SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN AN ECOLOGY OF TRADE: TROPICAL ASIAN CULTIVARS IN THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST AND THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History, University College London 2016 SUPERVISORS: K. RADNER D. FULLER 1 SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN DECLARATION I, Sureshkumar Muthukumaran, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. __________________________________________________________ 2 SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN ABSTRACT This thesis offers an ecological reading of long distance trade in the ancient world by investigating the anthropogenic movement of tropical Asian crops from South Asia to the Middle East and the Mediterranean. The crops under consideration include rice, cotton, citrus species, cucumbers, luffas, melons, lotus, taro and sissoo. ἦhἷΝ ‘ὈὄὁpiἵaliὅaὈiὁὀ’Ν ὁἸΝ εiἶἶlἷΝ EaὅὈἷὄὀΝ aὀἶΝ εἷἶiὈἷὄὄaὀἷaὀΝ aἹὄiἵὉlὈὉre was a sluggish process but one that had a significant impact on the agricultural landscapes, production patterns, dietary habits and cultural identities of peoples across the Middle East and the Mediterranean by the end of the 1st millennium BCE. This process substantially predates the so-called tropical crop-ἶὄivἷὀΝ ‘χἹὄiἵὉlὈὉὄalΝ ἤἷvὁlὉὈiὁὀ’Ν ὁἸΝ ὈhἷΝ ἷaὄlyΝ ἙὅlamiἵΝ pἷὄiὁἶΝ pὁὅiὈἷἶΝ ἴyΝ ὈhἷΝ hiὅὈὁὄiaὀΝ χὀἶὄἷwΝ WaὈὅὁὀΝ (1974-1983). The existing literature has, in fact, largely failed to appreciate the lengthy time-scale of this phenomenon whose origins lie in the Late Bronze Age. In order to contextualise the spread of tropical Asian crops to the Middle East and beyond, the history of crop movements is prefaced by a survey of long distance connectivity across maritime (Indian Ocean) and overland (Iranian plateau) routes from its prehistoric beginnings to the end of the 1st millennium BCE. This historical survey will highlight the variables (e.g. political processes, technological and social change) which made possible the ecological interface between South Asia, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. 3 SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis, as if to mirror its wide spatial scope, was conceived and written across a wide canvas stretching from Singapore to New Haven and many have had a hand in its conception right through to its completion. My foremost gratitude goes to my supervisors: Karen Radner, for her unstinting guidance and infectious enthusiasm for the ancient Middle East, and Dorian Fuller, for his expansive erudition and unfailing cheerful support. I am also beholden to my teachers of ancient and modern languages who have provided me with the skills to critically read texts in the likes of Sanskrit, Akkadian, Biblical Hebrew, Greek and Latin. Travels and conferences in recent years have brought me into contact with numerous scholars and resources of interest to my work. I wish to mention, in paὄὈiἵὉlaὄ,Ν ὈhἷΝ ‘ἑὉlὈὉὄalΝ ἑὁὀὀἷἵὈiὁὀὅΝ ἴἷὈwἷἷὀΝ aὀἵiἷὀὈΝ εἷὅὁpὁὈamiaΝ aὀἶΝ Ἑὀἶia’Ν ἵὁὀἸἷὄἷὀἵἷΝ aὈΝ ὈhἷΝ ἧὀivἷὄὅiὈyΝ ὁἸΝ ἑὁpἷὀhaἹἷὀΝ (ἥἷpὈἷmἴἷὄΝ ἀί1ἂ)Ν aὀἶΝ ὈhἷΝ ‘ἢὄὁὈὁ- ἕlὁἴaliὅaὈiὁὀΝὁἸΝὈhἷΝἙὀἶiaὀΝἡἵἷaὀ’ΝἵὁὀἸἷὄἷὀἵἷΝaὈΝὈhἷΝἧὀivἷὄὅiὈyΝὁἸΝἡxἸὁὄἶΝ(εaὄἵhΝ 2013) which availed the opportunity for networking on an international scale. I specifically wish to thank the following scholars for their valuable counsel: Ayelet Gilboa (Haifa), Dvory Namdar (Rehovot), Stanley Insler (Yale), Phyllis Granoff (Yale), Gojko Barjamovic (Harvard), John Ma (Columbia), Shereen Ratnagar (Mumbai), Nalini Balbir (Paris), Peter Matthews (Osaka), Nicole Boivin (Oxford) and Ilaria Grimaldi (Rome). I am especially grateful to Joseph Manning (Yale) for being a wonderful host-supervisor during my stay in New Haven in the spring- summer of 2013 as part of the UCL-Yale Exchange Programme. UCL and the wider London academic world with its myriad resources have been a constant blessing. I thank the UCL History Department and Graduate School for funding academic travel and part of my tuition fees for the year 2013-2014. I am also grateful to the Grote Prize Committee of the Institute of Classical Studies (London) for awarding me the Grote Prize in Ancient History (2013-14) for the chapter on rice. Finally, I am immeasurably indebted to my parents who have financed and lovingly supported my academic work through the years. 4 SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 3 Acknowledgments 4 Table of Contents 5 List of Figures 6 List of Maps and Tables 8 I. Introduction 9 II. Objectives, Scope and Limits 15 III. The Historical and Geographical Context 20 IV. Cotton 68 V. Asiatic Rice 114 VI. Citrus species: Citrons and Lemons 141 VII. Cucurbitaceae: Cucumbers, Melons and the Luffa 171 VIII. Indian Lotus 197 IX. Taro 218 X. Sissoo 228 XI. Minor Crops: Sugarcane, Jasmine and Betel Nut 243 XII. Evaluation: Motivations of Botanical Exchanges 255 XIII. Conclusion: Impact and Implications 271 XIV. References 275 XV. Appendices 372 5 SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Zeus with Ganymede holding a cockerel as a courtship gift 17 Figure 2: Attic lekythos with a Persian riding a Bactrian camel 24 Figure 3: The valley of Sar-i Sang, northeast Afghanistan 28 Figure 4: Unworked Lapis lazuli fragments from Ebla, Syria 29 Ν 30פἥὈaὀἶaὄἶΝὁἸΝἧὄףFigure 5: Detail ἸὄὁmΝὈhἷΝ Figure 6: Terracotta bird whistle-toy, Harappa 35 Figure 7: Harappan terracotta bird whistle-toy found in Salut, Oman 36 Figure 8: Harappan cooking and serving-ware found in Oman 36 Figure 9: Water buffaloes and children at Khorramshahr 38 Figure 10: Water buffaloes on the seal of Ibni-šaὄὄὉm 38 Figure 11: Zebu bulls in Samathur, Tamil Nadu, India 39 Figure 12: Squatting monkey, Susa 40 ἔiἹὉὄἷΝ1ἁμΝἥἷalΝὁἸΝṣὉ-ilišὉ,ΝὈhἷΝiὀὈἷὄpὄἷter of the Harappan language 43 Figure 14: Tree Cotton (Gossypium arboreum) 69 Figure 15: Floral garland framing a winged female genii, Til Barsip 78 Figure 16: Yarn twist traditions 91 Figure 17: Citron (Citrus medica) 142 Figure 18: Citrus seeds, Hala Sultan Tekke, c. 1200 BCE 145 Figure 19: Citron from a grave in archaic Tamassos 147 Figure 20: Fruiting lemon tree, House of the Orchard, Pompeii 151 Figure 21: Mosaic from a villa near Tusculum depicting citrus fruits 151 ΝaὀἶΝἴὉἵkἷὈΝ 161פἵὁὀἷףFigure 22: Winged protective spirit wiὈhΝ Figure 23: Deities with a citron, Somanathapura, South India 162 Ν(ἶἷὈail)Ν 163פἵὁὀἷףFigure 24: Winged eagle-headed protective ὅpiὄiὈΝwiὈhΝaΝ Figure 25: Mosaic depicting citrons, Church of the Apostles, Madaba 167 Figure 26: Modern Palestinian varieties of snake melons 174 Figure 27: Dan Ladd, Silenus, composed of two bottle gourds 176 Figure 28: Andrew Mowbray, Modular gourd with cement forms, 2012 176 Figure 29: Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) polymorphism 177 Figure 30: Egyptian depictions of elongated melons 179 Figure 31: Roman depictions of elongated melons 180 Figure 32: Cucumis seed morphology 184 6 SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN Figure 33: Luffa or sponge gourd 188 Figure 34: Cucurbits identified as luffa, Temple of Amun, Thebes 189 Figure 35: Wax gourds (Benincasa hispida) 191 Figure 36: The melon fly (Myopardalis pardalina) 194 Figure 37: Cultivated lotuses, Hoi An, Vietnam 198 ἔiἹὉὄἷΝἁκμΝἦhἷΝἹὁἶἶἷὅὅΝὄΝὁὄΝδakmΝ 199 Figure 39: Indian lotuses in a Nilotic landscape, Palestrina mosaic 202 Figure 40a: Indian lotuses in a Nilotic landscape, Italica 203 Figure 40b: Detail of the previous image 203 Figure 41: Harvested lotus seedpods at a market in Thailand 205 Figure 42: Nelumbo nucifera rhizomes 207 ΝἶἷὅiἹὀὅ 216פlὁὈὉὅףFigure 43: εyἵἷὀaἷaὀΝ Figure 44: Lotus seedpod faience model 216 Figure 45: A field of taro in Hawaii 219 Figure 46: Taro corms 219 Figure 47: Wreath necklace from the Royal Tombs of Ur 232 Figure 48: Dalbergia sissoo leaves 233 Figure 49: Dalbergia sissoo trees in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida 234 Figure 50: Fresh betel nuts with betel leaves, South India 250 Figure 51: Lacquered Burmese betel nut boxes 251 Figure 52: A funerary inscription dedicated to Proculus and Marcellus 264 Figure 53: A South Indian meal 273 7 SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN LIST OF MAPS ΝΝ 46פεiἶἶlἷΝχὅiaף Map 1: Major late 3rd millennium BCE sites across Map 2: The Achaemenid Persian Empire 57 Map 3: The Nanda Empire, late 4th century BCE 59 Map 4: Ancient Iranian sites with textile finds 93 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Akkadian texts with references to kurângu 119 Table 2: Summary of cucurbit terminology 196 Table 3: English, Sanskrit and Chinese terms for processed sugar 247 8 SURESHKUMAR MUTHUKUMARAN I. Introduction: A Genealogy of Old World Crop Exchanges Before 1492 there were no tomatoes in Italy, no cattle in Texas, no oranges in Florida, no chilies in India, no coffee in Columbia, no tobacco in France and no chocolate in Switzerland. There was no danger of syphilis to the lustful of the Old World while those of the New World were kept at bay from smallpox, the dreaded pustular rash of the Old World. The European discovery and colonisation of the Americas brought little short of a revolution in the ecologies, agricultural regimes and dietary habits of both the Old and New Worlds. Crossing the Atlantic Ocean from the New World were maize, pumpkins, squashes, peanuts, pineapples, guavas, cacao, chile pepper, tomatoes, cashews, papayas, cassavas, sunflower and potatoes amongst a host of other crops while wheat, rice, barley, oats, sugarcane, coffee, bananas, citruses and a range of other cultivars travelled from the Old World to the New and became part of a labour-intensive, often slave-run,