for most driving activities. The internal combustion engine to him was polluting, and bound to be limited by the future availability of gasoline fuel.

There is even more potential benefit from fuel cells. The low temperature heat that is produced from large fuel cells can also be used to provide space heating to nearby structures. This is called cogeneration, the dual generation of energy for both electricity and heat. Under these conditions, fuel cell efficiencies can reach 80-90%; and remain clean for the environment. Versatile fuel cells offer a promising way to generate electricity and on a vastly decentralized basis.

****************************************************************************************** Notes for Teachers and Home Schooling Parents Challenge your students to identify other potential direct energy conversion processes. One is thermoelectric energy conversion, the conversion of heat to electricity; or perhaps the more arcane magneto-hydrodynamics, possible in large scale power plants.

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References http://www.fuelcells.org/ http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/ http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/

4 History of Fuel Cells

The history of fuel cells begins with Sir William Groves, often referred to as the “Father of Fuel Cells”. This historical perspective is rapidly evolving, especially as world oil supplies are becoming tighter than ever. Many believe fuel cells to be the ideal long-term alternative to gasoline powered internal combustion engines, an automotive economy powered by clean and renewable hydrogen fuel. Starting in 1839, the dates shown in Exhibit A at the end of this booklet are considered to be approximate time periods for fuel cell development milestones.

****************************************************************************************** Notes for Teachers and Home Schooling Parents

What did the original Groves fuel cell experiment look like? How did he demonstrate the combination of hydrogen and oxygen to make electricity? How might you do this today?

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References http://www.sae.org/technology/fuelcells-history.htm http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2002/spring/FuelCells/fuel_cells-history.shtml http://www.fctec.com/fctec_history.asp

5 About Fuel Cells

Basic Operation There are a number of different fuel cell technologies that can be used for a variety of large and small applications. A popular technology today for potential application in homes, cars, and small commercial buildings, is the PEM, or Proton-Exchange-Membrane fuel cell. Its name describes what is going on inside the cell…an electrochemical reaction in which a hydrogen atom is split into proton and an electron. The proton travels directly across a membrane and combines with an oxygen atom to form water. Meanwhile, the free electron is routed through an external circuit as electricity. Figure 1 shows the process.

FIGURE 1 How a Fuel Cell Works

End Plate End Plate

C A a n t o h d o e d At the cathode, the electrons and At the anode, a platinum e catalyst cause the hydrogen + positively charged hydrogen ions C + combine with oxygen to form water, to split into positive hyrogen a C ions (protons) and negatively t a which flows out of the cell. charged electrons. a t l a y l s y t s t -

Membrane* - - H2 O2 *The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) allows only - - the positively charged ions to pass through it to the cathode. The negatively charged electrons must travel along an external circut to the V cathode, creating an electrical current.

Here are the basic equations governing the chemical reactions at the anode and cathode of the fuel cell. FIGURE 2 A Complete Fuel Cell System

→ + Heat - Anode Reaction: H2 2 H + 2 e

+ - → Cathode Reaction: 1/2 O2 + 2 H + 2 e H2O

It is best to think of a fuel cell as a continuousH2 battery, that electrochemicallyDC converts a hydrogen rich fuel source into electricity. This fuel sourceReformer can be hydrogen itself or aFuel light Cell hydrocarbon based fuel likeInverter natural gas or propane. The hydrogen in a hydrocarbon fuel is stripped away from the carbon atoms and electrochemically combinedAC with Power oxygen from the air, producing electricity-along with some water, carbon dioxide, and very minute traces of other gases like nitrogen oxides. It is a very environmentally friendly system.

Natural Gas (Methane)

CH4 Air

FIGURE 3 Simple Electrolysis

DC Power Source (or Battery) Cathode- Anode+

Hydrogen Bubbles Oxygen Bubbles

H2O + H2SO4

O H 2 - 2 + Collecting the gases FIGURE 1 How a Fuel Cell Works

End Plate End Plate

FIGURE 2 A Complete Fuel Cell System

Heat

H2 DC Reformer Fuel Cell Inverter

AC Power

Natural Gas (Methane)

CH4 Air

1) The reformer or fuel processor separates the hydrogen atoms from the carbon atoms when a hydrocarbon fuel is used as an input fuelFIGURE source. 3 The reformerSimple is Electrolysis actually a miniature chemical processing plant. If pure hydrogen is fed to the fuel cell, then a reformer is not needed.

DC Power Source 2) After the reformer, the fuel cell stack is where the hydrogen (orand Battery) oxygen are combined to produce a direct current output. Stacked like the platesCathode- of a common leadAnode+ acid battery, a fuel cell stack can be adjusted in size to produce desired voltages and currents. Like batteries, fuel cells can be combined in series or parallel to build any desired power and current levels necessary for customized applications.

3) The last stage or inverter has the job of converting the direct current output of the fuel cell stack to the alternating Hydrogen Bubbles Oxygen Bubbles current electricity we commonly use. There is also peripheral support hardware that is needed to properly operate any fuel cell system.

H2O + H2SO4 Different Types of Fuel Cells 3A Technically, fuel cells are similar to batteries. Both are electrochemical energy conversion devices. A battery has its store of chemicals inside its own container. WhenO the chemicals are exhausted, the battery is dead; and must be replaced or H 2 recharged. A fuel cell receives its 2chemical energy (hydrogen and oxygen) from the outside and can operate as long as those chemicals are- supplied to it. It is a continuous battery.+ Collecting There are a variety of fuel cells available today, usuallythe gases classifi ed by the type of electrolyte used, but most make use of hydrogen and oxygen as the main chemicals.

Beside the PEM fuel cell of interest to us here there are:

Alkaline fuel cells (AFC)….one of the oldest designs, used in the U.S. space program. It is expensive and requires high purity hydrogen and oxygen.

Phosphoric-acid fuel cell (PAFC)….can be used in small stationary power applications, and operates at higher temperatures than PEMs; and has a longer warm up time, making it unsuitable for automotive use. 7 Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)….operates at very high temperatures, also capable of producing steam for power generation as well. Could be used for large-scale power generation. Technology has a higher overall conversion efficiency, but high temperatures can cause operating/reliability problems.

Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)….Similar to SOFCs, but lower in operating temperature, and can also generate steam too. The design uses less exotic materials and is lower in cost. Again, applicable to large stationary power generation applications.

****************************************************************************************** Notes for Teachers and Home Schooling Parents

Identify some of the landmark applications of fuel cells today and the leading companies involved in this exciting market. Who is sponsoring research and development at the federal level? What agencies are major players? Work the Internet!!!

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References http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_pem.shtml http://www.howstuffworks.com/fuel-cell.htm http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/how.html http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3210/01-fcw.html http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/researchdevelopment/a/fuelcellhowwork.htm http://www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid200.php http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/basics.htm

8 Areas of Fuel Cell Development

General A variety of international companies and research organizations, including the U.S. Department of Energy and the Electric Power Research Institute, are conducting vigorous research into the life and performance of fuel cells. Automobile manufacturers are also heavily involved, pouring billions of dollars into this promising technology. Fuel cell powered cars are thought to be the next step after hybrid gasoline/battery vehicles.

Various demonstrations of real-world applications abound, such as cars (35-45 kW size fuel cells) and buses (75-100 kW sizes). Residential size fuel cells (3-5 kW), about the size of a large refrigerator, are also being seriously considered. Domestic applications would use the existing natural gas utility line in the home as a source of hydrogen fuel, and be able to provide year-round electricity on site….as well as perhaps some space heating as well.

PEM fuel cells are also being miniaturized for possible portable and small power applications like laptop computers, appliances, safety warning signs, and for remote power situations. Here, PEMs would compete directly with storage and rechargeable batteries. Nano technology advances are expected to give a boost to fuel cell technology.

Fuel cells have been used in intermediate applications for small commercial buildings, and as back-up supplies to critical applications like hospitals and factories. Fuel cell modules in the 100-200 kW size range have been successfully deployed throughout the country and world in hundreds of applications already.

There are large-scale electric power applications as well, generally sponsored by the electric utility companies, where high temperature fuel cells have been shown to generate electricity more efficiently than conventional power plants.

There is a wealth of technical information available about the various fuel cell types and applications, their operating performance, and projections about their potential application and economics. All forms are still more expensive than conventional techniques and technologies already in use; but with continued research and development could radically change the way we generate and distribute electric power.

Problems and Challenges with Fuel Cells As promising as they are, PEM fuel cells, and other types as well, have some tough engineering challenges ahead. Chief among them being useful lifetime of the fuel cell stack itself, the heart and soul of a complete fuel cell system. Stacks must be made to last for years. Today, they are probably good for 5000-8000 hours of useful life. This is less than a year at 8760 hours, and must be increased to 40,000-100,000 hours in order to make them economically attractive. Much research and effort is aimed at improving durable lifetimes. Incidentally, this is the same problem with battery systems for electric/ hybrid vehicles…..will the batteries last a reasonable amount of time before needing replacement?

The fuel reformer or processor is a potentially troublesome component, itself resembling a small chemical refinery. This component is crucial if commonly available hydrogen bearing fuels like natural gas will be used as a source of hydrogen. More work must be done to improve reformer performance, tolerance to fuel contamination, and overall conversion efficiency.

Expensive catalysts play a very important role in processing the hydrogen within a PEM. These expensive chemical helpers have been reduced in quantity as fuel cell technology has improved; and still more work must be done to bring fuel cell economics into line as a real alternative. Efforts have been great to find alternatives to limited supplies of platinum and other catalysts. Like the reformer, a fuel cell stack itself is also quite sensitive to fuel contamination. Stacks can suffer a very premature failure if contamination is not carefully controlled.

9 Will there be a separate, new, and expensive fuel infrastructure necessary to support fuel cell powered cars? Will we carry hydrogen in tanks in our cars, or simply refuel wherever we park? This is important because it means the difference between having a fuel reformer on board the vehicle or not; and this will certainly affect vehicle economics and performance. How do we approach the safety issues associated with handling hydrogen? Will it be acceptable to the general public?

****************************************************************************************** Notes for Teachers and Home Schooling Parents Examine how the traditional automobile developed and the various advances to it over the last 100 years. How do you think this lineage may or may not be repeated with fuel cell powered cars? Will it take just as long to become a major part of the driving economy, or do you think it can be done quicker? Have students debate this and justify their thinking and projections.

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References http://www.eesi.org/publications/02.00fuelcell.pdf http://www.motorauthority.com/cars/toyota/toyota-surges-ahead-in-fuel-cell-development/ http://www.azom.com/News.asp?NewsID=2311 http://utc.com/units/power.htm http://www.hydrogenics.com/

10 Where Fuel Cells Could be Used

No doubt, versatile fuel cells will find a host of interesting applications, many of which are listed here to give the reader a deep appreciation for how pervasive this technology could become. Even as you read these words, there may be additional applications being researched. Fuel cells have the capability of being a large scale method of generating electricity on-site, as well as compete with traditional battery/energy storage applications. The technology has the bonus of being able to work to draw input fuel energy from an already existing extensive natural gas piping network for its source of hydrogen.

Transportation • Cars, Buses, Trucks • Scooters and Motorcycles • Loading Vehicles • Service Vehicles • Locomotives • Light Rail and Commuter Vehicles • Boats/Ships • Airplanes • Submersibles

Remote Power Source • Telecommunication and Repeater Stations • Weather Stations • Pipeline Corrosion Control • Spacecraft • Planetary Landers • Satellites • Oceanic Buoys/Monitoring Stations • Railroad Crossing Signals • Offshore Platforms • Navigational Aids

Structures • Homes • Businesses • Strip/Shopping Malls • Sewage Treatment Plants • Hospitals • Community Facilities • Municipal • Federal • Vacation Homes in Remote Areas • Observatories • Polar Expeditions and Remote Laboratories

11 Accessory Use • Laptop Computers • UPS Emergency Systems • Replacements for Aging Battery Back-up Storage Systems • Environmental/ Weather/ National Security Networks • Emergency Power • Battery Charging • Lighting • Emergency Transponders/Locators

Military • Base Power • Field Power • Weapon Systems • Small Vehicle Propulsion • Perimeter Power Source for Sensors/Instrumentation

Developing Countries (remote villages) • Lights and Refrigeration • Communications • Water Pumping • Water Purification • Schools • Small Vehicle Transportation

12 FIGURE 1 How a Fuel Cell Works

End Plate End Plate

- H Membrane* O - Experiment 2 2 *The Polymer Electrolyte - ElectrolysisMembrane (PEM) in allows Action only - the positively charged ions to pass through it to the cathode. The negatively charged electrons must travel along an external circut to the V Introduction cathode, creating an electrical current. Discovered in 1800, electrolysis is the breakdown or disassociation of water into its principal constituents, hydrogen and oxygen. The chemical equation governing this reaction is:

→ FIGURE 2 A Complete Fuel Cell System 2H2O 2H2 + O2 Heat For fuel cells to work at their peak effi ciency, highly pure hydrogen fuel would need to be available in signifi cant quantities. One way to obtain this would be to use electricity to disassociate water on a large scale. Some experts believe this can be accomplished using the off-peak energy of nuclear power plants to generate hydrogen for use during peak periods the next day. H2 DC In this experiment, we are going to demonstrate how hydrogen andReformer oxygen are produced quite easilyFuel Cell on a laboratory scale. Inverter

AC Power In this experiment, we are going to need: • Large open glass container • Two electrodes Natural Gas • DC power source (or battery 9V) (Methane) • Water + sulfuric acid mix CH4 Air

The Experiment FIGURE 3 Simple Electrolysis Assemble the components as shown in Figure 3.

Observe how bubbles appear at each electrode DC Power Source as the voltage is turned up slowly on the DC (or Battery) Cathode- Anode+ power source. Hydrogen bubbles will form at the negative side of the power source (the cathode), while oxygen bubbles will form at the positive side (the anode). Hydrogen Bubbles Oxygen Bubbles If test tubes with the electrodes inside them were used (see Figure 3a), then it would be possible to collect the two gases; which would H O + H SO be accumulated in a 2 to 1 ratio, with twice as 2 2 4 much hydrogen as oxygen because the water molecule is two parts hydrogen and one part 3A oxygen. O H 2 - 2 + Collecting the gases

13 Taking This Experiment Further What effect does using a different electrolyte solution have on hydrogen/oxygen production? Can this be tested? How about salt water? What about sugar and water?

What about plain water? What are the characteristics of a good electrolyte?

What effect do different electrodes have on the hydrogen/oxygen production? Can you try different ones like iron, copper, steels, aluminum, zinc? How about graphite as an electrode…..say two mechanical pencil leads?

How about the temperature of the electrolyte? Could this affect the rate at which the electrolysis proceeds? How would you test this?

What effect does increased voltage have on the process?

****************************************************************************************** Notes for Teachers and Home Schooling Parents Encourage students to think about what other energy source could be used to make electrolysis work besides conventionally generated electricity or a battery. How about solar cells and wind energy? You can try this out with a solar panel connected to the electrodes, and bright light shining on the panel. Foster discussion about this and gather student input about why they would like to consider using solar generated electricity to break water into its components.

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References http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictable/Stories/001.1/index.html http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistry/institutes/1986/exp27.html http://www.floridaenergycenter.org/en/education/k-12/curricula/use/documents/USE_22_Electrolysis.pdf http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/thermo/electrol.html

14 The Catalyst Challenge for Fuel Cells

Let’s turn our attention once again to Figure 3a. Here we have hydrogen and oxygen collected in test tubes. This begs the question……”What would be necessary to get the hydrogen and oxygen back into water again and generate electricity”…. in other words the reverse of electrolysis, which is essentially fuel cell action. The process should be reversible right?

The key to this problem, and the major design challenge for fuel cell manufacturers is creating the right electrode and support equipment to get the gases to want to be absorbed and reacted through the electrolyte such that electricity is generated. The gases under normal conditions are not conducive to make this process work; and whenever that kind of chemical stubbornness occurs, chemical engineers rely on catalysts to help get the process going…a kind of chemical grease to make the reaction energy go.

A catalyst works by providing an alternative reaction pathway. The speed of the reaction is increased as this alternative route has a lower activation energy than the reaction route not mediated by the catalyst. Many types of common chemical processes are helped along with the addition of a catalyst. Often these catalysts are surface area based, that is, the catalyst’s surface area promotes the reaction; and hence very finely ground particles, even nano particles may be used to push the process along. Catalysts occur in chemical, environmental, and biological processes.

Consider this analogy. Pieces of wood mixed with air are not necessarily combustible. Make the particles as fine as dust and an explosion can be easily triggered. The same applies to such common items as wheat grains stored in silos, powders used in a manufacturing process, and even sugar being milled and refined.The catalytic action comes about by virtue of the surface area, which essentially increases reaction surface areas and hence the speed of the reaction

Addition of certain chemicals can also produce a catalytic reaction. Add magnesium dioxide to common hydrogen peroxide, and the normally stable hydrogen peroxide is persuaded to liberate its oxygen in an effervescent way. The really neat thing about catalysts is they are not consumed, and may be used again and again. They are a medium for making the reaction go, facilitators if you will.

Fuel cell catalysts have generally included platinum and various mixtures of other precious metals. Nickel has been used as are interesting nano-particulated mixtures of titanium, gold, and other somewhat exotic substances. This is going to be a very active research area for fuel cell designers. Also of concern is the raw amount of the catalysts needed. Experts are concerned that most reserves of platinum are not native to our country, so a key fuel cell resource would need to be imported. Precious metals just do not occur in huge deposits like coal or aluminum, or silica.

Some fuel cell designs specify innovative electrolytes and electrolyte membranes as well, which themselves can contain catalytic substances to promote the proper movement of ions and electrons to foster fuel cell action. The electrochemistry of fuel cells is quite complex, as many oxidation-reduction reactions are.

References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEMFC http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2002/spring/FuelCells/Catalysts.shtml http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/c76572

15 Activities and Discussions

Discuss how the large scale introduction of fuel cell powered cars would change our automotive industry and our lifestyles.

Have students debate the wide scale manufacture and distribution of hydrogen. How might it be different from say piping natural gas around, or using gasoline in our car’s fuel tanks?

If power generation becomes completely decentralized, how would this affect a homeowner’s lifestyle…say someone who has a fuel cell in his basement and generates his own heat and electricity?

Research the concerns with using natural gas, propane, or other hydrocarbon fuels as the input to a fuel cell. What are some of the problems this would cause when operating a reformer to strip the hydrogen from the hydrocarbon fuels?

What other ways may hydrogen be obtained rather than through the electrolysis of water?

How would students improve the safety of fuel cell powered cars that travel with hydrogen storage on-board?

How fast do you think fuel cells can penetrate the energy marketplace? What might be some of the key concerns for bringing this technology to everyday use?

Could we store hydrogen in another chemical form on board a car and only convert it to hydrogen gas as we need to? Has this been done before? What kinds of chemical storage might be used?

What additional fuel cell applications beyond those already mentioned in this booklet can your students identify?

16 Learn More About Thomas Edison

Here is a fun list of great reads about the famous inventor, spanning the ages from adults to young readers. Many of the earlier published works noted here have been updated and re-printed in paperback form as well. Check with your local bookseller or the Internet for updates, and even more reads about the great man. Better yet, visit the famous West Orange Laboratories in New Jersey and see the world’s greatest intact collection of Edison artifacts; and learn how he put them to use creating our modern world. See the website about the West Orange laboratories at the end of this section, and view information for visiting or contacting the site. School and group visits can be accommodated.

Adult Reading

Baldwin, Neil; “Edison, Inventing the Century”; Hyperion, 1995. Conot, Robert; “Thomas A. Edison-A Streak of Luck”, Da Capo Press, Inc., 1979. Cook, James G.; “Edison-the man who turned darkness into light”; Thomas Alva Edison Foundation, 1978. Freidel, Robert and Israel, Paul; “Edison’s Electric Light: Biography of an Invention”; Rutgers University Press, 1986. Josephson, Mathew; “Edison”; McGraw-Hill, 1959 McCormick, Blaine; “At Work with Thomas Edison”; Entrepreneur Press,2001. Millard, Andre; “Edison and the Business of Innovation”; John Hopkins University Press, 1993. Melosi, Martin; “T. A. Edison and the Modernization of America”; Scott Foresman & Co., 1990. Musser, Charles; “Thomas A. Edison and His Kinetographic Motion Pictures”, Rutgers University Press, 1995. Pretzer, William: “Working at Inventing: Thomas A. Edison and the Menlo Park Experience”; John Hopkins University Press, 2002. Stross, Randall E.; “The Wizard of Menlo Park: How Thomas Alva Edison Invented the Modern World”, Three Rivers Press, 2008.

Young Readers

Adair, Gene; “Thomas Alva Edison-Inventing the Electric Age”, Oxford University Press, 1996. Burgan, Michael; “Thomas Alva Edison-Great American Inventor”, Compass Point Books, 2007. Dooling, Michael; “Young Thomas Edison”, Holiday House, 2005. Lewis, Floyd A.; “The Incandescent Light”, Shorewood Publications, Inc., 1961 Palmer, Arthur J.; “Edison-Inspiration to Youth”; Thomas A. Edison, Inc., West Orange, NJ, 1954. Probst, George F. (Editor); “The Indispensable Man”, Shorewood Publications, Inc., 1962.

Some Interesting Websites to Visit

http://www.nps.gov/edis/home.htm (Edison National Historic Site - in West Orange, New Jersey) http://www.charlesedisonfund.org/ (The Charles Edison Fund) http://www.thomasedison.org/ (The Edison Innovation Foundation)

17 Exhibit A- Fuel Cell History Timeline

1839 Sir William Groves experimented with reversing the action of an electrolyzer, and creating electricity with oxygen and hydrogen as the input fuel.

1889 William Langer and Ludwig Mond attempt to create working fuel cell using air and coal gas.

Early 1900s Fuel cell experimentation continues but is overshadowed by the rapid popularity of the internal combustion engine.

1932 Francis Bacon creates a successful hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell device using alkaline electrolytes and low cost nickel electrodes (rather than expensive catalysts which are normally required).

1950 Bacon demonstrates the first useful fuel cell ( 5kW fuel cell system) that is used to power a welding machine, circular saw, and 2-ton fuel cell powered forklift truck.

1955 GE redesigns the basic fuel cell incorporating an ion-exchange membrane that inspires NASA to adopt the technology and they and GE jointly work together to make the technology the mainstay of the U.S. Gemini space program in the early 1960s. It is the first commercial application of fuel cells.

1959 Pratt & Whitney licenses the Bacon patents and improves its performance and lifetime. NASA uses this alkaline cell technology in the U.S. Apollo space program.

1959-1963 Allis Chalmers develops working fuel cell applications for tractors, golf carts, and forklift trucks.

1964 The Star I one-man submersible vessel was powered by a 750-watt Allis Chalmers designed fuel cell. This application is considered to be one of the first practical application of fuel cells.

1966 GM produces an experimental fuel cell van-the automotive industry’s first attempt to use fuel cells.

1970s Fuel cells are further studied and designs for terrestrial applications are developed. A fuel cell/battery hybrid vehicle is built and tested.

18 1973 PSE&G Company of Newark, NJ interconnected three 12.5 kW fuel cells to its utility power system at a downtown substation. The fuel cells were fed typical utility grade methane gas. This was part of a national program of utility tests at different natural gas distribution companies. PSE&G later went on to demonstrate a fuel cell/electrolyzer combined system, using a Fe-Ti matrix to store the hydrogen created when the electrolyzer was in operation.

1980s Extensive research is conducted on improving fuel cells, and on making them more economic. Fuel cells were also designed to run off low Btu methane gas generated from sewage.

1990s First fuel cell powered vehicles marketed by Ballard of Canada.

1998-2000 Fuel cell powered cars feeding their electrical output back into the utility grid first proposed and patented as a unique form of mobile, distributed generation.

2000-2005 A variety of automotive, bus, and motorcycle manufacturers experiment and produce fuel cell powered vehicles.

2003 The first hydrogen refueling station is installed in Reykjavik, Iceland.

2007 Boeing and partners develop a fuel cell powered airplane that also employs lightweight batteries.

19 About the Author

Harry T. Roman is a retired engineer, teacher, and inventor. He holds 10 U.S. Patents and has written and published over 475 papers, articles, and scientific essays, including 17 books. His feature educational articles for teachers and students appear in Highlights for Children, The Technology Teacher, Techdirections, TIES, and Interface. His books have been published by Kelvin Publishing, Hearlihy, Nasco, PublishAmerica, Professional Publications, Inc. and Gifted Education Press. He now serves as an educational consultant to the Edison Innovation Foundation. About EIF

The Edison Innovation Foundation (EIF) was founded in 1996 as a non-profit operating foundation to preserve and promote the legacy of Thomas Edison, especially his historic laboratories at West Orange, NJ. The mission of EIF has evolved to include educational outreach programs tailored to inspire teachers, students, women, and minorities to pursue or continue careers in science, engineering, and technology.

EIF can be contacted at:

Edison Innovation Foundation One Riverfront Plaza 3rd Floor Newark, NJ 07102 973-648-0500 www.thomasedison.org