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A review of cetacean research and conservation in Sri Lanka

Article in Journal of Cetacean Research and Management · January 2012

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The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 12(2): 177–183, 2012 177

A review of cetacean research and conservation in Sri Lanka

ANOUKCHIKA D. ILANGAKOON Member of the IUCN Cetacean Specialist Group, 215 Grandburg Place, Maharagama, Sri Lanka Contact e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Sri Lanka is a developing island nation in the northern Indian Ocean. Travellers and historians have documented in the waters around the island as far back as the 14th century but the first scientific records of live cetaceans from vessel-based research observations were documented only in the early 1980s. Sri Lanka’s waters have high cetacean richness with 27 species recorded to date and year-round abundance. Small cetaceans are however increasingly threatened due to the developing fisheries industry, with bycatch being a major cause for concern. Other identified threats include increasing shipping traffic and unregulated marine tourism. Cetaceans are protected by national legislation but implementation of the relevant laws and conservation measures is hampered by resource constraints. The prevailing gaps in knowledge are also due to a lack of resources to carry out dedicated long-term research on cetaceans in a developing country with more immediate development priorities. Therefore strengthened law enforcement and finding adequate resources for sustained systematic research that can inform management decisions are priorities in Sri Lanka. KEYWORDS: CONSERVATION; INDIAN OCEAN; INCIDENTAL CATCHES; SPERM ; ; BLAINVILLE’S ; INDO-PACIFIC HUMPBACK ; ; COMMON ; RISSO’S DOLPHIN; PANTROPICAL SPOTTED DOLPHIN; FRASER’S DOLPHIN; ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN; SHORT-FINNED ; FALSE ; ; KILLER WHALE; MELON-HEADED WHALE; ; CUVIER’S BEAKED WHALE; BLAINVILLE’S BEAKED WHALE; GINKGO-TOOTHED BEAKED WHALE; LONGMAN’S BEAKED WHALE; SOUTHERN ; PYGMY ; ; ; ; ; BRYDE’S WHALE

INTRODUCTION scope of the programme expanded to include small cetaceans, Sri Lanka (5°–9°N, 79°–81°E) is a developing island nation as the threat posed by incidental bycatch in fishing gear was in the northern Indian Ocean (Fig. 1) with a long tradition of recognised early in the project. With this awareness, a further fisheries around her shores. Travellers and historians have multi-pronged national research programme was initiated in referred to whales around Sri Lanka (previously referred to 1985 with funding from the United Nations Environment as Serendib, Taprobane or Ceylon) as far back as the 14th Programme (UNEP). These national efforts continued for the century (Tennant, 1859). Records of stranded whales and next decade and since the mid-1990s individual researchers museum specimens were first reported from the 1850s (Blyth, and international Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) 1859; Deraniyagala, 1945; 1960; Fernando, 1912; Kelaart, funded projects have continued sporadic research in Sri 1852) and interactions between cetaceans and fisheries from Lankan waters. Much of what is known about cetaceans the 1880s (Lantz and Gunasekera, 1955; Nevill, 1887). around Sri Lanka today is a result of these varied projects and Scientific records of live cetaceans were not documented until research efforts (Ilangakoon, 1989; 1997; 2002; 2006c; 2009; as recently as the early 1980s and present knowledge remains Ilangakoon et al., 2000a; Ilangakoon and Perera, 2009; limited due to a lack of dedicated research. Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; After the International Commission (IWC) Ocean Alliance, 2003). established the Indian Ocean Sanctuary in 1979, cetaceans This paper summarises the current state of knowledge on and cetacean research in Sri Lanka became an area of focus cetaceans in Sri Lankan waters, focuses attention on current both nationally and internationally (Ilangakoon, 2002; and potential threats, and highlights future research and Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989). Further impetus was added conservation priorities. with the convening of the first Symposium on Indian Ocean Marine , held in Colombo in 1983. In the early RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1980s, the World Wildlife Fund sponsored ‘Tulip Expedition’ Three decades of research, even though sporadic and studied sperm whales ( macrocephalus) in the waters discontinuous, has resulted in the collection of some valuable around Sri Lanka and brought the occurrence of large information on cetaceans around Sri Lanka. It has also numbers of sperm whales and blue whales ( resulted in a small but growing national consciousness about musculus) close to land in northeastern waters to the attention an important aspect of marine biodiversity that was largely of cetacean researchers around the world (Alling et al., 1991; unknown before. The present state of knowledge can be Whitehead, 1989; Whitehead et al., 1983). Consequently, the examined in relation to what is known about cetaceans in first national marine research programme in Sri these waters, the threats they face, legal aspects, conservation, Lanka was initiated by the National Aquatic Resources research, information gaps and future priorities. Research and Development Agency (NARA) in 1984. The initial focus of that programme was on large whales, but early Species diversity and relative abundance efforts indicated that Sri Lanka was a ‘hotspot’ in terms of The waters off Sri Lanka are inhabited by a rich diversity of diversity and abundance of cetaceans in general. Soon the cetaceans, with apparent year-round abundance (Ilangakoon, 178 ILANGAKOON: RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION IN SRI LANKA

waters around the island (Table 1). This species list is based on specimens obtained from strandings on the coastline (Deraniyagala, 1945; Deraniyagala, 1948; Deraniyagala, 1960; 1965; Ilangakoon, 2002; 2006c; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; Pearson, 1931), specimens from the fisheries bycatch and direct take (Dayaratne and Joseph, 1993; Ilangakoon, 1989; 1997; 2002; Ilangakoon et al., 2000a; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; Leatherwood, 1990; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; Prematunga et al., 1985) and sightings from offshore surveys (Afsal et al., 2008; Alling, 1986; Alling et al., 1991; Ballance and Pitman, 1998; Ilangakoon, 2002; 2005; 2006a; 2009; Ilangakoon et al., 2000a; Leatherwood et al., 1984; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; Ocean Alliance, 2003). It is likely that this species list is still incomplete, as dedicated research has been limited and new species continue to be added. One such example is the addition of Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris) in 2002, based on a specimen identified in fisheries bycatch (Ilangakoon, 2002; 2003). The continental shelf around Sri Lanka, except in the north and northwest, is relatively narrow, with deep waters being Fig. 1. Location map of Sri Lanka and surrounding waters. found quite close to the shore around most of the island’s coastline (Wijeyananda, 1997). Cetaceans are distributed all around the island. Although no specific abundance estimates 1997; 2002; 2006a; 2006c; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; have yet been made for any species, bycatch studies Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989). Based on current (Dayaratne and Joseph, 1993; Ilangakoon, 1989; 1997; 27 species of cetaceans under the two sub-orders Mysticeti Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989) and Odontoceti and placed within the six families of and limited vessel surveys (Afsal et al., 2008; Bröker and Balaenopteridae, Physeteridae, , Ziphiidae, Ilangakoon, 2008; Ilangakoon, 2002; 2005; 2006a; 2006c; Delphinidae and Phocoenidae have been recorded from the 2009; Ilangakoon and Perera, 2009) demonstrate that the

Table 1 Cetacean species recorded in Sri Lankan waters.

Based on

Species Si St Ca Key references

Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) X X – Deraniyagala (1948); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Fin whale* (Balaenoptera physalus) – ? X Deraniyagala (1965); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989) Bryde’s whale* (Balaenoptera brydei/edeni) X X – Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002); Herath (2007) Minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) X X – Deraniyagala (1963); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) X X – Deraniyagala (1965); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) X X X Deraniyagala (1965); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) ( breviceps) – X X Pearson (1931); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sima) X X X Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002; 2006b) Spinner dolphin ( longirostris) X X X Phillips (1935); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) X – X Alling (1986); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) (Stenella coeruleoalba) X – X Alling (1986); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) X X X Phillips (1935); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Indo-Pacific hump-backed dolphin (Sousa chinensis) X X X Deraniyagala (1945); Ilangakoon (2005; 2006b) Rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis) X – X Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Common dolphin* (Delphinus capensis) – – X Alling (1986); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Fraser’s dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei) X – X Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) X – X Alling (1986); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) X X X Alling (1986); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002) Melon-headed whale (Peponocephala electra) X – X Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002; 2005; 2006b) Pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata) X – X Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002; 2009) ( crassidens) X X X Pearson (1931); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon (2002; 2009) Killer whale ( orca) X – X Ilangakoon et al. (1992); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989); Ilangakoon et al. (2010) Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) X X X Deraniyagala (1965); Alling (1986) Ginkgo-toothed beaked whale (Mesoplodon ginkgodens) – X – Deraniyagala (1965); Moore and Gilmore (1965) Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris) – X X Ilangakoon (2003; 2006a) Longman’s beaked whale (Indopacetus pacificus) X X X Pitman et al. (1999); Anderson et al. (2006); Afsal et al. (2009) Finless * (Neophocaena phocaenoides) ? – X Phillips (1935); Leatherwood and Reeves (1989)

Notes: Si = sightings; St = strandings; and Ca = catch. Species in relation to which there are uncertainties, revisions and clarifications in the main text are marked with an * in this table.

J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 12(2): 177–183, 2012 179 spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) is by far the most Anderson et al. (2006) referred the Sri Lankan specimens to common species around the island. This species appears to Longman’s beaked whale. Subsequently there has been a be evenly distributed throughout both coastal and offshore confirmed sighting of this species reported from southeast waters. Other commonly encountered species of small of Sri Lanka by Afsal et al. (2009). cetaceans include the common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops Both the pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) and dwarf truncatus) and Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) (Alling, sperm whale (K. sima) have been recorded in low numbers 1986; Ilangakoon, 1989; 1997; 2006a; 2006c; Ilangakoon and (Bröker and Ilangakoon, 2008; Chantrapornsyl et al., 1991; Perera, 2009; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; Kruse et al., 1991). Deraniyagala, 1960; Ilangakoon, 1989; 1997; 2002; 2005; A small population of Indo-Pacific humpback 2006a; 2006c; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; Leatherwood and (Sousa chinensis) was identified in nearshore waters centered Reeves, 1989; Pearson, 1931) around Sri Lanka. on the Puttalam lagoon in the northwest of Sri Lanka as Among the larger cetaceans, the sperm whale is one of the recently as 2004 (Bröker and Ilangakoon, 2008; Ilangakoon, most commonly encountered and widely distributed in Sri 2005; 2006a; 2006c). Although a museum specimen of a Lankan waters. In the 1980s sperm whales were recorded as skull of this species from Mannar further to the north being abundant in the waters off the northeast coast, especially (Blanford, 1891) and a probable sighting in Dutch Bay in association with the Trincomalee canyon, where very deep during an aerial survey in the early 1980s (Leatherwood et water occurs close to the coast (Gordon, 1991; Leatherwood al., 1984) existed, it remained unconfirmed until regular et al., 1984; Whitehead et al., 1983). Subsequent surveys off sightings were made during cetacean surveys in 2004/05. the south, southeast, west and northwest of Sri Lanka have Other small delphinids recorded as sightings (Alling, 1986; also regularly sighted this species (Ilangakoon, 2002; 2006a; Ilangakoon, 2002; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; Ocean 2009; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; Leatherwood and Reeves, Alliance, 2003) and/or bycatch (Dayaratne and Joseph, 1993; 1989; Ocean Alliance, 2003). Sperm whale strandings are also Ilangakoon, 1989; 1997; 2002; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; documented from all coastal areas (Deraniyagala, 1948; 1960; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; Prematunga et al., 1985) Ilangakoon, 2002; 2006b). from around Sri Lanka include pan-tropical spotted dolphin Five species of large Balaenopterid whales have been (S. attenuata), striped dolphin (S. coeruleoalba), rough- recorded around Sri Lanka with blue whales and Bryde’s toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis), Fraser’s dolphin whales being the most common and widely distributed. Blue (Lagenodelphis hosei) and common dolphin (Delphinus whales were first sighted in abundance in the northeastern capensis). The original records of bycaught specimens of waters near Trincomalee canyon (Alling et al., 1982; common dolphin were thought to be D. delphis are listed as Leatherwood et al., 1984; Whitehead et al., 1983) during the such in the literature, based on knowledge available at the ‘Tulip Expedition’ in the early 1980s. These early records time (Dayaratne and Joseph, 1993; Ilangakoon, 1997; 2002; were followed by sightings off the south, southeast, west and Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989). However, following the northwest (Ilangakoon, 2002; 2006a; 2009; Ilangakoon et review of Jefferson and Van Waerebeek, (2002) it is more al., 2000b; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; Ocean Alliance, likely that these are D. capensis tropicalis. 2003) indicating widespread occurrence around the island. Five species commonly referred to as ‘Blackfish’ have Blue whale strandings are also documented from all coastal been recorded in Sri Lanka’s waters, but none appears to be areas other than the northern coastline (Deraniyagala, 1948; common. Short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala Deraniyagala, 1960; Ilangakoon, 2002; 2006b). macrorhynchus), false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens), Bryde’s whales have been frequently sighted all around pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata), melon-headed whale the island by most surveys undertaken thus far (Ilangakoon, (Peponocephala electra) and killer whale (Orcinus orca) 2002; 2009; Ilangakoon and Perera, 2009; Leatherwood et have been recorded as bycatch around the island al., 1984; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; Ocean Alliance, (Ilangakoon, 1997; 2002; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; 2003) though strandings of this species are rare (Ilangakoon, Ilangakoon et al., 1992; Leatherwood et al., 1991; 2006b). The taxonomic status of this species in Sri Lankan Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989). Most sightings of these waters is uncertain. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of tissue species around Sri Lanka have been in continental shelf samples from a Bryde’s whale killed off the west coast by a waters that are not very deep (Bröker and Ilangakoon, 2008; ship strike in 2003 (Herath, 2007) suggested that it was a Ilangakoon, 2002; 2005; 2006a; 2009; Ilangakoon et al., specimen of B. brydei. It is possible that B. edeni also occurs 2010) though these are all species that are thought to be but this remains undetermined at present. usually more common in pelagic waters. The other whales recorded are fin whale (B. Four species of Ziiphid have been recorded in strandings physalus), minke whale (B. acutorostrata) and humpback and bycatch (Dayaratne and Joseph, 1993; Deraniyagala, whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). There is considerable 1965; Ilangakoon, 2002; 2003; Leatherwood and Reeves, uncertainty regarding the occurrence of the fin whale in the 1989) but sightings (Alling, 1986) are rare. The four species tropical northern Indian Ocean, with no recent sightings or recorded are Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), strandings. Since occurrence in Sri Lanka is based mainly Blainville’s beaked whale (M. densirostris), ginkgo-toothed on old and poorly documented stranding records beaked whale (M. ginkgodens) and Longman’s beaked whale (Deraniyagala, 1948) and just one more recent net (Indopacetus pacificus). Specimens of the latter species had entanglement (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989) there is a earlier been referred to as southern bottlenose whales possibility that these may have been misidentifications. (Hyperoodon planifrons) (Alling, 1986; Dayaratne and Minke whales appear to occur mainly in the shallower Joseph, 1993; Ilangakoon, 2002). However, following the northwestern waters of the Gulf of Mannar, based on studies of Pitman et al. (1999) and Dalebout et al. (2003), recorded strandings (Deraniyagala, 1963) and sightings 180 ILANGAKOON: RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION IN SRI LANKA

(Bröker and Ilangakoon, 2008; Ilangakoon, 2006a). source of protein, for some parts of the human population Humpback whales, while not common in Sri Lankan waters, (Breiwick and Tsunoda, 1987; Ilangakoon, 1989; 2002; have stranded sporadically on the west coast (Deraniyagala, 2007; Ilangakoon et al., 2000a). This demand-driven market 1948; Ilangakoon, 2002; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; for dolphin flesh is now fed by a growing direct take Reeves et al., 1991) and their songs have been recorded in (Ilangakoon, 2006c; 2007). northwestern waters (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989; Some cetacean catch studies indicate that spinner dolphins Whitehead, 1985). These are probably part of the comprise more than 50% of the total recorded catch in Sri Arabian Sea population but their stock affinities are as yet Lanka (Dayaratne and Joseph, 1993; Ilangakoon, 1989; undetermined. 1997; 2007; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b). This high rate of The only species of porpoise recorded from Sri Lanka is bycatch is possibly a result of the association of this species the (Neophocaena phocaenoides). Phillips with the tuna that are targeted by fishermen (Ilangakoon, (1935) reported sightings of this species off the east coast 2006a). The spinner dolphin’s natural behaviour of but no details were given and there have been no reported frequently bow-riding with boats also makes it an easy target sightings since then. One specimen in the Harvard Museum for direct take using hand-harpoons (Ilangakoon, 1989; of Comparative Zoology was reported in earlier literature 2002; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b). Spinner dolphins could (Ilangakoon, 2002; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989) as therefore be at particular risk in Sri Lanka’s waters, but as having been caught by a Smithsonian Carangid Survey team no population estimates are available it is difficult to assess on the Wadge Bank (Indian waters), but it is catalogued in the impact. the Museum collection as coming from Kuru Nagar, Jaffna Sri Lanka is located on a major international shipping in northern Sri Lanka (Charles Anderson, pers. comm.). The route across the Indian Ocean. Increased shipping traffic is collector of the specimen has confirmed (Tyson Roberts, a threat that affects all marine mammals, but appears to be pers. comm.) to Charles Anderson that the fresh dead more of a direct threat to large whales in the waters around specimen was purchased by him at a landing site in the island. Recent stranding records show evidence of several Jaffna and handed over to the Museum of Comparative large whales being killed by ship strikes (Herath, 2007; Zoology. Ilangakoon, 2006b; 2006c), with some dead animals being pushed along by container vessels into Colombo harbour. Threats Increased shipping traffic also increases the risk of marine Cetaceans throughout the world’s oceans face a multitude of pollution, both acoustic and chemical, that can be harmful to threats due to increasing human activities, and those around cetaceans (Norris, 1994; Sousa-Lima and Clark, 2008; Wise Sri Lanka are no exception. The primary threat to small et al., 2009). cetaceans around Sri Lanka is the fishing industry. Habitat degradation due to destructive fishing practices Interactions between cetaceans and fisheries were first and pollution of coastal waters from land-based and marine- mentioned in the literature in 1887 (Nevill, 1887) but were based sources also poses a threat to cetaceans in Sri Lanka. documented in more detail in the 1950s (Lantz and This may be particularly severe for those species that are Gunasekera, 1955). Although the island has a long history restricted to coastal waters. Based on current knowledge, the of artisanal fishing, traditional nets were made of natural range of the Indo-Pacific in Sri Lanka is fibers and posed little threat to cetaceans, which could restricted to a small, nearshore area, off the northwest of the usually break through unharmed if accidentally entangled. island, including the Puttalam lagoon, which is extensively Development of modern fisheries began in the late 1940s and used for human activities (Bröker and Ilangakoon, 2008; with this came the adoption of synthetic fibre gillnets. These Ilangakoon, 2006a; 2007). This area is also currently gillnets are now widely used, and accidental bycatch has earmarked for tourism development. Disturbance and become a major problem, causing the mortality of thousands pollution could become a threat to the long-term viability of of small cetaceans each year (Dayaratne and Joseph, 1993; this population. Anthropogenic impacts on other coastal Ilangakoon, 2002; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989). species have not yet been studied, documented or assessed. Although direct hunting is not as widespread as bycatch A recent and growing activity around Sri Lanka is marine in Sri Lanka, the use of a hand-held harpoon to kill small tourism, notably whale and dolphin watching off the cetaceans has been documented off the south coast southern coast (Ilangakoon, 2009; Ilangakoon and Perera, (Ilangakoon, 1989; 1997; 2002; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b; 2009). This may become a threat to cetaceans if unregulated. Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989). Within the past two Although cetaceans are legally protected in Sri Lanka, there decades this practice has spread to other areas on the west are no specific regulations in place to control or monitor and southwest coast and the numbers of small cetaceans whalewatching. With only a few seasons of such activities being killed annually in this manner continue to increase having taken place from 2007 onwards, problems in the form (Ilangakoon, 2002; 2007; Ilangakoon et al., 2000b). of harassment of large whales have already been documented At present, fisheries cause both targeted and accidental (Ilangakoon and Perera, 2009). Even if regulations were mortality of cetaceans, and both forms of take are framed to control such activities under the existing law, indiscriminate in relation to species, sex and size, with rare enforcement would be difficult due to constraints faced by species, pregnant and lactating females and young animals the authorities. These constraints include the lack of trained being taken among others (Ilangakoon, 1989; 2007; personnel and basic equipment, such as boats for monitoring Ilangakoon et al., 2000a; Kruse et al., 1991). The availability activities at sea. Elsewhere in the world, where whale and of dolphin flesh originally derived from accidental bycatch, dolphin watching is a well-developed part of the tourism has led to a newly acquired taste for this non-traditional industry, adverse impacts have become evident, especially J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 12(2): 177–183, 2012 181 on species and populations of small cetaceans inhabiting research surveys, which are expensive and often coastal waters (Constantine et al., 2004; Lusseau, 2003) and unaffordable for small developing countries like Sri Lanka some large whales (Au and Green, 2001; Gordon et al., with more immediate human development priorities. The 1992; McCauley and Cato, 2001). Such impacts have taken work already undertaken has helped develop baseline data place even where strict regulations are in place (Garrod and including a national species list, while temporal and spatial Fennell, 2004) and this is now a cause for concern in Sri distribution patterns of some of the more common species Lanka. are only now being unravelled through on-going work. Little however is known about the distribution of other species, Legal status and conservation migration patterns, population trends or species/populations All cetaceans are protected under national legislation in Sri at particular risk. Even the ecological needs of many of the Lanka. They are afforded blanket protection as a group, coastal small cetaceans are currently not clearly understood under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, as amended in Sri Lanka, making it difficult to assess the impacts of in 1993. Cetaceans are also protected under the Fisheries Act human development activities. of 1996. While this legislation is in theory adequate to Likewise, no molecular biological studies to determine provide protection for all species of whales and dolphins, stock affinities or population structures have ever been implementation and enforcement of these laws are negligible carried out, with species identifications having been at present. As a result, small cetaceans continue to be landed primarily based on morphological characteristics. These as bycatch and direct take, while the flesh from these animals research gaps have also resulted in taxonomic uncertainties, is openly sold for human consumption, in violation of especially in relation to some of the large baleen whales. For existing laws (Ilangakoon, 2002; 2006c). Under both sets of example, although Bryde’s type whales are common around legislation it is not only a punishable offence to kill or harm Sri Lanka, the recent splitting of the species (Wada et al., cetaceans, but it is also an offence to sell or have possession 2003) has created uncertainty as to which species occur(s) of any part of such an . Being protected under two sets around the island. Likewise, there is uncertainty about the of legislation also causes some confusion and loopholes in movements and population affinities of blue whales. While enforcement, because the penalties differ under each feeding aggregations of this species including mother-calf legislative instrument (Ilangakoon, 2006c). pairs have been recorded off the north-east (Alling et al., Sri Lanka has an extensive network of terrestrial protected 1991) and south (Ilangakoon, 2009) coasts, at least some areas, but Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have not been animals are present in Sri Lankan waters throughout the year, given priority in the protected area system of the country raising the possibility of a resident population (Ilangakoon, (Ilangakoon, 2006c). Presently there are only six MPAs 2002; 2006c; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989). around the island, four of which were created with the In terms of spatial coverage, Sri Lanka’s northern waters priority aim of protecting coral reefs, while the other two have been totally neglected in relation to cetacean research, were designated for fisheries management (Perera and De due to the civil unrest and terrorism which prevailed in the Vos, 2007). Cetacean occurrence and distribution has only area for the past 25 years. The uncertain security situation been assessed in one of these MPAs, and that too, long after made the area inaccessible to researchers. While almost its boundaries were demarcated (Bröker and Ilangakoon, nothing is known about cetacean occurrence and distribution 2008; Ilangakoon, 2006a; 2007). No protected area has yet in these northern waters, the cessation of hostilities in 2009 been created for the express purpose of protecting cetaceans, presents opportunities for future research activities. or important cetacean habitat. Some cetacean species, such Research in the past three decades resulted in several as the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin that is dependent on publications specifically on cetaceans in Sri Lanka shallow nearshore waters, could benefit from well-managed (Ilangakoon, 2002; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1989) and a protected areas declared specifically for their protection. number of scientific papers, reports and articles. These However, even in the existing Marine Protected Areas however, have not been adequate to raise awareness among (MPAs), enforcement and management are almost non- management authorities, law enforcement personnel, tourism existent, for reasons including lack of resources and trained authorities or the general public within the country. There is personnel (Ilangakoon, 2006c). still a large gap in awareness about cetaceans in the waters around the island, their ecological needs and conservation Research gaps and constraints status, due to a dearth of information and non-scientific There has been little dedicated, long-term research on literature on the subject. cetaceans in Sri Lanka. During the past three decades, several short-term research projects and studies have been CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS conducted when external funds were available and data have There is a diversity of cetacean species, inhabiting both also been collected using platforms of opportunity when coastal and offshore waters around Sri Lanka. This possible. Therefore, research on cetaceans has been sporadic understanding is however based on limited research. There and discontinuous making results obtained from these is a need to expand the research base, and to cover more surveys difficult to compare. Such data are not conducive to areas, including the north and offshore waters. Likewise, it deciphering cetacean life histories, long-term population is desirable that long-term and consistent research activities trends or impacts of human activities. Land-based studies, are initiated in to assess population trends, ecological such as those on fisheries bycatch and direct take, have been needs and the conservation status of cetacean populations in more extensive and thorough than boat-based surveys on live these waters. While it is important to carry out research on animals. This is mainly due to a lack of resources for at-sea all aspects of cetaceans in Sri Lanka’s waters, priority needs 182 ILANGAKOON: RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION IN SRI LANKA to be given to management and conservation-oriented cetacean communities of two other tropical ecosystems. Mar. Mammal research. Information that is crucial for management Sci. 14(3): 429–59. Blanford, W.T. 1891. The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and purposes includes population trends and immediate and Burma. Taylor and Francis, London. 617pp. growing threats. More detailed, long-term studies on species Blyth, E. 1859. On the great of the Indian Ocean, with notices of and behavioural aspects should be undertaken, along with other cetals, and of the Syrenia or marine pachyderms. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 28: 481–98. continuous monitoring of all cetacean related human Breiwick, J.M. and Tsunoda, L. 1987. Comments submitted by J.M. activities, as and when resources become available. Breiwick and L. Tsunoda (USA) on the research plan for the feasibility Sri Lanka has good potential for the development of non- study on `The program for research on the Southern Hemisphere minke whale and for preliminary research on the marine ecosystem in consumptive activities like commercial whale and dolphin the Antarctic’ by the Government of Japan. Paper SC/D87/26 presented watching. At present cetaceans remain a potentially to the IWC Scientific Committee Special Meeting to Consider the important but underutilised resource that could, through Japanese Research Permit (Feasibility Study), Cambridge, December 1987 (unpublished). [Paper available from the Office of this Journal]. careful management, become economically beneficial to the Bröker, K.C.A. and Ilangakoon, A. 2008. Occurrence and conservation country. Such activities can benefit underprivileged coastal needs of cetaceans in and around the Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary, Sri communities that presently view small cetaceans only as a Lanka. Oryx 42: 286–91. Chantrapornsyl, S., Kinze, C.C., Leatherwood, S. and Prematunga, W.P. 1991. source of food or supplementary income. Benefits of Notes on the Kogia in the northern Indian Ocean. pp.79–88. In: activities like whale and dolphin watching would be an Leatherwood, S. and Donovan, G.P. (eds). Cetaceans and cetacean research incentive for these local communities to realise the value of in the Indian Ocean Sanctuary. United Nations Environment Programme Technical Report No. 3, Nairobi, Kenya. 287pp. live animals in their waters, as opposed to the exploitation Constantine, R., Brunton, D.H. and Dennis, T. 2004. Dolphin-watching tour that takes place at present. In developing these activities, boats change bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) behaviour. Biol. baseline data and continuous monitoring are important for Conserv. 117: 299–307. Dalebout, M.L., Ross, G.J.B., Baker, C.S., Anderson, R.C., Best, P.B., long-term sustainability. Cockroft, V.G., Hinsz, H.L., Peddemors, V. and Pitman, R.L. 2003. It is also important to raise awareness regarding cetaceans Appearance, distribution and genetic distinctiveness of Longman’s and cetacean conservation within the country. Data from beaked whale, Indopacetus pacificus. Mar. Mammal Sci. 19(3): 421–61. Dayaratne, P. and Joseph, L. 1993. A study of dolphin catches in Sri Lanka. scientific studies should therefore be used to create Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras BOBP/REP/56: 47pp. awareness among management authorities as well as the Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1945. Some Odontoceti from Ceylon. Spolia Zeylan. general public. It is only through this kind of heightened 24(2): 113–20. Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1948. Some mystacetid whales from Ceylon. Spolia awareness and understanding at a local level, especially Zeylan. 25: 61–63. among coastal communities, that long-term conservation and Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1960. Some southern temperate zone snakes, birds and rational management goals can be achieved. whales that enter the Ceylon area. Spolia Zeylan. 29(1): 79–85. Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1963. Mass mortality of the new subspecies of little piked whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata thalmaha and a new beaked ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS whale Mesoplodon hotaula from Ceylon. Spolia Zeylan. 30: 80–84. 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