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Massachusetts Institute of Technology This Paper Might Be a Pre-Copy-Editing Or a Post-Print Author-Produced .Pdf of an Article Accepted for Publication Senseable City Lab :.:: Massachusetts Institute of Technology This paper might be a pre-copy-editing or a post-print author-produced .pdf of an article accepted for publication. For the definitive publisher-authenticated version, please refer directly to publishing house’s archive system SENSEABLE CITY LAB Transportation Planning and Technology ISSN: 0308-1060 (Print) 1029-0354 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gtpt20 Merging ICT and informal transport in Jakarta's ojek system Rafael Milani Medeiros, Fábio Duarte, Faris Achmad & Arman Jalali To cite this article: Rafael Milani Medeiros, Fábio Duarte, Faris Achmad & Arman Jalali (2018): Merging ICT and informal transport in Jakarta's ojek system, Transportation Planning and Technology, DOI: 10.1080/03081060.2018.1435465 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03081060.2018.1435465 Published online: 13 Feb 2018. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=gtpt20 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AND TECHNOLOGY, 2018 https://doi.org/10.1080/03081060.2018.1435465 Merging ICT and informal transport in Jakarta’s ojek system Rafael Milani Medeiros a,b, Fábio Duarte c,b, Faris Achmadd and Arman Jalalia aFaculty I, Center for Technology and Society, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany; bUrban Management, Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Parana, Curitiba, Brazil; cDepartment of Urban Studies and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA; dUrban Management, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY This paper discusses how information and communication Received 27 December 2016 technologies (ICT) may influence travel behavior of an informal Accepted 15 November 2017 transport system, and whether and in which ways merging digital technologies represents disruption for a specific KEYWORDS ICT; informal transport; ojek; sociotechnical ensemble. For decades, ojek has been a form of sociotechnical change; informal passenger transport, based on motorcycles in Jakarta, informality; Jakarta and recently smartphone apps have become available in that sociotechnical arrangement. We randomly surveyed passengers and drivers in the central district, for both those who do and do not use these apps. Despite many similarities between both groups, the drivers who use smartphones for their trips reported higher daily incomes, longer average trip distances and a larger coverage area. Passengers using conventional ojek transport reported lower levels of both safety perception and satisfaction when compared to app-based ojek users. For both categories of user, ojek seems to compete with, complement, and be an alternative to bus rapid transit and the suburban rail system (KRL) in the area covered by our sample. The areas covered by regular buses and vans roughly match the origins and destinations of ojek trips. 1. Introduction The fact that information and communication technologies (ICT) are dramatically alter- ing the use, operation, and management of urban mobility is no longer a novelty. The amount of data produced and stored daily by ubiquitous mobile devices produces an expressive range of opportunities and threats for the transport sector (Thomapoulos, Givoni, and Rietveld 2015). These opportunities include a growing number of data sources, information about user behavior and profiles, and lower costs for users and oper- ators resulting from the use of mobile apps that allow more competition among players. On the other hand, in an era when ‘software and hardware will become commodity build- ing blocks, with the real power lying in the vast archives of data’ (Leetaru 2015), property and access to databases determine who can manage the system. While urban transport was CONTACT Rafael Milani Medeiros [email protected] Faculty I, Center for Technology and Society, Tech- nische Universität Berlin, Hardenberg Str. 16–18 Berlin, Berlin 10623, Germany; Urban Management, Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Parana, Curitiba, PR 80215–901, Brazil © 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 2 R. M. MEDEIROS ET AL. regulated, monitored and managed exclusively by public authorities in the recent past, the pervasive use of ICT has been shifting current management to scattered groups of oper- ators and users who are mostly oriented by private sector interests – such as the case of ride-sharing apps. The ojek is an informal motorbike taxi that can carry one passenger; it is also used as a delivery service for small goods and documents. To borrow a term previously used by Cervero (1991), the ojek operates as a ‘free-enterprise’ without any license or concession granted for public transport. The service has been present in the Jabodetabek area (JA) of Jakarta, Indonesia, where anyone can find and ride them by simply hailing a passing driver. There are no fixed routes, stops or stations, although groups of conventional ojek can be seen around transport hubs and at street corners in commercial areas. Mobile phone use in Indonesia has skyrocketed in recent years, and since 2012 the country has had more than one mobile phone per capita. Suddenly the capital of Indone- sia, a country which 10 years ago had two fixed telephone lines for each 45 inhabitants, has become the world capital of Twitter: no other city is more active on the social media plat- form (Dzidzovic 2014). Recently the ojek has been targeted by regional and global com- panies developing apps that organize, distribute, manage, and charge for ojek trips, such as GojekTM, GrabikeTM, and Uber MotoTM. Operators like GojekTM enrolled thousands of new drivers with the lure of a bundle of advantages, and since its launch in early 2015 the smartphone app has been downloaded more than one million times. However, this new technological layer based on mobile com- puting has not disrupted the conventional ojek, which operates as a consolidated socio- technical ensemble, with well-defined technologies, stakeholders, and rules. Nevertheless, changes are coming, and the aim of this paper is to investigate the possible influences ICT may have on the behavior of ojek passengers and drivers. We surveyed and compared trips requested by smartphone with conventional trips which took place in the same urban area (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Left: Flocktracker researcher interface showing a heat map of sample distribution within the city of Jakarta. Right: interviewer’s smartphone interface Source: Google MapsTM and Flocktracker research and smartphone interface. TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AND TECHNOLOGY 3 2. Urban mobility in Jakarta as the ojek’s sociotechnical ensemble The JA is composed of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi; it is the largest urban area in Indonesia. The population of Jakarta currently stands around 9 million inhabitants, and the population contained within the JA is over 20 million. In 2012, Jakarta produced almost 21 million commuting trips daily according to the Directorate General of Land Transportation (DGLT 2012). Besides the social and environmental externalities of urban mobility such as fatalities, pollution, and congestion, the economic losses related to traffic in this area are estimated to be on the order of €3.8 billion per year (Wismadi, Soemardjito, and Sutomo 2014). Figures 2 and 3 show job density and number of students in the districts of Jakarta, as well as the public transport infrastructure. Besides private transport using cars, bicycles, or motorcycles to access central Jakarta, commuters rely on suburban rail transport (KRL) and around 200 km of Transjakarta, a bus rapid transit (BRT) system (Figure 2), buses and microbuses (Figure 3), along with some informal modes of transport such as the ojek (Figure 4). Other informal modes of transport exist in Jakarta, such as the becak, a cycle rickshaw, and bajaj, a three-wheeled motor taxi (Sudarmanto, Fujiwara, and Zhang 2013; Sumaedi et al. 2014). Figure 2. Job density in Jakarta by district, and KRL and BRT infrastructure Source: GIS created by the author using ITDP Jakarta database. 4 R. M. MEDEIROS ET AL. Figure 3. Job density in Jakarta by district, and microbus transport infrastructure Source: GIS created by the author using ITDP Jakarta database. Figure 4. Left: GojekTM driver and ojek passenger (green helmets) alongside conventional ojek drivers and passengers. Right: a group of conventional ojek drivers waiting for passengers, normally at street corners in downtown areas and near KRL and BRT stations Source: the authors. TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AND TECHNOLOGY 5 The pedestrian infrastructure in Jakarta does not encourage people to walk their last mile when commuting, which also encourages ojek use (Mochtar and Hino 2006). People who walk in Jakarta must be alert to the risk of traffic accidents and robbery (Leather et al. 2011). The most convenient walking pathways are only present in the center of the business district, where the sample distribution took place in this study. Informal commerce occupies many of the walkways that exist throughout the city. Jakarta suffers from high levels of individual motorization, which may result from the city’s poor public mass transport coverage with respect to its area. Considering a buffer zone of 1000 m from train stations and 500 m from BRT stations and lines, the public transport coverage area is 157 km2, or 24% of Jakarta’s territory (Faris 2016). The modal share changed
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