University of Klaipėda Lithuanian Institute Of

UNIVERSITY OF KLAIP ĖDA LITHUANIAN INSTITUTE OF HISTORY

ROMAN ŠIROUCHOV

CONTACTS BETWEEN PRUSSIANS AND CURONIANS IN THE 11 TH – EARLY 13 TH CENTURIES, ACCORDING TO THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA

Summary of doctoral dissertation Humanities, history (05 H)

Klaip ėda 2012

The dissertation was prepared at Klaip ėda University during 2007-2011

Scientific supervisor: prof. habil. dr. Vladas Žulkus (Klaip ėda University, Humanities, History – 05 H)

The evaluation of the dissertation and the public defence will be carried out by the University of Klaip ėda and the Lithuanian Institute of History appointed Scientific Committee for History:

Chairman:

Prof. habil. dr. Algirdas Girininkas (Klaip ėda University, Humanities, History – 05 H)

Members:

Dr. Eugenijus Jovaiša (Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, Humanities, History – 05 H); Dr. Vykintas Vaitkevi čius (Klaip ėda University, Humanities, History – 05 H); Prof. dr. Ilona Vaškevi čiūtė (Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, Humanities, History – 05 H); Doc. dr. Gintautas Zabiela (Klaip ėda University, Humanities, History – 05 H)

Opponents:

Prof. dr. Albinas Kuncevi čius (Vilnius university, Humanities, History – 05 H) Doc. dr. Valdemaras Šim ėnas (The Lithuanian Institute of History, Humanities, History – 05 H)

The public defence of dissertation is announced to take place on the 16 th of November, 2012 at 13:00 in the Senat Hall of the University of Klaip ėda. Address: Herkaus Manto Street 84, LT-92294, Klaip ėda, Lithuania.

The summary of doctoral dissertation was dispatched on October 16 th , 2012.

The dissertation is publicly available at the libraries of the University of Klaip ėda and the Lithuanian Institute of History.

KLAIP ĖDOS UNIVERSITETAS LIETUVOS ISTORIJOS INSTITUTAS

ROMAN ŠIROUCHOV

PR ŪSŲ IR KURŠI Ų KONTAKTAI XI – XIII A. PRADŽIOJE ARCHEOLOGIJOS DUOMENIMIS

Daktaro disertacijos santrauka Humanitariniai mokslai, istorija (05 H) Vilnius

Klaip ėda 2012

Disertacija rengta 2007-2011 metais Klaip ėdos universitete

Mokslinis vadovas:

Prof. habil. dr. Vladas Žulkus (Klaip ėdos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H)

Disertacija ginama Klaip ėdos universiteto ir Lietuvos istorijos instituto istorijos mokslo krypties taryboje:

Pirmininkas:

Prof. habil. dr. Algirdas Girininkas (Klaip ėdos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H)

Nariai:

Dr. Eugenijus Jovaiša (Lietuvos edukologijos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H); Dr. Vykintas Vaitkevi čius (Klaip ėdos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H); Prof. dr. Ilona Vaškevi čiūtė (Lietuvos edukologijos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H); Doc. dr. Gintautas Zabiela (Klaip ėdos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H)

Oponentai:

Prof. dr. Albinas Kuncevi čius (Vilniaus universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H); Doc. dr. Valdemaras Šim ėnas (Lietuvos istorijos institutas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H).

Disertacija bus ginama viešame Istorijos mokslo krypties tarybos pos ėdyje 2012 m. lapkri čio 16 d., 13 val. Klaip ėdos universiteto Senato sal ėje. Adresas: Herkaus Manto g. 84, LT–92294, Klaip ėda, Lietuva.

Disertacijos santrauka išsiuntin ėta 2012 m. spalio 16 d.

Disertacij ą galima perži ūrėti Klaip ėdos universiteto ir Lietuvos istorijos instituto bibliotekose.

Introduction

This dissertation is the first comparative study of the post- Viking age Prussian and Curonian material culture. The very problem of the contacts between Prussians and Curonians in the 11 th – beginning of the 13 th centuries is rooted in the discussion of the Lithuanian ar- chaeologists and their colleagues in Kaliningrad region of the strong impact of Curonian culture on Prussians in the 10 th – 12-13 th centuries. Thus, the relations between Prussians and Curonians have been strongly overestimated for many years, despite the lack of sufficient quantity of material evidences. The actual study is a chance not only to answer this and other questions related to the problems of trans- regional contacts in the area of South-Eastern Baltic, but to compare the statistical data of Prussian and Curonian ornaments, arms, horse harness, ceramics, different tools and imported goods with some general features of burial rite, cemeteries based on social structure, trade routes; and to clarify the chronology and typology of the grave goods itself.

The goals of dissertation

- Determination of the character and intensity of trans-regional and trans-tribal contacts between Prussians and Curonians on the basis of the study of materials from cemeteries and settlements of the 11 th - 13 th centuries - Comparison of the features of burial rite and the social structure

5 - Review of the distribution and redistributions of imports and innovations in the region - Investigation of the possible areas of direct or mediator inter- actions of considered cultures And finally, revision of the tendencies and opinions on the mentioned questions that existed before.

The main objectives of dissertation Are the following: - Comparative and comprehensive analysis of the main types of ornaments, tools and imported goods common both to Prussians and Curonians during the 10/11 th -13 th centuries - Artefacts peculiar only for Prussians or Curonians in the 10/11 th -13 th centuries comparative analysis - Comparative study of Prussian and Curonian burial rites of the 11 th -13 th centuries: “collective” cremation graves, graves with arms and horse harness, supposed mail graves with some of female artefacts etc. - The question of probable Curonian warrior-horsemen and female cremation graves in the area of northern Prussians - Review of the main possible routes of trade and communication between Prussians and Curonians in the late 10th -early 13 th centuries together with special focus on the Curonian Spit as the possible area of direct cultural transaction of two cultures.

6 Chronology and characteristic of the period

Main chronological interval of study generally corresponds to N. Blomkvist‘s “long 12 th century” (1075–1225), which reflects the events of transition from “Viking to Crusades” in Western Balts area. Although artifacts and some burial rite features of the earlier (9th –10 th c.) and later (13 th –14/15 th c.) periods served to show the development of certain forms and continuity of material and spiritual Prussian and Curonians cultures. Archeologically this time interval complies to the Engel-Heym-Hoffmann “H” period and more common “late Iron Age” or “Early Medieval” periods in the East Baltic region. The startup point for this chronology was assumed for two main reasons as: - Prussian graves of the 9 th -10 th centuries are extremely rare and badly investigated. - Most of the 11 th century Southern Curonian graves are already cremations. This makes Curonian artefacts, burial rite and social structure more comparable with the Prussians’ ones. The upper limits of the investigated period are framed by Ger- man colonisation and the beginning of the process of “Europeanisa- tion”, which changed the Western Balts way of life during the 13 th century. The decline of the transit trade with Scandinavia, the home of newly formed feudal kingdoms, fixed by sudden decrease of Scandina- vian imports from the beginning of the 11 th century within the entire area of research, had a greater influence on Southern Curonian economy and culture having isolated them from the outer world. Although Prussians

7 and Curonians were either kept in sight of Danish and Sweden political ambitions up to the beginning of the 13 th century. Unless Curonians, Prussian tribes were more deeply involved in such a political event of the European history of the 11 th -13 th centuries as a historical long term processes of feudal division of Poland in the second third of the of the 11 th – beginning of the 13 th c., and indirectly – in the feudal division of Russia of the same period. If the relations with Russian principalities are fixed for Prussians only by extremely increasing number of Eastern imported goods, the neighbouring with Poland – in trade and war, had gradually changed the social, economical and political life rather from the outside as from inside of the Prussian society. This quotation is to explain. the difference of historical circum- stances, which have had the certain impact and had led to some changes, and differences in development of Prussian and Curonian cultures from the beginning of the 11 th century. These and other suspected historical contexts are richly supplied and illustrated here with appropriate archaeological data.

Territory of the study

The main territory of research includes the Northern Prussia: Sambian peninsula, Pregel, Deima and Frisching (Prochladnaja) downstream areas (Sambian-Natangian group) and Southern Curonian lands of Pilsotas, M ėguva and Ceklis. This area was selected due to the fact that both the historical land of Sambia and today’s Klaipeda (Pilsoto) district are recognized for the 11 th -13 th centuries to be Prussian and

8 Curonian economic, administrative and cultural centers. The main source of this investigation, cemeteries and less numerous settlements of the period are concentrated and better explored exactly within this area. In addition Sambia’s and South Curonia’s close geographical situation, such as similarities in their landscape and climate, had to create similar social and economic background. Despite the fact, that this study highlights particularly coastal areas, materials from Prussian and Curonian “hinterland” are generally included too. So, the analysis of ornaments, arms and imported good from neighbouring areas of Nadrovians, Scalvians, as well as that of Semigallians, Samogitians, Jotvingians, together with Central Lithuania and Gotland is accompa- nying corresponding chapters of the present dissertation.

Sources of the study

During investigation of the problem of the contacts between Prussians and Curonians a wide range of different sources was used. The main source of study is the archaeological data of more than 150 Prussian and Curonian monuments as well as those of their closest neighbors dated by the 10/11 th –13th centuries, mainly – cemeteries (130). The data of over 30 archeological monuments was used as a basis of study, meaning both artefacts from the sites themself, archaeological reports and broad circle of publications with the archival material were used to illustrate the objectives of dissertation. In addition 12 cemeteries of the 13 th –15 th centuries data was used to see the analogies and possible parallels with the later periods.

9 Archival data of pre-war Prussian, Curonian and Scalvians materials of former “Prussia” museum, stored in the museums of Berlin, Kaliningrad, Olsztyn and Schleswig, as well as new archaeological collections of museums of Kaliningrad, Klaip ėda, Riga, Vilnius etc. are extensively used in the study. Considering certain historical events, character of burial rite, social structure and other the 11 th -13 th centuries features in the light of archaeology it is used a wide range of written sources, mainly those German, Polish, Danish and other chronicles and early historical works, that covered the period of the 11 th -14 th centuries: from “Deeds of Bish- ops of the Hamburg Church” of Adam from Bremen down to the “The Prussian Chronicle” of Peter of Dusburg.

Novelty of the study

This dissertation shows the very first example of detailed comparative analysis of the artefacts, chronology and typology, burial rite, certain questions of economical development and social structure of the pre-selected Baltic tribes – Prussians and Curonians. For the first time the data of newly investigated Prussian cemeteries of the 11 th -12/13 th centuries involved into statistical analysis and compared with pre-war and 1950-1990-s investigated archaeological materials. For the first time since J. Hoffmann’s 1941 monograph archival and newly investigated data of the 11 th -13 th centuries ornaments, tools

10 and goods of import and trade of the southern Curonians have been studied together in a context of Curonian and neighbouring cultures. Selection of the archaeological and written sources, both with archival and newly published data, is also quite unique considering the questions of the 11 th -13 th Western Balts micro-regional history. This study is the first one to make most of them available for a broad circle of researches. It is also important, that this dissertation continues the long for- gotten tradition of comparative studies of the Western Balts archaeology established in the University of Königsberg in 1920-30-s by works of W. Gaerte, C. Engel and W. La. Baume.

Methods used in the study

The main methods used to solve problems stated in the dissertation are descriptive, analytical and comparative . Such methods as analysis and synthesis were used during comparative analysis of the archaeological data, burial rite and social structure of Prussians and Curonians in the 11 th -13 th centuries. Typological, systematic and chronological approaches were used in order to date the archaeological finds as accurate as possible, to clarify the typology, and to determine the origin of certain type of artifacts in a context of Prussian and Curonian 11 th -13 th material culture. Statistical method was used in a context of comparative analysis of the Prussian and Curonian artifacts, features of the burial rite and social structure. In addition, to refine the distribution of certain groups of artifacts and their relation to each other

11 in Prussian and Curonian areas, were used other traditional archaeological methods as mapping and cataloging of finds.

Structure of the dissertation

Structurally the dissertation consists of an introduction that re- veal the basic tasks as chronology and methodology, as well as a brief review of the Prussian and Curonian Late Iron Age monuments research and historiography. Dissertation itself consists from three main parts, each of them is also divided into several sections: I. Main types of ornaments, tools, arms and imported goods in Prussian and Curonian areas in the 11 th -13 th centuries. II. Comparative analysis of the major Prussian and Curonian 11 th -13 th centuries burial rite forms: - Prussian and Curonian graves with horse burials and horse harness, - Prussian “Aschenplätze” and Curonian “collective” and symbolical cremation graves, - Prussian and Curonian female graves. The question of Curonian female graves on the territory of Prussians; - Prussian and Curonian male cremation graves with spindle- whorls and miniature weaving tools, - Prussian inhumation graves of the boarder of the 12 th -13 th centuries in a context of the changes in the Western Balts burial practices in the 13 th century.

12 III. Trading centers and routes of spread of imports and innovations in area of Prussians and Curonians in the 11 th -13 th centuries: - The role of Curonian Spit as the possible area of direct cultural transaction of Prussian and Curonian cultures, - Key Prussian and Curonian trade routes and centres in the 11 th -13 th centuries, - The question of trade relations between Prussians and Curonians.

I. Main types of ornaments, tools, arms and imported goods in Prussian and Curonian areas in the 11 th -13 th centuries

I.1. Ornaments I.1.1. Crossbow brooches with a poppy seed-shaped terminals

This kind of latest crossbow fibulas, recognized as one of the brightest indicators of Curonian culture in the 9 th -11 th centuries is known by quite inconsiderable number in the area of Prussians. Particu- larly on the territory of Scandinavian-influenced international cemeteries and supposed settlements of Kaup-Wiskiauten and Linkuhnen, where they occurred in the 10 th -11 th centuries as imports from South Curonian shores.

13 I.1.2. Penannular brooches

General types of penannular brooches of the 11 th – beginning of the 13 th centuries found in the territory of Prussian and Curonians are similar. They differ in diversity and number of occurred artefacts of certain types in area of Prussians and Curonians. Almost all types of penannular brooches of the mentioned period are more spread and di- versified in the South Curonian area, where they were found about 10 times more often. The brooches with star-shaped terminals of the I type were found in amount over 40 (!) times more than in Prussian area. Unlike Curonians Prussians prefered more unified types of brooches, as those of II.2 type brooches with connected star-shaped terminals and similar ring brooches with ribbed bow – the only kind of brooches occurred almost on each of the 11 th -12/13 th centuries sites in Northern Prussia, and approximately 10 time as much as in whole Curonia. To- day we know about 250 exemplars of brooches of both types in Kalin- ingrad region. That is comparable only with Curonian penannular brooches with poppy-seed terminals, 610 units found, which are 10 times more frequent than in Prussia. It should be noticed, that before this study II.2 type penannular brooches with connected star-shaped terminals and III type ring brooches were considered as Curonian imports in Prussia. Some other types of penannular brooches alike those ones, but with zoomorphic terminals are also quite popular in Prussian area, being occurred only 2 times less than in Southern Curonian area. In further comparative studies of Western Balts ornaments the attention should be paid to the different local patterns and forms of fibulas.

14 I.1.3. Flat brooches

Flat round-shaped and cross-shaped brooches of the 11 th -13 th centuries are evenly spread over areas of Northern Prussia and South Curonia, with focus on local subtypes as cross-shaped fibulas of II.2 type for Prussians and the same of III.1 type – for Curonians.

I.1.4. V type flat ladder brooches V type Curonian flat ladder brooches also occurred in Prussian area, known today in 7 exemplars. The number and context of such finds in Sambian peninsula allows us to speak of them as Southern Curonian or even Scalvian imports.

I.1.5. Cruciform pins

Cruciform pins are most typical for Curonians in the 8 th -12 th centuries. Only few of that kind of ornament occurred along Prussia’s downstream Pregel and Deima and in Sambian peninsula, they can be also regarded as South Curonian imports or local copies of Curonian ornaments in Prussian area.

I.1.6. Spiral-form neck-rings

Spiral-form neck-rings are typical ornaments for the 10 th -12 th Curonians, but in the 13 th century they are slowly disappear from the burials of Southern Curonian area. This might affect Curonians in view

15 of the economical changes started from the early 13th century. In the territory of Prussians, where neck-rings are not very common for the 10/11 th -12 th cremation graves (only few of them occurred), in contrast to Curonians most of spiral neck-rings massively appear in the 13 th inhumation graves, especially during and after the end of wars with the Teutonic Order. Massive huge bronze 5-8 spiral neck-rings, known also as “Totenkrone”, are recognised as one of the most typical Prussian ornaments for the last decade of the 13 th century and during through all the 14 th century. This probably reflects the stable economical situation of populations of Sambia, Natangia, Nadrovia, Bartia and South banks of lower riches of Niemen during the reign of Teutonic Order.

I.1.7. Bracelets

Most forms of bracelets characteristic for Southern Curonians in the 10 th -early 13 th centuries were found in Prussian area, but more modest in number and diversity of forms. Different forms of massive bracelets and especially those that are carved with “S’ shaped wavy decorations, are known both in Curonian and Prussian area in the ratio of about 20-10 to 1. The same ratio is for spiral bracelets, which were typical for Curonians in the 9 th -12 th centuries, and still rare in Prussian cremations of the 11 th -13 th centuries. An exception could be made for some spiral bracelets found in Curonian Spit, mostly in a context of late 13 th -14 th inhumation graves of Stangenwalde cemetery and as a stray finds, like bracelet from Schwarzort (Juodkrante).

16 Bracelets with geometrized zoomorphic terminals are typical for all Curonians. Only few of them mostly in fragments and as stray finds were found in area of Sambian peninsula and lower riches of Deima. Sash-like bracelets of the 10 th -13 th centuries are more common finds in South Curonian area, despite the fact that several specimens are also known in Prussia, especially in the 112 th -13 th cultural layers of Sambian and Nadrovian settlements and as stay finds from cemeteries.

I.1.8. Objects of small plastic (accessories)

The area of study represents a selection of objects, which forms and decorations are almost identical both for Prussians and Curonians. These items are strap distributers with “leaf-like” segments, “eight” or “S’ figures flat pendants or mountings, ellipse and similar beltplates (?) and some other objects, which demonstrate the similarity of decorations, styles and perhaps - preferences in area of Prussians and Curonians in the 11 th -13 th centuries.

I.2. Personal tools and items of everyday use

Oval steels with up- twisted terminals and their miniatures are common for all Curonian archaeological monuments of the 11 th -13 th . Occurred only in few exemplars they are not very characteristic for the Prussian cemeteries and settlements of the same time. Angular oval steels, on the contrary, are much better known from Prussian cemeteries of the 13 th -14 th centuries.

17 The same should be noted for the scythes and sickles, which are necessary attributes for many of Curonian 11 th -13 th male cremation graves. In area of Prussians only two late Iron Age finds of sickles are known – 12-13 th exemplars from Grachevka hill fort and rich male inhumation Nr. 12 of Ekritten cemetery. Drinking horn rim-mounts are very well known from both North and South Curonian 10 th -13 th inhumation and cremation graves. They are not very typical Prussian grave goods for studied period. De- spite the rich iconography which was embodied in the images of drinking horns on Prussian stone sculptures of the 11 th -13 th centuries, drinking horns mounts were found until today only in cremation graves Nr.64 of Klincovka-1 and inhumations of the 13 th –14 th centuries of Stangenwalde and Schuditten. This situation could be explained by special ritual rules which did not involve the use of drinking horns as grave goods in Prussian funeral culture. The only common-spread personal items and objects of everyday use both for Prussians and Curonians, considering by the data of cemeteries, are the razors and whetstones, found in great numbers as grave goods in cemeteries of the 11 th –13 th centuries of Kaliningrad region and Klaipeda-Palanga and Mažeikiai districts.

I.3. Main types of imports and goods of trade found in Prussian and Curonian area in the 11 th –13 th centuries.

Talking about imports and goods of trade, beginning from balances and weights and finishing with slate spindle whorls, superiority

18 in their diversity and number should be given to Prussians. Long before such situation was remarkably commented by Carl Engel and Wolfgang La Baume, who characterized Prussian “Spatheidnische” culture as “rich but not creative, with strong predilection for foreign imported goods” (Engel, La Baume 1937: 192-193). Thus only by number of balances and weight occurred in area of the 10 th –12/13 th Sambian peninsula, Prussians outstrip South Curonians at least two times as many, and do that for all entire Curonia too, and some other areas of East Baltic region. That probably explains, that all other East and West imports are much more peculiar just to Prussian area: West and east Europe’s silver 10 th -12-13 th century’s coins, slate spindle whorls, „Hansaschüseln“ type bronze vessels, some types of Ruthenian weapons as maces and helmets and many other imports, are known only in Prussian area, or their number in Curonian area is insignificant. Cylindrical padlocks and their keys are probably the one type of imported goods equally spread both over Prussian and Curonian cemeteries of the 11 th -12/13 th centuries. This situation of distribution of imports in Prussian and Curonian areas most likely reflects the difference of intensity in use of certain trade routes and capacities of local economics, the state of their involvement into the trans-regional processes.

I.4. Prussian and Curonian ceramics of the 10/11 th –13 th centuries

Most of local types of ceramics occurred in Prussian and Curonian sites of the period corresponds to V. Žulkus A-1, 2 types (in a

19 case of mould clay, hand-made vessels) and B:1-2a,b types for vessels produced on slowly rotating wheel (so named Baltic ware). Vessels occurred in both Prussian and Curonian cemeteries correspond mostly to the ware occurred in settlements. If the amount of hand-made vessels in Prussian and Curonian settlements has remained quite large, the situation is very different in use of pottery and especially of Baltic ware in Prussian and Curonian cremation cemeteries. Thus only vessels made on slowly rotating wheel or their potsherds were found in 50-80% of Prussian cremation graves of the 11 th -13 th centuries in contrast to the all types potsherds found only in 10-30% of the same period Curonian cremations.

I.5. Arms, their types and statistics in Prussian and Curonian cemeteries of the 11 th –13 th centuries

Situation with arms in Prussian and Curonian area in the 11 th - 13 th centuries is similar in general. Comparing Northern Prussian and South Curonian statistics of graves with arms, it should be noted that in Prussian area they occurred from 8 to 81% (37% at average) of all graves number, although in many cases they exceed 50%, while the Curonian cremation graves with arms of the same time period makes from of 5 up to 67% (32% on average). This means that graves with arms occurred in Prussian cemeteries, ignoring too heavy destroyed cemeteries, a bit more often than those in Curonian ones.

20 All Prussian and Curonian both general and specific types of arms were found in a context of certain burial complexes. Within the double layer cremations (with horse burials) in a case of Prussians, and in a single layer cremation graves – for Curonians. Although it should be to pointed, that the number of weapons, compared to the all graves at each of Prussian and Curonian cemetery is different, that can be related to the social environment and economic conditions of certain population. Almost identical types of arms, as laceolate or harpoon-like spearheads, battle axes (with special consideration on M type), swords of Peterson T, X and M, types, sword scabbard chapes of the Kazake- vi čius III, IV-V(Vb) types, round helmets and similar types of arrow- heads were common both for Prussians and Curonians. M type battle axes, as well as IV and Vb swords scabbard chapes and T1 type swords and their details occurred in Prussian area almost in the same quantity as in Curonia, and in some cases in larger amount and more diverse forms (as IV type scabbard chapes with an image of two birds) than in South Curonian area. Rare swords of “antennal” type and battle knifes of the 11 th -12th centuries found in some cremation graves of Sambian peninsula defi- nitely belong to Curonian imports. As to talk about the imported and local made spearheads of E type with decorated sockets, they are common both for Prussian and South Curonian areas of the late 10 th – 11 th centuries. This can not be proved by the 11 th -12/13 th spearheads with silver and bronze inlayed

21 sockets, very common for Sambian cremation graves and still unknown in Southern Curonians. Bronze and iron maces, the same as helmets of Ruthenian types and some other Ruthenian military imports, typical for the 11 th -13 th centuries Prussians, are still unknown in the territory of the same time Curonians. Double-edged swords with Latin inscriptions, imported from Western Europe in the 10 th -12 th centuries, are also almost unknown in South Curonian area in contrast to Prussian, where at least 18 of such sword occurred. Ritually bent spears and swords were found both at Prussian and Curonian cemeteries. If the ritually bent, twisted or just broken swords are more often found in Prussian cremation graves, the bent and twisted spearheads and bent and broken battle axes are more common feature to Curonian and Scalvian cemeteries.

II. Comparative analysis of the major Prussian and Curonian 11 th - 13 th centuries burial rite forms

II.1. Prussian and Curonian graves with horse burials and horse harness

The main difference between Prussian and Curonian “horse” burials is that Prussians used to bury their dead in cremation graves accompanied togehther with horse burials underneath from the Late Migration period until the beginning of the 13 th century. During all the late Iron Age Curonians used to put only horse harness in their inhuma-

22 tion and single layer cremation graves, symbolizing perhaps the buried person as a horseman. The number of Prussian cremation graves accompanied with horses increases from 20-30% of all the grave number of the Migration period up to 65-90% (84% in average) in the 11 th -12/13 th centuries. The number of graves with several horse burials or horse harness sets is quite high. Weapons were found out from 9 to 83 % of Prussian cremations accompanied by horse burials (av. 36%). Thus approximately only half or one third (or even less, depend on cemetery) of double layer cremations might belong obviously to warriors-horsemen strata. Other part of horse burials probably belonged to less influential or prosperous members of Prussian society, to people of other occupation and perhaps to adolescents and women. This means also the rise in role of horse in Prussian society in the 11 th -13 th centuries. Prussians used to spend more and more resources for horse burials, what is probably described not only by ritual regulations or tradition, but also by the stable economic situation, which could be reflected in remarkable amount of prosperous cremation graves of Sambian peninsula full of imported goods. In case of Southern Curonians number of the 10 th -11 th inhumations graves and the 11 th -12/13 th cremation and “symbolical” graves with horse harness does not exceed 5-35 %. Complete horse harness sets are rare in South Curonian cremation burials and found mainly in rich mail graves. Other horsemen were buried with 1-2 poor objects, which often could be the miniature or even “symbolical” bridle-bits, bronze sash-like spurs, and extremely rare – with stirrups. Miniature or

23 symbolical forms of riding gear are untypical for Prussians. Such kind of “minimizing” of cost of burial rite with equestrian elements in South Curonian area could be explained by both the ritual and economic reasons or simply by the decrease of the role of a horse in Curonian society during the 11 th -12/13 th centuries. The problem still persists to a clear answer. Usually Southern Curonian graves with horse harness were also accompanied with arms, which probably reflects, that most of Curonian graves with horse harness belonged to the warriors-horsemen strata. The status of warrior and rider in Prussian society is usually associated together because at average in 76% (often 90-100%) there were found graves with weapons the horse and rider gear. How to Southern Curonians horse harness there were only from 2 to 88% (average 33%) graves with arms. This probably also proves that warrior status in southern Curonian society was not always connected with a horsemen.

II.2. Prussian “Aschenplätze” and Curonian “collective” and symbolical cremation graves

From the C. Engel 1935-1937 works until 2006-2011 studies of Woicech Wróblewski and Vladimir Kulakov Prussian “group” warrior cremations known also as “Aschenplätze” are often compared with close parallels to the Curonian collective or symbolical cremation graves. Investigating a phenomena of Curonian collective cremation graves on a basis of published and archival data it was concluded, that

24 most of such cremation graves of several individuals, were erected in huge pits probably at one moment and belonged to the members of warrior elite or some influential clans and their relatives. Althought, this is the subject to questions. In contrast to Curonian collective cremation Sambian cemeteries Alejka-3, Kholmy and Kl. Kaup represent „Aschenplätze“ as certain areas of individual double layer cremations erected very close to each other, and not at once. Their stratigraphy is very different from Curonian or Galindian “collective” cremation graves. Each grave liter- ally has its own pit, being erected next to already existing grave. Though cremations layers are often mixed, grave goods are mostly found within certain graves areas. The same we can tell about horse burials, whose pits are mainly linked to upper cremations. At the same time Prussian “Aschenplätze” and Curonian “collective” cremation graves of the 11 th -13th c. could possibly have a common social background. They probably indicated emergence of new, not family based, “professional” relationship as warrior elite.

II.3. Prussian and Curonian female graves of the 10/11 th –13 th centuries. The question of Curonian female graves in the territory of Prussians

The problem of Prussian female cremation graves of the 10 th - early 13 th centuries is complicated by the lack of appropriate archaeological data and anthropological analysis.

25 For example, at the cemeteries of Southern Curonians female graves with typical sets of ornaments and other specific grave goods compiles on average 18-20% from all graves number (up to 58% at Pryšman čiai cemetery). As for Prussians, whose single layer cremations most of which could belong to women were found at average from 5 to 15% (max - 37.7% - in Povarovka cemetery). Most of these graves are not noticeable for their special female grave goods. Another part of supposed Prussian women cremations might be erected together with male double layer cremations, as the graves of dependent women. This is reflected by several double cremation graves of Holmy and Klin- covka-1 cemeteries. Judging by Prussian and Curonian single layer female cremations, their structure and stratigraphy, as well as by the data of the 13 th - 14 th written sources a woman position in the Prussian and Curonian societies was similar - there were both free women as wives and dependent – as there were slaves too. Talking about V. Kulakov’s theory concerning Curonian female cremation graves occurred in Sambian peninsula, which is based on an analysis of several single layer cremations of Klincovka-1 cemetery, there should be noticed, that both grave goods of single layer cremations like Klincovka-1 Nr.62 or 80 and their stratigraphy are not the most typical for South Curonian female cremations of the 11 th -12 th centuries, known from such cemeteries as Bandužiai, Laiviai and Palanga. Perhaps such single layer cremations could belong to the “long lost” Prussian female graves, still known in extremely small number.

III.3. Prussian and Curonian male cremation graves with spindle- whorls and miniature weaving tools

Along with concentration of individual cremation graves in certain areas of Prussian and Curonian cemeteries, some of the 11 th -12 th centuries warrior-horsemen cremations appear with such male- untypical grave goods as spindle-whorls (mostly slate-made in the case of Prussians and Scalvians) and miniature weaving tools (Curonians, Scalvians). Together with economical explanation of slate spindles, as imported goods, which massively occurred in Sambia’s double layer cremations, and some possible ritual features connected to the mytho- logical meaning of the processes of weaving and spinning, the appear- ance of such items in male graves might be related to the changes of position of women in the Western Baltic societies, to the increasing dependence on a man. That probably reflects an emergence of certain number of female cremation graves erected next to the male ones.

III.5. Prussian inhumation graves of the boarder of the 12 th –13 th centuries.

A brief introduction to a new form of Prussian burial rite, which began to spread over Sambian peninsula on a boarder of the 12 th – beginning of the 13 th centuries, is important in the context of significant changes to come in Western Balts burial practices in the 13 th century. It is expected, that rare “pagan” inhumation graves, such as Nr. 12 of

27 Ekritten or Nr. 17 of Povarovka, appear within the boarder of old Prus- sian cremation cemeteries under the strong influence of foreign burial traditions. Already Christian inhumations and so named “chamber graves” of the 11 th -13 th centuries were known on Poland’s territory. Although inhumation graves hade become the main form of burial rite in Prussia only by the end of the 13 th century. This passage is very important to show the difference between Prussian and Curonian cultural realities on the boarder of the 12 th -13 th centuries.

III. Trading centers and routes in the territory of Prussians and Curonians in the 11 th –13 th centuries

III.1. Curonian Spit, as possible area for direct cultural transaction of Prussian and Curonian cultures

All investigated archaeological monuments are located in the Southern part of Curonian Spit and dated by the 13 th -15 th centuries in case of Stangenwalde cemetery and by the 12/13 th -14 th centuries for Korallen-Berg settlement. Materials of Stangenwalde inhumation graves have a wide range of parallels and analogies with Prussian cemeteries of the Teutonic Order period as Alt-Wehlau, Gerdauen- Kinderhof, Mitino, Równina Dolna etc. Some archaic artefacts as penannular brooch with connected star-shaped terminals and also spiral bracelet and drinking horn mount of Curonian types could appear here far behind the date of their production, from areas of Sambia and today’s Klaipeda district respectively. Perhaps, it is the same case for

28 oval steels with up-twisted terminals, found in Korallen-Berg. The forms of ceramics and ornaments occurred in Korallen-Berg have the number of analogies both in cemeteries and settlements of the 12 th -14 th centuries in Prussian and Curonian area. The fact that Prussian or Curonians cremation graves of the 11 th -13 th centuries did not occur in Curonian Spit, together with the data of mentioned monuments, as well as stray finds of ornaments of the 12/13 th -15th centuries in the area of former Rossitten and Pillkoppen, proves the theory, that main Iron Age settlement activity began here not as the earliest at the beginning of the 13 th century and was caused by the war of Prussians with Teutonic knights and new political realities of German colonisation, which made Curonian Spit an important war and trade road, connecting Sambian peninsula with newly established castle of Memel-Burg.

III.2. Key centres and routes of trade for Prussian and Curonian in the 11 th -13 th centuries

The main difference between Prussians and South Curonians concerning communication with outer world is in the fact, that Vistula- Pomeranian trade route – probably the main route of supply with Ruthenian and other East imports for Prussians, – was not directly ac- cessible for Southern Curonians. As well as Dauguva trade route, which was easier to reach for northern part of Curonian area. Judging by the number of Ruthenian imports in the territory of Sambian peninsula, and also some of them occurred in Scalvian and South Curonian area, the

29 Niemen trade route could also play an important role in the distribution of Eastern imports in Prussian, Scalvian and South Curonian lands. Mapping the distribution of artefacts of Curonian type in Prus- sian area, as well as imported goods in the whole micro-region of study, at least four key directions or routes of trade and communication between Prussian and Curonian are identified:

1. Venta – J ūra/Minija/Dan ė– Niemen/Pregel trade route This road connects the North Curonia with Samland peninsula through Semigallian, Samogitian, Scalvian and Nadrovian lands. Goods could travel along this route passing Venta, Dane or Minija rivers or Niemen to the Curonian bay or through Instru č and Angrapa to the mouth of Priegel. Also, including possible Baltic Sea routes, this way could be a distant branch of Daugava trade route. Way of distribution of imported and local-made goods described above could be marked by the Curonian and Scalvian artefacts spread over to the south of the Niemen, towards the Instruch (Inster/ Įsrutis), Priegel rivers and middle reaches of Deima, as occurring in South Scalvian and Nadrovian monuments: Breitenstein (Uljanovka), Linkuhnen, Pridorožnoje, San- ditten (Lunino), Tammowischken (Timofeevka) and in area of today’s Gusev (Gumbinnen).

2. Vistula Lagoon – Sambian peninsula – Curonian Lagoon/Baltic Sea trade route We believe that this is a major trade route, connecting South Curonia through the Prussian lands with the Vistula-Pomeranian route.

30 By this way some part of Western European goods could reach Sambia and Pilsotas lands. Thus, beginning in the area of Elbl ąg-Janów Pomor- ski, this road led through the lands of Pomesanians and Varmians (or directly) to the Vistula Lagoon and then further to the estuary of Pregel and surroundings of former Königsberg. Afterwards European imports could travel by the old land way “Königsberg-Cranz”, thereby reaching the area of Kaup-Wiskiauten-Wosegau network of the 11 th -13 th settlements, while passing through the Curonian Lagoon and reaching Žarde- Laistai settlements complex. This trade route is marked not only by bright range of European imports in Sambian peninsula, but also by Curonian types of ornaments occurred in the mouth of Pregel and on Northern shores of Vistula Lagoon: Pokarben (Brandenburg/Ušakovo), Šosejnoje-1 etc. Most of the Curonian-typical forms of ornaments in Prussian area were found precisely on the axis of an old land route “Königsberg-Cranz”: Kaliningrad district, Kleinheide, Kovrovo (Dollkeim), Klincovka-1, Kaup-Wiskiauten-Wosegau, Sirenevo district (Ekritten I-III) and other cemeteries and settlements. In this way any Sambian or Curonian merchant could reach the Baltic sea through the Brokist strait at the bottom of Curonian Spit.

3. Northern Vistula Lagoon – Baltic Sea trade route Considered as a branch of previously described road, this trade route can be traced by the artefacts of Curonian types, as V type ladder brooches or bracelets with zoomorphic terminals, found in sites located along the Northern coast of Vistula Lagoon up from surroundings of today’s Kaliningrad to the Widitten-Konowedit, Bludau-II and

31 Fischhausen (Primorsk) districts. This way could lead then through the Lochschtedt strait to the Baltic sea, reaching at the end South Curonian trade centres of Palanga and Žard ė.

4. Pregel-Deima-Curonian Lagoon trade route This route appears to be attractive for further research, because along downstream of Priegel and Deima several large hill-forts, cemeteries and dense concentration of stray finds of the Curonian type artefacts are to be located in the area of lower Deima, with V type ladder brooches, spiral and zoomorphic bracelets, crucifix pins, “antenna” type swords and some other artefacts of Curonian type occurred in the today’s Polesk district (Löbertshof and Viehof cemeteries). Some of these items could come here directly from Pilsotas land through Curonian Lagoon. This area is important for further study of possible contacts between Prussian, Scalvian and Curonian populations.

III.3. Trade relations between Prussians and Curonians

Despite the fact, that all the 11 th -13 th authors together with mod- ern researchers describe Curonian economy as “plunder”, trade and especially domestic trade had to play important role in Curonian economic and life-style. Similarity of patterns of material culture, together with lack of burial forms of Curonian type in Prussian lands as well as Prussian forms in Curonian area might explain the nature of their contacts as primarily commercial, in a trade exchange meaning. The forms of ornaments of Curonian type, so popular in other areas of East Baltic

32 region, could reach Sambian peninsula either with Curonian and Prus- sian merchants, or in form of “ideas”, when previously typical Curonian forms of artefacts as cruciform pins or V-type ladder brooches could take a new forms like some exemplars found in Löbertshof cemetery did. Judging by quite poor quantity of Ruthenian and other Eastern imports in the lower reaches of Niemen, the Scalvian area, most of not numerous finds could reach South Curonia exactly through Prussian lands, together with some European imports, as silver coins and sword’s blades with Latin inscriptions. So the trade nature of contacts between Prussian and Curonians in the 11 th -13 th centuries is undoubtful and must be investigated more deeply in futher studies.

Conclusions

1. Main types of ornaments, arms, tools and items of everyday use, as well as ceramics of the 11 th - beginning of the 13 th century are similar both in the Curonian and Prussian areas. With special consideration of artefacts of local manufacture for Curonians and of imported origin for Prussians. Some types of ornaments, as penannular brooches with connected star-shaped terminals and ring fibulas with ribbed bow (of II.2 and III types respectively), that previously have been considered as Curonian, after a detailed study showed their Prussian origin. Regarding this fact, it should be mentioned, that all other types of ornaments are remarkably prevail in South Curonian area, being both

33 numerous and more diverse in forms, than those in Prussian lands. Many forms of ornaments of Curonian types were transformed in Prus- sian area under the strong influence of local decorative style, and can be attributed already as Prussian ornaments with light influence of Curonian prototypes, as some bracelets with zoomorphic terminals and crucifix pins found in Sambia. Unlike Curonian local-made imports which occurred in Sam- bian peninsula such artefacts of Prussian origin as silver inlayed spears and details of the horse harness were not probably in demand in South Curonian society, or just did not occur in sites yet. Such popular and remarkable Curonian grave goods of the period as scythes and sickles, drinking horn mountings, oval steels with up- twisted terminals as well as miniatures of mentioned artefacts and the horse harness together with specially for funeral-made made sym- bolic artefacts are still unknown or known in very insufficient number in Prussian cemeteries of the 11 th -13 th centuries.

2. Major part of the imported goods of the 11 th -13 th centuries occurred in Prussian area is still unknown in South Curonian land, like maceheads, helmets, horse harness and other warrior and horsemen related objects imported from the Ruthenian principalities, together with Western Europe “Hansaschüssel” type bronze vessels did not occur in South Curonian area. Situation with other species of East and West Europe’s imports is almost the same, as silver coins of the late 10 th -12 th centuries, slate spindles, sword blades with Latin inscriptions, which occurred in much less number than in Sambian peninsula only.

34 Cylindrical padlocks and their keys for today’s level of research are the only one type of the imported goods which might be compared in number and diversity of forms with Prussian analogies. The quantity of balances and weights occurred in Sambian peninsula is quite remarkable - this number is two-threefold greater than that of all South Curonians, and even bigger than in the entire Curonia. This situation could be explained either by availability of a larger number of trade routes for Prussians, or activity of the latter in trans- regional trade, which helped to accumulate numerous import goods and wealth in Sambian peninsula. The same as for Curonians, certain part of these material resources could be gained through the plunder during the military conflicts with Poland’s feudalists, for example. Although the “plunder” is undoubty a characteristic of Curonian post-Viking age economy , we should not consider Curonian economy to be just a “plunder” one and Prussian – as trade-based only economy. Both mentioned features are applicable for two tribes compared, with various degrees of intensity, with different overtones.

3. Through the comparing of burial rites of Prussians and Curonians of the 11 th -13 th centuries, with a special focus on a research of specific Curonian forms of burial rite in Prussian lands, as well as Prussian graves in South Curonian area we reach to the following conclusions: - Main features of Prussian and Curonian burial rite and perhaps funeral ceremonies are slightly different:

35 a, Curonians never used to bury their dead together with horses and spend less resource on ceremony with equestrian elements. The status of horsemen is often related to a warrior in South Curonian cemeteries, inlike Prussians, that used to bury their society members ,and not only warriors, with horses much more often. This is connected to a rise in role of a horse in Prussian everyday and after-life. b. Comparing Curonian collective cremations graves of several individuals, erected in vast pits and probably at once, with Prussian cremations of so-named “Achenplätze”, we came to conclusion, that despite the difference in origin of their funeral rituals, cremation graves with huge concentrations on certain plots of cemeteries appear on the boarder of the 11 th -12 th centuries under similar social conditions – the emergence of certain groups like warrior elite or some influential clans, which carried out administrative functions in certain areas. c. The first difficulty emerged comparing Prussian and Curonian supposed women's cremation graves of the 11 th - beginning of the 13 th centuries, is that such investigation and classifications was never made for Prussians’ ones. Thus, after analysis of several hun- dreds of burials from 5 Prussian cemeteries of the period there were found at least 5 - 15% of graves that could belong to women. Compar- ing this number with 20% on average of Curonians, we found out that no single cremation grave with definite features of burial rite or set of ornaments of Curonian type occurred in Prussian cemeteries. - Irrespective of well-known V. Kulakov theory about the Curonian colonisation of Northern Prussian to be in post-Viking Age, there were not any certain cremation or inhumation grave of Curonian

36 warrior – a “participant of Prussian military elite”, or Curonian women – a suspected “wife of Prussian warrior”, found in entire area of Sam- bia, Natangia and closest lands. The nearest elements of Curonian-like burial rite and grave goods was found in the south Niemen banks - Scalvian necropolis of Linkuhnen, whose culture was tightly connected with Curonian. The same is with suspected Prussian burials of the 11 th - 13 th centuries which are still unknown in South Curonian area, despite the fact that some elements of Prussian burial rite, like cremation graves accompanied with horse burials, also reaches Scalvian area by this time.

4. Analysing the role of Curonian Spit as possible mediator in the contacts of Prussians and Curonians in the 11 th -13 th centuries, we came to conclusion, that all investigated archaeological monuments are located in the South - “Prussian”, part of the peninsula (from area of former Sarkau to Pillkoppen), and together with most of stray finds, belong to the 13 th -15 th centuries and connected mostly with a process of German colonisation of Western Balts lands and the development of new infrastructure, as war and postal routes, and building of castles. Thereby the question of the Curonian Spit as the possible area of per- manent direct contacts of Prussians and Curonians before the dramatic events of the 13 th century still is under discussion. The character of studied trade routes connecting South Curonia with Sambian peninsula, together with mapping of the artefacts of Curonian type in Prussia, and meaning of the lack of specific forms of Prussian and Curonian burial rites in land of each other, allow us to talk

37 about the relations between Prussians and Curonians in the 11 th -13 th centuries in terms of trade origin, with no sighs of settlement or other long-term activities of Curonians in Prussian area. Moreover Prussian and Curonian cultural inter-influence reflected in the development of Nadrovian and Scalvian cultures, which combined elements of both Prussian and Curonian cultures, with different margins to their indige- nous patterns. Despite the fact that we have no strong evidences related to activities and stay ing of Prussians and Curonians on each others lands exept for trade, this task may prove to be relevant for future research.

English revised by Pavel Antipov and Anastasija Agapova

38 SANTRAUKA

Tyrin ėjant ir lyginant pr ūsų ir kurši ų „H“ periodo, arba pla čiau – v ėlyvojo geležies amžiaus, medžiagines kult ūras, paaišk ėjo, kad jos yra morfologiškai panašios. XI–XIII a. pradžioje prūsai ir kuršiai tur ėjo panašias žemi ų, vals čių ir pili ų apygard ų struktūras. Laidojimo papro- čiuose vyravo k ūno deginimo tradicija, nors XI a. kurši ų žem ėse dar nevisur buvo prad ėta deginti mirusiuosius, o XII/XIII a. pr ūsuose jau pasirod ė pavieniai griautiniai kapai. Mirusi ųjų deginimo paprotys XI– XII a., paremtas panašia pasaul ėži ūra, iš dalies vienijo pietini ų kurši ų, skalvi ų ir pr ūsų gen čių kult ūras. Manome, kad pr ūsų (semb ų) ir piet ų kurši ų kult ūras, turin čias bendras vakar ų balt ų pilkapi ų kult ūros šaknis, suartino IX–XI a. skandinav ų tranzitin ė prekyba su Rytais per vakarų balt ų žemes. Taip galima paaiškinti kai kuri ų kuršišk ų lankini ų segi ų pasirodym ą Kaup- Wiskiauten pilkapyne ir kuršišk ų tip ų papuošal ų pagaus ėjim ą skalvi ų Link ūnų nekropolyje X a. Nepaisant to, visuose Vakar ų Europos rašytiniuose šaltiniuose nuo 1075 m. (Adomas Bremenietis) iki 1200 m. (Saxo Gramatikus) pr ūsai ir kuršiai aprašomi skirtingai. Šie skirtumai atsiskleidžia ir archeologiniuose šaltiniuose.

1. Kalbant apie XI–XIII a. pr ūsų ir kurši ų papuošalus, paaišk ėjo, kad nors kurši ų teritorijoje j ų rasta ženkliai daugiau ir įvairesni ų form ų, pagrindiniai j ų tipai vis d ėlto yra paplit ę abiej ų gen čių teritorijose. Ryškiausi kuršiams b ūdingi papuošal ų tipai retai aptinkami pr ūsų teritorijoje, dažniausiai – kaip atsitiktiniai radiniai, už uždar ų

39 kompleks ų rib ų. Vienintelis labiausiai paplit ęs pr ūsų teritorijoje XI– XII/XIII a. papuošalas – pasagin ės seg ės sujungtais žvaigždiniais galais (II.2 tipo) ir panašios žiedin ės seg ės rantytu lankeliu (III tipo). J ų pr ūsų žem ėse, lyginant su visu Baltijos j ūros regionu, aptikta daugiausiai: apie 250 atskir ų segi ų ir j ų fragment ų. Pirmieji j ų prototipai pr ūsus pasiek ė tikriausiai iš pietini ų kurši ų žemi ų XI a. pradžioje. II.2 ir III tipo rantytos pasagin ės seg ės aptinkamos beveik kiekviename pr ūsų XI–XIII a. kapinyne ir gyvenviet ėje, o tai primena pasagini ų aguonini ų segi ų situacij ą piet ų kurši ų teritorijoje, kur ši ų segi ų rasta per 600 eg- zempliori ų. Papuošal ų, aptinkam ų pr ūsų vienasluoksniuose kapuose, kon- tekstas neleidžia kalb ėti apie nuolatin į kurši ų moter ų gyvenim ą pr ūsų teritorijoje. Lyginant su pietiniais kuršiais, Sembos ir Notangos pr ūsai XI–XIII a. re čiau naudojo papuošalus įkap ėms, o gal net re čiau jais puoš ėsi. Tai vis ų pirma susij ę su karinio elito vyravimu pr ūsų kasdien- iniame gyvenime bei medžiagin ės kult ūros unifikavimu ir „militari- zacija“. Panašu, kad XI–XIII a. pr ūsai labiau vertino unifikuotus papuošal ų komplektus ir importus. Viena vertus, kurši ų papuošal ų įvairumas tur ėjo įtakos visiems j ų kaimynams. Kita vertus, jiems iš dalies dar ė įtak ą XI–XII/XIII a. pa čios piet ų kurši ų kult ūros izoliacija ir ribotos ekonomikos galimyb ės, j ų papuošalai turi dar daug atpaž įstam ų ankstesni ų viking ų ir net Taut ų kraustymosi laikotarpi ų dekoratyvini ų bruož ų, Neretai XI–XII a. kurši ų lankini ų žieduot ųjų, V tipo laiptelini ų segių ar kit ų papuošal ų formos apib ūdinamos kaip „barokin ės“ ar „išsigimusios“.

40 2. XI–XIII a. ginkl ų situacija pr ūsų ir kurši ų žem ėse yra panaši. Abiej ų gen čių teritorijose paplit ę panaš ūs (ar net identiški) ginkl ų tipai: lauro lapo ir trikampio formos plunksnos įmoviniai ietigaliai, žeberk- liniai ietigaliai, pla čiaašmeniai kovos kirviai (tarp j ų – M tipo), dviašmeniai kalavijai (tarp j ų – T1 tipo) ir j ų detal ės bei įvairi ų tip ų str ėli ų antgaliai. Deimos žemupyje aptiktos anteninio kalavijo detal ės rodo, kad pastarasis tikriausiai buvo importuotas iš Piet ų Kuršo. D ėl min ėtų socialini ų ir ekonomini ų priežas čių piet ų kurši ų teritorijoje ligšiol n ėra aptikti ietigaliai spalvotais metalais inkrustuotomis įmo- vomis, iš Rusijos importuoti bronziniai ir geležiniai v ėzdai, šalmai, botko čių apkalai-galvut ės, puošn ūs žirgo aprangos reikmenys ir kt. Neretai XI–XIII a. pr ūsų kapinynai ginkl ų kiekiu lenkia kuršiškus. Ta čiau reikia pabr ėžti, kad ginkl ų skai čius, lyginant visus kap ų kom- pleksus, kiekviename pr ūsų ar kurši ų kapinyne yra skirtingas, o tai gali būti susij ę su tam tikros visuomen ės socialine aplinka ir ekonomin ėmis sąlygomis. Ginkl ų ritualinio laužymo paprotys, į vakar ų balt ų areal ą tikriausiai atklyd ęs iš IX–X a. skandinav ų kult ūrų, XI–XIII a. b ūd- ingesnis kurši ų ir ypa č skalvi ų laidojimo tradicijoms, nors pr ūsų teritorijoje b ūtent sulenkt ų dviašmeni ų kalavij ų rasta daugiau.

3. Kalbant apie pr ūsams ir kuršiams b ūdingus XI–XIII a. buities įrankius, kaip antai gal ąstuvus, skustuvus ir kt., pastebimas j ų form ų bendrumas, nors min ėtame laikotarpyje pr ūsų teritorijoje kuršiams būdingi geriamieji ragai ir j ų apkalai bei skiltuvai atriestais galais randami retai. Kurši ų kapuose beveik neaptinkami specifiniai su žirginin- kyste susij ę dirbiniai, pavyzdžiui žirkl ės kar čiams pjaustyti. Įranki ų ir

41 ginkl ų miniati ūros, paplitusios visame kurši ų areale, pr ūsų teritorijoje kol kas nerastos. Patar ųjų laidosenos simboliškumas pasireišk ė tik buityje naudot ų arba sugadint ų ar neporini ų dirbini ų naudojimu įkap ėms. Tai, kad pr ūsų kapuose beveik n ėra kuršišk ų tip ų geriam ųjų rag ų apkal ų, skiltuv ų atriestais galais bei dirbini ų ir ginkl ų miniati ūrų, dar kart ą parodo, kad kurši ų kult ūra nedaug tepaveik ė pr ūsišk ąją.

4. Kurši ų žem ėse Vakar ų ir Ryt ų Europos importo aptinkama ženkliai re čiau nei pr ūsų teritorijoje. Pavyzdžiui, kurši ų teritorijoje kol kas neaptikta bronzini ų „Hansaschüsseln“ ind ų. Nedideli IX–X a. arabišk ų dircham ų ir Europos XI–XII a. denar ų kiekiai kurši ų žem ėse, lyginant su pr ūsais, gali b ūti susij ę su intensyvesniu sidabro naudojimu papuošal ų gamybai. Ta čiau pr ūsų teritorijoje aptikta gana daug sidabru inkrustuot ų raitelio ir žirgo reikmen ų bei aprangos ir ginkluot ės detali ų. Taigi, mažesni importo ir sidabrini ų monet ų kiekiai pietini ų kurši ų areale gali b ūti susij ę su uždaru j ų ekonomikos pob ūdžiu ir ribotomis jos galimyb ėmis, nes kontekstini ų ir atsitiktini ų svarstykli ų ir svareli ų radini ų vien tik Sembos pusiasalyje žinoma daugiau nei visame Kurše. Pagal rytietiško (rusiško ir bizantiško) importo gaus ą Sembos pusi- asalio ir Priegliaus žemupio teritorijai prilygsta tik Dauguvos žemupio– vidurupio regionas. Pr ūsus nuo Dauguvos lyvi ų arba latgali ų skiria tai, jog pirmieji nenaudojo krikš čioniškos simbolikos, o tai galb ūt reiškia tiesiogin ės Rusios kunigaikštys čių politin ės įtakos stok ą. Krikš čioniški ženklai taip pat buvo tikra retenyb ė ir X–XIII a. pietini ų kurši ų kapuose.

42 5. X/XI a. sand ūroje – XI a. pradžioje pr ūsų ir kurši ų teritorijoje atsiranda žiesta keramika. Pagrindiniai žiesti ir apžiesti puodai, atitinkantys V. Žulkaus B tipus, yra bendri abiems gentims, atkreipiant dėmes į į kai kurias lokalias kakleli ų formas, molio mas ės sud ėties bei ornamentikos ypatumus. Pr ūsų ir kurši ų lipdyt ų puod ų formos taip pat yra panašios, atitinkan čios V. Žulkaus A tipus, nors turi ir daugiau skir- tum ų, nes jos buvo perimtos iš ankstesni ų laikotarpi ų. Pr ūsų ir kurši ų kapinyn ų ir gyvenvie čių žiesta keramika yra panaši, o kai kuriais atvejais – net identiška. T ą pat į galima pasakyti apie kai kuriuos A-1 tipo ir apžiestus puodus. Įvairiose pr ūsų ir kurši ų gyvenviet ėse žiestos ir lipdytos keramikos proporcijos yra skirtingos. Vis d ėlto lipdytos keramikos skai čius išlieka gana aukštas, o tai rodo jos populiarumą tiek pr ūsų, tiek ir kurši ų XI–XIII a. ūkyje. Žiest ų puod ų panaudojimo laidojimo cere- monijose procentas pr ūsų atveju yra ženkliai didesnis – 50–80% (kurši ų – 10–30%). Dauguma pr ūsų mirusi ųjų XI–XIII a. pr. palaidota b ūtent su žiestais, dažnai nesudaužytais puodais. Tai galbūt susij ę su ekonomin ėmis priežastimis. Tiesa, puod ų daužymo paprotys yra b ūdingas tiek pr ūsams, tiek kuršiams.

6. XI–XIII a. laidojimo papro čiai pietini ų kurši ų areale pasireišk ė palaipsniu per ėjimu prie mirusi ųjų deginimo. K ūnų degini- mas išlieka kurši ų žem ėse iki XIII a. vidurio, o kai kuriais atvejais – net iki XIV/XV a. sand ūros. Pr ūsuose užsilaiko VI–VIII a. įsigal ėję laidojimo papro čiai – dvisluoksn ės kremacijos egzistuoja Sembos pusiasalyje nuo V a. pabaigos iki XIII a. vidurio. XII a. pabaigoje – XIII a. pradžioje pr ūsų teritorijoje atsiranda pirmos „nekrikš čioniškos“ in-

43 humacijos. Kremacijos kurši ų visuomen ėje plitimas XI a., o inhumacij ų – pr ūsuose XIII a. gali tur ėti bendr ų priežas čių – šie poky čiai veikiau- siai buvo inicijuoti gen čių elito, neišvengus išorini ų impuls ų. XI/XII a. sand ūroje pr ūsų ir kurši ų žem ėse atsiranda „kolekty- vini ų“ arba „grupini ų“ degintini ų kap ų tradicija. Pagal form ą pr ūsų ir kurši ų kap ų tipai yra skirtingi. - Vadinamieji pr ūsų (arba semb ų) „Aschenplätze“ susideda iš atskir ų kapinyn ų degintini ų kap ų plot ų, kuriuose koncentruojasi dvisluoksn ės kremacijos su ginklais, žirg ų apranga ir importo reikmen- imis. Asmenys, palaidoti tokiuose kapuose, tikriausiai priklaus ė karinio elito atstovams, j ų šeimos nariams, arba klan ų, vykdžiusi ų tam tikras administracines funkcijas, nariams. Tokio tipo palaidojimai, nepaisant savo artimumo, buvo įrengiami atskirose duob ėse ir ne vienu metu. - Kurši ų kolektyvin ės kremacijos susideda iš keli ų indi- vid ų palaidojim ų, įrengt ų vienu metu didel ėje bendroje duob ėje. Nors didel ė dalis palaidot ųjų tokiuose kapuose turi ginklus, ne visi asmenys turi kariams-raiteliams b ūdingas įkapes. Tai reiškia, kad kurši ų kolek- tyviniuose kapuose buvo palaidoti ne tik kariaun ų, bet ir j ų šeim ų arba kit ų socialini ų sluoksni ų ir užsi ėmim ų atstovai. Nors stratigrafija ir morfologija skiriasi, ta čiau tiek semb ų „Aschenplätze“, tiek kurši ų kolektyviniai degintiniai kapai gal ėjo at- sirasti d ėl panaši ų socialini ų (galb ūt ir religini ų) priežas čių. Vis ų pirma, tai gali b ūti susij ę su karinio elito išskyrimu atskir ų visuomeni ų viduje XI a. pabaigoje –XII a. pradžioje.

44 7. Pr ūsų palaidojim ų su žirgais ir j ų apranga skai čius, lyginant su taut ų kraustymosi laikotarpiu, kai j ų buvo 20–30%, XI–XII/XIII a. išaugo iki 65–90%. Šiuo laiku pr ūsų degintinius raiteli ų kapus lydi nuo 1 iki 3 žirg ų k ūnų (ar j ų dali ų) palaidojimai arba jie laidojami su vidu- tiniškai nuo 1 iki 4 žirgo ir raitelio aprangos komplektais. Kurši ų atveju, v ėlyv ų X–XI a. griautini ų kap ų ir XI–XII/XIII a. degintini ų su žirgo-raitelio apranga kap ų skai čius siekia 5–35%. Žirgo arba raitelio aprangos reikmenys piet ų kurši ų kapuose paprastai negaus ūs (1–2 reikmenys) ir neturtingi – daugiausiai miniati ūriniai arba simboliniai dirbiniai, nežinomi pr ūsų teritorijoje. Piet ų Kuršo degintiniuose kapuose kartu su žirgo apranga paprastai aptinkami ginklai, o tai anaiptol ne visada b ūdinga pr ūsams. Pr ūsų „žirgo“ laidosena išlieka konservatyvi ir nepatiria ypat- ing ų poky čių nuo VI a. iki XI/XII a. sand ūros. Pr ūsų laidotuv ės su žir- gais reikalavo daug resurs ų, ta čiau tai visiškai netrukd ė pr ūsams iškilm- ingai ir prabangiai laidoti savo mirusiuosius, nes to meto Sembos ekonomin ė situacija buvo tam palanki. Tuo tarpu piet ų kuršiai XI–XII a. „minimalizuoja“ laidojimo papro čių išlaidas , į vyr ų kapus d ėdami 1–2 atitinkamas įkapes ar neretai j ų miniati ūras. Ši situacija gali b ūti paaiškinta tiek ritualin ėmis, tiek ekonomin ėmis priežastimis arba tie- siog žirgo vaidmens pasikeitimu piet ų kurši ų visuomen ėje, nes raitelio statuso akcentavimui kape pakakdavo ir kuklesni ų įkapi ų. Visi pr ūsams ir kuršiams b ūdingi bendri ginkl ų tipai aptinkami tik tam tikro regiono laidojimo kompleks ų kontekste. Pr ūsų atveju – degintiniuose kapuose su žirg ų palaidojimais, kurši ų – vienasluoksn ėse degintiniuose kapuose. Lyginant pr ūsų ir kurši ų XI–XIII a. kap ų su

45 ginklais statistik ą, reikia atkreipti d ėmes į, kad situacijos yra panašios: pr ūsų kapai su ginklais skirtinguose kapinynuose sudaro 9–83% (arba vidutiniškai 36%), nors daugeliu atveju jie vidutiniškai siekia 50%, o kurši ų degintiniai kapai su ginklais sudaro 5–67 % (arba vidutiniškai 32%). Galima konstatuoti, kad pr ūsų visuomen ėje kario ir raitelio statusas dažniausiai yra susij ęs – vidutiniškai 76% (neretai 90–100%) kapuose su ginklais aptikta žirgo ir raitelio apranga. Kurši ų atveju žirgo-raitelio apranga aptikta nuo 2% iki 88% (vidutiniškai 33%) pietini ų kurši ų kap ų su ginklais. Taigi kapinyn ų duomenys rodo, kad kario statusas piet ų kurši ų visuomen ėje ne visada gretinamas su raitelio.

8. Pr ūsų teritorijoje vienasluoksni ų kremacij ų be ginkl ų ir žirgo- raitelio aprangos, kuri ų dalis gali b ūti moter ų kapai, skai čius yra nežy- mus – nuo 5% iki 15% (daugiausiai – 37,7% – Povarovkos kapinyne). Piet ų kurši ų atveju šis skai čius yra didesnis – nustatyt ų moter ų vienasluoksni ų kremacij ų j ų areale aptikta 18–20% (iki 58% Pryšman čiuose). Sprendžiant iš pr ūsų ir kurši ų veinasluoksni ų moter ų (ir sp ėjam ų moter ų) kremacij ų, j ų įkapi ų ir stratigrafijos, taip pat iš XIII–XIV a. rašytini ų šaltini ų, moters pad ėtis pr ūsų ir kurši ų visuomen ėse buvo panaši – b ūta tiek laisv ų moter ų-žmon ų, tiek priklausom ų – tarnai čių, vergi ų ir t. t. Kitaip, nei mano V. Kulakov’as, pr ūsų teritorijoje neaptikta v ėlyvojo geležies amžiaus kuršišk ų moter ų kap ų. Paprastai tai negaus ūs kapai su dirbiniais, b ūdingais ir kurši ų kult ūrai, įrengti pagal vietines laidojimo tradicijas. Taip pat čia randami atsitiktiniai radiniai,

46 būdingi kurši ų ir skalvi ų moterims, aptikti prie sp ėjam ų kurši ų ir pr ūsų prekybini ų kontakt ų linij ų. Kartu su degintini ų kap ų koncentravimusi atskiruose pr ūsų ir kurši ų kapinyn ų plotuose, kai kuriuose „kari ų“ arba „raiteli ų“ kapuose XI–XII a. sand ūroje atsiranda netipiškos įkap ės, kaip antai, verpstukai (pr ūsai, skalviai) ir miniati ūriniai juost ų vijimo įrankiai (kuršiai, skalviai). Be kai kuri ų išim čių, kaip importuoti šiferiniai verpstukai, tai gali būti susij ę su moters pad ėtimi vakarų balt ų visuomen ėse, jos priklau- somyb ės nuo vyro did ėjimu. Remiantis tipologiniais ir statistiniais tyrimais bei archeolog- iniais šaltiniais, galima teigti, kad pr ūsų žem ėse ligšiol n ėra aptikta nei kurši ų kariaunai, nei kurši ų moterims priskiriam ų laidojimo kompleks ų, arba n ė vieno patikimo kapo su ryškiais kurši ų etnokult ūros bruožais. Tą pat į galima pasakyti ir apie pr ūsus pietiniame Kurše. Tiesa, XI– XII a. pr ūsų teritorijoje lik ę kuršiai gal ėjo laidoti savo mirusiuosius pagal vietines tradicijas, pavyzdžiui, dvisluoksniuose degintiniuose kapuose, juolab kad dauguma įkapi ų yra beveik identiškos.

9. Skandinavijos tranzitin ės prekybos su Rytais susilpn ėjimas ir ankstyv ųjų krikš čionišk ų valstybi ų formavimasis XI a. pirmoje pus ėje stipriai paveik ė vakar ų baltų, o ypa č pietini ų kurši ų, kult ūrą. Nepaisant vakarin ės Nemuno prekybos kelio atkarpos ir tolesnio jo funk- cionavimo, akivaizdu, kad nuo XI a. pietini ų kurši ų kult ūra tampa vis mažiau veikiama išorini ų proces ų. Pr ūsų žem ės jau nuo rom ėniško laikotarpio buvo atviresn ės išoriniams kontaktams. Vyslos–Pamario prekybos kelio, vakar ų slav ų prekybos punkt ų ir Lenkijos artimumas

47 stipriai ir teigiamai veik ė pr ūsų ekonomik ą. Viena vertus, didel ė dalis Vakar ų ir Ryt ų Europos importo pasiekdavo pr ūsus b ūtent per Lenkijos teritorijas, kita vertus, pr ūsai, tur ėdami tokius civilizuotus kaimynus, nepraleisdavo galimyb ės dal į g ėrybi ų įsigyti pl ėšikaudami ir nuo- latiniais karais, nuo kuri ų beje kent ėdavo ir patys pr ūsai. Tai paaiškina, kod ėl pr ūsų žem ės balt ų gentini ų teritorijų žem ėlapyje dažnai buvo labiausiai į Šiaur ę nutol ęs prekybinis regionas, į kur į patekdavo bronziniai indai „Hansaschüssel“, šiferiniai verpstukai ir kiti importuoti objektai. Galb ūt dalis Vakar ų ir Ryt ų Europos importo pasiekdavo pietin- ius kuršius per pr ūsų žemes. Didžioji dalis kuršišk ų papuošal ų tip ų ir ginkl ų prototip ų pasiekdavo pr ūsus b ūtent vidiniais prekybiniais keliais, dažniausiai up ėmis, kuri ų didžiausios yra Nemunas, Prieglius, Deima, Minija, J ūra, Dang ė-Akmena bei Kurši ų mariomis. S ąlyginai nedidelis b ūtent „kuršišk ų“ tip ų radini ų kiekis pr ūsų žem ėse paaiškina ši ų gen čių ryši ų silpnum ą ir labiau atsitiktin į, prekybin į, j ų charakter į. Kurši ų ir pr ūsų kult ūrų tarpusavio įtakos labiausiai pasireišk ė nadruvi ų ir skalvi ų že- mėse. Archeologini ų nadruvių ir skalvi ų v ėlyvojo geležies amžiaus paminkl ų tyrin ėjimas yra ypa č perspektyvus, rekonstruojant pr ūsų, kurši ų, jotvingi ų, žemai čių ir vidurio Lietuvos kult ūrų kontaktus ir įtakas nagrin ėjamame mikroregione.

10. Šiame darbe aptarti v ėlyvojo geležies amžiaus Korallen- Berg gyvenviet ė ir Stangenwalde nekropolis vienija tiek semb ų, tiek pietini ų kurši ų XII–XV a. kult ūrų bruožus. Nors Stangenwalde nekro- polio įkap ės, laidosena ir pagrindinis gyvavimo laikotarpis sutampa su

48 pr ūsų Ordino laikotarpio nekropoliais, ta čiau archajiški, labiau kuršiams b ūdingi dirbiniai, aptikti Stangenwalde nekropolyje, ir kaip pavieniai objektai Kurši ų nerijoje, š į teritorij ą tikriausiai pasiek ė daug vėliau, nei buvo pagaminti. Tai, kad visi XIII–XV a. tyrin ėti Kurši ų nerijoje archeologiniai paminklai koncentruojasi pietin ėje (pr ūsiškoje) jos pus ėje, dar kart ą rodo j ų artimum ą vis ų pirma semb ų kult ūrai. Taigi Kurši ų nerijos, kaip pr ūsų ir kurši ų nuolatini ų gyvenvie čių ir kontakt ų zonos iki vokie čių Ordino at ėjimo, klausimas išlieka atviras. Apibendrinant galima teigti, kad XI–XIII a. pietinių kurši ų kul- tūra, lyginant su šiaur ės pr ūsų arealu, yra periferin ė bei uždaresn ė im- portui ir inovacijoms. Tai labiausiai pasireišk ė XII a. – ankstyvajame XIII a. Ribotos resurs ų ir vidin ės ekonomikos galimyb ės kartu su ar- chajiniais „vikingiškos“ visuomen ės bruožais pavert ė pl ėšikavim ą svarbiu piet ų Kuršo ekonomikos varikliu. XI–XIII a. pr ūsų kult ūra, nors ir labiau integruota į Vakar ų ir Ryt ų Europos ekonominius (galb ūt net politinius procesus), taip pat mažiau paveikta X–XI a. Skandinavi- jos kult ūros įtakos, yra unifikuota ir ženkliai vienodesn ė dirbini ų form ų ir j ų ornamentikos atžvilgiu, nei kurši ų. Nors Lenkijos žemi ų pl ėšimas ir tur ėjo tam tikr ą įtak ą pr ūsų ekonomikai, atrodo, kad prekyba su kai- mynais – o kartu ir kuršiais – pr ūsų pirkliams buvo labai pelninga ir leido sukaupti Sembos pusiasalyje didelius turto išteklius. Kadangi, žvelgiant iš šiandienos perspektyvos, nepavyko rasti žymi ų kurši ų kult ūros įtakos pr ūsų gentims požymi ų ar kurši ų gyven- imo pr ūsų areale p ėdsak ų, abiej ų gen čių kontakt ų klausimas išlieka atviras ateities tyrin ėjimams.

49 Topic-related Scientific Publications Mokslin ės publikacijos disertacijos tema

ŠIROUCHOVAS, R., 2011. Nauji pr ūsų X-XIII a. kapinyn ų tyrimai vakar ų balt ų kult ūros kontekste. Lituanistica, 57, Nr. 3(85), 276-304. ISSN 0235 716X

ŠIROUCHOV R., 2012. „Pr ūsijos" muziejaus archeologijos kolekcijos ir ar- chyvai. In: Mažoji Lietuva: paribio kult ūros tyrimai. Vilnius, 131-166. ISBN 978-609-420-232-2

SHIROUKHOV R., 2012. Prussian graves in Sambian peninsula with imports, arms and horse harness of the 10th-13th century. The question of warrior elite. Archaeologia Baltica , 18 [in pint/spausdinama].ISSN 1392-5520

ШИРОУХОВ Р.А., 2011a. Контакты пруссов и куршей X–XIII вв . по ар- хеологическим источникам . LA, 37, 167-206. ISSN 0207-8694

ШИРОУХОВ Р.А., 2011b. К вопросу об отношениях пруссов и куршей в X–XIII вв . Введение в проблематику In: Культурное наследие Восточной Пруссии , II, Калининград : Издательсво БФУ им . И.Канта , 133-145. ISBN 978-609-411-065-8

Name, surname

Roman Širouchov

Education

2001-2006 – Studies at Russian State University of I. Kant (Kaliningrad State University), Historian, History teacher degree 2007–2011 – Doctoral studies at Klaip ėda University

Employer Since 2008 – Kaliningrad State Museum of History and Art, Department of Archaeology

E-mail [email protected]

50 Vardas, Pavardė

Roman Širouchov

Išsilavinimas

2001-2006 m. – Studijos Rusijos valstybiniame I. Kanto universitete (Kaliningrado valstybinis universitetas). Istoriko, istorijos dėstytojo laipsnis 2007–2011 m. – Doktorantūros studijos Klaipėdos univesritete

Darbovietė

Nuo 2008 m. – Kaliningrado valstybinis istorijos ir meno muziejus, archeologijos skyrius

El. paštas [email protected]

Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla

Roman Širouchov PRUSU IR KURŠIU KONTAKTAI XI – XIII A. PRADŽIOJE ARCHEOLOGIJOS DUOMENIMIS Daktaro disertacijos santrauka

CONTACTS BETWEEN PRUSSIANS AND CURONIANS IN THE 11TH – EARLY 13TH CENTURIES, ACCORDING TO THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA Summary of Doctoral Dissertation

Klaipėda, 2012

SL 1335. 2012 10 10. Apimtis 3,25 sąl. sp. l. Tiražas 70 egz. Išleido ir spausdino Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla, Herkaus Manto g. 84, 92294 Klaipėda Tel. (8 46) 398 891, el. paštas: [email protected]; interneto adresas: http://www.ku.lt/leidykla/