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State-Sponsored Violence in the Soviet Union: Skeletal Trauma and Burial Organization in a Post-World War Ii Lithuanian Sample

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State-Sponsored Violence in the Soviet Union: Skeletal Trauma and Burial Organization in a Post-World War Ii Lithuanian Sample STATE-SPONSORED VIOLENCE IN THE SOVIET UNION: SKELETAL TRAUMA AND BURIAL ORGANIZATION IN A POST-WORLD WAR II LITHUANIAN SAMPLE By Catherine Elizabeth Bird A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Anthropology- Doctor of Philosophy 2013 ABSTRACT STATE-SPONSORED VIOLENCE IN THE SOVIET UNION: SKELETAL TRAUMA AND BURIAL ORGANIZATION IN A POST WORLD WAR II LITHUANIAN SAMPLE By Catherine Elizabeth Bird The Stalinist period represented one of the worst eras of human rights abuse in the Soviet Union. This dissertation investigates both the victims and perpetrators of violence in the Soviet Union during the Stalinist period through a site specific and regional evaluation of burial treatment and perimortem trauma. Specifically, it compares burial treatment and perimortem trauma in a sample (n = 155) of prisoners executed in the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (L.S.S.R.) by the Soviet security apparatus from 1944 to 1947, known as the Tuskulenai case. Skeletal and mortuary variables are compared both over time and between security personnel in the Tuskulenai case. However, the Tuskulenai case does not represent an isolated event. Numerous other sites of state-sponsored violence are well known. In order to understand the temporal and geographical distribution of Soviet violence, this study subsequently compares burial treatment and perimortem trauma observed in the Tuskulenai case to data published in site reports for three other cases of Soviet state-sponsored violence (Vinnytsia, Katyn, and Rainiai). This dissertation discusses state-sponsored violence in the Soviet Union in the context of social and political theory advocated by Max Weber and within a principal-agent framework. Historical data characterizes the Soviet security apparatus as an efficient bureaucracy, which specialized in the identification, detention, and punishment of enemies throughout the Soviet Republics. In particular, Soviet authorities mandated that the only legitimate means of execution was by fusillade, or gunshot to the back of the head. While historical data has largely focused on state officials who organized violence, less attention has been given to agents who actually performed violence in the name of the state. Evaluation of archaeological data and skeletal trauma permits researchers not only to study the death experiences of victims, but also to investigate the behavior and motivation of violence workers. Results of mortuary analyses in the Tuskulenai case demonstrate that burial treatment did not significantly differ over time or between execution squads. However, comparison of skeletal variables reveals that the number of gunshot wounds decreased over time and between security personnel, while non-gunshot mechanisms increased and compliance with the state standard for execution decreased. Finally, comparison of mortuary variables among the four Soviet cases of violence reveals that burial treatment was relatively consistent across all cases, while perimortem injuries were consistent between the Vinnytsia and Katyn cases, but significantly varied at Tuskulenai and Rainiai. Furthermore, the Rainiai case demonstrated the greatest difference in perimortem wounds and compliance with state standards. In conclusion, non-compliance with the state standard for execution (i.e. the improvisation of violence) in the Tuskulenai and Rainiai cases is attributed to a number of factors, including exogenous threats, the training of state agents, materialism, prisoner compliance, sadism, and desensitization to violence. This dissertation demonstrates that while violence may be ordered at the top by state leaders, the implementation of violence relies on the discretion of individual agents. As data from additional sites become available, it is hoped they can be included in both a regional and global index of state-sponsored violence during the twentieth century. Copyright by CATHERINE ELIZABETH BIRD 2013 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the Directors, researchers, and employees at the Tuskulenai Memorial Complex, Genocide Research Center, Forensic Medicine Service, Faculty of Medicine, and KGB Museum in Vilnius, Lithuania. Representatives from these organizations not only provided material support during my research in Lithuania, but also bestowed historical expertise for me to undertake this study. Specifically, I would like to recognize Dovilė Lauraitienė, Remigijus Cernius, Eugenis Peikstenis, and Dr. Rimantas Jankauskas who are dedicated to investigating repressive regimes and advocating on behalf of victims. For their generous funding of predissertation and dissertation research, I would like to thank the following sources at Michigan State University: Department of Anthropology, International Studies Program, Graduate School, College of Social Science, and Fulbright Programs. I also wish to thank the Ellis R. Kerley Forensic Sciences Foundation and the Philanthropic Educational Organization (P.E.O.) for their financial support during my graduate studies. My dissertation committee, which includes Drs. Norman J. Sauer, Todd Fenton, Masako Fujita, Robert Hitchcock, Rimantas Jankauskas, and Elizabeth Drexler, has been a guiding rod for this research. It is a privilege to have worked so closely with distinguished academics who provide unique perspectives on skeletal biology, trauma, violence, human rights, and the state. I would like to express my profound gratitude to Dr. Norman Sauer, the Chair of my dissertation committee, who accepted me as one of his last students despite the additional time and energy it required. You have served as a sagacious role model and I am grateful to be part of the Sauer academic pedigree. v I am lucky to have been surrounded by caring and helpful colleagues during my graduate education. A number of graduate students provided invaluable guidance and friendship, including Angela Soler, Carolyn Hurst, Jared Beatrice, Liz Devisser, Julie Fleischman, and Jen Vollner. I would also like to thank students at Vilnius University, who offered assistance, expertise, and friendship during my dissertation research, including Justina Kozakaite, Sarunas Jatautis, and Vaidotas Suncovas. I largely owe my achievements in graduate school (and life!) to my family. My father, Patrick, who can tackle any problem given enough duct tape, taught me that tenacity pays off. My brother, Jason, not only blazed a trail in academia but has eagerly supported me around every life hurdle. And my mother, Joan, instilled in me the love of traveling, reading, and writing at a very young age. I am proud to call you my paramount inspirations and my best friends. Finally, I must thank my cats, Devotchka Loquacious Pooper, Ingmar Rufus Bergman, and Newt Salander. My furry friends listened to countless versions of my manuscript, created numerous computer mishaps, and provided endless hours of distraction from my dissertation. I love you guys. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xvi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 State-Sponsored Violence in the Soviet Union 1 Cases of Soviet Violence 3 Research Goals 5 Outline of the Dissertation 7 CHAPTER 2: ANTHROPOLOGY, VIOLENCE, & THE STATE 9 Anthropological Approaches to Violence 9 Bioarchaeological Approaches to Violence 10 Forensic Anthropological Approaches to Violence 15 Skeletal Indicators of Violence 18 State-Sponsored Violence 31 Bureaucracy of Violence 31 Principals and Agents of State Violence 34 CHAPTER 3: THE SOVIET UNION DURING THE 20TH CENTURY 39 The Soviet Security Apparatus 39 Transformation of the Security Apparatus (1934-1953) 40 Operation of the Security Apparatus 48 Occupied Lithuania (1940-1991) 53 Tuskulenai Case 58 Other Cases of State-Sponsored Violence in the Soviet Union 65 Vinnytsia Case, Ukraine 66 Katyn Case, Russia 69 Rainiai Case, Lithuania 74 Summary 76 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH QUESTIONS & EXPECTATIONS 77 Research Questions 77 Research Hypotheses and Expectations 78 Hypothesis 1a 78 Hypothesis 1b 80 Hypothesis 2 82 Summary 84 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH MATERIALS & METHODS 86 Research Materials 86 Tuskulenai Case 86 Other Cases of Soviet Violence 93 Research Methods 94 vii Skeletal Analyses 94 Mortuary Analyses 102 Descriptive and Statistical Analyses 105 Summary 106 CHAPTER 6: TUSKULENAI MORTUARY RESULTS 107 Mortuary Results in the Tuskulenai Case 108 Mortuary Results over Time 113 Summary of Mortuary Variables over Time 122 Mortuary Results between Execution Squads 123 Summary of Mortuary Variables between Execution Squads 129 Summary 130 CHAPTER 7: TUSKULENAI OSTEOLOGY RESULTS 132 Skeletal Results in the Tuskulenai Case 133 Demography 134 Perimortem Trauma 138 Summary of Demography & Trauma in the Tuskulenai Case 158 Skeletal Results Over Time 160 Summary of Perimortem Trauma over Time 179 Skeletal Results between Execution Squads 183 Summary of Perimortem Trauma between Execution Squads 193 Comparison of Time versus Execution Squad 196 Summary 198 CHAPTER 8: COMPARISON OF CASES OF SOVIET VIOLENCE 200 Vinnytsia Case 201 Interment Sites and Mortuary Variables 202 Skeletal Variables 207 Summary of the Vinnytsia Case 213 Katyn Case 214 Interment Sites and Mortuary Variables 216 Skeletal Variables 220 Summary of the Katyn Case 223 Rainiai Case 224 Interment Sites and Mortuary Variables 225 Skeletal Variables 226 Summary of the Rainiai Case 233 Integrated Analysis 234 Mortuary Variables 235 Skeletal Variables 238 Summary of the Integrated Analysis 253 Summary 256 CHAPTER 9: QUADRILATERAL DEFECTS 259 Materials and Methods
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