Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Middle Pleistocene hominin occupation in the Danjiangkou Reservoir Region, Central China: studies of formation processes and stone technology of Maling 2A site

* Shuwen Pei a, , Dongwei Niu a, Ying Guan a, Xiaomei Nian a, Mingjie Yi a, Ning Ma a, Xiaoli Li b, Mohamed Sahnouni c a Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100044, China b Beijing Museum of Natural History, Beijing 100050, China c Centro Nacional de Investigacion sobre la Evolucion Humana (CENIEH), Paseo de la Sierra de Atapuerca S/N, Burgos 09002, Spain article info abstract

Article history: Danjiangkou Reservoir Region (DRR) is one of the areas where Acheulean-like stone technology (Mode 2) Received 4 March 2014 was reported in central and south China. It is located at the end of the upper reaches of the Hanshui River Received in revised form (the largest tributary of the Yangtze River). Systematic field investigations documented more than ninety 20 September 2014 Paleolithic sites along the fluvial terraces of the Hanshui and Danjiang Rivers (the latter a tributary of the Accepted 27 October 2014 upper reach of the Hanshui River). Subsequent excavations at more than 30 sites led to the discovery of a Available online 6 November 2014 large number of Paleolithic stone artifacts in the past decade, showing that early hominins lived in the region at least by the early part of the Middle Pleistocene. However, little is known from the archaeo- Keywords: Maling locality 2A (ML2A) logical record about the context of the sites and their formation processes, the technological charac- Late Middle Pleistocene teristics of the stone artifact assemblages, and whether they truly belong to Mode 2 technology or just to Site formation processes core and flake technology, and the overall hominin behavioral patterns and adaptation during the Middle Mode 2 technology to Late Pleistocene. Danjiangkou Reservoir Region (DRR) Maling locality 2A (ML2A) is buried in the front edge of the third alluvial terrace of the Danjiang River. Central China Archaeological excavations, undertaken at the site in 2011, recovered 1026 stone artifacts from a red clay deposit. Preliminary OSL dating and geomorphological comparisons between the terraces in the Hanshui River system suggest that the site is dated to the late Middle Pleistocene. Patterns of artifact concen- tration suggest that the site was buried in secondary context where the stone artifacts were transported by water from a relatively higher location nearby. The artifacts, primarily made on quartzite and quartz cobbles, include cores, whole flakes, various fragments, retouched pieces, two bifaces and a hammer- stone. All flaking is by direct hard hammer without core preparation. The majority of flakes in the early stages of core reduction indicate that the cores are not extensively reduced. Choppers are the pre- dominant core category, together with discoids, polyhedrons, and core scrapers. It should be noted that two bifacially flaked cobbles can classed as mode 2 implements. Eleven retouched pieces are recognized, and they were casually modified by direct hammer percussion. Although only two bifaces were exca- vated from this site, many more are recorded in the larger study area. The ML2A artifact assemblage may be considered as a Chinese variant of an Acheulean-like (Mode 2) industry. It can be deduced that Homo erectus was likely the responsible for manufacturing the stone artifacts. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

In the last half century, the integration of site formation pro- cesses inquiry into Paleolithic studies has revolutionized the way archaeologists explain hominin behavior from material remains * Corresponding author. No. 142 Xizhimenwai Street, P.O. Box 643, Beijing 100044, China. Tel.: þ86 10 88369260; fax: þ86 10 68337001. (Isaac, 1967; Schick, 1986, 1991; Schiffer, 1987; Sahnouni and E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Pei). Heinzelin, 1998; Dibble et al., 2006; Bernatchez, 2010). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.10.022 0305-4403/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 392 S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407

Understanding site formation processes is crucial for interpreting The Danjiangkou Reservoir Region (thereafter DRR) is located in artifact patterns and hominin behavior (Schick, 1987a,b; Kuman, the southern margin of Qinling Mountains in central China, which 1994, 2003; Bertran and Texier, 1995; Sahnouni et al., 2002; is conventionally regarded as the boundary between the southern Hovers, 2003; Lenoble and Bertran, 2004; McPherron, 2005; Sisk and northern climatic zones of China. In the MayeJune 1989 field and Shea, 2008; Domínguez- Rodrigo et al., 2010; Pollarolo et al., season, two damaged but relatively complete hominin crania were 2010; Benito-Calvo and de la Torre, 2011; Malinsky-Buller et al., discovered in the fourth terrace deposits of Hanshui River in 2011). It is well documented that natural processes may affect the Quyuanhekou, Yunxian (Yun county) (Xu, 1978; Li et al., 1991; Li formation of Paleolithic sites and the spatial distribution of their and Etler, 1992; Wu and Poirier, 1995). They were associated with archaeological remains (Petraglia and Potts, 1994; Kluskens, 1995; a late Early Pleistocene to early Middle Pleistocene fauna and 453 Shea, 1999; Ward and Larcomb, 2003; Brantingham et al., 2007; stone artifacts. Based on magneto e stratigraphic studies, Yan Marder et al., 2011), including flowing water which was recog- (1993) suggested that the site was formed between 0.87 Ma and nized as a primary disturbing agent affecting artifact assemblages 0.83 Ma while Feng (2008) estimated it to date to 0.8 Ma. However, and their concentration. Potentially disturbed Paleolithic sites are Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) dating, carried out on ten commonly encased in high energy deposits such as sandy channels, mammalian fossil animal teeth stratigraphically associated with gravel bars, river terraces, etc., where notable concentrations of the hominin skulls, yielded an age of 0.581 Ma ± 0.093 Ma (Chen stone artifacts occur (Schick, 1992, 2001; Petraglia and Potts, 1987, et al., 1996). In spite of the relative discrepancies of the proposed 1994; Demeter et al., 2010). Archaeologists have realized that ages, an end Early Pleistocene to early Middle Pleistocene age for fluvial sedimentary processes had great impact on the formation of the locality seems reasonable. The in situ associated stone artifacts Paleolithic sites and on the integrity of stone artifact assemblages total 317 comprising primarily casual cores and bifacially flaked (Shea, 1999; Schick, 1992; Sahnouni and Heinzelin, 1998; Benito- cobbles (Etler and Li, 1994). Recently, Feng (2008) identified 14 Calvo and de la Torre, 2011). Therefore, it is a necessity to eval- stone artifacts as Acheulean-like handaxes, cleavers, and picks. In uate Paleolithic sites for possible fluvial disturbance prior to mak- 1994 and 2004, systematic field investigations were launched in ing any hominin behavioral inferences from stone artifact the region as part of a salvage archaeological project funded by the assemblages. national government prior to the construction of the Danjiangkou The occurrence of Acheulean (Mode 2) handaxe technologies Reservoir dam. Eighty-seven Paleolithic sites have been discovered has been a matter of debate (known as “the handaxe issue”) for a along the fluvial terraces of the Hanshui River and Danjiang Rivers. long time in East Eurasian Paleolithic studies (Movius, 1948; Schick Subsequent excavations at more than 30 sites led to the discovery of and Dong, 1993; Gao and Norton, 2002; Norton et al., 2006; Norton more than ten thousand Paleolithic stone artifacts, suggesting that and Bae, 2009; Lycett and Bae, 2010; Lycett and Norton, 2010, early hominins occupied the region at least by the early part of among many others). It was generally accepted in the last century Middle Pleistocene. However, little is known about the mode of that there are also casual cores and flakes with the focus of the accumulation of the sites and to which extent fluvial agencies “chopper-chopping tool” designation (Movius, 1948). This term contributed to their formation, as well as whether the excavated now in large measure has been discarded and changed to Oldowan- stone artifact assemblages are suitable for early hominin behavior like or Mode 1 [as defined by Clark (1969, 1970) core and flake inferences. Here we report a preliminary study undertaken at a technologies (Schick and Dong, 1993; Schick, 1994; Clark, 1998; newly excavated site of Maling locality 2A in the Danjiang River Norton and Bae, 2009; Lycett and Bae, 2010; Bar-Yosef and Wang, region highlighting its formation processes and the technological 2012; Gao, 2013; Pei et al., 2013). Following the initial announce- patterns of its lithic artifact assemblage. ment of the presence of a well-documented Acheulean-like in- dustry in the Middle Pleistocene locality of Bose basin, southern China (Hou et al., 2000), more and more similar industries were 2. Stratigraphy and dating reported not only in Bose Basin (Wang et al., 2008, 2012, 2014; Huang et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2012), but also in Luonan basin The Maling locality 2A (hereafter ML2A) site (3255052.000N, (Wang, 2005, 2007), and Danjiangkou Reservoir Region (DRR) 111 28032.500E, 145e160 m a.s.l.) is located in the Maling village, (Feng, 2008; Li et al., 2009, 2012, 2013, 2014; Kuman et al., 2014)in Shengwan town, Xichuan county, Henan province, Central China Central China. At present, there seems to be a consensus that (Fig. 1). The site was excavated in MarcheApril 2011 by archaeol- bifacially worked implements (including Acheulean-like handaxes, ogists of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoan- cleavers, and picks) have been discovered at some Middle to early thropology (IVPP) (Chinese Academy of Sciences), as part of a Late Pleistocene localities in south and central China and South salvage archaeology project around the construction of the Dan- Korea (Norton et al., 2006; Norton and Bae, 2009; Bae et al., 2012). jiangkou reservoir dam to a higher latitude. The excavation exposed The presence of bifaces in East Asia is regarded as evidence to an area of about 300 m2 yielding a 1026 of stone artifacts. invalidate the hypothesis of the so-called “Movius Line” and to The Hanshui River, the largest tributary of the middle reaches of suggest that there is no obvious technological and typological dif- the Yangtze River, has its source south of the Qinling Mountains. ference between the East and West. However, although some of The river is 1577 km long and has a 174,300 km2 catchment area. As bifaces have been collected from river terraces as surface finds and the largest branch of Hanshui River, the Danjiang River has a length lack of stratigraphic information and dating information (Gao, of 244 km and a 7551 km2 catchment area (Ma et al., 2003). The 2012), more and more Acheulean-like implements were from in DRR, situated at the confluence of the Hanshui and Danjiang Rivers, situ context (Wang et al., 2014; Li et al., 2014; Kuman et al., 2014). is an intermontane depression with an elevation of 120 m above sea Moreover, such a low density of stone artifacts (<1/m2) for the large level. Up to four alluvial terraces were well developed and widely area investigated is characteristic of all river terraces and basins in distributed in the Hanshui River System, which is closely related to central and south China where bifaces are found. This seems to be a the uplift of the QinghaieTibet Plateau and the development of the genuine pattern when study on the site formation processes and Hanshui and Danjiang Rivers (Chu, 1955; Shen, 1956). The flood- compared with west Acheulean sites (Wang et al., 2014; Li et al., plain or the first Terrace (T1) is less than 10 m above the riverbed; 2014; Kuman et al., 2014). Therefore, it is important that the the Alluvial Terrace (T2) is 10e15 m, the Red Clay Terrace (T3) is characteristics of these assemblages (mode 1 or mode 2) should be 30e40 m, and the Eroded Terrace (T4) is 60e70 m (Shen, 1956). obtained from in situ occurrences instead of surface collections. Particularly in the DRR, the Red Clay Terrace (T3), with an elevation S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407 393

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of Maling Locality 2A site.

Fig. 2. Quaternary geomorphology of the ML2A site, showing the terraces of the Danjiang River. 1. Clay, 2. Silt clay, 3. Sands, 4. Cobble layer, 5. Bedrock, 6. ML2A site. 394 S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407 of 30e40 m, most likely was formed due to climate change (Pei to Late Pleistocene (Shen, 1956; Pei et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009, 2012, et al., 2008). 2013; Zhou et al., 2009; Feng et al., 2012; Niu et al., 2012; Sun et al., ML2A is buried in the anterior margin of the third terrace (T3) 2012). No dating estimate was available for the lower three terraces on the right bank of the Danjiang River (Fig. 2). The Danjiang River (T3eT1) before our investigations. valley was most probably formed in the Late Tertiary and was The optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) technique was also chiefly developed during the Quaternary. Stratigraphic in- applied to date the ML2A site. Nine sediments were sampled from vestigations were centered on the third terrace (rock-seated two stratigraphic profiles, from which fine-grained (4e11 mm) terrace) around the ML2A site. The base of the third terrace consists fractions of quartz and medium-grained polymineral (45e63 mm) of Cambrian limestone, dolomitic limestone, and shale. Resting were extracted using the procedures published by Zhang and Zhou directly on bedrock is a lag deposits of gravel consisting of cobbles, (2007) and Nian et al. (2012). However, the results of De mea- pebbles, and sands. The upper section above the gravel layer is surements showed that the De values obtained for the studied composed of fluvial deposits 6e10 m thick of brown-red clay and samples range from 261 ± 29 Gy to 395 ± 41 Gy, which exceeded red silt clay (latosol). The stratigraphic sequence of the site may be the quartz dating limit using the SAR protocol resulting in age described, from top to bottom, as follows (Fig. 3): underestimation. For this reason we measured the feldspar signals to extend the luminescence chronology to older archaeological 1. Gray cultivated layer, 0.5e1.0 m thick; deposits at Maling site. The results show that sample L2223-2226 2. Red clay with numerous carbonate concretions, 4.0e5.0 m from ML2A-S1 dates to ~200 ka and samples from ML2A-S2 date thick; between ~238 ka and ~385 ka using medium-grained polymineral 3. Brown-yellow silt clay with numerous carbonate concretions, pIRIR225 C protocol (Table 1). 2.0e2.5 m thick; 4. Gravel layer, 1.0e1.5 m thick; 3. Materials and methods 5. Cambrian limestone, dolomitic limestone, and shale. 3.1. Excavation and materials As a result of the lack of datable material, the dating of most Middle to Late Pleistocene archaeological sites from river terraces After undertaking systematic mapping of the research area and in central and south China, in particular those younger than studying the geomorphology and stratigraphy of the river terraces Brunhes/Matuyama boundary (0.78 Ma), is not available. In DRR, and the localities yielding in situ archaeological materials, we magnetostratigraphic results show that the fourth terrace (T4) was identified an area of 300 m2 for excavation. Prior to the excavation, most probably formed during the end Early to Middle Pleistocene we collected 40 stone artifacts from the surface and subsurface (Yan, 1993; Chen et al., 1996; Feng, 2008; Sun et al., 2012). Based on scraping that were eroding from the archaeological deposit. The geological and stratigraphic comparisons of Hanshui River systems, archaeological layer was excavated in 5e10 cm increments; and researchers deduced that the third terraces (T3) and second terrace large test trenches were dug to check sterile layers. All the exca- (T2) were probably formed from the end of the Middle Pleistocene vated material was recorded using taphonomically-based

Fig. 3. A profile of the ML2A site. S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407 395

Table 1 U, Th, K concentration, depth of the samples collected from Maling 2A site, and pIRIR290 C dating results of medium-grained polymineral extracts.

1 Field no. Lab no. Depth (m) U (ppm) Th (ppm) K (%) Dose rate (Gy ka ) De (Gy) Age (ka) Over-dispersion ML2A-S1-OSL-1 L2223 0.2 2.42 ± 0.10 13.5 ± 0.38 2.37 ± 0.07 3.86 ± 0.23 922 ± 83 239 ± 26 0.13 ± 0.06 ML2A-S1-OSL-2 L2224 0.4 2.42 ± 0.10 14.2 ± 0.38 2.51 ± 0.07 4.01 ± 0.23 975 ± 72 243 ± 23 0.1 ± 0.05 ML2A-S1-OSL-3 L2225 0.6 2.55 ± 0.10 13.8 ± 0.37 2.45 ± 0.07 3.95 ± 0.23 987 ± 105 250 ± 30 0.02 ± 0.02 ML2A-S1-OSL-4 L2226 0.8 2.48 ± 0.10 13.7 ± 0.37 2.44 ± 0.07 3.91 ± 0.23 863 ± 61 221 ± 20 0.13 ± 0.06 ML2A-S2-OSL-5 L2227 0.3 2.88 ± 0.11 14.3 ± 0.39 2.48 ± 0.07 4.13 ± 0.24 1063 ± 38 258 ± 18 0.07 ± 0.04 ML2A-S2-OSL-6 L2228 0.5 2.67 ± 0.10 13.4 ± 0.36 2.36 ± 0.07 3.89 ± 0.23 1092 ± 107 281 ± 32 0.13 ± 0.06 ML2A-S2-OSL-7 L2229 0.7 2.71 ± 0.10 13.8 ± 0.37 2.41 ± 0.07 3.96 ± 0.23 1421 ± 52 359 ± 25 0.14 ± 0.06 ML2A-S2-OSL-8 L2230 0.9 2.27 ± 0.10 13.4 ± 0.36 2.23 ± 0.06 3.66 ± 0.22 1411 ± 74 386 ± 30 0.02 ± 0.02 ML2A-S2-OSL-9 L2232 1.3 2.71 ± 0.10 14.2 ± 0.37 2.62 ± 0.07 4.15 ± 0.24 1551 ± 83 374 ± 30 0.02 ± 0.02

Estimated water content: 20 ± 5%. documentation including measurement of artifact orientation and question that needs to be asked is: Do ML2A stone artifact con- inclination (dip) with a compass and an inclinometer used in site centrations present archaeological patterns produced by early formation studies. A total of 948 stone artifacts were recovered in hominins or patterns that were formed naturally as an effect of low density, 900 of which were concentrated in an area of 20 m2 hydraulic transport? To address this question, a set of analytical (Fig. 4). Because of the acid soil of the red clay river terraces, criteria, designed by Schick (1984, 1986, 1991, 1992) were applied commonly encountered in Central and South China, fossil bones for evaluating the disturbance of artifact assemblages caused by were not preserved. post-depositional agencies. These criteria involved the inspection of ML2A artifact assemblage regarding several aspects, such as 3.2. Methods assemblage composition, debitage size distribution, and patterns of orientation and inclination. 3.2.1. Site formation processes Stone artifact assemblage composition can be used to appraise Fig. 4 shows the oblong-shaped artifact concentrations at ML2A whether the stone artifacts were manufactured at the site. If artifact that appear to have been produced by a hydraulic current capturing manufacture occurred at the site, the expected assemblage materials left on the landscape by hominins (Langbein and Leopold, composition would incorporate artifactual elements that match 1968; Isaac, 1977; Schick, 1991, 1992, 2001). Therefore, a pertinent technological production, especially the core/debitage ratio. When

Fig. 4. Horizontal and three dimensional distributions of the ML2A excavated artifacts. The top figure showing the artifacts distributed in the excavated area. The lower figure showing relatively high density of the artifacts and elongated concentration in the southeast part (light gray color in the top figure) of the excavated area. 396 S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407 the artifact assemblage is not coherent, alternative explanations (1986), Isaac et al. (1981), and Isaac and Harris (1997), including should be considered including the possibility of hydraulic trans- flaked pieces, detached pieces or debitage, and pounded pieces. In port (Schick, 1986). order to provide additional descriptive details, flaked pieces were One important indicator for assessing the degree of fluvial further classified into cores, tools, and retouched pieces using a disturbance is the debitage size distribution. This consists of modified version of Mary Leakey's (1971) typology developed by comparing the observed frequency distribution of artifact size with Toth (1982, 1985a). The detached pieces, resulting from core re- that from experimental stone knapping, using the same materials ductions or retouching blanks, were classified as debitage following and techniques (Schick, 1986). If artifact knapping occurred at the criteria outlined by Leakey (1971). These include whole flakes, flake site and was not subject to fluvial winnowing, the debitage size fragments, and chunks (angular fragments) (Toth,1982, 1985a; Toth distribution would resemble the expected experimental curve et al., 2006). suggesting on-site stone artifacts manufacture. The experimental Cores and tools: Leakey (1971) considered cores as typological artifact distribution shows a curve, illustrating a distinctive peak of tools. However, using a technological approach, Toth (1982, 1985a) small debitage (<2 cm) decreasing with larger artifacts (Schick, views cores as a source of flake production. According to the clas- 1986). The absence or low percentage of micro-debitage in a site, sification system developed by Toth, we classify ML2A cores as however, may indicate that either the stone knapping did not occur choppers, discoids, polyhedrons, and core scrapers. It should be at the site or that post-occupational disturbance, such as hydraulic noted that two bifacially flaked cobbles can classed as mode 2 tools flow should be considered. (bifaces). The recorded quantitative attributes for cores and tools Preferred artifact orientations have been recognized as a valu- include maximum dimensions of length, breadth, and thickness in able means of assessing the winnowing of archaeological materials millimeters; and weight in grams. The recorded core technological by water. When archaeological occurrences have been subject to attributes include type of raw materials, mode of flaking (unifacial, fluvial transport, preferred orientations tend to develop especially bifacial, and multi-facial), percentage of circumference flaked, among elongate artifacts. Elongate materials tend to be oriented number of flaked scars, percentage of surface cortex remaining either parallel (debitage size <4 cm) or perpendicular (debitage size (estimated to the nearest 5%), edge angle, and extent for further 4 cm) to flow trajectory (Schick, 1986). flaking. The combination of artifact inclination and dip is a sensitive Retouched pieces: Retouched pieces are defined as retaining indicator of water flow direction (Schick, 1986). Schick found that a flake scars that are normally less than 2 cm long, suggesting edge shallow inclination (5e11) of stationary artifacts is produced by modification. Attributes for retouched pieces include maximum low flow velocities, while higher velocities tend to produce steeper dimensions, weight, type of raw materials, initial form (or blank), inclination, ranging between 10 and 30 or more (Schick, 1984, retouch inclination (Sahnouni, 1998)(flat, simple, semi-abrupt, and 1991). In addition, inclination of oblate artifacts tends to incline abrupt based on angle), retouch position and location. Categories of or dip towards the upstream of the hydraulic flowing (Schick, 1992). retouched pieces are also recorded. Whole flakes: The flake type system developed by Toth (1982) 3.2.2. Lithic analysis was used in order to examine the stages of flaking represented at Because there is no single standardized typology for the Chinese ML2A. He recognized six flake-types based on the technological Early Paleolithic stone tool industries (for discussion see Jia et al., nature of the flake platform and dorsal surface including: Type I 1972; Gao, 1999, 2000, 2002; Gao and Norton, 2002; Pei, 2014) (cortical platform/cortical dorsal surface), Type II (cortical platform/ comparable to that used in East Africa (Isaac, 1969; Leakey, 1971; partial cortical dorsal surface), Type III (cortical platform/non Isaac and Harris, 1997) and since there are no standard Acheulean cortical dorsal surface), Type IV (non cortical platform/cortical Large Cutting Tools recovered from ML2A, we rely primarily on the dorsal surface), Type V (non cortical platform/partial cortical dorsal classification systems designed by renowned archaeologists in surface), and Type VI (non cortical platform/non cortical dorsal describing African Oldowan industries, including Isaac (1986), Isaac surface). The quantitative attributes for the whole flakes include and Harris (1997); Isaac et al. (1981), Leakey (1971), and Toth (1982, maximum dimensions of length, breadth, thickness (in millime- 1985a). ters), and weight (in grams). Length is defined as the distance from the top of flake, perpendicular to platform breadth, to the distal end 3.2.2.1. Raw materials. The utilized lithic raw material is primarily of the flake. Breadth and thickness are defined as maximum di- high sphericity cobbles, which were locally available to hominins mensions orthogonal to length. In addition, flake shape is deter- along the ancient riverbed. Raw materials, color and texture were mined based on two calculated ratios: relative thickness (breadth/ recorded for all artifacts from ML2A. All identifications were made thickness) and elongation (breadth/length). The technological at- by the first author based on visual inspection. Alluvial rock types tributes include type of raw materials, flake types, striking platform used by hominins include quartz, quartzite, and other rocks (e.g. facets (scars), interior platform angle (bulb angle, measured be- volcanic rocks, quartz phyllite, and sandstone). Quartz and tween the striking platform and the ventral face), number of scars quartzite are the primary types of rock used for producing stone on dorsal surface, and scar patterning on the dorsal surfaces. artifacts. The quartz is colorless or white and it fractures somewhat unevenly, probably because it is either strained or contains im- 4. Results perfections. Nearly all of the quartzite is white, brown yellow, pale yellow, gray, and black color; and it is extremely coarse-grained 4.1. Site formation processes with fractures similar to that in the quartz. Some of the stone ar- tifacts are made of volcanic rocks of medium to dark gray or gray 4.1.1. Stone artifact assemblage composition red color. They are fine-grained and either non-porphritic or Fig. 5 presents the lithic assemblage stone artifact composition. slightly porphyritic. The primary flaked volcanic rocks are rhyolite As can be seen in the histogram, the debitage category has the and dacite. A small number of artifacts is of quartz phyllite, black or highest frequency (n ¼ 910, 92.3%), while cores (together with gray in color, fine-grained, and usually traversed by calcite dikes. tools) and retouched pieces are the least frequent, 6.49% (n ¼ 66) and 1.11% (n ¼ 11) respectively. Compared to the experimentally 3.2.2.2. Technological classification. Each artifact was initially clas- generated assemblages (Schick, 1986), both the core & tool/debit- sified into the basic technological categories proposed by Isaac age ratio (0.07) and core & tool frequency (6.49% versus 1%) at S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407 397

Fig. 5. ML2A stone artifact assemblage composition (N ¼ 986).

ML2A are slightly higher. These figures suggest that the ML2A assemblage likely suffered from some fluvial disturbance.

4.1.2. Debitage size distribution The ML2A debitage size profile (whole flakes, fragments and chunks) shows a slightly different distribution to the one experi- mentally produced (Fig. 6). While the experimental debitage size distribution is dominated by debitage <2 cm, the ML2A distribution is nearly devoid of this category at only 3.8%. This distribution pattern suggests that the debitage has probably undergone some sorting of the artifacts by size as a result of water passing through the original artifact concentration and washing out most of the lighter material. Water flow might also have created an unusual accumulation of artifacts. In fact, unlike the experimental distri- bution, the ML2A debitage distribution shows a peak in the 4 cm.

4.1.3. Artifact orientation Fig. 7 displays the pattern of the ML2A artifact orientations. The rose diagram for all the artifact orientation shows three slight peaks Fig. 6. ML2A debitage size distribution (d▪d) with reference to the experimental of preferred orientation, namely north-south (NeS), northeast- curve (——:——). Experimental curve according to Schick (1986). (a) all debitage for southwest (NEeSW), and east-west (EeW) (Fig. 7a). In order to see ML2A (N ¼ 910), (b) above 2 cm maximum length of debitage for ML2A (N ¼ 875). if there are clear preferred orientations of the artifacts based on artifact size, the overall orientation diagram of the elongated arti- facts is broken down into two size groups: artifacts 4 cm and the artifacts have a stable inclination between 0 and 10. These artifacts <4 cm of maximum length. The diagrams reveal that inclination patterns suggest a higher velocity current. indeed artifacts 4 cm are clearly oriented northeastesouthwest (NEeSW) (Fig. 7b), and those <4 cm are more varied (Fig. 7c). From 4.2. Lithic analysis these orientation diagrams (particularly Fig. 7b), it can be inferred that overall all the artifacts were reoriented to some extent by the 4.2.1. Overall assemblage characteristics water flow from their initial orientation, but pieces >4cmin The ML2A stone assemblage totals 1026 artifacts including 986 maximum length were the most affected by the water disturbance. excavated and 40 collected from the surface (Table 2). The debitage category predominates the assemblage (N ¼ 948, 92.40%), followed 4.1.4. Artifact inclination by cores (N ¼ 64, 6.24%), retouched pieces (N ¼ 11, 1.07%), and tools Given the importance of artifact inclination as an indicator of (N ¼ 2, 0.19%). A single hammerstone (Fig. 11e) is recognized. archaeological site disturbance by fluvial transport, the direction In terms of raw material, the artifacts are primarily made of and degree of artifact dip were measured systematically during the quartzite (n ¼ 751, 73.20%), followed by quartz (n ¼ 209, 20.37%). excavation using a compass and an inclinometer. In terms of The remaining artifacts (6.43%) are made of other rocks including inclination direction, Fig. 8 shows that most of ML2A artifacts were quartz phyllite, sandstone, and volcanic materials (rhyolite and inclined towards the north and north-west (NNW) direction, which dacite) (Table 3). suggests this was the upstream direction of the hydraulic current. Fig. 9 provides insight into the strength of the flow velocity 4.2.2. Cores and tools transporting the artifacts. It shows that nearly 55% of the specimens The cores and tools total 66 (Table 4), 49 of which are in have an inclination ranging between 10 and 30, while slightly quartzite, 8 in quartz, and 9 other raw materials including quartz more than 35% show an inclination greater than 30. Only 10% of phyllite, sandstone, and volcanic materials (rhyolite and dacite). Their maximum dimensions are variable ranging between 46 and 230 mm (mean ¼ 89.55 mm, s.d. ¼ 37.46); and their weight varies between 41 and 2980 g (mean ¼ 486.23, s. d. ¼ 570.40). Typologically, the ML2A cores (Flaked Pieces for Isaac and Harris (1997)) can be classified as choppers (57.57%), discoids (15.15%), polyhedrons (4.55%) (Fig. 10d), core scrapers (of Isaac et al., 1981) (19.70%) (Fig. 11c), and bifaces (of Leakey, 1971) (3.03%) (Fig. 12) (Table 4). Based on flaking modes of Toth (1982, 1985a), the chop- pers comprise unifacial choppers (n ¼ 22) (Fig. 10a and b) and bifacial choppers (n ¼ 18) (Fig. 10c). The discoids are both uni- facially flaked (n ¼ 8) (Fig. 11b) and bifacially flaked (n ¼ 2) (Fig. 11a). The descriptive data of the two bifaces (which can be assigned to the Acheulean-like handaxe and cleaver) are displayed in Table 5. The ML2A cores and tools are characterized technologically by a large variability and lack of stereotype forms. As shown in Fig. 13, 50.00% of the cores and tools are unifacially flaked (unidirectional), and 42.40% of the cores and tools are bifacially flaked. Only 7.60% of the cores are multi-facially flaked. The percentage of cobble circumference flaked is a criterion that usually can be used to determine how extensively a core or tool has been exploited or the extent of flaking (Toth, 1982; Toth et al., 2006). Examination of the percentage of circumference flaked on cores shows that it varies between 10% and 100%, with a mean of 55.9% (s.d. ¼ 27.6). The number of flake scars (10 mm maximum dimension) on cores and tools gives a minimum estimate of the number of flakes that have been removed from a core or a tool (Toth, 1982; Toth et al., 2006). Cores or tools with low scar counts tend to be less reduced, while cores or tools with higher scar counts often are heavily reduced. The number of scars on the ML2A cores and tools counts ranges between 2 and 8 scars (mean ¼ 7.3, s.d. ¼ 3.4), suggesting less reduced cores. Likewise, the amount of cortex remaining on the cores or tools in relation to the flaked core surface can be a gross estimate of the amount of reduction of the cobbles. The percentage of surface cortex remaining of ML2A cores and tools ranges between 0 and 85%, with a mean of 52.30% (s.d. ¼ 26.21), suggesting moderate flaking of the cores and tools.

Fig. 7. Rose diagrams showing ML2A stone artifact orientation patterns. (a) all artifacts ¼ ¼ < ¼ (N 343), (b) 4cm(N 224), (c) 4cm(N 119). Fig. 8. Rose diagram showing ML2A stone artifact inclination (dip) patterns (N ¼ 377). S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407 399

To evaluate the extent of the further flaking of the ML2A cores and tools, the structure of the raw materials and the dimension of the cores and tools also should be taken into consideration besides the edge angle. Four degrees of the cores and tools for next flaking can be estimated, there are easy, moderate, difficult and too small (Toth, pers. com.). As shown in Fig. 14, more than 54% of the cores and tools are difficult or may be too small for further flaking, while 25% can be estimated moderate for next flaking, only less than 20% percentage displays very easy for further flaking.

4.2.3. Whole flakes A total of 240 whole flakes has been recovered from ML2A site, which account for 25.32% of the artifacts identified as debitage. The most striking feature of the whole flakes is the presence of clear and prominent bulbs of percussion on most of the specimens (Fig. 15), which shows that freehand percussion was dominant. As for the cores and tools, quartzite was the dominant raw material followed by quartz and other raw materials. Fig. 9. Diagram showing ML2A stone artifact inclination in degrees (N ¼ 377). Table 6 shows the quantitative data for flakes. Length ranges between 18 mm and 137 mm with a mean of 49.69 mm (s.d. ¼ 18.38). The breadth varies between 18 mm and 121 mm with Table 2 Archaeological remains recovered in the excavations at ML2A site. a mean of 44.00 mm (s.d. ¼ 16.89). Thickness ranges from 7 mm to 57 mm with a mean of 18.34 mm (s.d. ¼ 7.50). Weight ranges be- Site Excavated Stone artifacts Total tween 3 g and 880 g with a mean of 56.09 g (s.d. ¼ 82.31). areas (m2) Surface collected Excavated Based upon experimental studies conducted by Toth (1982:199), N % N % smaller flakes tend to be produced through retouching of flakes, fl ML2A 300 40 3.90 948 96.10 1026 while akes whose length ranges between 27.8 mm and 35.1 mm are commonly produced by the flaking of choppers, polyhedrons and discoids. Both trends are seen in ML2A flakes. The ML2A flakes The measurement of the edge angle gives an indication of po- also include examples as long as 137 mm. The variability in flake tential functional qualities of a core or tool edge as well as an dimensions appears to be due to the raw materials. indication as to whether a given core or tool could be easily flaked As presented in the methodology section, flakes were divided further (Toth, 1982; Toth et al., 2006). The edge angle of ML2A into six types (from I to VI), based upon the location of cortex on cores and tools varies between 54 and 116 (s.d. ¼ 13.50), with a their platforms and dorsal surfaces (Toth, 1982, 1985a). The various mean of 75.56 . It is assumed that the cores and tools are still large flake types are shown in Fig. 16. The flake population is character- enough for further reduction according to the experimentation by ized by high proportions of type III (38.75%) and type II (30.00%), Toth (1982). with moderate proportions of flakes types VI (15.00%) and V

Fig. 10. Photos showing choppers and polyhedron from ML2A site. (a) unifacial chopper (XCML0230), (b) unifacial chopper (XCML0190), (c) bifacial chopper (XCML0006), (d) polyhedron (XCML0064). 400 S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407

Fig. 11. Photos showing discoids, core scraper, hammerstone, and retouched piece from ML2A site. (a) bifacial discoid (XCML0045), (b) unifacial discoid (XCML0478), (c) core scraper (XCML1124), (d) retouched piece (XCML0031), (e) hammerstone (XCML0251).

(14.17%), and low proportions of flake types IV (1.25%) and I (0.83%). polyhedrons and core scrapers are relatively longer and thicker. The overall distribution of flake types indicates that the first gen- Thus, the majority of the ML2A flakes correspond to the simple core erations (types I to III, characterized by cortical platforms) are the types in the assemblage. most abundant (69.58%), and the remaining generations represent The number of platform facets (scars) is an attribute often used 30.42%. Unifacial flaking of cores produces higher proportions of to examine patterns of platform preparation (e.g. biface thinning types II and III than the bifacial flaking mode. Thus this pattern flakes and Levallois flakes and points). Analysis of flake platform reflects cores that are not highly reduced (Blumenschine et al., facets (scars) (1 mm) for the ML2A whole flakes (Fig. 18) shows 2012). that 60.83% of platforms are cortical due to large number of flakes To have an indication of flake shapes, two ratios were calcu- types I to III (first generations). These cortical platforms are fol- lated: breadth/length (B/L) and thickness/breadth (Th/B). The plot lowed by those having one scar, representing 27.92%, while the of these two ratios (Fig.17) indicates that in general the flake shapes platforms with more than one scar constitute only 11.25%. Flake are primarily moderately long and relatively thick. Although rare, platform scars of ML2A assemblage are thus compatible with the there are also flakes with extreme shapes, such as short and thin or simple cores in the assemblage. The cortical platforms are largely a long and thin. According to experimental flaking (Toth, 1982, 1985a), flakes resulting from manufacturing Acheulean artifacts such as handaxes, picks, cleavers, and flake scrapers tend to be Table 4 Technological breakdown of the core and tool types at ML2A. shorter and thinner, while flakes produced by flaking choppers, Core and tool types Frequencies (N) Percentage (%)

Table 3 Choppers 38 57.57 Frequencies of artifact categories and rock types of ML2A. Unifacial choppers 22 Bifacial choppers 16 Raw materials / Frequencies Quartzite Quartz Others Discoids 10 15.15 Unifacial discoids 8 Category of artifact Y N % N % N % N % Bifacial discoids 2 Cores 64 6.24 49 4.78 8 0.78 7 0.68 Polyhedrons 3 4.55 Tools 2 0.19 0 0 0 0 2 0.19 Core scrapers 13 19.70 Retouched pieces 11 1.07 8 0.78 1 0.10 2 0.20 Bifaces 2 3.03 Debitage 948 92.40 693 67.54 200 19.49 55 5.36 Handaxe 1 Hammerstone 1 0.10 1 0.10 0 0 0 0 Cleaver 1 Total 1026 100 751 73.20 209 20.37 66 6.43 Total 66 100 S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407 401

Fig. 12. Photos showing bifaces from ML2A site. (a) Cleaver (XCML0087), (b) Handaxe (XCML1133).

Table 5 Descriptive data of the bifaces from ML2A site.

Number Type Blanks RM Wt (g) L (mm) W (mm) T (mm) L/W T/W

XCML0087 Cleaver Cobble Dacite 1260 188 96 63 1.96 0.65 XCML1133 Handaxe Cobble Rhyolite 1580 190 102 65 1.86 0.63

RM, raw material; WT, weight; L, length; W, width; T, thickness. byproduct of unifacially flaked cobbles. The platforms characterized The scar patterning on the dorsal surface of a flake yields in- by one scar might be the result of flaking polyhedrons and discoids formation about the core reduction strategies used. Categories after the removal of cortex. include all cortex, unidirectional, bidirectional, transverse, sub- Interior platform angle is formed between the striking platform radial, and crest (Toth, 1982, 1985b, 1987; Toth et al., 2006). The (at the point of percussion) and the ventral surface of the flake most common flake scar patterning of ML2A flakes encountered below the bulb of percussion. Platform angles for the ML2A flakes was unidirectional, representing 65.83% (Fig. 21). It is followed by vary between 81 and 132, with a mean of 105.27 (s.d. 10.25) bidirectional and transverse patterns with 12.92% and 11.67%. (Fig. 19). Flakes with subradial and crest patterns are 5.00% and 2.50% The number of scars (10 mm) on the dorsal surface of whole respectively. Flake with all cortex in the dorsal surfaces only 2.08% flakes is an indication of the extent of flaking of a core at the time which is consistent with the low percentage of flake types I and IV. the flake was detached. The number of scars on the ML2A flake Replication of the Koobi Fora assemblage by Toth (1982) and Gona dorsal surfaces ranges between 0 and 8. Fig. 20 shows that the assemblage by Stout et al. (2010) indicate that unidirectional, dorsal surface with three scars represents the highest frequency of bidirectional, and transverse patterns are the products of choppers, 26.30%, followed by the same frequencies of dorsal surfaces with 2 while crest pattern is the product of discoids and polyhedrons. The and 4 scars (18.30%). The frequencies of dorsal surfaces with 1, 5, subradial scar patterns tend to indicate advanced lithic technolo- and more than 6 scars vary between 10.40% and 12.50%. Only 2.10% gies. The bulk of the scar patterns indicate the simple core types in of the flakes display the dorsal surfaces without a scar. The dorsal the assemblage. surfaces with high scar numbers (5 or more) are in the minority at 24.60%. Higher numbers of dorsal scars usually implies more 4.2.4. Retouched pieces heavily reduced cores, with less cortex (Toth, 1982, 1985b; Toth Eleven retouched pieces were unearthed (Fig.11d). The length of et al., 2006; Sahnouni et al., 1997). The patterns indicate that the retouched pieces ranges from 36 to 96 mm, with the mean extremely heavy flaking of cores was not prominent at ML2A.

Fig. 14. Bar graph shows the extent of ease for next flaking of cores and tools from Fig. 13. Bar graph shows the flaking mode of the cores and tools from ML2A site. ML2A site. 402 S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407

Fig. 15. Photos showing the whole flakes from ML2A site (upper-ventral view, lower-dorsal view). (a) type I-XCML1035, (b) type II-XCML1083, (c) type II-XCML0485, (d) type II- XCML0108, (e) type V-XCML0993, (f) type VI-XCML0240, (g) type II-XCML0261, (h) type III-XCML0273, (i) type III-XCML0432, (j) type II-XCML0568. length of 53.55 mm (s.d. ¼ 20.30). The weight of the retouched (n ¼ 5) on nine blanks, while two pieces are show combined lateral pieces varies from 13 to 278 g, with mean weight of and distal retouched. Six of the retouched pieces display rectilinear 75.09 g (s.d. ¼ 82.82). retouch, and 5 pieces show denticulate retouch. The blanks on which the retouched pieces were manufactured are whole flakes (n ¼ 8) and fragments (n ¼ 3). There are three 5. Discussion kinds of retouch positions encountered in the retouched pieces. Seven are retouched on the dorsal surface, three on the ventral In China, contributions to the understanding of Paleolithic site surface, and only one piece bears mixed retouch (on both the dorsal formation have come mainly from interdisciplinary studies and ventral surfaces). Retouch is both the lateral (n ¼ 4) and distal encompassing a range of studies associated with archaeological (Pei et al., 2012, 2014; Wang, 2005), paleontological (Norton and Table 6 Gao, 2008a,b; Zhang et al., 2009, 2010a,b, 2011; Dong et al., fl ¼ Size and weight for whole akes (N 240). 2013), and geological contexts (Wei, 1997; Yuan et al., 2011). Dimensions/ Length Breadth Thickness Weight (g) Compared to site formation studies in Africa and Europe, with the (mm) (mm) (mm) exception of the Homo erectus site of Zhoukoudian (Wu et al., 1985; Minimum 18 18 7 3 Goldberg et al., 2001; Boaz et al., 2004), little information on Maximum 137 121 57 880 Paleolithic site formation processes is available in Chinese paleo- Mean 49.69 44.00 18.34 56.09 anthropological research. For instance, Oldowan-like (Mode 1) core SD 18.38 16.89 7.50 82.31 and flake technologies (prevalent in China) and some Acheulean- S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407 403

Fig. 16. Overall whole flake breakdown of ML2A (N ¼ 240). Fig. 18. Bar graph showing the frequencies of whole platform scars of ML2A. like artifacts (handaxes, clavers, and picks) were recently collected from Middle and Late Pleistocene river terraces in intermontane ML2A stone assemblage was affected to some degree by water, basins of central and south China (Gao, 2012; Bar-Yosef and Wang, however, the assemblage still bears hominin behavioral 2012), e.g. Bose Basin (Wang et al., 2008, 2014; Zhang et al., information. 2010a,b; Huang, 2000; Huang et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2012), Luonan The Acheulean technological tradition (mode 2), characterized Basin (Wang, 2005, 2007), and Danjiangkou Reservoir Region by the occurrence of large (>10 am) flakes and bifacial tools such as (Feng, 2008; Li et al., 2009, 2012, 2013, 2014; Kuman et al., 2014), handaxes, cleavers, and picks (Leakey, 1971; Isaac, 1977; Gowlett, but without providing whether the stone assemblage were found in 1988; Clark, 1994; Leakey and Roe, 1994), represents a significant primary or secondary context. Our study on ML2A site in DRR is technological innovation over Oldowan (mode 1 or core and flake intended to introduce site formation inquiry in Chinese Paleolithic technology). Symmetry or its tendency seen in the Acheulean tools studies to improve the interpretation of early hominin behavioral implies imposition of form (Gowlett, 1988, 2006), perhaps associ- patterns. With the use of site formation analysis in our research, we ated with advanced spatial cognition (Wynn, 2002) and ecological were able to document that ML2A archaeological remains are adaptation (Semaw et al., 2009). The “handaxe issue” or “Movius probably in secondary context, with fluvial sedimentary processes Line” debate on, whether true Acheulean (mode 2) biface tech- re-distributing the material and winnowing out the smaller com- nologies are evidenced in East Asia have been the focus of ponents of the stone artifact assemblage. Therefore, fluvial distur- controversial discussion for over half a century (Movius, 1948; bance of the lithic assemblage should be taken into consideration Schick and Dong, 1993; Hou et al., 2000; Norton et al., 2006; for the archaeological interpretation of ML2A site. Although the Norton and Bae, 2009; Lycett and Bae, 2010; Lycett and Norton, 2010; Wang et al., 2012, 2014; Kuman et al., 2014). As claimed by some researchers, Acheulean-like technologies have been discov- ered at some Middle to Late Pleistocene localities in south and central China and are regarded as evidence to suggest that there is no obvious technological and typological difference between the East and West (Hou et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2010a,b; Huang et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2012; Wang, 2005, 2007; Wang et al., 2012, 2014). However, many bifaces stone tools were collected from surface deposits and lack contenstual information or

Fig. 17. Scatter plot showing the shapes of ML2A Whole flakes, based on Bleadth/ Fig. 19. Diagram showing the interior platform angles variation of whole flakes of Length (B/L) and Thickness/Breadth (Th/B) correlations. ML2A. 404 S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407

handaxe and one cleaver) have more in common with Acheulean (Mode 2) technology. In addition, some attributes of the ML2A lithic assemblage which can be considered as mode 2 technology are present, for example, the production of large flake blanks (>10 cm and frequently exceeding ~20 cm). Thus, the ML2A stone assem- blage shows the presence of Acheulean-like (mode 2) implements within an Oldowan-like core and flake industry in DRR in Central China. To substantiate the presence of Acheulean industries in China, the claimed Mode 2 artifacts should be comprehensively characterized as Acheulean and their depositional settings clearly assessed in terms of hydraulic disturbance and other agencies. The Acheulean-like assemblage from ML2A, dated approxi- mately to 386e221 ka, suggests that China was inhabited during the Middle Pleistocene before the presence of modern humans in the region ca. 40 ka (Shang et al., 2007). In the Hanshui River sys- tem, several hominin fossils ranging from end Early Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene have been discovered, including the Yunxian H. fl Fig. 20. Bar graph showing the frequency of scars counted on whole akes dorsal erectus crania (Xu, 1978; Li et al., 1991; Li and Etler, 1992; Wu and surface of ML2A. Poirier, 1995), the Meipu Homo sp. teeth in Yunxian (Liu et al., 2006; Wu et al., 1989), H. erectus teeth from Bailong Cave in detailed lithic analysis (Gao, 2012). Furthermore, more sites are Yunxi (Wu et al., 1989, 2009; Li and Etler, 1992; Liu et al., 2006), and being excavated today where context and site formation analysis the Huanglong Cave modern human teeth (Wu et al., 2006; Liu can be applied. et al., 2010). Because the artifacts from ML2A are similar in tech- Following the informed opinion of Isaac (1969), Gowlett (1986), nology and typology to other lithic assemblages from the Hanshui and Clark (1998), Semaw et al. (2009) consider that the occurrence River system that are found associated with H. erectus, we may infer of large flake-based bifaces are the hallmark of the early Acheulean. that they were also made by H. erectus. If this assumption is correct, Three characters are summarized for Acheulean (mode 2) tech- the Middle to early Late Pleistocene archaeological record from DRR nology: the ability to strike off large flakes, standardization or may be similar to that of other Chinese areas with local lithic tra- symmetry of tool shape, and the ability to flake invasively and ditions being produced by hominins preceding Homo sapiens until shape tools purposefully with predetermination or preconception at least 40 ka when Levallois-like and blade technologies appeared € of form (Semaw et al., 2009). Experiments conducted by Toth in the Shuidonggou site cluster (Boeda et al., 2013; Pei et al., 2012; (1982) in East Africa indicate that apart from the symmetry of Li et al., 2013; Gao et al., 2013). bifacial tools (handaxes, cleavers, and Picks, etc), attribute analysis of the whole flakes can also be used as a criterion to discriminate 6. Conclusions mode 1 or mode 2 industries (Toth et al., 2006). However, this is the case when large numbers of such tools are present in an assem- This article presented a study of the site formation processes blage, which is not characteristic of the Chinese sites. and lithic technology of the stone artifact assemblage excavated The ML2A lithic assemblage was evaluated for disturbance prior from the newly discovered site of ML2A in the DRR (central China). to behavioral interpretation and the lithics were analyzed The following tentative conclusions are drawn from our studies: comprehensively with current approaches used in Paleolithic studies. The core types are typical of the Earlier Stone Age or early 1) All the pertinent evidence, including artifact assemblage Paleolithic and include choppers, discoids, polyhedrons, and core composition and debitage size distribution, as well as patterns scrapers. The quantitative and qualitative flake attributes are of artifact orientation and inclination, point to a secondary compatible with Mode 1 Technology flaking patterns, but they can depositional context of the ML2A stone archaeological assem- also be found in Mode 2 assemblages where bifaces occur only in blage likely caused by fluvial processes. Indeed, patterns of small numbers. However, two bifaces from ML2A (including one preferred orientation of artifacts and the relatively high dip of elongated specimens are consistent with the NWeSE direction of flow of the Danjiang river direction. However, it does not seem that the archaeological remains suffered substantial hy- draulic disturbances given that they are encased in a fine red clay deposit. In addition, small to medium sized debitage dominates the lithic assemblage. The lithic assemblage is still coherent and therefore it maintains some good integrity and relative good preservation of hominin behavioral information. 2) The relative integrity of the ML2A stone tool assemblage allows us to characterize its technological and typological nature. The assemblage can be assigned to the variant of Acheulean-like (mode 2) Technology in China (represented by isolated bifaces within an Oldowan-type pattern of core forms and debitage). Like other Acheulean-like industries in central and south China, the ML2A stone industry is characterized by: a simple techno- logical design, a low degree of standardization, and casual retouched pieces. Chopper cores represent the predominate Fig. 21. Bar graph showing the frequencies of scar pattering on the dorsal surface of category of core and core tools with few biface tools. Overall, the whole flakes at ML2A. cores were moderately exploited probably due either to S. Pei et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 53 (2015) 391e407 405

difficulties of flaking quartzite and quartz or to the abundance of Boaz, N.T., Ciochonb, R.L., Xu, Q.Q., Liu, J.Y., 2004. Mapping and taphonomic analysis these rocks in the archaeological landscape. An experimental of the Homo erectus loci at Locality 1 Zhoukoudian, China. J. Hum. Evol. 46, 519e549. study replicating the ML2A stone tools would help to conclude Boeda,€ E., Hou, Y.M., Forestier, H., Sarel, F.J., Wang, H.M., 2013. Levallois and non- whether or not these rocks were difficult to knap. Levallois blade production at Shuidonggou in Ningxia, North China. Quat. Int. 3) The study presented in this paper emphasized the relevance of 295, 191e203. Chen, T.M., Yang, Q., Hu, Y.Q., Li, T.Y., 1996. ESR dating on the stratigraphy of Yunxian inspection of Paleolithic occurrences for hydraulic winnowing Homo erectus, Hubei, China. Acta Anthropol. Sin. 15, 114e118 (in Chinese with and other disturbance agencies prior to any behavioral inter- English abstract). pretation of the excavated stone assemblage. For instance, the Chu, C.T., 1955. The valley form of the upper Han River, from Pai-Ho to Tan-Chiang- e fi fl Kou. Acta Geogr. Sin. 21, 259 271 (in Chinese with English abstract). ML2A stone artifacts were rst assessed for uvial disturbance Clark, G., 1969. World Prehistory: a New Outline. Cambridge University Press, and then interpreted archaeologically accordingly. This study is Cambridge. intended to integrate site formation processes in Chinese Clark, G., 1970. Aspects of Prehistory. University of California Press, Berkeley. Paleolithic studies; and it is hoped that future research in the Clark, J.D., 1994. The Acheulian industrial complex in Africa and elsewhere. In: Corruccini, R.S., Ciochon, R.L. (Eds.), Integrative Paths to the Past: Paleoan- country will adopt this approach to avoid inaccurate interpre- thropology Advances in Honor of F. Clark Howell. Prentice Hall, Englewood tation of Paleolithic occurrences. Adopting this approach will Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 451e469. particularly contribute to assessing the depositional setting of Clark, J.D., 1998. The Early Palaeolithic of the eastern region of the Old World in comparison to the West. In: Petraglia, Koristtar (Eds.), Early Human Behavior in the so-called Mode 2 artifacts recently reported in China (Hou Global Context: the Rise and Diversity of the Lower Palaeolithic Record. Rout- et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2008, 2014; Zhang et al., 2010; Huang ledge, New York, pp. 437e450. et al., 2012; Wang, 2005, 2007; Feng, 2008; Li et al., 2009, Demeter, F., Patole-Edoumba, E., Duringer, P., Bacon, A.M., Sytha, P., Bano, M., fi fi Laychour, V., Cheangleng, M., Sari, V., 2010. Reinterpretation of an archaeo- 2012, 2014; Kuman et al., 2014) and to rmly de ne their logical pebble culture from the Middle Mekong River Valley, Cambodia. Geo- Acheulean character if any. archaeology 25, 75e95. 4) The study suggests that possible influences of fluvial sedimen- Dibble, H.L., McPherron, S.J.P., Chase, P., Farrand, W.R., Debenath, A., 2006. Taphonomy and the concept of Paleolithic cultures: the case of the Tayacian tary process had impact on the accumulation of the archaeo- from Fontechevade. PaleoAnthropology 1e21. logical occurrences in DRR including archaeological sites formed Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., Bunn, H.T., Mabulla, A.Z.P., Ashley, G.M., Diez-Martin, F., in fluvial river terraces in central and south China. The so called Barboni, D., Prendergast, M.E., Yravedra, J., Barba, R., Sanchez, A., Baquedano, E., Pickering, T.R., 2010. New excavations at the FLK Zinjanthropus site and its Acheulean-like industries in China need to be evaluated as surrounding landscape and their behavioral implications. J. Hum. Evol. 74, recovered in situ or altered contexts, as well as whether they 315e332. include typical Acheulean tool types (mode 2) or just the ele- Dong, W., Liu, J., Fang, Y., 2013. The large mammals from Tuozidong (eastern China) ments of Oldowan-like (mode 1) core and flake technologies. and the early Pleistocene environmental availability from early human settle- ments. Quat. Int. 295, 73e82. Etler, D.A., Li, T.Y., 1994. New archaic human fossil discoveries in China and their fi Acknowledgments bearing on hominid species de nition during the Middle Pleistocene. In: Corruccini, R.S., Ciochon, R.L. (Eds.), Integrative Paths to the Past: Paleoan- thropology Advances in Honor of F. Clark Howell. Prentice Hall, Englewood The authors would like to thank Professor Kathleen Kuman from Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 639e675. School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, Feng, X.B., 2008. Strategie de debitage et mode de façonnage des industries du Paleolithique inferieur en Chine et en Europe entre 1 Ma et 400 000 ans: University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa and Sileshi Semaw Ressemblances et differences de la culture de l’homme de Yunxian et from the National Center for Research on Human Evolution (CEN- Acheuleen europeen. L'Anthropologie 112, 423e447. IEH), Spain for discussions and instructive comments. Thanks to Feng, X.B., Wang, H., Wang, Z.H., Huang, X.C., Zhou, X.M., Zhang, J., 2012. A preliminary report of a Upper Paleolithic site in Liuwan at Yunxian county, Professor Jiafu Zhang from College of Environmental Sciences, MOE Hubei province. Jianghan Archaeol. 123, 3e11 (in Chinese with English Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Peking University for abstract). the preliminary OSL dating results. Further thanks are due to the Gao, X., 1999. A discussion of the “Chinese Middle Paleolithic”. Acta Anthropol. Sin. e officials and antiquities personnel of the Henan province and the 18, 1 16 (in Chinese with English abstract). Gao, X., 2000. Explanations of Typological Variability in Paleolithic Remains from local governments in the Xichuan County who facilitated the Zhoukoudian Locality 15, China (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Arizona. fieldwork. This work was financially supported by the National Gao, X., 2002. A study of the lithic assemblage from Zhoukoudian locality 15. Acta e Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41372032), the Key Anthropol. Sin. 21 (Suppl. l), 31 52. Gao, X., 2012. Characteristics and significance of Paleolithic handaxes from China. Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. Acta Anthropol. Sin. 31, 97e112 (in Chinese with English abstract). KZZDeEW-15), Basic Scientific Special Program of MST of China Gao, X., 2013. 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