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folio / / volume / letnik 5–6 (2013–2014) / / 56 Fermont An introduction to electroacoustic, noise and in Asia and Africa

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We can trace back the first electric instruments and other vgeny Alexandrovich Sholpo (Евгений Александрович music is part of a global human culture with its little dif- tools in the 18th and 19th century: the Denis d’or (Václav Шолпо) and Georgy Mikhaylovich Rimsky-Korsakov ferences and characteristics here and there. Prokop Divis, circa 1748), the clavecin électrique (Jean- (Георгий Михайлович Римский-Корсаков) and their Following the evolution of technology, its globalisation -Baptiste Thillaie Delaborde, 1759), the musical tele- optical synthesizer called the variophone (1932), László and step by step it’s more affordable access, the evoluti- graph (Elisha Grey, 1876), the (Thaddeus Moholy-Nagy, Oskar Fischinger and Paul Arma and their on of communication, transport and media, it is not sur- Cahil, 1897–1901), the wire recorder (Valdemar Poul- experiments to modify the physical contents of record prising that from Asia and Africa also made sen, 1898), the singing arc (William Duddell, 1899) and grooves (1932), Laurens Hammond and John M. Hanert, their way in the field of electronic, experimental, impro- further experimental and compositions with the Hammond organ (1933–1935), Yevgeny Mur- vised and vanguard. from the early twentieth century with inventions such as zin (Евгений Мурзин) and the ANS optical synthesizer In regard to multiple discovery, science, art, social and the intonarumori (Luigi Russolo, 1913), the (Lev (1937), Johanna Magdalena Beyer (Music Of The Sphe- political movements are similar. Multiple discoveries can Sergeyevich Termen (Лев Сергеевич Термен, 1917), the res, 1938), Homer Dudley, inventor of the voder and occur at approximately the same time, various examples pianorad (Hugo Gernsback, 1923) and staccatone (Hugo vocoder (1940), Burnett Cross and Percy Grainger with have been testifying this paradigm throughout history: Gernsback, 1926), etc.1 their free music machine (1948), (Étu- two or more individuals or a group of individuals (sci- The official history also traces many events and charac- des aux chemins de fer, 1948), with the entists, artists…) who independently make the same ters who made big changes in the way of composing and Clavivox (1952), (Kontra-Punkte, discovery or write about the same concept or theory for / or generating experimental music in the Western wor- 1952/1953), Werner Meyer-Epplers and example. ld: Luigi Russolo (Risveglio di una Città, 1913), Ottorino (Four pieces, 1953), to name a few. Things go on and on Charles Bourseul, Johann Philipp Reis, Alexander Graham Respighi (Les Pins de Rome, 1924), Darius Milhaud and across most European countries, Australia, New Zealand Bell, Elisha Gray (and some more), have all been attribu- his experiments with record manipulation to create mu- and the Americas but not only… Africa and above all Asia ted the invention or conceptualisation of the telephone sic (1922), George Antheil (Ballet Mécanique, 1925), Paul have also developed their own electronic music history Their papers were not word-for-word identical but the Hindemith and Ernst Toch’s experiment with electroni- but very few books offer any references about this fact. core ideas are similar. cally generated sounds (1928), Maurice Martenot ans his In most cases composers, musicians and studios weren’t The dada movement officially emerged in Zurich in 1916 (1928), Friedrich Trautwein, inventor of disconnected from the world for a simple reason: the but a similar movement already appeared in New York the (1928), Walter Ruttmann (Wochenende, world’s modern culture became more and more global, in 1915 and another one (connected to futurism) called 1929), (Imaginary Landscape No. 1, 1931), Ye- technological tools would be sent and/or produced al- 41° appeared in Georgia too in 1918 even if dada itself 1 http://120years.net most everywhere and now more than ever electronic was unknown to them. Russian futurists and Italian fu- folio / / volume / letnik 5–6 (2013–2014) / / 57

turists shared many common ideas and while Luiggi at the Musikhochschule with Karlheinz Stockhausen,13 to Russolo built his instruments to create noise, Vladimir speak about a few. Popov (Владимир Попов) made his own version of noise From the beginning of the 1950’s Chou Wen-Chung culti- instruments in Russia as well approximately during the vated association with Asian composers such as José Ma- same period. Nikolai Nikolayevich Kryukov’s (Николай ceda, Toshirō Mayuzumi and following in the 1960’s with Николаевич Крюков) sound tracks for Изящная жизнь Tōru Takemitsu and Jōji Yuasa (⑃⌙䅆Ѡ) (both co-foun- (Iziashnaya zhizn, 1932) was obviously close to this noti- der of Jikken Kōbō, ᅳ俧Ꮉ᠓, Experimental Workshop), on of noise at a certain point too. and other classical music composers and scholars.14 So it happened for electronic, experimental and musique Kuniharu Akiyama (⾟ቅ䙺᱈), another co-founder of Ji- concrete as well. Even if the first tools which opened new kken Kōbō recorded the first electronic pieces made by ways of composing (and storing) music appeared first in a Japanese (Piece B and Toraware No Onna) the Western world, they quickly spread almost everyw- in 1951.15 Jikken Kōbō was group of mixed media pro- here due to various factors (colonisation, war, capitalism, jects and performing art artists coming from various globalisation…) such as almost any new technology did. backgrounds: audio, visual art, poetry, etc. The group in- The first experimental recording which has been made cluded among others Minao Shibata, Jōji Yuasa and Tōru outside of Europe or the Americas is Ta’abir al-Zaar Takemitsu who worked part time for the Tokyo Tsushin (re-named and published as an almost two minutes Kogyo (now Sony Corporation), where the prototype Josef Tal ( TP[YMQ ) extracts under the name Wire Recorder Piece), a piece for a Japanese-made tape recorder called Type-G had composed with a wire recorder2 in Cairo, Egypt, by Ha- recently been created. Members of the collective mana- lim El-Dabh (Halim Abdul Messieh El-Dabh, ged to have an arrangement with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo ) in 1944.3 KK to create demo tapes to promote the company’s new In 1948, Japanese composer Tōru Takemitsu (℺⑔ᖍ) recorder, while the TTK supported the Jikken Kōbō by conceived a music in which he could use technology to providing some space to present their innovative works. “bring noise into tempered musical tones” and in 1949, Shibata and Takemitsu held the first concert for musique another Japanese composer, Minao Shibata (᷈⬄फ䲘) concrète and electronic music in Japan in 195216 at the wrote that “someday, in the near future, a musical instru- multi-media performance of the Jikken Kōbō, 5th Exhi- ment with very high performance will be developed, 17 in which advanced science technology and industrial bition. power are highly utilised. We will be able to synthesise Jōji Yuasaalsocomposed Another World in 1953, a multi- any kind of sound waves with the instrument”.4 media work for tape and slide projections. As the first recording studios and university department In 1952–1953, Yasushi Akutagawa (㡹Ꮁгᇌᖫ), Saburō dedicated to electronic music where mostly built in Euro- Tominaga (ᆠ∌ϝ䚢), and Shirō Fukai (⏅ѩ৆䚢) were pe and North America, plenty of composers from across among those composers who worked independently the world came to study in these few centres, Halim El- from Jikken Kōbō and created radiophonic works on ta- -Dabh became one of them at the Columbia-Princeton pe.18 Tōru Takemitsu (℺⑔ᖍ) Electronic Music Center in 1958 (so was renamed the stu- Around the same period, after having studied with Pier- dio the following year), where in 1959 he composed the re Schaeffer in Paris in 1952, Mayuzumi composed Les electro-acoustic piece Leiyla and the Poet.5 Œuvres Pour Musique Concrète X, Y, Z in 1953 in which The same year, two other composers from Turkey also twelve tone techniques were used to compose a short arrived at the centre: Bülent Arel who already composed passage of cello music for part Z. Some early electronic Music for and Oscillator (1st Version) in music by Japanese composers, including Shibata, Mako- Ankara in 19576 and İlhan Mimaroğlu who had already to Moroi (䃌ѩ䁴) and Mayuzumi and their composition been exposed to electronic music in Ankara thanks to Shichi No Variation composed in 1956, was greatly in- some recordings he received from France and the USA fluenced by serialism and works by Karlheinz Stockhau- (Mimaroğlu was a music critic back then).7 sen.19 Stockhausen, whose name cannot be avoided, A few years earlier from 1955 until 1957 Chinese classical went to Japan in 1966 to compose .20 (Appart music composer Chou Wen-Chung (਼᭛Ё) became the of Japan, he performed in a few non-Western countries first technical assistant at the centre.8 such as Lebanon (in the Jeita grotto in 1969),21 Iran (at All four composers never came back to their respective the Festival of Arts Shiraz-Persepolis in 1972)22 and tra- countries to compose electronic music even though Arel velled to South Africa in 1971.23 He is definitely one of tried to do it in 1962. His attempt failed due to the fact those who inspired composers all over the world and that the electronic equipment was never cleared at the exposed some local audiences to electronic music from customs, being considered as a security hazard and the the 1950’s onwards). fact that the Middle East Technical University’s board of Karlheinz Stockhausen, John Cage and the conceptual directors did apparently not understand the importance artists Joseph Beuys and Wolf Vostellinspired Nam June 9 of setting up an electronic music studio. Paik (ȹζİ) while he studied and met them in Ger- Many other composers from all over the world went to many. This meeting pushed him to work in the field of study at the centre: from Turkey, Israel, Iran, Ghana, Ja- electronic art.24 His first experimental piece for tape (and 10 pan, South Korea, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela, etc. performance), Hommage à John Cage, was composed in Other composers such as Japanese Toshirō Mayuzumi 1959.25 The same year, Filipino artist and performer David (咯ᬣ䚢) in the 1950’s, Filipino José Maceda in the 1950’s Medalla composed two electronic music pieces (Nume- and Indonesian Slamet Abdur Sjukur in the late 1960’s11 rology and Antisyntax) in Manila.26 went to study in Paris with Pierre Schaeffer, Israeli com- Multimedia experimentation was a common aspect of poser Josef Tal ( ) travelled to the major studios the 1950’s and the following decades. across Europe and North America, learned from them and brought with him a tape recorder back to Israel, then 13 http://www.kevinvolans.com/index.php?id=4 built the first electronic studio in 1961 at the Israel Center 14 http://www.edition-peters.com/composer/Chou-Wen-chung for Electronic Music at the Hebrew University in Jerusa- 15 Répertoire International des Musiques Electroacoustiques/Interna- tional Electronic Music Catalog – compiled by Hugh Davies in Electronic lem (after an earlier failed attempt by Shalhevet Freier Music Review Nos. 2/3, April/July 1967. 12 ( ) in 1957), former South African (now Irish) 16 http://www.galeriecapitain.de/artists/katsuhiro-yamaguchi/press/ composer Kevin Volans studied in the 1970’s in Cologne june-22-aug-31-2012-english.html 17 Fujii, Koichi, 2004. Chronology of early in Photo / foto: Google, Wikipedia Google, / foto: Photo 2 The wire recorder was a type of analogue audio storage in which a Japan: What types of source materials are available? Organised Sound magnetic recording was made on thin steel or stainless steel wire. It was 9: 63–77 commercialised before the magnetic tape recorder. Halim El-Dabh ( ) 18 Miki Kaneda: Electroacoustic Music in Japan: The Persistence 3 Goran Vejvoda and Rob Young: My Concrete Life. The Wire issue 258, of the DIY Model – http://cnmat.berkeley.edu/user/miki_kaneda/ August 2005 blog/2007/12/20/electroacoustic_music_japan_persistence_diy_model 4 Thom Holmes, Electronic and Experimental Music: Technology, 19 Thom Holmes : Electronic and Experimental Music: Technology, Many audio artists collaborated together with visual ar- Music, and Culture (third edition), p. 138. Music, and Culture (third edition), p. 141 tists, dancers, film makers, poets, theatres and various 5 Holmes 2008, 153–54 & 157 20 http://www.karlheinzstockhausen.org/karlheinz_stockhausen_ 6 Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music: Bülent Arel (1919–1990) short_biography_english.htm art groups saw the light, especially in Japan where a few http://www.pytheasmusic.org/arel.html 21 http://www.karlheinzstockhausen.org/dvd_order_form_ neo-dada group appeared. 7 Bob Gluck: Uptown and Downtown, Electronic Music and “Free english_2nd.htm In 1954, Shōzō Shimamoto (፟ᴀᰁϝ), Jirō Yoshihara ( Jazz”, Ankara and New York – Interview with Turkish composer İlhan 22 Bob Gluck: The Shiraz festival: avant-garde performance in Iran in Mimaroğlu. 1970’s Iran. ঢ়ॳ⊏㡃), Akira Kanayama (䞥ቅᯢ), Saburō Murakami 8 http://www.chouwenchung.org/biography/cv.php 23 Michael Blake: A Very Short Overview of Electronic Music in South (ᴥϞϝ䚢) and Kazuo Shiraga (ⱑ傾ϔ䲘) founded the 9 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Turkey, EMF Institute, 2006. Africa, or “How we got into electronic music, and how not to get out avant-garde group Gutai (݋ԧ). Shōzō Shimamoto well 10 For a full detailed list, see Bob Gluck: Educating international again”, 2013, http://samusicresearch.wordpress.com/tag/michael-blake/ composers: The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, EMS 2007. 24 Christiane Paul, Digital Art, Thames & Hudson, London, pp. 14–15 know for being one of the pioneers of mail art, worked http://www.ems-network.org/IMG/pdf_GluckEMS07.pdf 25 Nam June Paik “Hommage à John Cage: Music for Tape Recorder with films, painting and also sound. In 1958, he projected 11 http://www.composers21.com/compdocs/sjukursa.htm and Piano” http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/works/hommage-a-cage/ two different films on a single screen at the same time. 12 Bob Gluck and Shlomo Dubnov: A Conversation with Josef Tal, 26 Répertoire International des Musiques Electroacoustiques / Recorded sound was used to accompany the images, ac- EMF Institute. Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Israel, 2005. http://www. International Electronic Music Catalog – compiled by Hugh Davies in emfinstitute.emf.org/articles/gluck.israel_06.html Electronic Music Review Nos. 2/3, April/July 1967. cording to Shimamoto, the result was similar to musique folio / / volume / letnik 5–6 (2013–2014) / / 58

concrète but called gutai music. Unfortunately, only founded the second electronic music studio in Israel at some fragments of the piece remain.27 the Academy of Music and Dance in ), Yizhak In 1960 and 1961, the Group Ongaku (Music Group, ࢢ Sadai (), who founded the third Israeli electronic ࣮ࣝࣉ࣭㡢ᴦ), which performed and recorded free jazz, music studio in in 1974), among others.36 improvised and experimental music pretty close to mu- Obviously, during the 1970’s experimental music and sique concrète included Chieko Shiomi (฽㽟ܕ), Yumiko electronic music reached more places than ever before Tanno (⎵䞢ᓧᄤ), Yasunao Tone (ߔḍᒋᇮ), Shūkō Mi- and got a bigger audience. -zuno (∈䞢ׂᄱ) and Takehisa Kosugi (ᇣᴝ℺Й), was The first World Fair Expo in Asia took place in 1970 in Osa also involved in Fluxus. ka (Expo ‘70, ᮹ᴀϛ೑म㽻Ӯ) and incorporated electro- Wikipedia Google, / foto: Photo A few artists from Japan such as Yōko Ono (ᇣ䞢⋟ᄤ), nic music composers from various places like Xenakis, the aforementioned Akiyama, Tone, Kosugi and South Stockhausen, Yuasa, etc. and presented electronic and Korean artist Nam June Paik participited to Fluxus and multi channels works to thousands of visitors. collaborated to experimental music events. Tone was Filipino experimental composer José Maceda, who was also a member of Hi-Red Centre, a happening group exposed to musique concrète in 1958–1959 in Paris cre- founded in 1963 and two years later he co-organised ated some public performances that could be defined as Fluxus Week, A Tokyo Fluxus festival with Toshi Ichiya- a sort of live musique concrète in 1971: Cassettes 100, nagi (ϔ᷇᜻) and Kuniharu Akiyama and also founded a piece which consists of various instruments (gongs, Team Random – the first computer art group in Japan buzzers, aluminium objects, horns, and many more) and who organised the Biogode Process Music Festival in voices recorded on a hundred tape recorders and in 1974 1966 (the first computer art festival in Japan, which fea- for new year’s eve, Ugnayan, a performance for twenty tured Tone’s Theatre Piece For Computer).28 cassettes to be simultaneously performed in public spa- In 1962, the experimental puppet Theatre Hitomi-za (ȇ ces by thirty-seven different radio stations (twenty radio ǽȔᑻ, founded in 1948 and still active today) collabo- stations broadcasting the twenty tapes, each one con- rated with Yuasa, Akiyama and Naozumi Yamamoto (ቅ taining a different recording of several instruments and Jirō Yoshihara (ঢ়ॳ⊏㡃) ᴀⳈ㋨) for a performance which took place at Sogetsu seventeen other playing seventeen of the selected tapes Kaikan Hall (inside the Sogetsu Art Centre, 㤝᳜Ȫόɐ to boost or amplify others); thousands of people carri- Ƀɻɇό).29 ed radios in the streets, parks, school grounds and other Meanwhile in Indonesia, composer Slamet Abdur Sju- public spaces contributed to the amplification intensity kur30 who also studied abroad, wrote a piece for tape and and diffusion of the piece across Manila and its suburb.37 gamelan called Latigrak in 1963,31 a work for a ballet cre- The medium used calls to mind John Cage’s Imaginary ated in Paris and choreographed by Frederic Franchini Landscape No. 4 but provided a different result. and a decade later, composedthe multimedia piece Pa- With the exception of Dutch composer Henk Badin- rentheses IV, for two dancers, flute, two electric guitars, gs (born Hendrik Herman Badings) who composed violin, cello, prepared piano, synthesizer, percussion, and in 195738 the radio Asterion for which he used live painting. Six years later in 1969, The Pekan Komponis electronic manipulation of musical or natural sounds39 Muda (Young Composers Festival) was founded in Pekan (made in the studios of the SABC in collaboration with Komponis Muda, along with educational programs at poet Nicolaas Petrus van Wyk Louw) the first electronic the Institut Kesenian Jakarta (Jakarta Institute of Arts).32 music compositions and recording studio in South Afri- It is also in 1969 that South Korean artist, Seok Hee Kang ( ca apparently saw the light around 1966 in Kenhardt,40 a ʗ̘ϛ), who had studied in , founded the Pan Mu- few years later another studio opened in the early 1970’s sic Festival where himself and Byeong Ki Hwang (Μɢ̪) partly thanks to June Schneider41 who produced in 1971 performed a piece for daekum and tape, in 1976 (Soeok a multimedia work including electronic music called En- Hee Kang had already composed at the Seoul Central counter Time and Space performed at the Johannesburg Broadcasting Station (KBS) his first piece for tape in 1966: Planetarium.42 Wonsaegui Hyangyeon. That music studio was established by Ulrich Suesse (Ul- Doo-Jin Ahn composed a multimedia piece for flute, tape rich Süße), who was lecturer for composition, at the Uni- and slide projection in 1973 at the North Carolina Univer- versity of KwaZulu-Natal in Durban in 1973 and was built sity: Yong Na’s Sipjagaui Hwansang and was performed around an ARP-2500 synthesizer.43 at The Myeongdong Art Theater (ǟ—U̠ͤß).33 Step by step more studios opened across the world and A major event which took place from the late sixties was composers could more easily access those torecord the Festival of Arts Shiraz-Persepolis in Iran, the most im- and perform tape, electronic and experimental music, portant performing art festival in the world dedicated to among many of them we can mentionin Israel, Yossi Mar- Yasushi Akutagawa (㡹Ꮁгᇌᖫ), theatre, dance, classical, traditional and electronic music -Haim () who composed his first piece for tape and so on from 1967 until 1977 where many contempo- in 1967, Aminadav Aloni (1974) (), Menachem rary classical and electronic music composers perfor- Zur (1970) ( ), in Indonesia Yose Haryo Suyoto, med or were introduced to the large audience thanks Harry Ruesli’s Batas Echo (1978), Otto Sidharta’s Saluang to their commissioned works: John Cage, David Tudor, Pekan Komponis I (1979) and Franki Raden’s Dilarang Karlheinz Stockhausen, (ΓιάννηςΞενάκης) Bertepuk Tangan di Dalam Toilet (1980). Sapto Raharjo’s but also Iranian composers like Alireza Mashayekhi first electronic composition, Yogyharmonik 78, is also ( 4_ ;)), who studied electronic music at the from this period.44 Instituut voor Sonologie (Sonology Institute) of the uni- In Taiwan, Lee Tai Hsiang (ᴢ⋄⼹), well known for his versity of Utrecht, the ) and Dariush Dolat- more popular and traditional music works, has in all like- -Shahi ( 4% 1 )%), who studied electronic music in lihood been the first artist to compose some experimen- the same institute, at the conservatory of music in Am- tal music in the early 1970’s.45 sterdam andat the Columbia-Princeton centre later) for From the late 1970’s across the 1980’s and 1990’s, some example, who both composed electronic music pieces parallel scenes were born thanks to the emergence of from the mid sixties.34 These were soon followed by Sha- the audio cassette and the development of the electro- hrokh Khajenouri () ), in the 1970’s, who nic instruments market proposing a larger variety of in- Μɢ̪ dedicated most of his compositions to electronic music.35 struments for more affordable prices. Composers needn’t Byeong Ki Hwang ( ) Around the same time in Israel, poet necessarily go to expensive recording studios to record ( ) and composer Roman Haubenstock-Ramati their music; home studios started to emerge and many started Testimonium, in 1966, a triennial festival which electronic and experimental music artists would work at home, record their music on cassette and duplicate them took place six times and included music by some early 36 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Israel, 2005. http://www.emfinstitu- electronic music composers like Tzvi Avni (, who te.emf.org/articles/gluck.israel_06.html to finally distribute them via home taping networks, mail 37 Unknown book, pp 88–91. art, record stores, fanzines, concerts and festivals. 27 http://articide.com.pagesperso-orange.fr/gutai/fr/ss.htm http://www.interaksyon.com/infotech/bytes-and-bamboo-jose-mace- Due to the fact that Japan became the leader of electro- 28 http://www.artpool.hu/Fluxus/HiRedCenter.html and http://aspho- da-meets-manila%E2%80%99s-musical-underground nic music instrument production, it became easier and del.com/artists/view.php?Id=6 38 Premièred in 1958 for the Suid-Afrikaanse Uitsaaikorporasie / the cheaper for some local artists to set up their private stu- 29 Obscure Tape Music of Japan vol. 2: Music For Puppet Theatre Of South African Broadcasting Corporation. Joji Yuasa / Kuniharu Akiyama, CD note. 39 Mark Morris’s Guide to Twentieth Century Composers. http://www. dios. (ݼ⬄ࣆ , one of the fathers of cosmic 30 Slamet Abdul Sjukur passed away on 24th of March 2015. musicweb-international.com/Mark_Morris/Holland.htm music in Japan who, like Walter/ interpre- 31 Robert J. Gluck: Free Sound Within Culturally Specific Practice, 40 Répertoire International des Musiques Electroacoustiques/Interna- ted a lot of classical music with synthesizers, or Ryūichi Department of Music, University at Albany. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/ tional Electronic Music Catalog – compiled by Hugh Davies in Electronic Sakamoto (ഖᴀ啡ϔ , who cofounded the eletro-pop Music Review Nos. 2/3, April/July 1967. viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.380.6847&rep=rep1&type=pdf band Yellow Magic Orchestra) in 1977 – were among tho- 41 Michael Blake: A Very Short Overview of Electronic Music in South 32 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Indonesia, EMF Institute, 2006. se who produced outside of the academic world. http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3/indonesia_gluck.html Africa, or “How we got into electronic music, and how not to get out again”, 2013, http://samusicresearch.wordpress.com/tag/michael-blake/ From that point the Japanese electronic and experimen- 33 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in South Korea, The EMF Institute, 2007. http://www.emfinstitute.emf.org/articles/gluck.korea_07.html 42 In a conversation with Michael Blake. tal music scene exponentially exploded. In the end of the 34 Mahasti Afshar: Festival of Arts Shiraz-Persepolis or You better 43 In Leonardo Music Journal, Vol. 16 pp. 62–63, 2006 – Unyazi, Special 1970’s and through the 1980’s many subgenres of expe- believe in as many as six impossible things before breakfast. http:// Section Introduction by Jürgen Bräuninger. In a conversation with Ulrich rimental and extreme music appeared, such as japano- asiasociety.org/files/uploads/126files/Shiraz-Persepolis_FINAL2_ Süße. Print_1117-2013.pdf 44 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Indonesia, EMF Institute, 2006.http:// ise (Masami Akita (⾟⬄ᯠ㕢), also known as Merzbow, 35 Arshia Cont and Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Iran. CEC, eContact, cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3/indonesia_gluck.html Hijōkaidan, Incapacitants, Hanatarashi …) and later in 11.4. 45 http://lth.e-lib.nctu.edu.tw/en/bio-1.htm folio / / volume / letnik 5–6 (2013–2014) / / 59

the 1990’s, onkyokei (Toshimaru Nakamura (ЁᴥǽǬ ted to get easier access to electronic and experimental ȓȠ), Sachiko M, Yoshihide Ōtomo (໻ট㡃㣅), Tetuzi music; a few little pockets developed here and there in Akiyama (⾟ቅᖍ⃵), Taku Sugimoto (ᴝᴀᢧ) and so on). the mid 1990’s in Vietnam (especially in Hanoi thanks to Japan has been one of the first Asian country to develop composers such as Nguyễn Xuan Son and Kim Ngọc Trần a non-academic scene devoted to electronic and expe- Thị) and in Lebanon (which is one of the few middle ea- rimental music, influenced and still influencing many stern countries to have an active scene and festivals like artists from China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Europe, the Ame- Irtijal organised by impro musician Sharif Sehnaoui and ricas, Australia … regular events dedicated to experimental and improvi- Wikipedia Google, / foto: Photo Around the beginning of the 1980’s, Israel also saw the emergence of a cassette culture scene dedicated to indu- sed music in Beirut). strial, noise, experimental and improvised music, some A strong do-it-yourself scene emerged in China thanks to of those active artists to mention were or are still Duralex various musicians: such as Yán Jùn (买ዏ) in Beijing aro- Sedelex, Seventeen Migs of Spring, Silence & Strength, und 1999 and quickly spread in most big Chinese cities. Wreck & Drool, Maor Appelbaum ( ), Eran Sa- Taiwan also saw it’s noise, experimental and industrial chs ( ), etc. music network growing in the 1990’s thanks to various Another non-academical experimental scene influenced artists like Lín Chí-Wèi (Eric Lin, ᵫ݊㫮) and the band by various industrial, new wave punk and experimental Z.S.L.O. scenes from the western world emerged in Turkey in the South Africa also saw a small DIY tape scene appear from middle of the 1980’s as well, audiovisual artists like 2/5 the 1980’s and 1990’s with artists such as Kalahari Surfers BZ (Serhat Köksal) took part of the tape scene too in a and Jay Scott (Sphinx) and his cassette label Network 77 Tán Dùn (䈁Ⳓ) lower scale than the one in Japan. The few industrial or experimental music artists in Turkey from that time were promoting South African underground music among exposed to the noise, experimental, industrial, metal or others. punk scenes thanks to Turkish friends or relatives wor- There are nowadays in the 21st century plenty of noise king abroad, especially in London and Berlin.46 and sound artists, electro-acoustic music composers, Khazakstan, back then part of the USSR also had also a from academies or do-it-yourself backgrounds, some few electronic music composers, among them Ganzha scenes and regular events in countries such as Thailand, (Vadim Ehrich) who assembled his first analogue synthe- Singapore, Malaysia, Egypt, Tunisia, Macau and so on, sizer and started to compose from 1980.47 step by step some little pockets also emerge in other co- It is also in the late 1980’s that some composers in Hong untries, often connected to visual art and/or electronica, Kong like Li Chin Sung (ᴢࢆᵒ, aka Dickson Dee) and in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Angola, Algeria, Arme- Xper Xr started to get involved in electronic, industrial, nia, Uzbekistan, Mongolia, Myanmar, to name a few. noise and experimental music; Xper Xr published his first two track cassette Murmur in 1989. Around the same period, in 1984, Zhāng Xi,ofū (ᓴ Their history has still to be written! ᇣ໿), Chén Yu,n Lín (䰜䖰ᵫ), Zhū Shì-ruì (ᴅϪ⨲), Tán Dùn (䈁Ⳓ), Chén Yí (䰜ᗵ) and Zhōu Lóng (਼啭) or- ganised the first electronic music concert of China at the SI Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. In 1984, Zhū Shì-ruì, collected a few synthesisers here Pojav prvih električnih instrumentov in sorodnih pripo- and there to compose his piece Goddess, for seven močkov zasledimo v 18. in 19. stoletju: zlati Dioniz (Denis synthesizers. d’or, Václav Prokop Diviš, okrog 1748), električni harpsi- The same year, Luó Jīng Jīng (㔫ҀҀ) composed her kord (clavecin électrique, Jean-Baptiste Thillaie Delabor- first electroacoustic piece called Estuary for electronics de, 1759), glasbeni telegraf (Elisha Grey, 1876), telharmo- and instruments in New York, and in 1986, she compo- nium ali dinamofon (Thaddeus Cahill, 1897–1901), prvi sed another piece: Monologue, for percussion, voice and magnetni snemalni aparat (Valdemar Poulsen, 1898), po- analogue processing, commissioned and premiered by joča obločna luč (the singing arc, William Duddell, 1899). Kei Takei’s Moving Earth Dance Company at St. John’s Di- Razvoj drugih eksperimentalnih in elektronskih glasbe- vine Cathedral, New York.48 nih skladb zgodnjega dvajsetega stoletja so omogočili In 1986, Chén Yu,n Lín founded the first studio at the izumi, kot so intonarumori (serija naprav za produciranje Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing, he had trave- hrupnih zvokov, Luigi Russolo, 1913), teremin (Lev Serge- led abroad to study at the State University of New York Kuniharu Akiyama (⾟ቅ䙺᱈) jevič Termen (Лев Сергеевич Термен), 1917), pianorad at Stony Brook, the same year he composed two pieces: (Hugo Gernsback, 1923), staccatone (Hugo Gernsback, Hao and Nü Wa Bu Tian. Zhang Xiaofu composed his first 1926) itd.1 electronic work, Yīn, for bamboo flute and tape, in 1987.49 Uradna zgodovina beleži tudi številne dogodke in oseb- While some electronic music forms became more popu- nosti, ki so pomembno zaznamovali način skladanja in/ lar, the film industry became very interested in the unli- ali ustvarjanja eksperimentalne glasbe v zahodnem sve- mited potential of electronic compositions, tape effects tu: Luigi Russolo (Risveglio di una Città, 1913), Ottorino and experimental composition, especially for horror, sci- Respighi (Les Pins de Rome, 1924), Darius Milhaud in ence-fiction and fantasy films. njegovi snemalni eksperimenti (1922), George Antheil Indonesian composer Gatot Sudarto produced some (Ballet Mécanique, 1925), eksperiment Paula Hindemi- electronic sound tracks in the 1970’s and 1980’s for films tha in Ernsta Tocha z elektronsko proizvedenimi zvoki such as Si boneka kayu, Pinokio (1979) and Leák (My- (1928), Maurice Martenot in njegov instrument »On- stics in Bali, 1981), Jaime Fabregas in the Philippines des Martenot« (1928), Friedrich Trautwein, izumitelj composed an electronic sound track for Shake Rattle & »trautoniuma« (1928), Walter Ruttmann (Wochenende, Roll (1984), in India Ajit Singh composed a sound track 1929), John Cage (Imaginary Landscape No. 1, 1931), mainly made of electronic music for the film Purana Jevgenij Aleksandrovič Šolpo (Евгений Александрович Mandir (1984), in North Korea, So Jong Gon composed Шолпо) in Georgij Mihajlovič Rimski-Korsakov (Георгий some electronic pieces for Pulgasari, in 1985, in Japan: Михайлович Римский-Корсаков) s svojim optičnim sin- a lot of electronic effects were used in the 1961 science- tetizatorjem – variofonom (1932), László Moholy-Nagy, -fiction film (Uchu Kaisoku-sen, in English, ᅛᅭᖿ䗳㠍 Oskar Fischinger in Paul Arma z eksperimenti modifici- published as Invasion of the Neptune Men), a noise and ranja fizične vsebine posnetih ritmov (1932), Laurens industrial sound tracks by Chū Ishikawa ( ) can be ⷇Ꮁᖴ Hammond in John M. Hanert z izumom Hammondovih heard in Tetsuo (1989). orgel (1933–1935), Jevgenij Murzin (Евгений Мурзин) in In mainland China the first electronic music composition ANS optični sintetizator (1937), Johanna Magdalena Be- to appear on a film in the mid 1980’s was composed by yer (Music of the Spheres, 1938), Homer Dudley, izumitelj , , Zhāng Xi ofū and Chén Yu n Lín for three-episode Chi- predhodnikov sodobnega sintetizatorja, naprav voder in 50 nese television drama. vokoder (1940), Burnett Cross in Percy Grainger ter nju- Since the mid and late 1990’s, and even more since the na free glasbena naprava (1948), Pierre Schaeffer (Études Prokop Diviš st 21 century, partly due to various factors such as the in- aux chemins de fer, 1948), Raymond Scott in njegov pri- ternet connections being more accessible, some policy mitivni sintetizator clavivox (1952), Karlheinz Stockhau- of openness, an even bigger globalisation of any kind of sen (Kontra-Punkte, 1952/1953), Werner Meyer-Epplers V večini primerov skladatelji, glasbeniki in studii niso market, communications media and culture, people star- in Herbert Eimert (Four pieces, 1953) so samo nekateri delovali nepovezano od ostalega sveta – iz preprostega 46 Sezgin Boynik, Tolga Güldallı: An interrupted history of punk and izmed njih. V podobnem slogu bi lahko naštevali naprej, razloga: sodobna svetovna kultura je postajala vse bolj underground resources in Turkey 1978–1999, BAS. po večini evropskih držav, Avstraliji, Novi Zelandiji in globalna; tehnološka orodja so pošiljali in/ali proizvaja- 47 Vadim Ehrlich’s biography: http://ziart.kz/ganz.html obeh Amerikah ter seveda Afriki, predvsem pa Aziji, kjer li praktično vsepovsod in danes, bolj kot kadarkoli prej, 48 http://jingjingluo.com je potekal lasten razvoj zgodovine elektronske glasbe, a predstavlja elektronska glasba del globalne človeške 49 Marie-Hélène Bernard: Le développement de la musique électroa- žal na to temo obstaja le malo pisnih referenc. coustique en Chine continentale, EMS, 2008. kulture, skupaj s svojimi majhnimi razlikami in tipičnimi 50 Bob Gluck and Ping Jin: A Conversation with Zhang Xiaofu, 2005. 1 http://120years.net značilnostmi iz posameznih krajev. folio / / volume / letnik 5–6 (2013–2014) / / 60

Sledeč razvojni poti tehnologije, njeni globalizaciji in po- Štirje skladatelji se niso več vrnili v domače dežele; Arel stopni dostopnosti ter evoluciji na področju komunikaci- je leta 1962 sicer poskušal, a je zadevo opustil po neu- je, transporta in medijev so se, pričakovano, tudi azijski in spelem poskusu prevoza studijske opreme čez turško afriški skladatelji uspešno prebili na polje elektronskega, mejo, kjer so jo označili za nevarno. Očitno vodilni mož- eksperimentalnega, improviziranega in naprednega v je univerze Middle East Technical University niso dojeli glasbi. pomembnosti ustanovitve elektronskega glasbenega V smislu sočasnih (neodvisnih) odkritij so si znanstvena, studia v njihovi deželi.9 umetniška, družbena in politična gibanja precej podob- V glasbenem centru Columbia-Princeton so se kalili tudi na. Sočasna odkritja se pojavijo ob približno enakem številni drugi skladatelji iz vsega sveta: Turčije, Izraela, Wikipedia Google, / foto: Photo času, o čemer pričajo mnogi zgodovinski primeri, ko Irana, Gane, Japonske, Južne Koreje, Peruja, Urugvaja, dvoje ali več posameznikov ali skupin posameznikov Venezuele itd.10 (znanstvenikov, umetnikov …) neodvisno drug od dru- Drugi, med njimi Japonec Toshirō Mayuzumi (咯ᬣ䚢) v gega pridejo do enakih zaključkov ali pišejo o enakem 1950-ih, Filipinec José Maceda (prav tako v 1950-ih) ter konceptu ali teoriji. Charles Bourseul, Johann Philipp Indonezijec Slamet Abdur Sjukur v poznih 1960-ih11 so Reis, Alexander Graham Bell, Elisha Gray in še nekateri znanje črpali v Parizu pod vodstvom Pierra Schaefferja; drugi so denimo imena, ki so jim pripisovali izum oziro- izraelski skladatelj Josef Tal () je obiskoval vse večje Jōji Yuasa ( ) ma konceptualizacijo iznajdbe telefona; njihovi zapisi se glasbene studie po Evropi in Severni Ameriki, znanje pa ⑃⌙䅆Ѡ morda niso ujemali do zadnje besede, toda osrednje ide- je s seboj v obliki posnetkov prinesel nazaj v Izrael, kjer je je so bile podobne. kasneje (1961) na Hebrejski univerzi v Jeruzalemu usta- Uradni začetek dadaizma kot umetniškega gibanja ura- novil prvi elektronski studio – Israel Center for Electro- dno beležimo leta 1916 v Zürichu, toda podobno giba- nic Music (pred njim je leta 1957 poskušal že Shalhevet nje se je pojavilo že leta 1915 v New Yorku, še eno (ki se Freier ( ), ki pa mu ni uspelo);12 nekoč južnoa- navezuje na futurizem) po imenu 41° pa se je oblikovalo friški (danes irski) skladatelj Kevin Volans pa je v 1970-ih leta 1918 v Gruziji, čeprav je bil slednjima dadaizem ne- študiral v nemškem Kölnu na visoki glasbeni šoli Musi- poznan. khochschule pod Karlheinzom Stockhausenom,13 če jih Ruski in italijanski futuristi so razvili številne podobne omenim le nekaj. ideje: medtem ko je Luigi Russolo zasnoval svoje in- Od začetka 1950-ih je Chou Wen-Chung vztrajno tkal strumente za ustvarjanje hrupa, je svojo lastno različi- vezi z azijskimi skladatelji, kot sta José Maceda in Toshirō co v približno enakem obdobju oblikoval tudi Vladimir Mayuzumi ter kasneje v 1960-ih Tōru Takemitsu in Jōji Popov (Владимир Попов) v Rusiji, obema pa se pridru- Yuasa (⑃⌙䅆Ѡ , oba soustanovitelja kolektiva ekspe- žujejo še zvočni zapisi Nikolaja Nikolajeviča Krjukova rimentalnih delavnic Jikken Kōbō (ᅳ俧Ꮉ᠓), pridružili (Николай Николаевич Крюков), skladba Iziashnaya zhi- pa so se jim tudi številni drugi strokovnjaki in skladatelji zn (Изящная жизнь), 1932), ki prav tako izražajo podob- klasične glasbe.14 nost z omenjenim konceptom noise glasbe. Enako se je Kuniharu Akiyama (⾟ቅ䙺᱈), še eden izmed soustano- dogajalo na področju elektronske in eksperimentalne viteljev kolektiva Jikken Kōbō, je posnel prve elektronske glasbe ter musique concrète. Četudi so se prva orodja, ki skladbe izpod peresa japonskega skladatelja (Piece B in so odprla pot novim načinom skladanja (in zapisovanja) Toraware No Onna) leta 1951.15 glasbe, najprej pojavila na zahodu, so se kot domala vse Jikken Kōbō je bil kolektiv raznovrstnih medijskih projek- nove oblike tehnologije hitro razširila praktično povsod tov, ki je pod svojo streho združeval umetnike s podro- po svetu, kar lahko pripišemo različnim dejavnikom (ko- čja uprizoritvenih umetnosti z različnimi ozadji: avdio in lonizaciji, vojni, kapitalizmu, globalizaciji …). vizualne umetnosti, poezije itd. Skupini so med drugim Prvi eksperimentalni posnetek, narejen izven Evrope pripadali Minao Shibata, Jōji Yuasa in Tōru Takemitsu, ali obeh Amerik, je bil Ta’abir al-Zaar (preimenovan in ki so občasno sodelovali z družbo Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo izdan kot skoraj dvominutni posnetek zvočnih izsekov (današnja Sony Corporation), kjer so v tistem času ravno Minao Shibata (᷈⬄फ䲘) pod imenom Wire Recorder Piece), skladba, napisana s izdelali prototip prvega japonskega kasetofona Type-G. pomočjo magnetnega snemalnega aparata2 v Kairu v Članom kolektiva je z vodstvom družbe uspelo doseči Egiptu, ki jo je skomponiral Halim El-Dabh (Halim Abdul dogovor, po katerem je Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo KK ustvarjal Messieh El-Dabh, ) leta 1944.3 demo posnetke in s tem promoviral svoj najnovejši izde- Leta 1948 je japonski skladatelj Tōru Takemitsu (℺⑔ᖍ) lek, Jikken Kōbō pa so tako dobili priložnost in nekaj pro- zasnoval koncept glasbe, v kateri bi lahko z uporabo teh- stora za predstavitev svojih inovativnih stvaritev na po- nologije »vnesel hrup v temperirane glasbene tone«, leta dročju glasbe. Leta 1952 se je na Japonskem z nastopom 1949 pa njegov sonarodnjak Minao Shibata (᷈⬄फ䲘) Shibate in Takemitsuja zgodil prvi koncert elektronske zapiše, da »bo nekega dne, v bližnji prihodnosti, razvit glasbe in musique concrète16 v okviru pete izdaje mul- visoko dovršen glasbeni instrument, ki bo s pridom iz- timedijskega nastopa umetniške skupine Jikken Kōbō.17 koristil napredno znanstveno tehnologijo in industrijsko Leta 1953 Jōji Yuasa ustvari skladbo Another World, mul- moč. S takšnim instrumentom bomo lahko sintetizirali timedijsko delo za kasetofon in diaprojektor. vse mogoče oblike zvočnih valov.«4 Med leti 1952 in 1953 so bili Yasushi Akutagawa (㡹Ꮁг Ker se je večina snemalnih studiev in univerzitetnih od- ᇌᖫ), Saburō Tominaga (ᆠ∌ϝ䚢) ter Shirō Fukai (⏅ѩ delkov, posvečenih elektronski glasbi, nahajala v Evropi ৆䚢) med tistimi skladatelji, ki so delovali neodvisno od in Severni Ameriki, so se mnogi svetovni skladatelji izo- kolektiva Jikken Kōbō in ustvarjali radiofonična dela, za- braževali prav v teh maloštevilnih središčih. Eden izmed pisana na magnetofonskem traku.18 njih je bil tudi Halim El-Dabh, in sicer v glasbenem centru V približno enakem obdobju je Mayuzumi po študiju v Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center leta 1958 Parizu leta 1952 pod Pierrom Schaefferjem ustvaril Les (tako so studio preimenovali naslednjega leta), kjer je Œuvres Pour Musique Concrète X, Y, Z (1953), kjer je upo- 1959 ustvaril elektroakustično skladbo Leiyla and the rabil dvanajst tonskih tehnik za kratko skladbo za čelo (v Poet.5 delu Z). Istega leta na šolo prispeta še dva turška skladatelja: Določena zgodnja elektronska dela japonskih sklada- Bülent Arel, ki je leta 1957 v Ankari že skomponiral sklad- teljev – med njimi Shibata, Makoto Moroi (䃌ѩ䁴) in bo Music for String Quartet and Oscillator (1st Version)6 Mayuzumi ter njihova skladba Shichi No Variation iz leta ter İlhan Mimaroğlu, ki je bil ravno tako že dodobra se- 1956 – je pomembno zaznamoval vpliv serializma skupaj znanjen z elektronsko glasbo, zahvaljujoč posnetkom, ki z deli Karlheinza Stockhausena.19 jih je dobil iz Francije in ZDA (v tistem času je Mimaroğlu deloval kot glasbeni kritik).7 9 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Turkey, EMF Institute, 2006. Le nekaj let pred tem, med 1955 in 1957, mesto prvega 10 Za celoten seznam glej Bob Gluck: Educating international compo- Shōzō Shimamoto (፟ᴀᰁϝ) tehničnega asistenta v omenjenem glasbenem centru sers: The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, EMS 2007. http:// www.ems-network.org/IMG/pdf_GluckEMS07.pdf zasede kitajski skladatelj klasične glasbe Chou Wen- 11 http://www.composers21.com/compdocs/sjukursa.htm -Chung ( ).8 Stockhausen, čigar omembi se nikakor ne moremo izo- ਼᭛Ё 12 Bob Gluck in Shlomo Dubnov: A Conversation with Josef Tal, EMF Institute. Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Israel, 2005. http://www.emfin- gniti, je odšel na Japonsko leta 1966 in tam ustvaril Te- 20 2 Pri magnetnem snemalnem aparatu gre za analogno obliko avdio stitute.emf.org/articles/gluck.israel_06.html lemusik (razen na Japonskem je nastopal v nekaterih shranjevanja, pri kateri se je magnetni zapis shranil na tanki (nerjaveči) 13 http://www.kevinvolans.com/index.php?id=4 drugih nezahodnih državah, kot so denimo Libanon (na- jekleni žici. Komercialni razmah je doživel še pred pojavom magnetnega 14 http://www.edition-peters.com/composer/Chou-Wen-chung 21 kasetofona. tančneje v jami Jeita Grotto leta 1969), Iran (na umetni- 15 Répertoire International des Musiques Electroacoustiques/Inter- 22 3 Goran Vejvoda in Rob Young: My Concrete Life – The Wire, št. 258, škem festivalu Shiraz-Persepolis leta 1972), obiskal pa national Electronic Music Catalog – po izboru Hugha Daviesa v reviji 23 avgust 2005. Electronic Music Review št. 2/3, april/julij 1967. je tudi Južno Afriko leta 1971. Njegovo ime je vsekakor 4 Thom Holmes: Electronic and Experimental Music: Technology, 16 http://www.galeriecapitain.de/artists/katsuhiro-yamaguchi/press/ Music, and Culture (tretja izdaja), str. 138. . june-22-aug-31-2012-english.html Music, and Culture (tretja izdaja), str. 141 5 Holmes 2008, str. 153–54 in 157. 17 Fujii, Koichi, 2004. Chronology of early electroacoustic music in 20 http://www.karlheinzstockhausen.org/karlheinz_stockhausen_ 6 Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music: Bülent Arel (1919–1990). Japan: What types of source materials are available? Organised Sound short_biography_english.htm http://www.pytheasmusic.org/arel.html 9: 63–77 21 http://www.karlheinzstockhausen.org/dvd_order_form_ 7 Bob Gluck: Uptown and Downtown, Electronic Music and Free 18 Miki Kaneda: Electroacoustic Music in Japan: The Persistence english_2nd.htm Jazz, Ankara, New York – intervju s turškim skladateljem İlhanom of the DIY Model. http://cnmat.berkeley.edu/user/miki_kaneda/ 22 Bob Gluck: The Shiraz festival: avant-garde performance in Iran in Mimaroğlum. blog/2007/12/20/electroacoustic_music_japan_persistence_diy_model 1970’s Iran. 8 http://www.chouwenchung.org/biography/cv.php 19 Thom Holmes: Electronic and Experimental Music: Technology, 23 Michael Blake: A Very Short Overview of Electronic Music in South folio / / volume / letnik 5–6 (2013–2014) / / 61

eno izmed tistih, ki je navdihovalo skladatelje po vsem mi na umetniškem inštitutu v Džakarti (Institut Kesenian svetu; številnim občinstvom je prav on prvič predstavil Jakarta).32 koncept elektronske glasbe vse od 1950-ih naprej). Istega leta je južnokorejski umetnik Seok Hee Kang (ʗ̘ Karlheinz Stockhausen, John Cage ter konceptualna ϛ), ki se je pred tem izobraževal v Berlinu, ustanovil glas- umetnika Joseph Beuys in Wolf Vostell so bili navdih tudi beni festival Pan Music Festival. Skupaj z Byeongom Ki za Nama Junea Paika (ȹζİ), ki je njihova dela študiral Hwangom (Μɢ̪) sta tam nastopila leta 1976 s sklad- v Nemčiji in jih tudi osebno spoznal. Srečanje je bilo po- bo za magnetofonski trak in tradicionalni korejski instru- vod za njegovo nadaljnje delo na področju elektronske ment daekum. Kang je pred tem, že leta 1966, skompo- umetnosti.24 niral svoje prvo delo za magnetofonski trak pod okriljem Wikipedia Google, / foto: Photo Njegova prva eksperimentalna skladba za magnetofon- nacionalne televizije Seoul Central Broadcasting Station ski trak (in performans), z naslovom Hommage à John (KBS) z naslovom Wonsaegui Hyangyeon. Cage, je nastala leta 1959.25 Doo-Jin Ahn pa je 1973 ustvaril multimedijsko delo za Istega leta je filipinski umetnik in performer David Me- flavto, magnetofonski trak in diaprojektor, in sicer na dalla v Manili ustvaril dve elektronski glasbeni skladbi Univerzi v Severni Karolini; skladba Yong Na’s Sipjagaui (Numerology in Antisyntax).26 Hwansang je bila prvič predstavljena v gledališču Mye- V 1950-ih je prvi razcvet doživelo multimedijsko eksperi- ongdong Art Theater (ǟ—U̠ͤß).33 mentiranje. Mnogi glasbeniki so sodelovali z vizualnimi Konec šestdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja zaznamuje umetniki, plesalci, filmskimi ustvarjalci, pesniki, gleda- tudi pričetek pomembnega festivala v Iranu – Festival liščniki; luč sveta pa je ugledalo tudi veliko število ume- of Arts Shiraz-Persepolis, ki je bil v obdobju med leti tniških skupin – kolektivov, zlasti na Japonskem, kjer se je 1967 in 1977 najpomembnejši festival uprizoritvenih pojavilo več neodadaističnih skupin. umetnosti v svetu, posvečen gledališču, plesu, klasič- Yōko Ono (ᇣ䞢⋟ᄤ) Leta 1954 so Shōzō Shimamoto (፟ᴀᰁϝ), Jirō Yoshiha- ni, tradicionalni in elektronski glasbi, na njem pa so se ra (ঢ়ॳ⊏㡃), Akira Kanayama (䞥ቅᯢ), Saburō Mura- z izbranimi deli širokemu občinstvu predstavili številni kami (ᴥϞϝ䚢) in Kazuo Shiraga (ⱑ傾ϔ䲘) ustanovili skladatelji sodobne klasične in elektronske glasbe, med avantgardno skupino Gutai (݋ԧ). Shōzō Shimamoto, njimi John Cage, David Tudor, Karlheinz Stockhausen, znan kot eden izmed pionirjev t. i. poštne umetnosti, je Iannis Xenakis (Γιάννης Ξενάκης) ter mnogi iranski skla- deloval na področjih filma, slikarstva in tudi zvočne ume- datelji, kot sta Alireza Mashayekhi ( 4_ ;)), ki je tnosti. Leta 1958 je predstavil istočasno projekcijo dveh študiral elektronsko glasbo na inštitutu za sonologijo različnih filmov na eno samo platno. Premikajoče podo- Univerze v Utrechtu na Nizozemskem, in Dariush Dolat- be je pospremil zvočni zapis in rezultat je, po Shimamo- -Shahi ( 4%1 )%), ki se je ravno tako izpopolnjeval tovih besedah, spominjal na musique concrète, čeprav na omenjenem inštitutu, poleg tega pa še na glasbenem ga je sam krstil za glasbo »gutai«. Žal so se do danes konservatoriju v Amsterdamu ter kasneje v ameriškem ohranili samo posamezni fragmenti originalnega dela.27 glasbenem središču Columbia-Princeton. Oba avtorja sta V letih 1960 in 1961 so tudi člani glasbenega kolektiva se od sredine šestdesetih naprej podpisala pod številne Group Ongaku (ࢢ࣮ࣝࣉ࣭㡢ᴦ), ki je sicer izvajal in elektronske glasbene skladbe.34 snemal free jazz, improvizirali in eksperimentirali z glas- Kmalu jima je sledil še Shahrokh Khajenouri ( bo precej blizu konceptu musique concrète. Skupino so )), ki je v 1970-ih tudi sam posvetil večino svojih skla- tvorili Chieko Shiomi (฽㽟ܕ), Yumiko Tanno (⎵䞢ᓧ dateljskih del žanru elektronske glasbe.35 -ᄤ), Yasunao Tone (ߔḍᒋᇮ), Shūkō Mizuno (∈䞢ׂᄱ) V približno enakem času sta v Izraelu pesnik Recha Fre in Takehisa Kosugi (ᇣᴝ℺Й), njihovo delovanje pa se je ier () in skladatelj Roman Haubenstock-Ramati navezovalo na umetniško gibanje Fluxus. združila moči in ustanovila Testimonium. Trienalni festi- Tudi drugi japonski umetniki, med njimi Yōko Ono (ᇣ䞢 val se je zgodil šestkrat (prvič leta 1966), na njem pa so se ⋟ᄤ), že omenjeni Akiyama, Tone in Kosugi ter južnoko- predstavljali pionirji elektronske glasbe na tem področju, rejski avtor Nam June Paik, so prispevali h gibanju Fluxus naj omenimo skladatelja Tzvija Avnija (), ustanovi- in sodelovali pri številnih eksperimentalnih glasbenih telja drugega izraelskega studia elektronske glasbe (na dogodkih. akademiji za glasbo in ples v Jeruzalemu) ter Yizhaka Sa- Tone je bil tudi član leta 1963 ustanovljene happening daija (), ki je postavil temelje tretjemu, in sicer v Toshirō Mayuzumi ( ) skupine Hi-Red Centre. Dve leti kasneje je v Tokiu skupaj Tel Avivu leta 1974.36 咯ᬣ䚢 s Toshijem Ichiyanagijem (ϔ᷇᜻) in Kuniharujem Aki- Več kot očitno je torej, da sta v 1970-ih eksperimentalna yamo soorganiziral festival Fluxus Week ter ustanovil in elektronska glasba bolj kot kadarkoli prej razširili svoj Team Random – prvi kolektiv računalniške umetnosti na domet in dosegli množična občinstva. Japonskem, ki se je nato leta 1966 podpisal pod orga- Prvi azijski World Fair Expo se je odvil leta 1970 v Osaki nizacijo festivala Biogode Process Music Festival (prvega (Expo ‘70, ᮹ᴀϛ೑म㽻Ӯ). Na njegovih prizoriščih so japonskega festivala računalniške umetnosti, na kate- nastopili skladatelji elektronske glasbe z vsega sveta, rem je Tone predstavil svojo skladbo Theatre Piece for med drugimi Xenakis, Stockhausen, Yuasa itd. ter čare Computer).28 elektronskih in večkanalnih skladb ponudili tisočerim Leta 1962 je eksperimentalno lutkovno gledališče Hito- obiskovalcem. mi-za (ȇǽȔᑻ, ustanovljeno 1948 in dejavno še danes) Filipinski eksperimentalni skladatelj José Maceda, ki se sodelovalo z umetniki Yuaso, Akiyamo in Naozumijem je z musique concrète podrobneje seznanil v obdobju Yamamoto (ቅᴀⳈ㋨) pri pripravi performansa, ki se je 1958–1959 v Parizu, je kasneje, leta 1971, v filipinski pre- odvil na prizorišču Sogetsu Kaikan Hall (v umetniškem stolnici organiziral javne nastope, ki bi jih lahko označili središču Sogetsu Art Centre,㤝᳜ȪόɐɃɻɇό).29 kot neke vrste musique concrète v živo: Cassettes 100 je Medtem je v Indoneziji skladatelj Slamet Abdur Sjukur,30 delo, napisano za celo vrsto instrumentov (gonge, bren- ki je ravno tako študiral v tujini, spisal skladbo za magne- čala, aluminijske objekte, roge in mnoge druge), temu pa tofonski trak in tradicionalno »gamelan« glasbo z naslo- se pridružujejo še posnetki glasov na stotih kasetofonih. vom Latigrak (1963)31, delo za pariški balet, za katerega Na predvečer novega leta 1974 se je tako v Manili zgodil je koreografijo prispeval Frederic Franchini. Desetletje Ugnayan, performans z dvajsetimi kasetami, ki jih je se- kasneje je Sjukur skomponiral multimedijsko delo Pa- demintrideset različnih radijskih postaj istočasno pred- rentheses IV za dva plesalca, flavto, dve električni kitari, vajalo v javnih prostorih (dvajset postaj je predvajalo violino, čelo, preparirani klavir, sintetizator, tolkala in sli- omenjenih dvajset kaset, vsako z drugačnim posnetkom kanje v živo. več instrumentov; sedemnajst drugih pa je v eter odda- Šest let kasneje, torej 1969, je bil v Indoneziji ustanovljen jalo enako število izbranih posnetkov, ki so pomagali festival mladih skladateljev Pekan Komponis Muda (Yo- ojačati preostale); na tisoče ljudi se je po ulicah, parkih, ung Composers Festival) ter drugi izobraževalni progra- šolah in drugih javnih površinah filipinskega glavnega mesta sprehajalo z radijskimi oddajniki ter prispevalo k intenzivnosti, jakosti in večji difuziji glasbenega dela po 37 Africa, or “How we got into electronic music, and how not to get out mestu in okolici. again”, 2013, http://samusicresearch.wordpress.com/tag/michael-blake/ Li Chin Sung (ᴢࢆᵒaka Dickson Dee) 24 Christiane Paul, Digital Art, Thames & Hudson, London, str. 14–15. 32 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Indonesia, EMF Institute, 2006. 25 Nam June Paik “Hommage à John Cage: Music for Tape Recorder http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3/indonesia_gluck.html and Piano” http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/works/hommage-a-cage/ 33 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in South Korea, The EMF Institute, 2007. Medij, ki ga je na ta način uporabil Maceda, spominja na 26 Répertoire International des Musiques Electroacoustiques/Inter- http://www.emfinstitute.emf.org/articles/gluck.korea_07.html skladbo Johna Cagea Imaginary Landscape No. 4, toda z national Electronic Music Catalog – po izboru Hugha Daviesa v reviji Electronic Music Review št. 2/3, april/julij 1967. 34 Mahasti Afshar: Festival of Arts Shiraz-Persepolis or You better drugačnim rezultatom. believe in as many as six impossible things before breakfast. http:// 27 http://articide.com.pagesperso-orange.fr/gutai/fr/ss.htm Z izjemo nizozemskega skladatelja Henka Badingsa (ro- asiasociety.org/files/uploads/126files/Shiraz-Persepolis_FINAL2_ 38 28 http://www.artpool.hu/Fluxus/HiRedCenter.html and http://aspho- Print_1117-2013.pdf jen kot Hendrik Herman Badings), ki je leta 1957 ustva- del.com/artists/view.php?Id=6 35 Arshia Cont and Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Iran. CEC, eContact, ril radijsko opero Asterion, za katero je uporabil elektron- 29 Obscure Tape Music of Japan vol. 2: Music For Puppet Theatre of 11.4. sko obdelane glasbene in naravne zvoke39 (posneta je Joji Yuasa / Kuniharu Akiyama, CD note. 36 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Israel, 2005. http://www.emfinstitu- 30 Slamet Abdur Sjukur je preminil 24. marca 2015. te.emf.org/articles/gluck.israel_06.html 38 Premierno predvajana 1958 za južnoafriško nacionalno televizijo 31 Robert J. Gluck: Free Sound Within Culturally Specific Practice, 37 Neznana knjiga, str. 88–91. (Suid-Afrikaanse Uitsaaikorporasie). Department of Music, University of Albany. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/ http://www.interaksyon.com/infotech/bytes-and-bamboo-jose-mace- 39 Mark Morris’s Guide to Twentieth Century Composers. http://www. viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.380.6847&rep=rep1&type=pdf da-meets-manila%E2%80%99s-musicalunderground musicweb-international.com/Mark_Morris/Holland.htm folio / / volume / letnik 5–6 (2013–2014) / / 62

bila v studiu južnoafriške nacionalne televizije SABC v glasbe, recimo »japanoise« (Masami Akita (⾟⬄ᯠ㕢), zicij, posebnih učinkov in eksperimentalnega v glasbi, sodelovanju s pesnikom Nicolaasom Petrusom van Wyk znan tudi kot Merzbow, Hijōkaidan, Incapacitants, Ha- zlasti za potrebe grozljivk, znanstvenofantastičnih in do- Louwom), so prve elektronske glasbene kompozicije in natarashi …) ter kasneje v 1990-ih »onkyokei« (Toshi- mišljijskih filmov. snemalni studio v Južni Afriki luč sveta ugledali okrog maru Nakamura (ЁᴥǽǬȓȠ), Sachiko M, Yoshihide Indonezijski skladatelj Gatot Sudarto je v 1970-ih in 80-ih leta 1966 v Kenhardtu.40 Nekaj let kasneje, v zgodnjih Ōtomo (໻ট㡃㣅), Tetuzi Akiyama (⾟ቅᖍ⃵), Taku produciral elektronsko filmsko glasbo za filme Si boneka 1970-ih, je vrata odprl še en, deloma zahvaljujoč June Sugimoto (ᴝᴀᢧ) itn.). Japonska je postala ena izmed kayu, Pinokio (1979) in Leák (Mystics in Bali, 1981), na Fili- Schneider,41 ki je leta 1971 producirala multimedijsko prvih azijskih dežel, ki je uspešno spodbujala in razvijala pinih podobno Jaime Fabregas za film Shake Rattle & Roll delo z elementi elektronske glasbe z naslovom Encoun- neakademsko sceno, posvečeno elektronski in eksperi- (1984) in v Indiji Ajit Singh, avtor filmske (večinoma ele- ter Time and Space ter ga predstavila v univerzitetnem mentalni glasbi, ki je navdihovala in še navdihuje mnoge ktronske) glasbe za film Purana Mandir (1984). V Severni planetariju Johannesburg Planetarium.42 ustvarjalce in umetnike iz Kitajske, Indonezije, Malezije, Koreji So Jong Gon ustvari nekaj elektronskih skladb za Dejanski ustanovitelj omenjenega glasbenega studia Evrope, Amerike, Avstralije … film Pulgasari (1985), na Japonskem pa v znanstveno- (1973) je bil Ulrich Süße, predavatelj kompozicije iz Uni- V začetku osemdesetih je tudi Izrael dočakal prihod ka- fantastičnem filmu Uchu Kaisoku-sen ᅛᅭᖿ䗳㠍( , v verze KwaZulu-Natal v Durbanu. Poglavitni kos opreme sete na kulturno glasbeno sceno. Razvijala se je indu- angleškem prevodu Invasion of the Neptune Men) iz leta je predstavljal sintetizator ARP-2500.43 strijska, noise, eksperimentalna in improvizirana glasba, 1961 zasledimo veliko število elektronskih učinkov. Zvo- Korak za korakom so se po svetu odpirali novi studii, kar med najpomembnejša imena glasbenikov, med katerimi ke noise in industrijske glasbe lahko prepoznamo v filmu je skladateljem omogočilo večjo dostopnost za snema- so nekateri še danes aktivni, pa spadajo Duralex Sedelex, Tetsuo (1989), njihov avtor je Chū Ishikawa (⷇Ꮁᖴ). nje in izvajanje elektronske, eksperimentalne glasbe ter Seventeen Migs of Spring, Silence & Strength, Wreck & Na celinski Kitajski se prva elektronska glasbena kompo- glasbe, zapisane na magnetofonskem traku. Izposta- Drool, Maor Appelbaum ( ), Eran Sachs ( zicija v filmu pojavi sredi 1980-ih. Ustvarila sta jo Zhāng vljam jih le nekaj: iz Izraela Yossi Mar-Haim (), ) itd. Xi,ofū in Chén Yu,n Lín za domačo televizijsko filmsko ki je ustvaril svoje prvo delo za magnetofonski trak leta Še ena neakademska, eksperimentalna scena, zazna- dramo v treh nadaljevanjih.50 1967, Aminadav Aloni (1974 ,) in Menachem movana z vplivi new wave punka, industrijske in eks- Od sredine oz. konca 1990-ih ter še izraziteje v 21. stoletju Zur (1970 ,), iz Indonezije pa Yose Haryo Suyoto, perimentalne glasbe z zahoda, se je vzpostavila v Turčiji se zaradi številnih dejavnikov – dostopnejše internetne Harry Ruesli z Batas Echo (1978), Otto Sidharta s Saluang v sredini 1980-ih. Avdiovizualni umetniki, kot je 2/5 BZ povezave, večja odprtost, naraščajoča globalizacija vseh Pekan Komponis I (1979) in Franki Raden z Dilarang Ber- (Serhat Köksal), so tako sodelovali na podobni kasetarski vrst trgov, komunikacijskih medijev in kulture – povečuje tepuk Tangan di Dalam Toilet (1980). V tem obdobju je sceni, kot so jo poznali na Japonskem, le da v manjših tudi dostopnost do elektronske in eksperimentalne glas- nastala tudi prva elektronska kompozicija avtorja Sapta razsežnostih. Največkrat so se ti maloštevilni industrijski/ be. Sem ter tja se je razvilo še nekaj dodatnih kotičkov, Raharje Yogyharmonik 78.44 eksperimentalni turški glasbeni umetniki z eksperimen- kjer cveti ta zvrst glasbe, denimo od srede 90-ih naprej v Na Tajvanu je bil Lee Tai Hsiang (ᴢ⋄⼹), sicer znan po talno, metalsko, industrijsko, noise in punk sceno srečali Vietnamu (predvsem v prestolnici Hanoi, kjer domujeta svojih bolj popularnih in tradicionalnih glasbenih delih, preko posnetkov, ki so jih dobili od sorodnikov ali prijate- skladatelja Nguyễn Xuan Son in Kim Ngọc Trần Thị) ter najverjetneje prvi umetnik, ki se je poigraval s poskusi ljev na delu v tujini, zlasti v Londonu in Berlinu.46 v Libanonu (ki je ena izmed redkih držav Bližnjega vzho- skladanja eksperimentalnih del v zgodnjih 1970-ih.45 Tudi Kazahstan, tedaj še del Sovjetske zveze, se lahko po- da z aktivno sceno in festivali, kot je Irtijal, organizira ga Zahvaljujoč rojstvu avdio kasete in razvoju trga elektron- hvali z nekaj skladatelji elektronike, med njimi je Ganzha improvizacijski glasbenik Sharif Sehnaoui, ter drugimi re- skih instrumentov, ki je ponudil široko paleto izdelkov (Vadim Ehrich), ki je sam sestavil svoj prvi analogni sinte- dnimi dogodki, posvečenimi eksperimentalni in improvi- po dostopnejših cenah, so se od poznih 1970-ih ter skozi tizator in leta 1980 pričel komponirati.47 zirani glasbi v Bejrutu). celotna 1980-ta in 90-ta vzporedno razvile tudi številne Konec 1980-ih se zanimanje za elektronsko, industrijsko, Močna naredi si sam (DIY) scena se je razvila na Kitaj- druge scene. noise in eksperimentalno glasbo prične tudi v Hong Kon- skem, zahvaljujoč raznim glasbenim imenom, kot je Yán Skladateljem ni bilo več treba obiskovati dragih snemal- gu, od koder prihajata Li Chin Sung (ᴢࢆᵒaka Dickson Jùn iz Pekinga (okrog 1999), in se hitro razširila po vseh nih studiev, če so želeli posneti svojo glasbo: pojavljati Dee) in Xper Xr, ki je svojo prvo kaseto z dvema skladba- večjih kitajskih mestih. so se začeli domači studii in mnogi elektronski in ekspe- ma pod naslovom Murmur izdal leta 1989. Tudi na Tajvanu od 1990-ih raste mreža noise, eksperi- rimentalni glasbeni umetniki so lahko ustvarjali doma, Na Kitajskem v tem času (natančneje 1984) Zhāng Xi,ofū mentalne in industrijske glasbe; zahvala za to gre pred- posneli svojo glasbo na kasete, naredili kopije in jih na (ᓴᇣ໿), Chén Yu,n Lín (䰜䖰ᵫ), Zhū Shì-ruì (ᴅϪ⨲), vsem umetnikom, kot je Lín Chí-Wèi (Eric Lin, ᵫ݊㫮) in koncu distribuirali s pomočjo ustvarjenih mrež, poštne Tán Dùn (䈁Ⳓ), Chén Yí (䰜ᗵ) in Zhōu Lóng (਼啭) or- skupina Z.S.L.O. umetnosti, trgovin s ploščami, fanzinov, koncertov, festi- ganizirajo prvi koncert elektronske glasbe na osrednjem V Južni Afriki se je od 1980-ih in 90-ih naprej izoblikova- valov. glasbenem konservatoriju v Pekingu. la naredi si sam kasetarska scena manjših razsežnosti z Japonska je postala vodilna proizvajalka elektronskih Tega leta je Zhū Shì-ruì sestavil zbirko instrumentov in umetniki, kot so Kalahari Surfers in Jay Scott (Sphinx) ter glasbenih instrumentov, kar je številnim domačim in lo- ustvaril skladbo Goddess za sedem sintetizatorjev. njegova založba kaset Network 77, ki med drugim aktiv- kalnim umetnikom omogočilo lažjo in cenejšo ustanovi- Istega leta je Luo Jīng Jīng (㔫ҀҀ) v New Yorku kom- no promovira južnoafriško underground glasbo. tev lastnih zasebnih studiev. ponirala svojo prvo elektroakustično skladbo z naslovom Danes, v 21. stoletju, se veliko število noise in zvočnih Med tistimi, ki so ustvarjali izven akademskega sveta, Estuary za elektroniko in inštrumente, leta 1986 pa ji je umetnikov, skladateljev elektroakustične glasbe z aka- sta pomembni imeni Isao Tomita (ݼ⬄ࣆ), eden izmed sledila še skladba Monologue za tolkala, glas in analogne demskim ali naredi si sam poreklom ter scen in rednih očetov kozmične glasbe na Japonskem, ki je, podobno obdelave, ki jo je naročilo in kasneje premierno predsta- dogodkov razvija in pojavlja v deželah, kot so Tajska, kot Walter/Wendy Carlos, skladbe klasične glasbe pogo- vilo društvo Keia Takeia Moving Earth Dance Company, Singapur, Malezija, Egipt, Tunizija, Macao in druge, po- sto interpretiral s pomočjo sintetizatorjev, in Ryūichi Sa- in sicer v katedrali St. John’s Divine v New Yorku.48 stopoma pa jim sledijo tudi posamezna središča v drugih kamoto (ഖᴀ啡ϔ), soustanovitelj elektro-pop skupine Leta 1986 Chén Yu,n Lín ustanovi prvi glasbeni studio na državah, kjer se ti žanri pogosto povezujejo z vizualno Yellow Magic Orchestra leta 1977. omenjenem konservatoriju (Central Conservatory of Mu- umetnostjo in/ali elektroniko: Pakistan, Bangladeš, Ni- Od tod naprej je japonska elektronska in eksperimen- sic in Beijing). Pred tem se je izobraževal v tujini, na State gerija, Angola, Alžirija, Armenija, Uzbekistan, Mongolija, talna glasbena scena doživela pravo eksplozijo. Konec University of New York pod vodstvom Stonyja Brooka, Mjanmar, če omenimo samo nekatere. 1970-ih in skozi celo naslednje desetletje se je pojavilo istega leta pa ustvaril dve skladbi: Hao ter Nü Wa Bu Tian. veliko število podžanrov eksperimentalne in ekstremne Zhang Xiaofu se podpiše pod svojo prvo elektronsko Zgodovina njihovega razvoja še ni zapisana. skladbo, Yīn, za bambusovo flavto in magnetofonski trak 40 Répertoire International des Musiques Electroacoustiques/Inter- leta 1987.49 national Electronic Music Catalog – po izboru Hugha Daviesa v reviji Electronic Music Review št. 2/3, april/julij 1967. Ob rastoči množični popularnosti določenih oblik elek- 41 Michael Blake: A Very Short Overview of Electronic Music in South tronske glasbe je raslo tudi zanimanje filmske industrije Africa, or “How we got into electronic music, and how not to get out za brezmejni potencial elektronskih glasbenih kompo- again”, 2013, http://samusicresearch.wordpress.com/tag/michael-blake/ 42 Iz pogovora z Michaelom Blakeom. 43 V Leonardo Music Journal, št. 16, str. 62–63, 2006 – Unyazi, Special 46 Sezgin Boynik, Tolga Güldallı: An interrupted history of punk and Section Introduction by Jürgen Bräuninger. Iz pogovora z Ulrichom underground resources in Turkey 1978–1999, BAS. Süßejem. 47 Biografija Vadima Ehrlicha: http://ziart.kz/ganz.html Prevod: Helena Fošnjar 44 Bob Gluck: Electronic Music in Indonesia, EMF Institute, 2006. 48 http://jingjingluo.com http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3/indonesia_gluck.html 49 Marie-Hélène Bernard: Le développement de la musique électroa- 45 http://lth.e-lib.nctu.edu.tw/en/bio-1.htm coustique en Chine continentale, EMS, 2008. 50 Bob Gluck in Ping Jin: A Conversation with Zhang Xiaofu, 2005.

- L? ?)? .- L?a /0 ./0- 1123I/51 112 /.Ĕ7_]5Ė.ĜöĚ /51/.Ĕ7 >A0@ _]5Ė.ĜöĚ/>0 version was updated and corrected in February 2015, other versions of P- 0- ,*+/? QIJI )?_?) it in your language, please, feel free to contact me at VC? . folio / / volume / letnik 5–6 (2013–2014) / / 63

Selected discography / Izbor diskografije Compilations / Kompilacije

1950–1990 Experimental Music Of Japan Ear Magazine Presents Absolut CD #2, The Japanese Perspective Halim El-Dabh – Crossing Into The Electric Magnetic Experimental Music Of Japan ‘69 Bülent Arel & Daria Semegen – Electronic Music For Dance Concert: 20-21 Toru Takemitsu – Works Of Toru Takemitsu 10 ᰖ䭧 / Ju-Jikan: 10 Hours Of Sound From Japan Toshiro Mayuzumi – Tokyo Olympiad Nothing Works As Planned José Maceda – Ugnayan Israeli Electroacoustic Music Alireza Mashayeki – Alireza Mashayeki Beyond Ignorance And Borders – An African, Middle-Eastern, Asian noise and electronic Dariush Dolat-Shahi – Electronic Music, Tar And Sehtar compilation Makoto Moroi / Kuniharu Akiyama – Music Drama Akai Mayu 30.2 – Electronica, experimental and noise from Africa Toshi Ichiyanagi – Electronic Field Art Of The Muses – An experimental music compilation featuring ten female composers Group Ongaku – Music Of Group Ongaku from Far East Asia Sukhi Kang, Beate-Gabriela Schmitt – Man Pa/Thal/Mosaico/Klangspuren _ _ Egyptian Females Experimental Music Session Joji Yuasa – Music For Experimental Films Periférico: Sounds From Beyond The Bubble Joji Yuasa / Kuniharu Akiyama – Music For Puppet Theatre Of Hitomi-Za Soundtracks For Bride Of Sevenless - A survey of Asian sound activity: 1997–1998 Nam June Paik – Works 1958.1979 Eternal Blue Extreme: An Asian Tribute To Derek Jarman Joseph Dorfman, Yizhak Sadai – Electroacoustic Music An Anthology Of Chinese Experimental Music 1992–2008 Ulrich Süße – Komposition Mit Elektronik The Fifth Complaint Concerns Emotional Disturbances Aminadav Aloni – Once Munen Muso 1 Xper Xr – Murmur The Ruptured Sessions Volume 5. Z.S.L.O. – Z.S.L.O. Li Chin Sung – Past Chu Ishikawa – Tetsuo

Tara, MED 2014 (photo / foto: Janez Klenovšek)