Appendix 1 New Breaks1 in Diplomatic Relations, 1976-89

States (initiating state listed first) Date of /Jreak Date ofrestoration

1976 Iceland-Britain February June 1976 Morocco-Algeria March May 1988 Mauritania-Algeria March August 1979 USA-Equatorial Guinea March November 19792 Iran- April August 1979 -Portugal May June 1978 Egypt-Syria June October 1976 Mauritius-Israel July Britain-Uganda July Apri11979 Sudan-Libya July February 1978 Venezuela-Uruguay July March 1985

1977 Taiwan-Liberia February Spain-Equatorial Guinea March August 1979 Zaire-Cuba April August 1979 Zaire-East Germany May January 1979 Guatemala-Panama May August 1979 Ghana-Uganda May Mauritania-North Korea May North Yemen-Portugal June 3 Argentina-North Korea June Ethiopia-Somalia September April1988 Somalia-USSR November 1986 Somalia-Cuba November 1989 Cambodia-Vietnam December June 19'79 Egypt-Algeria December 1988 Egypt-Iraq December 1987 Egypt-Libya December Egypt-Syria December 1989 Egypt-South Yemen December 1988

1978 Benin-Gabon January February 1989 Gabon-Chad 134 New Breaks in Diplomatic &lations 135 Panama- Ethiopia-Tunisia 1988 Egypt-Cyprus February April 1984 Iran-Kenya February September 1982 Chad-Libya February February 1978 Bolivia-Chile March North Yemen-South Yemen July March 1979 Laos-France August December 1981 Libya-Taiwan September Afghanistan-South Korea September Costa Rica-Nicaragua November May 1986 USA-Taiwan December Bulgaria-Egypt December 1984

1979 Grenada-South Korea 1984 Morocco-Ethiopia March Iran-South Africa March Sudan-Iraq April 1982 Iran-Egypt April March 1991 Bahrain-Egypt April 1987 Jordan-Egypt April 1984 Kuwait-Egypt April 1987 Lebanon-Egypt April June 1989 Mauritania-Egypt April 1987 Morocco-Egypt April 1987 Qatar-Egypt April 1987 Saudi Arabia-Egypt April 1987 Tunisia-Egypt April January 1988 United Arab Emirates-Egypt April 1987 North Yemen-Egypt April 1987 Djibouti-Egypt April 1986 -Nicaragua May August 1979 Ecuador-Nicaragua June August 1979 Panama-Nicaragua June August 1979 Grenada-Nicaragua June August 1979 Brazil-Nicaragua June Apri11981 Peru-Nicaragua June August 1979 Senegal-Central African Republic July Uganda-Central African Republic August El Salvador-South Africa November Britain-Cambodia December _4

1980 Tunisia-Libya January March 1988 Central African Republic-Libya January September 1982 Central African Republic-USSR April March 1988 Central African Republic-Cuba January Spain-Guatemala February September 1985 136 Appendix 1 Iran-Israel February Colombia-Taiwan February USA-Iran April Morocco-Cuba April Morocco-Libya April June 1981 Seychelles-South Korea May Ecuador-Bolivia5 July November 1981 USA-Bolivia July October 1981 Venezuela-Bolivia July November 1981 Panama-Bolivia July November 1981 Sweden-Bolivia July July 1982 Netherlands-Bolivia July September 1982 Canada-Bolivia July August 1988 Senegal-Libya July November 1988 Bolivia-Nicaragua August October 1982 Iran-Chile August Apri11991 Cuba-Venezuela September March 1989 Paraguay-Nicaragua October February 1991 Saudi Arabia-Libya October December 1981 Iraq-North Korea October Iraq-Libya October September 1987 Gambia-Libya October December 1984 Ghana-Libya November March 1982

1981 Niger-Libya January 1987 Benin-Chad February 1989 Iran-Morocco February Jordan-Iran February January 1991 Mauritania-Morocco March 1985 Colombia-Cuba March July1991 Costa Rica-Cuba March Saudi Arabia-Mghanistan April USA-Libya6 May Sudan-Libya June April1985 Somalia-Libya August April1985 Guatemala-Britain September 1986 Jamaica-Cuba October July 1990

1982 Sierra Leone-Libya 1989 Britain-Argentina April February 1990 New Zealand-Argentina April August 1984 Syria-Iraq April Kuwait-Costa Rica May Saudi Arabia-Costa Rica May Bangladesh-Zaire May Kuwait-Zaire May 1986 Libya-Zaire May October 1988 New Breaks in Diplomatic Relations 137 Qatar-Zaire May Saudi Arabia-Zaire May United Arab Emirates-Zaire May Chad-Libya June October 1988 Sudan-Iran June December 1986 Nicaragua-Israel August

1983 Libya-Lebanon May March 1984 Lesotho-Taiwan May Apri11990 Lesotho-South Korea June February 1986 Dominica-Grenada October 1984 Jamaica-Grenada October 1984 Lebanon-Iran November July 1984 Burma-North Korea November

1984 Mauritius-Libya January Mauritania-Libya 1985 Senegal-Iran January February 19897 Jordan-Libya February 1987 Grenada-Cuba March Britain-Libya April Somalia-E) Salvador April Egypt-E) Salvador April Egypt-Costa Rica April Bangladesh-Costa Rica April Jordan-Costa Rica April Malaysia-Costa Rica April Morocco-Costa Rica April September 1986 Lebanon-Costa Rica May Lebanon-E) Salvador May Libya-Liberia May November 1988 Grenada-North Korea June September 1991 Kuwait-Liberia August Bangladesh-Liberia August South Yemen-Libya September 19878 Morocco-Yugoslavia November July 1988

1985 Grenada-North Korea January Iraq-Libya June 1987 Taiwan-Bolivia July Liberia-USSR July May 1987 Tunisia-Libya September 1987 Morocco-India October October 1988 Ecuador-Nicaragua October August 1988 Liberia-Sierra Leone November July 1986 Taiwan-Nicaragua December 138 Appendix 1 1986 Argentina-South Mrica May Costa Rica-South Mrica July Syria-Morocco July 1989 Britain-Syria October November 1990

1987 United Arab Emirates-Libya January Tunisia-Iran March September 1990 Australia-Libya May 9 Mauritania-Iran June October 1990 France-Iran July 1988 Iran-Iraq October October 1990 Kenya-Libya December

1988 Japan-North Korea January Taiwan-Uruguay February Saudi Arabia-Iran April April 1991

1989 Iran-Britain March September 1990 Uganda-Zaire April September 1989 Burundi-Libya April Central Mrican Republic-Sudan May September 1989 Senegal-Mauritania August April1992 Paraguay-Panama October March 1990 El Salvador-Nicaragua November February 1990 China-Liberia November

Key: in second column, month of break not known; in third column, absence of evidence that relations restored by 1990 - evidence that relations definitely not restored by 1990. Notes: l. Includes 'temporary suspensions' for political reasons. 2. The subsequent announcement of the 'expulsion' of US diplomats from Equatorial Guinea had little effect as the US ambassador and most of the embassy staff were based in Cameroon. 3. Relations had not been restored before unification of the Yemen Arab Republic and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. 4. Britain had not had a presence in Cambodia since March 1975, and no resident ambassador since 1974. 5. Following the military coup in Bolivia in July 1980, Ecuador withheld recognition from the new regime and withdrew its embassy. The other six countries listed immediately below Ecuador in this column also withheld recognition, though they kept their embassies in place. 6. The had 'suspended' diplomatic relations with Libya in early Decem• ber 1979 but retained ten staff in its Tripoli mission. These were reduced to two in early February 1980 and on 2 May the embassy in Libya was closed altogether. On 6 May all remaining Libyan diplomats were ordered to leave the United States, New Breaks in Diplomatic Relations 139

though the State Department announced that the move stopped just short of breaking diplomatic relations. 7. Senegal ordered Iran to close its embassy in Dakar, but did not formally break rela• tions and continued to maintain an embassy in Iran. B. South Yemen ordered the Libyan embassy to close but continued to maintain a presence in Libya. 9. Australia closed the Libyan bureau but continued to maintain some contact through its embassy in Italy.

Sourr£.<;; Keesing\ Contemjmmry Archiveo~/Keesing's Record of World Events, 1975-93; Europa World Yearbook, 1975-93; l\umjm regional surveys; Afriw Contemporary Record, 1975-89; Africa Rr.searr,h /Julletin, 1976-92; The Times (various issues); Financial Times (various issues); The Guardian (various issues); The Economist (various issues); The Far Eastern 1\mnmnic Review (various issues); The DijJlomalic Service List (British); and The London DijJlomatic Ust. Appendix 2 Funerals, 1945-93

Death Funeral

Franklin D. Roosevelt* 12 April 1945 15 April Mahatma Gandhi* 30January 1948 31January Mohammed AliJinnah* 11 September 1948 12 September James V. Forrestalt 21 May 1949 25 May ]. C. Smuts 11 September 1950 16 September Liaquat Ali Khan* 16 October 1951 17 October King George VI 6 February 1952 15 February Joseph Stalin* 5 March 1953 9 March King Ibn Saud* 9 November 1953 9 November Pope Pius XII* 9 October 1958 19 October1 John Foster Dullest 24 May 1959 27 May Dag Hammarskjold 17 September 1961 29 September ]. F. Kennedy* 22 November 1963 25 November PopeJohn XXIII* 3June 1963 6June General Douglas MacArthur 5 April1964 11 April Jawaharlal Nehru* 27 May 1964 28 May Herbert C. Hoover 20 October 1964 25 October Winston Churchill 24January 1965 30January Adlai Stevenson t 14July 1965 19 July Lal Bahadur Shastri* llJanuary 1966 12January Konrad Adenauer 19 April1967 25 April Harold Holt* 17 December 1967 22 December Dwight D. Eisenhower 28 March 1969 2 April HoChi Minh* 3 September 1969 9 September Gamel Abdul Nasser* 28 September 1970 1 October Charles de Gaulle 9 November 1970 12 November2 Harry S. Truman 26 December 1972 28 December Georges Pompidou* 2 April1974 4April Archbishop Makarios* 3 August 1977 8August Jomo Kenyatta* 22 August 1978 31 August Houari Boumedienne* 27 December 1978 29 December Lord Louis Mountbatten 27 August 1979 5 September President Tito* 4 May 1980 8May Masayoshi Ohira* 12June 1980 14June Seretse Khama* 13July 1980 24July~ Anwar Sadat* 6 October 1981 10 October King Khaled* 13 June 1982 13June Leonid Brezhnev* 11 November 1982 15 November

140 Funerals 141 Yi1ri Andropov* 9 February 1984 14 February Indira Gandhi* 31 October 1984 3 November Konstantin Chernenko* 10 March 1985 13 March OlofPalme* 28 February 1986 15 March Samora Machel* 19 October 1986 28 October Emperor Hirohito 7 January 1989 24 February Ayatollah Khomeini 3June 1989 6June Rajiv Gandhi* 21 May 1991 26May Willy Brandt 9 October 1992 17 October Turgut Ozal* 17 April 1993 22 April Oliver Tambo 24 April 1993 25 April Ranasinghe Premadasa* 1 May 1993 6May

Ivy: *head of government. at time of death; t 'official', as opposed to state, funeral. Notes: I. Solemn Requiem Mass attended by special missions from foreign countries. Pope Pius was entombed on 13 October. 2. De Gaulle was buried in the churchyard at Colombey-les-deux-Eglises, following the private ceremony that he had stipulated. Foreign dignitaries attended a Requiem Mass in the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, though some visited the graveyard in Colombey, notably a group of presidents from franco phone Mrica, who went down on a special train on the following day. 3. Memorial service. The funeral itself was held privately the following day. Appendix 3 The Leaders of State Delegations* at the Funeral of Leonid Brezhnev, 15 November 1982

Mghanistan: President Babrak Karma!. Algeria: Mohamed Cherif Messadia, leader of the Permanent Secretariat of the FLN Central Committee. Angola: President jose Eduardo dos Santos. Argentina: Julio Martinez Vivot, minister of defence. Australia: Z. Cowen, former governor general. Austria: President Rudolf Kirchschlaeger, accompanied by the minister of foreign affairs, Dr Willi bald Pahr. Bangladesh: M.A. Khan, assistant martial law administrator. Belgium: Dr Wilfried Martens, prime minister. Benin: Vilon Guezo, first deputy chairman of the National Revolutionary Assembll" Botswana' Brazil** Bulgaria: PresidentJivkov. Burma** Burundi: Emile Mworoha, chairman of the National Assembly. Cambodia: Heng Samrin, chairman of the State Council. Cameroun: E. Eboua, minister of agriculture. Canada: Pierre Trudeau, prime minister. Cape Verde: Abilio Duarte, president of the National People's Assembly. China, People's Republic of: Huang Hua, minister of foreign affairs. Colombia** Congo: President Denis Sassou Nguesso. Cuba: President Castro. Cyprus: President Kyprianou. Czechoslovakia: President Husak. Denmark: Prince Consort Henrik, accompanied by Uffe Ellemann:Jensen, minister of foreign affairs. Egypt: Mamduh Salem, assistant to the president. Ethiopia: President Mengistu. Finland: President Koivisto. France: Pierre Mauroy, prime mm1ster, accompanied by the minister for external relations, Claude Cheysson, and Maurice Faure, president of the Foreign Mfairs Committee of the National Assembly. German Democratic Republic: President Honecker.

142 Leaders at the Funeral of Brezhnev 143 Germany, Federal Republic of: President Carstens, accompanied by the minister of foreign affairs, Hans-Dietrich Genscher. Greece: Andreas Papandreou, prime minister. Grenada: Sir Paul Scoon, governor general. Guinea: Dr Louis Lansana Beavogui, prime minister. Guyana: Vice-President Ramsaroop. Hungary: President Pal Losonczi, and Janos Kadar, first secretary of the Socialist Hungarian Workers' Party. Iceland .. India: Indira Gandhi, prime minister. Indonesia: Vice-President Adam Malik. Iran: Mir Salim, special envoy of the president. Iraq: Vice-President Maaruf. Ireland: President Hillery. Italy: A. Fanfani, president of the senate, accompanied by the minister of foreign affairs, Emilio Colombo. Japan: Zenko Suzuki, prime minister. Jordan: Modar Badran, prime minister and minister of defence. Kenya: Robert Ouko, minister of foreign affairs. Korea, North: Vice-President Pak Sung Chul. Kuwait: Abdul Aziz Hussein, minister of state for affairs of the Council of Ministers. Laos: President Souphanouvong. Lebanon: Ibrahim Halaoui, minister of economics, trade and tourism. Lesotho: C. Senhonyo, deputy prime minister. Libya: Commandant A. S. Jalloud, member of the Revolutionary Leadership of the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah. Luxembourg: Colette Flesch, vice-president, minister of foreign affairs, etc. Madagascar: E. Babeony, chairman of the Military Committee of the Develop- ment of Madagascar. Mali: President Traore. Malta: President Agata Barbara. Mexico: Gonzalez Avelar, chairman of the Grand Commission of the Senate. Mongolia: Y. Tsedenbal, chairman of the Presidium of the People's Great Khural. Morocco: Crown Prince Sidi Mohamed. Mozambique: President Samora Machel. Netherlands: Gejsbert Van Aardenne, deputy prime minister. Nicaragua: Daniel Ortega, coordinator of the Steering Council of the National Reconstruction Government. Niger: M. Djermakoye, minister of health. Nigeria: Vice-President Alex Ekweume. Norway: Crown Prince Harald and Kaare Willoch, prime minister. Pakistan: President Zia-ul-Haq. Philippines: Imelda Marcos, wife of the head of state. Poland: President Jablonski and General Jaruzelski, first secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party. Portugal: Vasco F. Pereira, minister of foreign affairs. Roumania: President Ceaucescu. 144 Appendix 3

San Marino: M. Gobbi and L. Barulli, capitani reggenti. Sierra Leone: Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, first vice-president. Spain: Jose Pedro Perez-Llorca, minister of foreign affairs. Sri Lanka: A. C. Shahul Hameed, minister of foreign affairs. Sweden: Olof Pal me, prime minister, and Prince Bertil, heir presumptive. Switzerland: Vice-President Aubert. Syria: President Assad. Tanzania: Vice-President Aboud Jumbe. Tunisia: Mohamed Chaker, minister of justice. Turkey: Bulent Ulusu, prime minister, and liter Turkemen, minister of foreign affairs. Uganda: Paulo Muwanga, vice president and minister of defence. United Kingdom: Francis Pym, foreign secretary. United States: Vice-President George Bush, accompanied by George Shultz, secretary of state. Vatican: J. B. Marini-Bettolo, personal envoy of Pope John Paul II. Venezuela: Jose Alberto Zambrano Velasco, minister of foreign affairs. Vietnam: Chairman Truong Chinh. Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of: President Ali Nasser Mohamed. Yemen Arab Republic: President Ali Abdullah Saleh. Yugoslavia: President Petar Stambolic, and Lazar Mojsov, minister of foreign affairs. Zambia: H. Mulemba, general secretary of the United National Independence Party. Zimbabwe: President Canaan Banana.

*There were also top-level delegations from 52 foreign communist parties, other leftist parties and 'national liberation movements'. Among these, Georges Marchais repre• sented the French CP, Enrico Berlinguer the Italian CP, Oliver Tambo the ANC, Sam Nujoma SWAPO and Yasser Arafat the PLO. In addition the UN was represented by .Javier Perez de Cuellar, the secretary-general, and UNESCO by its first deputy director f,eneral. *These countries were represented by their ambassadors in Moscow.

Sourr£.f: Soviet News (London), 17 November 1982 and Le Monde, 16 and 19 November 1982. Appendix 4 Dulles's Guidance to Ambassador U. Alexis Johnson in the Ambassadorial Talks with Communist China

{Washington, }july 29, 1955

MY DEAR AMBASSADOR JOHNSON: In your forthcoming talks at Geneva, Switzerland, with a representative of the Chinese Peoples Republic (CPR), you will be guided by the following considerations: (1) The talks are a continuation of the talks held in the last year between representatives of both sides at Geneva. (2) Through you and the appropriate representative of the CPR, the talks are now being resumed at the ambassadorial level. (3) The agreed purpose of your talks is 'to aid in settling the matter of repatriation of civilians who desire to return to their respective countries and to facilitate further discussion and settlement of certain other practical matters now at issue between both sides.' ( 4) You should seek agreement that the talks will be conducted in an atmosphere of privacy and that no other than routine public statements will be made regarding them, except as may be approved by both sides or after prior notification by one side to the other. The approval or notification from our side is to be authorized by the Department of State. In the main, you will discourage publicity about, and exaggeration of, the meeting. (5) You may in your discretion meet socially with the CPR representative. (6) It is, of course, understood that the conversations upon which you are to engage do not involve diplomatic recognition. (7) Since the scope of your talks is 'practical matters now at issue between both sides', i.e. the US and the CPR, you will not discuss issues which involve the rights of the Republic of China. If you are in doubt as to the practical application of this instruction, you will seek guidance from the Department of State. (8) The US is willing to talk about 'other practical matters' than the repa• triation of civilians because we do not want to have unnecessary differences with anyone if these differences can be honourably resolved. (9) Direct talks have been preferred to carrying on discussions through intermediaries. The reason is that there is more apt to be misunderstanding when matters are dealt with through intermediaries; therefore, we believe direct dealings should, in the first instance at least, be tried.

145 146 Appendix 4 (10) The first agreed purpose of the meeting is already the subject of bilateral talks, i.e., 'settling the matter of repatriation of civilians who desire to return to their respective countries'. You will seek immediate authoriza• tion to US civilians to return to the US. You may point out that so long as American civilians are held under restraint on the mainland of China, there is bound to be ill feeling in the US. We arc not, however, willing to promise political concessions to obtain their release. Only voluntary action by the CPR would really serve to remove the widespread resentment now felt in the US because of the mistreatment by the CPR of US citizens. (11) You arc authorized formally to assure the CPR representative that the US docs not impose restraints upon Chinese civilians who desire to return to the Mainland. The US is prepared to authorize some mutually agreeable gov• ernment through its embassy in the US to assist Chinese students who desire to return to the China mainland and to be a medium for the transmission of funds required for this purpose. (12) One of the 'other practical matters now at issue between both sides' is the prisoners of war who were under the UN Command in Korea, and as to whom an initiative has been taken by the United Nations. The US wishes to reinforce that initiative and you should raise this matter concurrently with the matter of the US civilians. The considerations above (paragraph 10) alluded to in reference to US civilians apply with equal or greater force with respect to the US military, who arc deemed covered by the Korea Armistice agreement. ( 13) You may, if and as you deem appropriate, mention that if US nation• als, civilians and POWs, now held within China, are released that might facili• tate the US voluntarily adopting a less restrictive policy as to US citizens going to the China mainland. (14) As another of the 'practical matters' which you should take up at a later stage of the discussions is the matter of assuring instructions which will prevent a repetition of such incidents as the shooting down of the Cathay Pacific airliner with death and injury to US citizens. (15) You will also, at whatever times you deem appropriate, emphasise the deep concern of the US in getting assurance that the CPR is prepared to renounce force to achieve its ambitions. If the CPR representative contends that the use of force in the Formosa area is justifiable because this involves a domestic matter, i.e., the unification of China, you may point out that the fact of a divided China is not basically different from the fact of a divided Korea, Germany, and Vietnam. It could be argued in each of these cases that unification is purely an internal matter. But in reality resort to force would endanger international peace and security. The same applies to China. The US believes that the principle of non• recourse to force is valid not merely for the US and its allies, but for all. (16) If the CPR questions the acceptance of the foregoing principle by the US and its allies, you may in response point to the purely defensive character of our arrangements with the Republic of China, particularly exemplified in our 1954 Mutual Defense Treaty. ( 17) If the CPR has practical matters at issue with the US which they would like to bring up, you are authorized to take note of what the CPR rep• resentative has to say in this respect and report to me and await appropriate instructions. Dulles's Guidance to Ambassador johnson 147

(18) You will seek to arrange your talks with the CPR representative so that you will be able to return from time to time to your regular post at Prague, for I deem it important that the people of Czechoslovakia should not feel that the US is disinterested [sic] in their fate, the fact being quite the con• trary as the President has personally made clear to you. If you should feel that you cannot adequately discharge your responsibilities as Ambassador to Czechoslovakia and at the same time discharge your present special mission, you will promptly inform me. Sincerely yours, John Foster Dulles

Soumr. FIWS, 1955-1957 (2), pp. 685-7. Appendix 5 The Brazzaville Protocol, 13 December 1988: Annex on the Joint Commission

1. With the objective of facilitating the resolution of any dispute regarding the interpretation or implementation of the tripartite agreement, the parties hereby establish a Joint Commission, which shall begin its work upon signa• ture of the tripartite agreement. 2. The Joint Commission shall serve as a forum for discussion and resolu• tion of issues regarding the intepretation and implementation of the tripar• tite agreement, and for such other purposes as the parties in the future may mutually agree. 3. The parties invite the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics to participate as observers in the work of the Commission. Furthermore, the parties agree that, upon the independence of , the Namibian Government should be included as a full member of the Joint Commission. To that end, the parties will extend a formal invitation to the Namibian Government to join the Joint Commission on the date of Namibian independence. 4. The Joint Commission shall be constituted within thirty days of the sign• ing of the tripartite agreement. The Joint Commission shall establish its own regulations and rules of procedure for regular meetings and for special meet• ings which may be requested by any party. 5. The decision by a party to discuss or seek the resolution of an issue in the Joint Commission shall not prejudice the right of that party to raise the issue, as it deems appropriate, before the Security Council of the United Nations or to pursue such other means of dispute resolution as are available under . 6. The Joint Commission shall in no way function as a substitute for UNTAG (including the monitoring role of UNTAG outside Namibia) or for the UN entity performing verification in Angola.

Sourre: International I.q~rtlMaterial5, vol. 26, no. 4 (July 1989), p. 951.

148 Notes and References

Introduction

1. Financial Times, 9 Aug. 1991. 2. On this, see The Tower Commission &port (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987). 3. R. Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897- 1963 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), vol. 7, p. 7769. 4. H. A. Kissinger, The Hlhite House Years (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson and Michae!Joseph, 1979), pp. 697-8. 5. For further analysis of this topic, see R. Cohen, Theatre ofPower: The A1·t ofDiplomatic Signalling (London and New York: Longman, 1987). 6. In his memoirs, James Callaghan, British foreign secretary at the time of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, catalogues the sixteen tele• phone conversations he had on 21 July with Henry Kissinger, Greek and Turkish leaders, the Austrian chancellor and the French foreign minister. 'The belief that personal contact leads to more accurate understanding is often true of face-to-face contacts,' he concludes, 'but much more doubtful when the telephone is used.' Time and Chance (London: Collins, 1987), pp. 344-6. 7. See, for example, the comments of Cyrus Vance in Hard Choices: Critical Years in American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), p. 117; and of Sir Alec Douglas-Home in The Way the Wind Blows (London: Collins, 1976), chap. 17. 8. C. A. Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighbourhood (New York and London: Norton, 1992), p. I48.

1. The Shuttered Embassy

1. A. James, 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', The British Year Book of International Law 1991 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. 347-87. 2. J. Dugard, Recognition and the United Nations (Cambridge: Grotius Publications, 1987). 3. M. Akehurst, A Modern Introduction to International Law, 6th ed. (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987), p. 53. 4. On this, see A. V. Lowe and C. Warbrick, 'Recognition of states', Inter• national and ComjJarative Law Qyarterly, vol. 41 (1992), pp. 473-82, and 'Recognition of states, Part 2', ibid., vol. 42 (1993), pp. 433-42. 5. F. S. Northedge, 'British foreign policy', in F. S. Northedge (ed.), The Foreign Policies of the Powers (London: Faber, 1968). 6. C. Warbrick, 'The new British policy on recognition of governments', International and Comparative Law Qyarterly, vol. 30 (1981), pp. 573-4. 7. Ibid., p. 569.

149 150 Notes and References 8. This was the personal decision of the Labour foreign secretary, Tony Crosland, taken against the advice of his senior officials, though the 'under-forties' in the Foreign Office supported the move. See Susan Crosland's Tony Crosland (London: Coronet, 1983), pp. 351-2. 9. Recognition and the United Nations, op. cit., p. 67. 10. Ibid., ch. 5. 11. War brick, 'The new British policy on recognition of governments', op. cit., p. 572. 12. Akehurst, A Modern Introduction to International Law, op. cit., p. 58. 13. James, 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', op. cit., p. 374. 14. Financial Times, 9 Aug. 1991. The British ambassador was, however, withdrawn, HCDeb. vol. 169, 15 Mar. 1990, col. 667. 15. Lord Gore-Booth (ed.), Salow's Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 5th ed. (London and New York: Longman, 1979), p. 188. There were some calls for a general severing of relations with Franco's Spain in the UN General Assembly in 1946 but in the end they went unheeded. Instead the more limited step was taken of recommending that Spain be barred from the specialised agencies and that heads of mission should be immediately recalled from Madrid. See E. Luard, A History of the United Nations, Vol. 1 (London: Macmillan, 1982), p. 363. 16. P. Cahier and L. T. Lee, 'Vienna Conventions on Diplomatic and Consular Relations', International Conciliation, vol. 571 (1969), p. 6. 17. Salow's Guide to Diplomatic Practice, op. cit., p. 188. 18. D. C. Bergus, 'U.S. diplomacy under the flag of Spain: Cairo, 1967- 1974', in D. D. Newsom (ed.), Diplomacy under a Foreign Flag: When Nations Break Relations (London: Hurst/New York: StMartin's, 1990), PP· 73-4. 19. Warbrick, 'The new British policy on recognition of governments', op. cit., fn 12, p. 570. 20. James, 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', op. cit., pp. 376-7; Satow's Guide to Diplomatic Practice, op. cit., p. 190. 21. C. A. Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighbourhood (New York and London: Norton, 1992), p. 136. 22. On Icelandic initiative, relations with Britain were formally severed on 18 February 1976, G. Moorhouse, The Diplomats: TheForeign Office Today (London: Cape, 1977), p. 280.

2. The Intermediary

l. T. Princen, Intermediaries in International Conflict (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 5. 2. R. Cohen, Negotiating Across Cultures: Communication Obstacles in Inter• national Diplomacy (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1991). 3. There is a tradition that the term 'good offices' should be applied to activity at the relatively passive end of this continuum, that activity mid• way along it should be described as 'conciliation', and that the term 'mediation' should be reserved exclusively for the active end of the Notes and References 151 range; see S. Touval, The Peace Brokers: Mediators in the Arab-Israeli Con• flict, 1948-1979 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), p. 4. However, in the real world of diplomacy careful use of this terminology has long since been abandoned. For example the extremely active role of the UN secretary-general in the Cyprus dispute is officially described as his 'mission of good offices'. As a result it seems best to refer simply to more or less active mediation. 4. G. Sick, All Fall Down: America's Fateful Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985), ch. 15; and W. Christopher et al., American Hos• tages in Iran: The Conduct of a Crisis (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1985), chs 7 and 8. 5. R. M. Nixon, The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (London: Arrow, 1979), pp. 370-4; and S. Hersh, Kissinger: The Price of Power (London: Faber, 1983), pp. 351-2. 6. H. A. Kissinger, The White House Years (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson and Michaeljoseph, 1979), p. 745. 7. Touval, The Peace Brokers, op. cit., chs 9 and 10. 8. Sick, All Fall Down, op. cit., p. 332; and International Legal Materials, vol. 20 (1981), p. 224ff. 9. G. R. Berridge, 'The Cyprus negotiations: divided responsibility and other problems', Leicester Discussion Papers in Politics, no. P92/7 ( 1992). 10. The London and Rhodesia Mining and Land Company, of which Tiny Rowland has been managing director since 1961, has extensive inter• ests in central and southern Mrica, including ownership of the Beira• Mutare oil pipeline, which traverses Mozambique from the Indian Ocean to Zimbabwe. On Rowland's political as well as commercial activities, see Richard Hall, My Life with Tiny: A Biography of Tiny Rowland (London: Faber, 1987); and 'Private diplomats: Tiny in Africa', The Economist, 26 Sept. 1992, p. 69. 11. The Independent, 11 Oct. 1991. 12. Kissinger, The White House Yean, op. cit., pp. 181, 714. 13. An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-keeping (New York: United Nations, 1992), ch. vii. 14. P. Gore-Booth, With Great Truth and Respect (London: Constable, 1974), p. 357. 15. Princen, Intermediaries in International Conflict, op. cit., p. 8. 16. For example, in a memorandum of 29 April 1955, Robert Murphy, US deputy under secretary of state, having noted that 'volunteer inter• mediaries [between the US and China] are not wanting', added that 'this might be profitable brokerage for them .. .', FRUS, 1955-1957, Vol. 11, China (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1986), p. 532. 17. Touval, The Peace Brokers, op. cit., p. 321. 18. Armand Hammer (with Neil Lyndon), Hammer: Witness to History (London: Simon & Schuster, 1987); S. Weinberg, Armand Hammer: The Untold Story (Boston: Little, Brown, 1989), part 6; and C. Blumay with H. Edwards, The Dark Side of Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992). 19. Princen, Intermediaries in International Conflict, op. cit., p. 6. 152 Notes and References

20. TheindejJendent, 18June 1992. 21. H. Trevelyan, Living with the Communists (Boston: Gambit, 1971), p. 200. 22. G. R. Berridge, 'Diplomacy and the Angola/Namibia Accords', Inter• national Affairs, vol. 65, no. 3 ( 1989). 23. K. R. Stadler, 'The Kreisky phenomenon', West European Politics, vol. 4, no. 1 (1981), p. 14. 24. Ibid., pp. 16-17. 25. Kissinger, The White House Yean, op. cit., p. 1204. 26. L. Lindsley, 'The Beagle Channel settlement: Vatican mediation resolves a century-old dispute',]ournal of Church and State, vol. 29, no. 3 ( 1987), pp. 435-55; and Princen, Intermediaries in International Conflict, op. cit., ch. 8. On Vatican foreign relations generally, see J. B. Hehir, 'Papal foreign policy', Foreign Policy, vol. 78 (1990), pp. 26-48. 27. Touval, op. cit. 28. With $3 billions in concessionalloans in order to enable the Israelis to build new airfields in the Negev to compensate for the ones they would have to surrender in the Sinai, W. B. Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1986), p. 241. As for Egypt, by 1980-1 (the year following signature of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty) Egypt was the top recipient of US official development assistance, G. R. Berridge, International Politics, 2nd ed. (Heme! Hempstead: HarvesterI Wheatsheaf, 1992), Table 7.2. 29. Berridge, 'Diplomacy and the Angola/Namibia accords', op. cit.; and C. A. Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighbourhood (New York and London: Norton, 1992), pp. 472-3. 30. Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace, para. 40. 31. Quandt, Cmnp David, op. cit., ch. l. 32. Crocker, High Noon in Southern A.fiica, op. cit., pp. 468-70. 33. I. W. Zartman and S. Touval, 'International mediation: conflict resolution and power politics', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 41, no. 2 (1985), pp. 27-44. 34. Princen also makes this point, Intermediaries in International Conflict, op. cit., p. 62. 35. Touval, 17te Peace Brokers, op. cit., pp. 277, 325 respectively. 36. Ibid., p. 277. 37. G. R. Berridge, Return to the UN: UN Diplomacy in Regional Conflicts (London: Macmillan, 1991). 38. Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace, op. cit., para. 37. 39. For example, A. M. Schlesinger Jr., A Thousand Days: john F. Kennedy in the White House (London: Deutsch, 1965), pp. 463-6; and U Thant, View fimn the UN (London: David & Charles, 1977), pp. 48-9. 40. There are also exceptions to this, of course, such as Lester Pearson, former prime minister of Canada and president of the UN General Assembly, who was considered by U Thant as a suitable UN mediator for Northern Ireland, ibid., p. 55. 41. Berridge, Return to the UN, op. cit., p. 50. 42. 17w Independent, 27 July 1992. Notes and References 153 43. R. N. Haass, 'Ripeness and the settlement of international disputes', Survival, May /June 1988. 44. Touval, The Peace Brokers, op. cit., pp. 228-38. 45. Berridge, 'Diplomacy and the Angola/Namibia accords', op. cit. 46. M. Golan, The Secret Conversations of Henry Kissinger (New York: Bantam Books, 1976); and I. W. Zartman and M. R. Berman, The Practical Nego• tiator (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982), pp. 33-4. 47. Berridge, 'The Cyprus negotiations', op. cit. 48. FRUS, 1955-1957, Vol. u, China. 49. Kissinger: The Price of Power, p. 364; see also Kissinger, The White House Years, op. cit., pp. 722-3.

3. The Disguised Embassy

1. W. M. Franklin, Protection of Foreign Interests: A Study in Diplomatic and Consular Practice (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1947), p. 23. 2. Ibid., pp. 27-9. 3. J. J. Blake, 'Pragmatic diplomacy: The origins and use of the protecting power', in D. D. Newsom (ed.), Diplomacy under a Foreign Flag: When Nations Break Relations (London: Hurst/New York: StMartin's, 1990), PP· 6-7. 4. Franklin, Protection ofForeign Interests, op. cit., pp. 110-11. 5. Ibid., p. 146. 6. Ibid., p. 149. 7. V. Lowe, 'Diplomatic law: protecting powers', International and Compar• ative Law Qy,arterly, vol. 39 (1990), pp. 471-4. 8, Wayne S. Smith, 'The protecting power and the US Interests Section in Cuba', in Newsom, Diplomacy underaForeignFlag, op. cit., p. 103. 9. A. M.James, 'Diplomacy', Review of International Studies, vol. 19 (1993). pp. 91-100; and 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', The British Year Book of International Law 1991 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), p. 380, n. 107. There was a clear hint of the interests section to come when officials of Britain and Australia, which had severed relations with Egypt during the Suez Crisis in 1956, 'were allowed to continue to dis• charge consular functions under the roof of the Canadian Embassy', Lord Gore-Booth (ed.) Salow's Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 5th ed. (London: Longman, 1979), p. 212. 10. Harold Wilson, The Labour Government 1964-70: A Personal Record (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1974), p. 236. 11. Newsom (ed.), Diplomacy underaForeignFlag, op. cit., pp. 3-4. 12. A. Klieman, Statecraft in the Dark: Israel s Practice of Qy,iet Diplomacy, Jaffee Centre for Strategic Studies Study no. 10 (Jerusalem: The Jerusalem Post/Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988), pp. 63-4. 13. Financial Times, 27 Feb. 1991; and Rudolf Gruber, 'Points of interest', SouthAfiica's New World (Leadership Publication, 1991), pp. 22-3. 14. This is the thrust of the US contributions in Newsom (ed.), Diplomacy under a Foreign Flag, op. cit. 154 Notes and References 15. D. C. 13ergus, 'U.S. diplomacy under the flag of Spain, Cairo, 1967-74', ibid., p. 71. 16. Ibid., p. 70. 17. Quoted in Lowe, 'Diplomatic law: protecting powers', op. cit., p. 473. 18. 13ergus, 'U.S. diplomacy under the flag of Spain, Cairo, 1967-74', op. cit., p. 71. 19. Ibid., p. 70. 20. Ibid., p. 71. 21. Quoted in Lowe, 'Diplomatic law: protecting powers', op. cit., p. 472. 22. US Department of State Dispatch, 13 May 1991, p. 347. 23. Most contributors to Newsom (ed.), Diplomacy under a Foreign Flag, op. cit., make this point. 24. The Times, 4 Nov. 1983. 25. W. Eagleton, 'Evolution of the U. S. Interests Sections in Algiers and 13aghdad', in Newsom (ed.), Diplomacy under a Foreign Flag, op. cit., pp. 92-6. 26. Ibid., p. 91, and Smith, 'The protecting power and the US Interests Section in Cuba', op. cit., p. 110. 27. 13ergus, 'US diplomacy under the flag of Spain, Cairo, 1967-74', op. cit., p. 75. 28. Smith, 'The protecting power and the Interests Section in Cuba', op. cit., p. 108. 29. llergus, 'US diplomacy under the flag of Spain, Cairo, 1967-74', op. cit., p. 66. 30. Ibid. 31. The Plowden Committee report, quoted in D. C. M. Platt, The Cinderella Service: British Consuls since 1825 (London: Longman, I 971), p. 119. 32. James, 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', op. cit., pp. 354-5. 33. This is a major theme of Platt's, The Cinderella Service, op. cit. 34. James, 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', op. cit., p. 355. 35. James points this out, ibid. 36. Ibid., p. 383. 37. This is also provided for in the 1963 Convention, in Article 17 ( 1). 38. James, 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', op. cit., p. 355. 39. Ibid., p. 383. 40. Ibid., pp. 381-2. 41. The implications of establishing reciprocal interests sections with Vietnam. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Mfairs of the Committee on Foreign Mfairs, House of Representa• tives, 28 July 1988 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1989), p. 41. 42. W. H. Sullivan, Mission to Iran (New York: Norton, 1981), p. 154. 43. D. Geldenhuys, The Diplomacy of Isolation: South African Foreign Policy Making Uohannesburg: Macmillan, 1984), pp. 14-15, 132-3;]. Barber and J. llarratt, South Africa's Foreign Policy: The Search for Stal1ts and Serurity, 1945-1988 (Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 113, 230; and J. Hunter, Israeli Foreign Policy: South Africa and Central America (Nottingham: Spokesman, 1987), pp. 23-5. 44. Diplomatic Service List 1970 (London: HMSO, 1970), p. 37. Notes and References 155 45. James, 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', op. cit., p. 384. The embassy was closed altogether on 30 January 1989. 46. These cases are mentioned in Gore-Booth (ed.), Salow's Guide to Dipl(}• matic Practice, op. cit., p. 213. The interesting Foreign Office papers that they generated at the time are to be found at PRO, F0371/112135 and F0371/123533 (relative to the Hanoi Consulate, 1954 and 1956 respectively); and at F0371/83297 and F0371/83546 (relative to the Tamsui Consulate, 1949-50). 47. HCDeb. vol. 833, 13 Mar. 1972, cols. 31-2 [Statement by Sir Alec Douglas-Home]. 48. PRO, F037l/123533. 49. The Times, 30June, 1 and 2July 1965. 50. HCDeb. vol. 716, 15 July 1965, col. 789. 51. Ibid., 12July 1965, col. 38. See also HCDeb. vol. 717, 26July 1965, col. 9(w). 52. HCDeb. vol. 716, 12July 1965, col. 33. 53. Sullivan, Mission to Iran, op. cit., pp. 271-2. 54. James, 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', op. cit., p. 355. 55. Ibid., p. 356. 56. Diplmnatic Service List 1989 (London: HMSO, 1989). 57. Information kindly supplied by Hilmi Akil, Office of the London Rep• resentative of the TRNC, 8 January 1993. The honorary representatives are based in Austria, Canada, Finland, Italy, Japan, Saudi Arabia and Germany. 58. Foreign and Commonwealth Office source, 27 Apr. 1993. 59. 'Trading places' [an interview with L. H. 'Rusty' Evans], Leadership, vol. 11, no. 5 (1992), p. 26. Additional information supplied by South Africa House (London), 30 Apr. 1993. 60. H. A. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, and MichaelJoseph, 1982), p. 62. 61. Ibid., p. 63. 62. Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964-70, op. cit., p. 167. 63. A. Parsons, They Say The Lion - Britain's Legacy to the Arabs: A Personal Memoir (London: Cape, 1986), pp. 41-2. 64. FarEastemEconomicReview, 29 Nov. 1990, pp. 12-13. 65. J(lieman, Statecraft in the Dark, op. cit., p. 64. 66. G. R. Berridge, The Politics of the South Africa Run: European Shipping and Pretoria (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), pp. 197-202. 67. PRO, Representation of the Vatican in the United Kingdom. Memo• randum by the secretary of state for foreign affairs, 22 Feb. 1960, CAB129/100. 68. Ibid. 69. PRO, Vatican Representation in the United Kingdom. Memorandum by the secretary of state for foreign affairs, 25 Apr. 1957, CAB129/87. 70. The Times, 13 Nov. 1979. 71. PRO, Vatican Representation in the United Kingdom. Memoran• dum by the secretary of state for foreign affairs, 25 Apr. 1957, CAB129/87. 72. Ibid. 156 Notes and References

73. 17u Times, 13 Nov. 1979. 74. Ibid., 5 Dec. 1979. 75. Ibid., 18 Mar. 1982; and The London Diplomatic List, Apr. 1982 (London: HMSO, 1982), p. 31; and The Economist, 23Jan. 1982, p. 38. 76. The Times, 25Jan. 1982. 77. M. W. Galligan, 'United States-Vatican relations: present benefits and future precautions', Journal of International Affairs, vol. 38 (winter 1985), pp. 337-47. 78. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, op. cit., p. 62. 79. The implications of establishing reciprocal interests sections with Vietnam. Hearing ... , op. cit., p. 8. 80. The Independent, 1 Oct. 1990. 81. US Department of State Dispatch, 6 May 1991. p. 331, and Far Eastern Economic Review, 18 Apr. 1991. 82. US Department of State Dispatch, 6 May 1991, p. 331. See also Financial Times, 7 Nov. 1991. 83. US DejJartrnent of State Dispatch, 7 Dec. 1992, p. 869. 84. Keesing's Record of World Events (1991), p. 38574. 85. Ibid., p. 38149. 86. Financial Times, 15 Apr. 1993. 87. Ibid., 19July 1993.

4. The Working Funeral

I. The Indej1endent, 22 Mar. 1990. 2. Ibid. 3. PRO, Independence Celebrations in Mrica, F0371/146557. 4. The Independent, 10 Nov. 1990. 5. Ibid., 12 Nov. 1990. 6. On this, see the interesting article by Harold Hickerson: 'The Feast of the Dead Among the Seventeenth Century Algonkians of the Upper Great Lakes', American Anthropologist, vol. 62, no. 1 (1960). 7. PRO, F0371/106516. 8. H. Wilson, The Governance of B1itain (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1976), p. 87. 9. The Times, 24 Feb. 1989. 10. R. M. Nixon, Leaders (London: Sidgwick &Jackson, 1982), p. 76. 11. H. Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964-70: A Personal Record (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), pp. 103-10. 12. Guanlian, 14 Mar. 1985. 13. H. A. Kissinger, The vVhite House Years (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1979), p. 936. 14. The Times, 24 Feb. 1989. 15. The PRC was only represented at foreign-minister level to indicate Chinese anger over remarks to the Japanese Diet on 18 February by then prime minister, Noboru Takeshita, denying Hirohito's respons• ibility for atrocities committed by the Japanese in China during the Second World War, Keesing's Record of World Events (1990), p. 37341. Notes and References 157 16. Ibid. (1989), p. 36462. Relations between Indonesia and China were severed in 1967, when Suharto accused China of involvement in an attempt to overthrow President Sukarno, Suharto's predecessor, in 1965. 17. Ibid.,p.37141. 18. B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark, The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funer• als, 1921-1969 (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, US Government Printing Office, 1971), p. 264. 19. T. Crump, The Death of an Emperor: japan at the Crossroads (Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 211. 20. M. Heikal, The Road to Ramadan (London: Collins, 1975), pp. 110-11. 21. W. Manchester, The Death of a President (London: Pan Books, 1967), pp. 844-52. 22. This phrase was employed in the Guardian, 13 Feb. 1984. 23. See Public Papers of the Presidents, , 1982 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1983), vol. 11, The President's News Conference, 11 Nov. 1982. 24. Kissinger, The White House Years, op. cit., pp. 926-7. 25. For criticism in the British press of the Western showing at Ozal's funeral, see Financial Times, 28 Apr. 1993 [Edward Mortimer], and The Independent, 23 Apr. 1993. 26. Financial Times, 28 Apr. 1993. 27. Public Papers of the Presidents, Ronald Reagan, 1984, (1985) op. cit., vol. I, Radio Address to the Nation on United States-Soviet Relations, 11 Feb. 1984. 28. Dawn, 16 and 17 Nov. 1982. 29. Financial Times, 16 Feb. 1984. 30. R. Cohen, Theatre ofPower: The Art ofDiplomatic Signalling (London and New York: Longman, 1987), p. 183. 31. PRO, F0371/106504. On the Chinese delegation to Stalin's funeral and its reception, see also F0371/106516 and the accounts by H. C. Hinton in Communist China in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1966), pp. 227-9, and D. Wilson in Zhou Enlai: A Biography (New York: Viking Penguin, 1984), pp. 192-3. 32. D. Steel, Against Goliath (London: Pan, 1991), p. 231. 33. Hammer gives an account ofChernenko's funeral in A. Hammer (with N. Lyndon), Hammer: Witness to History (London: Simon & Schuster, 1987), pp. 492-6. 34. Manchester, The Death of a President, op. cit., p. 771. 35. M. Riad, The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (London: Quartet, 1981) p. 168. See also Heikal, The Road to Ramadan, op. cit., pp. 111- 13. 36. Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 17 Aug. 1979, p. 29777. 37. V. A. Walters, Silent Missions (New York: Doubleday, 1978), p. 531. 38. Lord Home, The Way the Wind Blows (London: Collins, 1976), p. 280. 39. PRO, Br. Embassy (Ankara) to FO, 24 Mar. 1953, F0371/106516. 40. PRO, FO minute, 27 Mar. 1953, F0371/106516. 41. Cohen, Theatre of Power, op. cit., p. 158. 42. HCDcb, vol. 154, 9June 1989, col. 262(w). 158 Notes and References

43. The British embassy in Jedda provided an analysis along these lines of the delegations sent to Saudi Arabia following the death oflbn Saud in November 1953. It includes the following: 'The King of Yemen sent one of his sons. Two delegations have come from Lebanon, one headed by the Prime Minister, the other consisting of twenty-one mem• bers of the opposition. I am told that Jordan sent a member of the royal family, but the Syrian delegation was a disappointment, being headed only by the Minister of Agriculture. Considering the sub• ventions he is believed to have received it is considered that President Shishakli was ungrateful not to come himself. The delegation from Iraq, however, was felt to be not far short of an insult, especially con• sidering that King Saud had himself gone to Baghdad for the coron• ation in May. In fact Iraq sent only her ambassador to Saudi Arabia who is normally resident in Cairo. No mention of an Iraqi delegation was made in the local press. By contrast the Egyptian delegation led by Colonel Nasser was gratifying', PRO, F0371/l04885 44. Guardian, 18 Nov. 1982. 45. Zhores Medvedev, 'Brezhnev's Slackness Is Buried Too', The Observer News Service, 16 Nov. 1982. 46. Financial Times, 14 and 16 Mar. 1985. 47. The Times, 24 Feb. 1989.

5. The Diplomatic Corps

l. H. M.A. Keens-Soper and K. W. Schweizer (eds), F. de Callieres, The Art of Diplomacy (Leicester University Press; New York: Holmes & Meier, 1983), pp. 38-9. 2. J. K. Galbraith, Ambassador's journal: A Personal Account of the Kennedy Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969), p. 87, n. 25. 3. J. R. Wood and J. Serres, Diplomatic Ceremonial and Protocol (London: Macmillan, 1970), p. 29. 4. Lord Gore-Booth (ed.), Salow's Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 5th ed. (London: Longman, 1979), pp. 166-7. 5. Keens-Soper and Schweizer (eds), The Art ofDiplomacy, op. cit., p. 129. 6. Galbraith, Ambassador'sjoumal, op. cit., p. 146. 7. Wood and Serres, Diplomatic Ceremonial and Protocol, op. cit., p. 31. 8. The implications of establishing reciprocal interests sections with Viet• nam. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Mfairs of the Committee on Foreign Mfairs, House of Representatives, 28 July 1988 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1989), p. 44. 9. In September 1983 and again in March 1987 the Department of State instructed US diplomats that they could have 'substantive discussions' with North Korean officials 'in neutral settings'. The increase in mutual understanding to which it was hoped such talks would lead did not occur and the guidance was withdrawn. However it was reissued in October 1988, and at the end of the year talks at counsellor level began in Beijing. By November 1991, 17 meetings had been held but a request from Pyongyang that they be upgraded to ambassador level was Notes and References 159

rejected by Washington. See Department of State Bulletin, Jan. 1989, p. 17, and Rhee Sang-Woo, 'North Korea in 1991 ', Asian Survey, vol. 32 (1992), p. 61. 10. K M. Panikkar, In Two Chinas: Memoirs of a Diplomat (London: Allen & Unwin, 1955), pp. 140-2. 11. R. Hilsman, To Move a Nation: The Politics ofForeign Policy in the Adminis• tration ofjohn F. Kennedy (New York: Doubleday, 1967), p. 306. 12. Anxious to secure the attendance of representatives of the Catholic Bishops of the Soviet Baltic Republics at the forthcoming Second Vati• can Council, and encouraged by a hint from Moscow that its attitude towards the Holy See had warmed by a degree or two, Pope John instructed Francesco Lardone, his representative in Ankara, to make an appeal to the Soviet ambassador to Turkey, Nikita Rijov. Lardone was well received, within a week the Kremlin had at least approved a Lithuanian representative, and, following contacts between Lardone and other Communist diplomats in Ankara, the upshot was that the Second Vatican Council opened 'in the presence not only of bishops from many parts of Eastern Europe, but also observers from the Rus• sian Orthodox Church'. Since three years after this Rijov was appointed Soviet ambassador to Italy, where he remained until 1978, it is a reasonable assumption that Soviet-Vatican contacts of some sort continued in the Rome diplomatic community. D. Willey, God's Politi• cian:johnPaul at the Vatican (London and Boston: Faber, 1992), pp. 12-13. 13. G. Chan, 'Sino-Vatican diplomatic relations: problems and prospects', China Quarterly, vol. 120 ( 1989), p. 825. 14. The Times, 20, 22 and 24 July 1985. 15. Panikkar, In Two Chinas, op. cit., pp. 68-9. 16. Ibid., p. 72. 17. Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1950 (7), p. 892. 18. Ibid., p. 1000. 19. Ibid., p. 875. 20. Ibid. (2), pp. 875-6. 21. Ibid. (7), pp. 1000-2. 22. D. Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York: Norton, 1969), p. 532. 23. Ibid., pp. 533-4. Acheson also explains here very succinctly the case for negotiating through 'commanders in the field'. 24. K T. Young, Negotiating with the Chinese Communists: Tlw United States Experience, 1953-1967 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), pp. 24-34. 25. A. Eden, The Memoirs of Sir Anthony Eden: Full Circle (London: Cassell, 1960), pp. 87-9. 26. H. Trevelyan, Living with the Communists: China 1953-5, Soviet Union 1962-5 (Boston: Gambit, 1971), p. 84; see also FRUS, 1952-1954 (14), pp. 474-5. 27. Trevelyan, Living with the Communists, op. cit., p. 16, chs 2 and 4. 28. Ibid., pp. 83-4; FRUS, 1952-1954 (14), p. 439. 29. FRUS, 1952-1954 (14), p. 443. 30. Trevelyan, Living with the Communists, op., cit., p. 84. 31. Ibid., p. 85. 160 Notes and References

32. FRUS, 1952-1954 (14), p. 478. 33. Ibid., p. 501, n. l. 34. Ibid., p. 504. 35. FRUS, 1955-1957 (2), p. 232. 36. Ibid., p. 531. 37. Ibid., p. 659. 38. Ibid., p. 649-50. 39. Ibid., p. 654. 40. Ibid., p. 678. 41. PRO, F0371/133369. 42. Ibid. 43. Ibid. See also F0371/133370, where there is evidence that the State Department had thought of using Allison in the talks with Wang. 44. Young, Negotiating with the Chinese Communists, op. cit., p. 161. 45. FRUS, 1955-1957 (3), p. 639. 46. Ibid., p. 643. 47. Young, Negotiating with the Chinese Communists, op. cit., p. 7. 48. Ibid., p. 164. 49. Declassified Documents Reference System (Washington, DC: Carrollton Press, 1980) 79/413B; and J. C. Thomson Jr, 'On the making of US China policy, 1961-9: A study in bureaucratic politics', China Quarterly, vol. 50 ( 1972), p. 228. 50. Galbraith, Ambassador's journal, op. cit., p. 152. 51. Young, Negotiating with the Chinese Communists, op. cit., ch. 9. 52. Ibid., p. 249; Hilsman, To Move a Nation, op. cit., p. 309. 53. Declassified Documents Reference System: Retrospective Collection, op. cit., R/360E. 54. Declassified Documents Reference System, op. cit., 79/69B. It is interesting that Young, too, whose book was written at this juncture with major State Department input via the Council on Foreign Relations, also argued for a move away from Warsaw, Negotiating with the Chinese Communists, op. cit., pp. 305-6. 55. Thomson, 'On the making of US China policy, 1961-9', op. cit., p. 231. 56. Declassified Documents Reference System, op. cit., 79 I 413B. 57. H. A. Kissinger, The White House Years (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1979), p. 167. 58. Ibid., p. 169. 59. Ibid., p. 182. 60. Ibid., p. 188. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid., pp. 188-9. 63. Declassified Documents Reference System, op. cit., 79/ 413B. This also implied a greater degree of recognition of the PRC, Young, Negotiating with the Chinese Communists, op. cit., p. 305. 64. Kissinge1·, The lVhite House Years, op. cit., pp. 684-5. 65. Ibid., p. 688. 66. Ibid., p. 714. 67. Ibid., p. 753. 68. V. A. Walters, Silent Missions (New York: Doubleday, 1978), p. 530. Notes and References 161 69. Ibid., pp. 533, 547. 70. Ibid., p. 540. 71. Kissinger, The White House Yean, op. cit., p. 786. 72. H. A. Kissinger, Years of UjJheaval (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1982), p. 61. 73. Ibid. 74. Kissinger, The White House Years, op. cit., p. 786. 75. Trevelyan, Living with the Communists, op. cit., p. 85. 76. Kissinger, The White House Years, op. cit., p. 684. 77. Ibid., p. 165. 78. Walters, Silent Missions, op. cit., p. 543. 79. Hilsman, To Move a Nation, op. cit., pp. 291 and (on US assurances to China during the crisis over the off-shore islands in 1962) 319. 80. Kissinger, The White House Years, op. cit., p. 193. 81. Ibid., pp. 765-6, 768; and Walters, Silent Missions, op. cit., ch. 27 passim. 82. Young, Negotiating with the Chinese Communists, op. cit., p. 16. 83. Ibid., p. 303. 84. Ibid., pp. 308-14. 85. FRUS, 1955-1957 (3), p. 16. 86. Ibid., pp. 16, 75, 111-12, 185-7. 87. Ibid., p. 467. 88. Ibid. (2), pp. 641, 659 n. 4; and Young, Negotiating with the Chinese Com• munists, op. cit., pp. 20, 47. 89. Walters, Silent Missions, op. cit., p. 545. 90. Permanent Missions to the United Nations, no. 270, Apr. 1992 (New York: United Nations, 1992). 91. CE Commission, Direction General des Relations Exterieures, Corps Dipwmatique accredite aupres des Communauttis europtiennes (Luxembourg: CE, October 1992). 92. I am grateful for advice on NATO from Peter A. Jenner (UK liaison officer, NATO) and Diana Skingle (UK delegation, NATO). 93. Kissinger, The White House Years, op. cit., passim. 94. S. M. Finger, American Ambassadon at the UN (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1988), p. 222. 95. The implications of establishing reciprocal interests sections with Vietnam. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representa• tives, 28July 1988 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1989), p. 43. 96. G. R. Berridge and A. Jennings (eds), Dipwmacy at the UN (London: Macmillan, 1985), pp. 176, 184, and generally chs. 7 and 11. 97. Finger, American Ambassadors at the UN, op. cit., p. 20. 98. D. Greenhill, More by Accident (York: Wilton, 1992), p. 114. 99. B. N. Schiff, 'Dominance without hegemony: US relations with the International Atomic Energy Agency', in M. P. Karns and K. A. Mingst (eds), The United States and Multilateral institutions (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990), pp. 71-2. 100. IMF, Summary of Proceedings, Annual Meeting 1991 (Washington, DC: IMF, 1991). 162 Notes and References

101. I have documented some earlier ones in Berridge and Jennings, Diplomacy at the UN, op. cit., and Berridge, Return to the UN, op. cit. 102. C. A. Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighbourhood (New York and London: Norton, 1992), pp. 127, 193; and Finger, American Ambassadors at the UN, op. cit., pp. 268, 282-3. 103. The IndejJeJzdent, 28 Sept. 1990. 104. See also on this S. S. Kim, 'Behavioural dimensions of Chinese multi• lateral diplomacy', China Quarterly, vol. 71 (1977), pp. 713--42. 105. Ibid., pp. 734--6. 106. Parker 1: Hart, Trvo NATO Allies at the Threshold of War, Cyprus: A First• hand Account of Crisis Management, 1965-1968 (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1990). 107. At the time of the 197 4 crisis the Greek representative was Anghelos T. F. Chorafas, earlier head of the Diplomatic Office of the Prime Minis• ter in Athens, NATO Review, Nov./Dec. 1972, p. 24. As for the per• manent representative of Turkey, this was Orban Eralp, previously secretary-general of the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, NATO Review, May /June 1972, p. 25. 108. Hart, Two NATO Allies at the Threshold of War, op. cit., pp. 24, 123, 137-8. 109. Ibid., p. 24. 110. M. B. Yahuda, 'The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China', in Z. Steiner (ed.), The Times Survey ofForeign Ministries of the World (London: Times Books, 1982), pp. 157-8. 111. Walters, Silent Missions, op. cit., pp. 532, 537--8. 112. Ibid., p. 530. 113. Kissinger, The ·white House Years, op. cit., p. 686.

6. The Special Envoy

1. M. Bartos, 'Fourth report on special missions', Yearbook of the Inter• national Law Commission, vol. 2 (1967), UN Doc. A/CN. 4/SER. A/ 1967 I Add. 1, p. 23. 2. Ibid., pp. 6, 24. 3. See, for example, H. M. Wriston, 'The Secretary of State abroad', For• eign Affairs, vol. 34, no. 4 ( 1956), pp. 523--40; and Wriston, 'The special envoy', Foreign Affairs, vol. 38, no. 2 ( 1960), pp. 219-37. 4. Bartos, 'Fourth report on special missions', op. cit., p. 20. 5. A. Klieman, Statecraft in the Dark: Israel's Practice of Quiet Diplomacy, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies Study no. 10 (Jerusalem: The Jerusalem Post/Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988), pp. 48-9. 6. M. Heikal, Autumn of Fury: The Assassination of Sadat (London: Corgi, 1984), pp. 72-3. 7. The Independent, 21 Sept. 1987. 8. D. Geldenhuys, The Diplomacy of Isolation: South African Foreign Policy Making (Johannesburg: Macmillan, 1984), pp. 147-9. 9. The Tower Commission Report (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books, 1987), p. vii. Notes and References 163

10. H. A. Kissinger, The White House Years (London: Weidenfcld & Nicolson and Michael Joseph, 1979), p. 725. With greater options as a result of Kissinger's own diplomacy, the Carter administration avoided sabotage of the final stage of normalisation with the PRC by using the newly cre• ated Liaison Office in Peking to conduct the negotiations, C. Vance, Hm·d Choices: Critical Years in America's Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), p. 117. 11. The Independent, 30 and 31 May 1991. 12. A. Shlaim, The Politics of Partition: King Abdullah, the Zionists and Palestine, 1921-1951 (Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 11-12. 13. W. B. Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington DC: Brookings, 1986), pp. 109-10, 148, 153. 14. Kissinger, The White House Years, op. cit., p. 724. 15. G. W. Ball, DijJlomacyfora Crowded World (London: Bodley Head, 1976), p. 22. 16. HCDeb, 1988-89, vol. 159, col. 643(w); 1989-90, vol. 163, col. 763(w); and Financial Times, 29 Nov. 1989. 17. H. A. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (London: Wcidcnfcld & Nicolson and Michael Joseph, 1982), p. 628. 18. Ibid., p. 629. 19. Ball, Dipwmacy for a Crowded World, op. cit., p. 24. 20. For background, see D. C. Bach, 'Lcs initiatives franco-sud-africaines de "dialogue" avec )'Afrique francophone', in D. C. Bach (ed.), La France et l'Afiique du Sud: Histoires, mythes et enjeux contemporains (Paris: Karthala, 1990). 21. H. Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964-70: A Personal Record (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), p. 150. 22. R. Crossman, The Diaries of a Cabinet Minister, Volume One, Minister of Housing 1964-66 (London: Hamilton and Cape, 1975), pp. 250, 252. 23. B. Pimlott, Harold Wilson (London: HarpcrCollins, 1992), pp. 359, 356-- 6, 387, 389. 24. M. Stewart, Life and Labour: An Autobiography (London: Sidgwick & Jack• son, 1980), p. 152. 25. Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964-70, op. cit., p. 162; and The Times, 25Junc 1965. 26. R. Pearce (ed.), Patrick Gordon Walker: Political Diaries 1932-1971 (London: Historians' Press, 1991), p. 302. 27. The Times, 18Junc 1965. 28. Crossman, The Diaries of a Cabinet Minister, op. cit., p. 255. 29. Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964-70, op. cit., p. 166. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid., p. 154. Though it should be said that Wilson had given himself an alibi by early on stressing the possibility of a rebuff, The Times, 18 June 1965. 32. Paul Gore-Booth, With Great Truth and Respect (London: Constable, 1974), pp. 336--7; sec also Pimlott, Harold Wilson, op. cit., p. 390 ('Whitehall officials were appalled'). 33. Pimlott, Harold Wilson, op. cit., p. 390. 34. Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964-70, op. cit., p. 167. 164 Notes and References 35. Ibid. 36. HCDeb., vol. 715, 8July 1965, col. 1816. 37. Crossman, The Dimies of a Cabinet Minister, op. cit., p. 287. 38. HCDeb., vol. 715, 8July 1965, cols 1814-25. 39. Ibid., col. 1815. 40. Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964-70, op. cit., pp. 167-8. 41. Ibid., p. 168. 42. The Times, 14July 1965. 43. The Times, 10July 1965. 44. HCDeb., vol. 716, 15 July 1965, cols 782-92. 45. Henry Wriston, 'The special envoy', Foreign Affairs, vol. 38, no. 2 (1960). 46. Ibid., p. 223. 47. Ibid., p. 222. 48. G. R. Berridge, 'The diplomacy of the veld: Charles te Water and the "organic approach" to South African foreign policy', International• Relations, vol. 10, no. 1 ( 1990), pp. 73-86. 49. Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics, op. cit., pp. 101-2. 50. S. Segev, The Iranian Triangle: The Untold Story of Israel's Role in the Iran-Contra Affair (New York: Free Press, 1988), pp. 2-3. 51. Financial Times, 18 and 24 Mar. 1993. 52. J. Barber and J. Barratt, South Africa's Foreign Policy: The Search for Status and Security, 1945-1988 (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 182. 53. Wriston, 'The special envoy', op. cit., p. 220. 54. Segev, The Iranian Triangle, op. cit., p. 23. 55. Berridge, 'The diplomacy of the veld', op. cit.; also 'The ethnic "agent in place": English-speaking civil servants and Nationalist South Africa, 1948-57', Intelligence and National Security, vol. 4, no. 2 (1989), pp. 257-67. 56. E. Rhoodie, The Real Information Scandal (Pretoria: Orbis, 1983). 57. The Tower Commission Report, op. cit., p. vii. 58. Segev, The Iranian Triangle, op. cit., p. 21.

7. The Joint Commission

l. Kyung Ae Park and Sung-Chull Lee, 'Changes and prospects in inter• Korean relations', Asian Survey, vol. 32 (1992), pp. 429-47. 2. C. Richards, 'Israel: Rome's old problem', The Independent, 31 July 1992. I am indebted to Elias Levy for drawing this to my attention. 3. The Tower Commission Report (New York: Times Books and Bantam Books, 1987), p. 48. 4. US Department of State Dispatch, 28 June 1993, p. 459. 5. R.Jenkins, European Diary, 1997-1981 (London: Collins, 1989), p. 21. 6. C. A. Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighboudwod (New York and London: Norton, 1992), pp. 420-1. This joint commission should not be confused with the much more limited 'Joint Military Commission' (sometimes known as the 'joint Angolan• South African Military Monitoring Commission' or 'combined military Notes and References 165 committee') which was set up under the Geneva Protocol of the previous August. 7. Park and Lee, 'Changes and prospects in inter-Korean relations', op. cit., pp. 431-2, 433,436. See also]. Merrill, 'North Korea in 1992', Asian Survey. vol. 33 ( 1993), pp. 50-3. 8. Park and Lee, 'Changes and prospects in inter-Korean relations', op. cit., p. 438. 9. Ibid., p. 422. 10. Africa Research Bulletin, 15 May 1989, pp. 9235-9. 11. International Herald Tribune, 20/21 May 1989; The Times, 23 May 1989; Granma (), 28 May 1989. 12. LeMonde, 11July 1989. 13. International Herald Tribune, 28-29Jan 1989; see also IHT, 8-9July 1989. 14. Financial Mail, 13 July 1990. 15. International Herald Tribune, 17 Oct. 1989; Guardian, 17 Oct. 1989. 16. Africa Research Bulletin, 1-30 Nov. 1991, p. 1039. 17. SouthScan, vol. 6, no. 21 (31 May 1991), p. 188; RSA Update, no. 33, Dec. 1991, p. 3. 18. Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa, op. cit., p. 488. 19. General Peace Agreement for Mozambique, Rome, 4 Oct. 1992, UN Doc. S/24635, 8 Oct. 1992. See also UN Chronicle, Dec. 1992, pp. 12-13, and Mar. 1993, p. 24. 20. SouthScan, vol. 8, no. 11 (19 Mar. 1993), p. 86. 21. Financial Times, 17 May 1990. 22. D. P. Stewart and L. B. Sherman, 'Developments at the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal: 1981-1983' in R. B. Lillich (ed.), 17re Iran• United States Claims T1ibunal, 1981-1983 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984), p. 7. 23. A. F. Lowenfeld, 'The Iran-United States Claims Tribunal: An interim appraisal', in ibid. pp. 90-1. 24. Financial Times, 3 Feb. 1982. 25. International Herald Tribune, 10 Mar. 1982. 26. Ibid., 19 Sept. 1984. 27. Financial Times, 25 Jan. 1985. 28. Stewart and Sherman, 'Developments at the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal: 1981-1983', op. cit., p. 5. 29. International Herald Tribune, 24 Sept. 1986. 30. Ibid.,30Dec.1986and9Jan.1987. 31. Ibid., 30 Dec. 1986, and Financial Times, 30 Dec. 1986. 32. International Herald T1ibune, 6 May 1987, and Financial Times, 12 Aug. 1987. 33. International Herald Tribune, 8 Nov. 1989. 34. Ibid., 11/12 Nov. 1989. 35. Financial Times, 2 May 1990. 36. Ibid., 4 and 17 May 1990. 37. The Independent, 5 May 1990. 38. Internationalllemld Tribune, 15 May 1990. 39. Financial Times, 23 Sept. 1990. 40. International Herald T1ilmne, 3 Dec. 1991. 166 Notes and References 41. Ibid., 22 Nov. 1991. 42. W. ll. Quandt, CamjJ David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1986), pp. 399-400. 43. International Legal Materials, vol. 18, 1979, pp. 367, 373, 378-80. 44. Ibid., p. 389 (Annex III). 45. Hong Yung Lee, 'South Korea in 1992: A turning point in democ• ratization', Asian Survey. vol. 33 (1993), p. 40. Select Bibliography

Africa Contemporary Record. Annual Survey and Docmnents, C. Legum ( ed) (New York: Holmes & Meier). Africa Research Bulletin (Oxford: Blackwells, monthly). Ball. G. W. (1976) Diplomacy fora Crowded World (London: Bodley Head). Barber,]. and J. Barratt (1990) South Africa's Foreign Policy: The Search for Status and See11rity, 1945-1988 (Cambridge University Press). Bartos, M. (1967) 'Fourth report on special missions', Yearbook of the Inter• national Law Commission, vol. 2, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/ 1967 I Add.1. Berridge, G. R. (1991) Return to the UN: UN Diplomacy in Regional Conflicts (London: Macmillan). Berridge, G. R. and A. Jennings (eds) (1985) Diplomacy at the UN (London: Macmillan). Chan, S. and V. Jabri (eds) (1993) Mediation in Southern Africa (London: Macmillan). Christopher, W. (ed.) (1985) American Hostages in Iran: The Conduct of a Crisis (New Haven and London: Yale University Press). Cohen, R. ( 1987) Theatre of Power: The Art of Diplomatic Signalling (London and New York: Longman). Cohen, R. ( 1991) Negotiating Across Cultures: Communication Obstacles in Inter• national Diplomacy (Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press). Crocker, C. A. ( 1992) High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough NeighbouTiwod (New York and London: Norton). Diplomatic Service List (London: HMSO). Europa World Yearbook, 2 vols. (London: Europa Publications). Dugard, J. (1987) Recognition and the United Nations (Cambridge: Grotius Publications). Franklin, W. M. (1947) Protection ofForeign Interests: A Study in Diplomatic and Consular Practice (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office). Galloway, L. T. (1978) Recognising Foreign Governments: the Practice of the United States (Washington, DC: AEI). Geldenhuys, D. (1984) The Diplomacy of Isolation: South African Foreign Policy Making (Johannesburg: Macmillan). Geldenhuys, D. (1990) Isolated States: A Comparative Analysis (Cambridge University Press). Gore-Booth, Lord (1979) Salow's Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 5th ed. (London: Longman). Graham, R. A. (1959) Vatican Diplomacy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press). Haass, R. N. (1988) 'Ripeness and the settlement of international disputes', Surviva~ May/June. Hehir, J. B. (1990) 'Papal foreign policy', Foreign Policy, vol. 78. James, A. (1978) 'International society', British journal of International Studies, vol. 4, no. 2. 167 168 Select Bibliography

James, A. (1980) 'Diplomacy and international society', International Rela• tions, vol. 6, no. 6. James, A. ( 1986) Sovereign Statehood: The Basis of International Society (London: Allen and Unwin). James, A. (1992) 'Diplomatic relations and contacts', The British Year Book of International Law 1991 (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Keesing's Record of World Events (London: Longman, monthly). Kim, S. S. (1977) 'Behavioural dimensions of Chinese multilateral diplo• macy', China Quarterly, vol. 71. Kim, S. S. (1979) China, the United Nations, and World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press). Kissinger, H. A. (1979) The White House Years (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson and MichaelJoseph). Kissinger, H. A. (1982) Years of Upheaval (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, and Michaeljoseph). l{]ieman, A. (1988) Statecraft in the Dark: Israel's Practice of Quiet Diplomacy, Jaffee Centre for Strategic Studies Study no. 10 Qerusalem: The jerusalem Post/Boulder, CO: Westview). Lillich, R. B. (ed.) (1984) The Iran-United States Claims Trilmnal 1981-1983 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia). Lindsley, L. (1987) 'The Beagle Channel settlement: Vatican mediation resolves a century-old dispute' ,Journal ofChun;h and State, vol. 29, no. 3. London Diplomatic List (London: HMSO). Newsom, D. D. (ed.) (1990) Diplomacy under a Foreign Flag: When Nations Break Relations (London: Hurst/New York: StMartin's). Platt, D. C. M. ( 1971) The Cinderella Service: British Consuls since 1825 (London: Longman). Princen, T. ( 1992) Intermediaries in International Conflict (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press). Quandt, W. B. (1986) Camp David: PeacernakingandPolitics (Washington, DC: Brookings). Rhoodie, E. ( 1983) The Real Infornwtion Scandal (Pretoria: Orbis). Segev, S. ( 1988) The Iranian Triangle: The Untold Story of Israel's Role in the Iran-Contra Affair (New York: Free Press). Shain, Y. (ed.) (1991) Governments-in-Exile in Contemporary World Politics (New York and London: Routledge). Sick, G. ( 1985) All Fall Down: America's Fateful Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House). Stadler, K R. (1981) 'The Kreisky phenomenon', West European Politics, vol. 4, no. 1. Sullivan, W. H. (1981) Mission to Iran (New York: Norton). The Tower Commission Report ( 1987) (New York: Bantam Books and Times Books). Touval, S. ( 1982) The Peace Brokers: Mediators in the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1948- 1979 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press). Trevelyan, H. (1971) Living with the Communists: China 1953-5, Soviet Union 1962-5 (Boston: Gambit). Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 (1965) Treaty Series, vol. 500, 1964, no. 7310 (New York: United Nations). Select Bibliography 169

Walters, V. A. (1977) Silent Missions (New York: Doubleday). Warbrick, C. (1981) 'The new British policy on recognition of governments', International and ComjJarative Law Qyarterly, vol. 30. Wriston, H. M. ( 1956) 'The Secretary of State abroad', Foreign Affairs, vol. 34, no. 4. Wriston, H. M. ( 1960) 'The special envoy', Foreign Affairs, vol. 38, no. 2. Young, K. T. (1968) Negotiating with the Chinese Communists: The United States Experience, 1953-1967 (New York: McGraw-Hill). Zartman, I. W. and S. Touval (1985) 'International mediation: conflict resolu• tion and power politics',joumal of Social Issues, vol. 41, no. 2. Index

A~ikalin, M. 72 Argentina Adenauer, Konrad, requiem mass and Beagle Channel dispute 21 for 61 and Britain 7-8, 37, 40, 41, 42-3,49, Afghanistan 28 108 and Britain 8 aspiring states 2, 4, 5-6 as protecting power 37 Australia and Soviet Union 61, 67, 68 and Egypt 153 n.9 and USA 6, 47 and.Japan 7l agreements, forms of 15 and Libya 139 n.9 agrhnent 39-41, 102 as protecting power 36, 40, 47 Ahtisaari, M. 28 and Taiwan 53-4 Akihito, Emperor 59 Austria 14 Algeria motives of as mediator 19-20 and Britain 36, 37 as protecting power 20, 33, 38, 122 and Egypt 70 and Mauritania 70 Baker,.James 57, 67, 104-5 mediation of in Iran hostages Bandung Conference (1955) 83,92 crisis 14, 15, 20, 25 Bazoft, Farzad 8 as protecting power 42 Beagle Channel dispute 21 and USA 43 Beam,.Jacob B. 85,86 Algiers Accords (1981) 15, l23-6fmssim Belgium 33, 95 Allison,John 84-5 see also diplomatic corps (Brussels) ~c 38,50,51,69 Bergus, Donald 41, 43, 44 Andropov, Yuri 67, 73 Bernadotte, Count F. 28 funeral of 61, 66, 67-8, 72 Biafra 6, 44 Agenda for Pear£, An 16-17, 26 Bohlen, Chip 87 Angola Bolivia 138 n.5 and South Africa 51 Bolling, Landrum ll4, 115 and USA xv, 6, 10, 98, ll9, 122 Bosnia 13, 17, 28 see also Angola/Namibia diplomacy multiple mediation in 29 Angola/ Namibia diplomacy Botha, Pik 51 andjointcommissions llB--19, Botswana 16,51 120-3, App. 5 Boumedienne, Houari, funeral of 70 telecommunications in xv Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, US assets in 22, 23, ll9 on mediation 16-17,21 US motives in 19 and use of distinguished statesmen US strategy in 29 in 26-8 venues of 14 Brazil 37 apostolic delegates 54-6 Brazzaville Protocol (1988) liB, App. 5 Arab-Israeli conflict breaks in diplomatic relations l, 3, 5, and Kreisky 20 7-l0,34,35,39,App. I US mediation in 15, 16, 18, 22-30 involving Britain 36-7 f}(lssim and consular relations 9, 33, 45, 48-9 see also Egypt; Israel; .June War; Yom Brezhnev, Leonid 6i-73fmssim, App. 3 Kippur War Britain Arafat, Yasser 68-9, 144 and Angola/Namibia diplomacy xv

170 Index 171

and Congo (Brazzaville) 9, 36 and UN 7, 80, 81, 89-90, 98 at Geneva Conference (1954) 81 and USA xiv, xv, 2, 4, 6--7, 10-17 and Ghana 37 fmssim, 29, 30, 31, 49-50, 51-2, and India 19, 62 70,79-94,96,99-100,104,105-6, interests sections of 36, 40, 41, 46, 49 App. 4, 151 n. 16 Middle East hostages of xiii and Vatican 21 recognition policy of 2, 7 see also diplomatic corps (Beijing) and Swedish protection in Iran 35, China, Republic of see Taiwan 39-40,42 Chona, Mark 114-15 and Turkey 67, 72 Chou En-lai see also especially Argentina; Iran; at Bandung 83 Rhodesia (Southern); Thatcher, and Dulles 6--7 Margaret; and under other sej)(lmte and Pakistan 15 entries and Panikkar 80 British Commonwealth, and Vietnam at Stalin's funeral 68 War 109-12 Churchill, Winston S. xiv British Honduras 46 funeral of 61, 69, 71 Bunker, Ellsworth 26 Cod War see Iceland Bush, George 66, 67, 96 Communist China see China, People's Republic of Callaghan,James 149 n. 6 Congo (Brazzaville) 9, 36 Callieres, Fran~ois de 76--7 consulates 4 Cambodia 89 and breaches in diplomatic and Britain 2, 106, 138 n. 4 relations 9, 33, 45, 48-9 and UN 96 diplomatic functions of 45-9 and USA 6, 58 general functions of 44 and Vietnam 57, 58, 106 in Sino-US diplomacy 52, 82-3, 84 Camp David talks 22, 24-5, 27 Crocker, Chester 10 Canada 62 see alsoAngola/Namibia diplomacy as protecting power 36, 37, 153 n. 9 Crosland, Tony 150 n. 8 and Taiwan 53-4 Cuba Canterbury, Archbishop of 55 missiles crisis concerning xv Carter, .Jimmy and USA 3, 35, 38, 43-4, 77 and Cuba 3 see alsoAngola/Namibia diplomacy Middle East diplomacy of 22, 24-5, Cyprus problem 27, 114 and Britain 18-19,50, 149 n. 6 Castro, Fidel see Cuba in NATO diplomatic corps 98 ceremonial occasions 59-60 and UN 16, 17, 29-30, 151 n. 3 and interests sections 43 and USA 16, 18-19, 29-30 funerals as 60-74 see also Cyprus, Republic of; Greece; Chernenko, Konstantin 67, 68, 72 Turkey; Turkish Republic of funeral of 61, 62, 63, 70, 73-4 Northern Cyprus Chiang Kai-shek 6 Cyprus, Republic of 4, 50 see also Taiwan see also Cyprus problem Chile 21 Czechoslovakia 35 China, People's Republic of and Britain 47, 81, 82, 84, 86, 92, llO Davies, Harold 48, 109-12, 114 and France 3, 15-16, 17, 87 defence attaches 40, 41 and India 79 de Gaulle, General Charles and Indonesia 63 funeral diplomacy of 60, 61, 65 and Korean War 79-80 funeral of 63, 70, 141 n. 2 and South Africa 104 and Sino-US rapprochement 14 and Soviet Union 61, 67-74 fmssim, detained nationals, issue of in Sino-US 92, 106 talks 81-2, 83, 91, 146 172 Index

Denmark 46 and Britain 10, 36, 37, 53, 153 n, 9 diplomacy isolation of following Camp David and consular work 44-5 8-9 functions of I 0, 38-43 fHtssim and Israel 8, 105, 117, 127-8 inescapability of 10-12 and Libya 103 diplomatic corps and Saudi Arabia 72, 158 n. 43 Ankara 78 and South Mrica 51 Bangkok 77 and Soviet Union 69 Beijing 77, 78, 80 and USA 10, 24, 39, 43, 44, 66, 103, Brussels 95-8 fHt.uim 152 n. 28 definition of 75 see also Arab-Israeli conflict; Camp doyen of 75 David talks EC 4 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 83 Geneva 19,79-84,85 funeral of 61, 69 in international organisations embassy, permanent generally 94-8 and breaks in diplomatic relations 8, limitations of 99-100 34 Moscow 78 of Britain in Luanda xv Paris 61, 78,87-94 f){lssim, 99 and consular work 44-5 and representative offices 52 and interests sections 35, 3&-7, 38-44 and Sino-US contacts (1950-72) and special envoys 101, 102 79-94 temporary withdrawal of I and special envoys 10 I .fee also diplomatic corps UN 4, 78, 80, 90, 94-8 fJassim Estrada doctrine 2-3, 7 and unfriendly powers 7&-7 European Community and USA 87 and Bosnia 29 Vatican 78 diplomatic corps of 4, 95, 98 Warsaw 84-8, 89, 92, 99 and recognition 2 diplomatic fronts 32, 52-8 ser. also Owen, David diplomatic relations European Union see European definition of I Community and interests sections 46 and recognition 3 Falklands War see Argentina (and see also breaks in diplomatic relations Britain) diplomatic signalling see nonverbal Finland 28 communication Formosa see also Taiwan direct talks, lure of 30-1, 145 France 33, 123, 125 'distinguished statesmen' 26-8 and Communist China 3, 15-16, 17, 87 doyen (of diplomatic corps) 75 as protecting power 40 Dulles, John Foster recognition policy of 3, 7 and direct talks with Communist and Saudi Arabia 10 China 10,82-4,85, 86, 93, and Turkey 67 App. 4 and USA 14, 61, 62-3, 87, 88, 89 funeral of 64 see also de Gaulle, General Charles; and Geneva Conference ( 1954) 6--7, diplomatic corps (Paris) 80-1 FRELIMO see Mozambique and India 31 Front-Line States 22 funeral diplomacy 4, 101 East Germany 63, 96 advantages of 69-74 see also Germany definition of 63-4 Eftekhar, Goudarz 126 drawbacks of 65-9 Egypt institutionalisation of 60-5 and Algeria 70 list of opportunities for (1945-93) and Australia 153 n. 9 App. 2 Index 173

Galbraith,J. K 77, 86 IMF 95,97 Geneva I9 India as venue of Sino-US talks ( I954-8) and Britain 19, 62 79-84,85 and Communist China 79 Geneva Conference on S.E. Asia and Sino-US conflict 4, 3I, 79-80, 8I (I954) 6-7,47,80-2,109 and Soviet Union I9, 74 Germany and Vietnam 78 funeral diplomacy in reunification Indonesia process of 63 and Communist China 63 and interests sections 36 and West New Guinea 26 and Israel 36 interests sections 4 and Soviet Union 73 compared with consulates 45-6, 48-9 and Turkey 67 definition of 35 and UN 5, 96 as first step to restoring 'full' Ghana 36,37, I09, IIO-II relations 38, 43 Gorbachev, Mikhail 62, 70, 73-4 limitations of 38-44 Gordon-Walker, Patrick II 0 in London 36-7 Gore-Booth, Paul I7 and nonrecognition 49-50 Greece I9, 72 origins of 33-6 and Turkey 67, 96, 98 and protecting powers 32-3 Gronouski,John A. 86, 87 spread of 36-8 guarantees I5, 22, 30 intermediaries see mediation and biased mediation 25 International Committee of the Red Guatemala, breach of relations of with Cross I8, 32 Britain 40, 46 international organisations Guinea, breach of relations of with diplomatic corps of 94-8 Britain 9, 36 in origins ofjoint commissions 118 Gulf War (I990-l) 8, 27, 42, 59, 66, internuncios 55 I04-5, I27 Iran and Britain 8, 35, 37, 39-40, 42, 72-3, Haiti, and United States II4 98 Hammer, Armand I7-18, 69 and Senegal I39 n. 7 Harriman, Averell 69 US consulates in 44, 49 Heath, Edward 27 .>ee also Iran-Contra affair; Iran Heim, Archbishop Bruno 56 hostages negotiations; Iran-Iraq Henderson, Loy 80 War; Iran-US Claims Tribunal Hindawi, Nezar 8 Iran-Contra affair xiii, 103, 114, 116, Hirohito, Emperor, funeral of 63-4, 71, ll7 74 see nL~o Iran-US Claims Tribunal Holt, Harold, memorial service for 6I Iran hostages negotiations Hoover, Herbert C., funeral of 64 Algerian mediation in I4, I5, 20, 25 Hopkins, Harry ll4 and Kreisky 20 hostages xiii, I4, I08 and Switzerland 35 and Iran-US Claims Tribunaii25--6, I27 venue of I4 hot line xv .>ee also Iran-US Claims Tribunal House, Colonel 114 Iran-Iraq War II, 28 Huang Chen 89, 99 Iran-US Claims Tribunal II7, I23-7 Huang Hua 67, 73, 89, 90, 96 Iraq Hurd, Douglas xiii, 8, 59 and breaks in diplomatic relations (I99I) 8 IAEA 97 and Britain 8, 37, 40 Ibn Saud, King, funeral of I 58 n. 43 and Kuwait 97 Iceland, 'Cod War' of with Britain II, as protecting power 37 37,40,95-6 and Saudi Arabia I 58 n. 43 174 Index

Iraq ami. Kenya 51 and USA 42, 43 Khalid, King, funeral of 72 see also Gulf War; Iran-Iraq War Khan, Yahya 30 Islamic Conference Organisation 9 Khomeini, Ayatollah, funeral of 72-3 Israel Kissinger, Henry A. 115 and Egypt 8, 105, 117, 127-8 China diplomacy of 15, 31, 52, 70, and Germany 36 87-90,96,99,104,105,107 and Hammer 18 at de Gaulle's funeral 70 and interests sections 37 on Kreisky 20 and Nigeria 63 Middle East diplomacy of 24, 29, 107 and South Africa 46 on Sino-US ambassadorial talks 90-1 and Soviet Union 49, 78 Vietnam diplomacy of 56-7, 61, 88 and Spain 44 Korean War 11, 79, 80, 82 special envoys of 103, 104, 114 Kreisky, Dr Bruno 20 and trade missions 54 Kuwait 37, 97 and UN 6 and Vatican 21, 117 language, problem of in diplomacy 99 Italy 40 Laos and Mozambique 16, 123 Geneva Conference on (1961) 86,92 Ivory Coast 51, 107 and USA 58 Lardone, Francesco 159 n. 12 Japan Lebanon xiii, 28, 37, 108, 125-6 enthronement of Emperor Akihito Libya of 59 and Australia 139 n. 9 funeral of Emperor Hirohito of 63-4, and Britain 8, 37, 40, 41 71 and Egypt 103 and South Mrica 46 and hostages xiii and USA 107 and South Yemen 139 n. 8 Jarring, Gunnar 28 and USA 138 n. 6 Jenkins, Alfred 86, 87 Lonhro 16 Jenkins, Roy 118 Lord, Winston 58 Jessup, Philip ll4 John Paul II 56 Madrid Conference (1991) 16 and Beagle Channel dispute 21 Malawi 51 Johnson, U. Alexis 82, 83, 84, 93, Mali, breach of relations of with App.4 Britain 9, 36 joint commissions Mangard, Nils 124 definition of 117, 119 Mauritania and divided countries 119-20 and Algeria 70 major examples of 120-8 breach of relations of with Britain 9, origins of 118 36 theory of 118-19 McCain, Senator John 57 Jordan 37, 59, 66, 158 n. 43 mediation journalists 53 concept of 13-17 June War (I967) 10, 37, 43,44 and continuity 22 and diplomatic corps 9 Kampuchea seeCambodia and 'distinguished statesmen' 26-8 Karma!, Babrak 68 drawbacks of 30-1, 43-4, 145 Kashmir, mediation in 19 extent of 13 Katanga 6 and impartiality 21, 22-5 Kennedy, John F. and influence 21-2 and Communist China 86 motives prompting undertaking of task funeral of 61, 65, 69 of 17,109 Kennedy, Robert 26 multiple 15-16, 29-30 Index 175

propitious circumstances for 28-30 nonverbal communication xiv-xv see also Commonealth Peace Mission; in funeral diplomacy 71-4 joint commissions; protecting Noobari, Ali Hyrani 126 power North Atlantic Cooperation Council 96 Mexico North, Colonel Oliver 116, 117 Estrada Doctrine of 2, 7 North Korea and USA 118 and South Korea (joint microstates 5 commissions) 17, 119-20, 128 Mitsotakis, Constantine 67 and UN 5, 96 Mondale, Walter 20 US talks with in Beijing 77 Mongolia, and United States 78 see also Korean War (1933) 2, 5 North Vietnam see Vietnam, Socialist Morocco 51, 105, 107 Republic of Mount Eyo Declaration (1990) 120, 122 Norway 37, 46 Mozambique nuncios 54, 75 and Britain 62, 63, 123 Nyerere,Julius 35-6 joint commissions in 123 mediation in civil war in 16, 30 OAU 51, 95, 123 and South Mrica 12, 51, 54, 123 see also Rhodesia (Southern) and USA 123 OECD 9 Mubarak, Hosni 72 Owen, David 13, 17 multiple accreditation 9, 95 Ozal, Turgut 98 multiple mediation 15-16, 29-30 funeral of 66-7

Namibia 28,51 Pakistan 37 independence celebrations of 59 and Britain 62 see alsoAngola/Namibia diplomacy and Kashmir 19 Nasser, President Carnal Abdel 158 n. 43 mediation of in Sino-US funeral of 65, 66, 69, 70 rapprochement 15, 17, 30, 89 NATO 72 and Soviet Union 62, 67-8, 73 and Cyprus 18-19 Palme, Olof 28 diplomatic corps of 95-6, 98 Panmunjom talks 80, 82 Netherlands 26, 86, 124 Panikkar, K. M. 79-80 neutral states 28 pariah states and special envoys 107 see also Austria; Sweden; Switzerland see alw Israel; South Mrica; Taiwan neutral venues 14, 19, 85, 104-5 Paris Peace Accords (1973) 47,56-7,61 see alw Iran-US Claims Tribunal (The Pearson, Lester 152 n. 40 Hague) permanent neutrals see Austria; New Zealand 46 Switzerland Nguyen Co Thach 57 personal envoys 113--14, 115, 116 Nigeria 109 see also special envoys; Walters, General and Britain 44 Vernon A. and Israel 63 Pi co, Giandomenico 28 Nimrodi, Ya'acov 114, 115 Pius XII 55 Nixon, Richard M. 69, 108, 115 PLO 20, 69, 107, 108, 114 and Communist China 27, 30, 51-2, see also Arafat, Yasser 87-90, 105-6 Poland 17, 117 and de Gaulle 61 see also diplomatic corps (Warsaw) and Pompidou 62-3 Pol Pot see Cambodia and Tito 66, 70 POW/MIA Mfairs, US Office for Nkrumah, Kwamc 110-11 (Hanoi) 56-8 nonrecognition 1, 2-7 POW/MIA question 106 and consulates 47-8, 52 see also POW/MIA Mfairs, US Office and representative offices 49-50 for (Hanoi) 176 Index private envoys 113, 114, 115 consulates of 46 Jee also special envoys 'homeland' states of 6 pronuncios 54, 55, 75 isolation of 8, 46, 115-16 propaganda xiv, 9 representative offices of 50-1 use of specials envoys for purposes and Soviet Union 38, 122 of 105-7, 114 special envoys of 103, 114, 115-16 protecting power trade missions of 51, 54 Austria as 20, 33, 38, 122 and USA 20 drawbacks of usc of 33-4 see also e.ljJecially Angola/Namibia and interests sections 35-44 diplomacy; and under other sefmrate and nonrecognition •1, 49, 81 enl1ies origins of institution of 32-3 South Korea Sweden as 33, 35, 39-40 and.Japan 71 Switzerland as 20, 33-44fmssim and N. Korea (joint trilateral agreements establishing 32, commissions) 117, 119-20, 128 35 and UN 5, 96 and USA 92 Reagan, Ronald 66 see alm Korean War recognition .mr. nonrecognition South Vietnam 6, 47, 96, 110 RENAMO 16, 123 see alm Vietnam, Socialist Republic of; representative function 43 Vietnam War representative offices 49-52 South Yemen 139 n. 8 compared with diplomatic fronts Soviet Union 52-3 and Angola/Namibia diplomacy 22, Rhodesia (Southern) 119-22 fmssim and Britain 8, 9, 12, 35-6, 46-7, 110 and British attempt to mediate in and OAU 8, 36 Vietnam War 109, 110 and South Africa 46 funerals of leaders of 61-74fJltssim and UN 6, 96 and Hammer 17-18 Rhoodie, Esche! 115-16 and Kashmir 19 Rijov, Nikita 159 n. 12 and United States xv, 17-18 Robertson, Walter 84-5 and Vatican 78 Romania 15-16, 17 sr.e alm under sefmrate entries Rowland, Tiny 16 Spain 7, 62 calls for severing relations with Sadat, Anwar 24-5, 27 (1946) 150 n. 15 Sant Egidio, Community of 16 and Israel 44 SAR&H (Maputo), Office of 52 as protecting power 33, 39, 43-4 Sasson, Elias 104 Spanish Protocol 39 Saudi Arabia 37 special envoys xiv and Britain 10 advantages of 102-3 and Egypt 72, 158 n. 43 definition of 101 and France 10 Harold Davies as 48, 109-12 funeral of King 1bn Saud of 158 n. 43 personal, private, and official funeral of King Khalid of 72 distinguished 113-16 Savimbi,Jonas 6 sent publicly 105-7, ll4 secrecy and special envoys 103-5 sent secretly 103-5, 106, 111-12, Senegal 139 n. 7 115 Smith, lan 36, 61-2 US practice in regard to 113 Smith, Wayne 43-4 van Heerden as 122 Sofaer, Abraham 126, 127 Winston Lord as 58 South Africa 27, 107 see alm Walters, General Vernon A. and Britain 120 Stalin,Joseph, funeral of 60, 68, 70, and Communist China 104 71-2 Index 177 state funerals 64 and West 66-7 step-by-step diplomacy 29, 49 Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Stoessel, Walter 87-8 and Britain 4, 50 Stoltenberg, Thorvald 28 representative offices of 50 Sudan, breach of relations of with and UN 6, 96 Britain 36, 37 Suez War (1956) 10,53 UDI see Rhodesia (Southern) Sullivan, William 49 Uganda and Britain 5 summit diplomacy 27, 65, 101, 106 United Nations see alm funeral diplomacy diplomatic corps of 4, 78, 80, 94-8 SWAPO 98, 120, 122 jmssim Sweden 28,83, 124,125 European offices of 19 as protecting power 33, 35, 39-40, and Franco Spain 150 n. 15 42 mediation by 16-17, 21-8 passim Switzerland 86 and Mozambique 123 motives of as mediator 19-20 and recognition 2, 6 as protecting power 20, 33-44 passim see also under separate entries Syria 158 n. 43 United States xiii and Britain 8, 37, 40 interests sections of 37, 38-44 passim, and hostages xiii 46 and joint commissions 118 Taiwan as protecting power 33-4, 36 British consular offices in 47 recognition policy of 2, 5, 6, 7 and Canada 53-4 and Spain 39, 43, 44 Sino-US tensions over 83, 85, 92, 93 and UN diplomatic corps 80, 96, 98 trade missions of 53-4 and Waldheim 20 and UN 7, 80, 81, 89-90 see also esjJecially Angola/ Namibia and USA 4,49-50,81,92,93,146 diplomacy; Arab-Israeli conflict; and Vatican diplomatic corps 78 Iran hostages negotiations; Tanzania, breach of relations of with Iran-US Claims Tribunal; mul Britain 35-7 jmssim under other separate entries Tashkent Conference ( 1966) 19 UNTAG 148 telecommunications xiv, xv, 85 US-Mexico Binational Commission 118 te Water, Charles 114, 115 Thatcher, Margaret 27 Vance, Cyrus 13, 17,26, 27,28 funeral diplomacy of 62, 63, 68-9, 70, van den Bergh, General H.J. 103, 114 72 van Heerden, Neil 122 and Ozal 67 Vatican and south-western Africa 120 and Britain 54-6 third parties .,ee mediation diplomatic corps of 78 Thomson, James C. 86-7 diplomats of 54-6, 75 Tito, President mediation by (Beagle Channel) 21 funeral of 61, 68-9 'Ostpolitik' of 78 and Nasser's funeral 66, 70 and USA 55, 56 Touval, Saadia 17,21-2, 23-4 venue 14, 19 Tower Commission Report 103, 116 see also neutral venues trade missions 53-4 Vessey, GeneralJohn 106 Trevelyan, Humphrey 81, 82,90 Vienna 19, 20 trilateral agreements (on protecting Vienna Convention on Consular powers) 32, 35 Relations (1963) 44, 45 Turkey 33, 78 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic and Cyprus problem 19, 149 n. 6 Relations (1961) and Greece 67, 96, 98 and agrement 40 and Soviet Union 60, 70, 71-2 and breaks in diplomatic relations 9, 34 178 Index

Vienna Convention ami. Walters, General Vernon A. 88, 89, 90, and consuls 45 99, 107, 108, 114 and interests sections 38, 39 Wang Kuo-chuan 86 and new states 9 Wang Ping-nan 82-6fH~~im and fJersmut non grata 40 Warsaw, Sino-US ambassadorial talks and protecting powers 33, 34 in 84-8,89,92,99 Vietnam, Socialist Republic of West Germany .fee Germany and Britain 17, 47, 48, 53, 109-12 West New Guinea dispute 26 and Cambodia 57, 58, 106 Wilson, Harold and India 78 and de Gaulle 61 and UN 5, 96 and funeral diplomacy 60 and USA 46, 52, 56-8, 61, 77, 96, 104, see alm Commonwealth Peace Mission; 106 Rhodesia (Southern) see also Vietnam War 'working funeral', invention of Vietnam War 11, 89 term 60-1 British attempts at mediation in 17, see alm funeral diplomacy 47,48,53,109-12 see alm POW/MIA Affairs ... ; POWI Yom Kippur War (1973) 18, 24, 29, 37 MIA question Vorster, B.J. 20, 103 Zaire 51 Zambia 51, 114-15 Waite, Terry xiii, 101, 127 Zia ui-Haq, General 62, 67-8, 70 Waldheim, Dr Kurt 20, 28 Zimbabwe 16, 51