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Middlesex University Research Repository An open access repository of Middlesex University research http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk Lee, David Yat Tong (2015) Contextualization of Sufi spirituality in 17th-18th century China: the role of Liu Zhi (c. 1662 – c. 1730). PhD thesis, Middlesex University / London School of Theology. [Thesis] Final accepted version (with author’s formatting) This version is available at: https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/17459/ Copyright: Middlesex University Research Repository makes the University’s research available electronically. Copyright and moral rights to this work are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners unless otherwise stated. The work is supplied on the understanding that any use for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. A copy may be downloaded for personal, non-commercial, research or study without prior permission and without charge. Works, including theses and research projects, may not be reproduced in any format or medium, or extensive quotations taken from them, or their content changed in any way, without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder(s). They may not be sold or exploited commercially in any format or medium without the prior written permission of the copyright holder(s). Full bibliographic details must be given when referring to, or quoting from full items including the author’s name, the title of the work, publication details where relevant (place, publisher, date), pag- ination, and for theses or dissertations the awarding institution, the degree type awarded, and the date of the award. If you believe that any material held in the repository infringes copyright law, please contact the Repository Team at Middlesex University via the following email address: [email protected] The item will be removed from the repository while any claim is being investigated. See also repository copyright: re-use policy: http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/policies.html#copy CONTEXTUALIZATION OF SUFI SPIRITUALITY IN 17 th -18 th CENTURY CHINA: THE ROLE OF LIU ZHI (c. 1662 – c. 1730) A Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by David Yat Tong Lee Middlesex University Supervised at London School of Theology October 2014 i Abstract Contextualization of Sufi Spirituality in 17 th -18 th Century China: The Role of Liu Zhi (c. 1662 – c.1730) Between the 16 th and 18 th centuries, Islamic literati actively translated and wrote Islamic texts in Chinese for use by Hui Muslims and the Scripture Hall Education System in China. They used Confucian terms extensively to explain Islamic thought. This phenomenon has been interpreted recently in China as a process of Confucianization of Islam. Consequently, it is claimed that Islam in China is distinctive because it is Islam with Chinese characteristics. This is a study of the issue of the Confucianization of Islam in China from the perspective of contextualization. Liu Zhi (c. 1662 – c.1730) is one of the most well known Hui Islamic scholars. Both his acclaimed trilogy and his short treatises, including a Sufi poem, are examined by using two foundational themes, namely the concept of unity of existence and Sufi spirituality. Firstly, this study shows that Liu Zhi’s concept of unity of existence is based on the Ibn ‘Arabi tradition which has been influential in Chinese Sufism. Liu Zhi translated Persian and Arabic Islamic texts and interpreted the concept of unity of existence by primarily using Confucian terms with the aim to make difficult Islamic concepts more comprehensible to his readers. Secondly, this study shows that Liu Zhi’s Sufi spirituality is in active conversation with the Chinese cultural contexts. Sufi spirituality is contextualized primarily, but not exclusively, as Confucian self-cultivation. The Sufi path is also interpreted as a Buddhist concept of ‘vehicle’ (乘). The goal of Sufi spirituality is the return to the Real by the empowering role of the prophet Muhammad who is contextualized as the Utmost Sage. ii Finally, contrary to the common understanding that Liu Zhi has Confuciancized Islam, this study shows that Liu Zhi contextualized his Islamic tradition by using a composite translation-conversation model of contextualization. He was always faithful to his Islamic tradition and contextualized the Sufi spirituality as practical wisdom. iii Acknowledgements The writing of this doctoral thesis has been a fairly long process. I am greatly indebted to my supervisor Professor Peter Riddell for his patience and encouragement throughout. His guidance and advice during the course of my studies in London and Hong Kong have been tremendous. His perceptive criticisms are always made with sensitivity and kindness. Without his patience, I would not have been able to finish the thesis. My study would not be possible without the support and prayers of the pastors and leaders of my home church, the Chinese Church in London. I am thankful for their prayer and support. I am thankful to the board members of Evangel Seminary in Hong Kong to grant me a sabbatical leave to finish my thesis. Also, the faculty members, staff and pupils have prayed continually for the completion of my research. I am also thankful to family members who have waited long enough to see the completion of my study. Words cannot express my appreciation of their support. Finally, I am greatly grateful to my wife, Jessie and our son Cliff. Their love and support have made the completion of the thesis less difficult than expected. iv CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Content v 1.0 Chapter One: Methodological Introduction 1 1.1 General Aims 1 1.2 Specific Objectives 2 1.3 Previous Relevant Studies 3 1.4 Method of Study: Engaging Islamic Texts with Chinese Culture 4 1.4.1 Contextualizing the Religious Message 4 1.4.2 Engaging with Islamic Texts: Exoteric and Esoteric 5 Interpretation of Islamic Text 1.4.3 Engaging with Chinese Culture: Interpreting and 8 Conversing with the Neo-Confucian Culture 1.5 Models of Contextualization 10 1.6 Original Contribution to Knowledge 18 1.7 Summary of Each Chapter 19 v 2.0 Chapter Two: The Historical, Philosophical and Islamic Context 22 in China 2.1 Historical Context 22 2.1.1 Islam in Pre-Modern and Modern China 22 2.1.2 The Scripture Hall Education System 28 2.1.3 Islamic Text Transmission in Chinese 31 (1) Wang Daiyu (c. 1580 – c. 1660) 32 (2) Liu Zhi (c. 1662 – c. 1730) 35 (3) Ma Dexin (1794 – 1874) 37 2.2 Philosophical Context 39 2.2.1 Daoism 39 2.2.2 Buddhism 41 2.2.3 Neo-Confucianism 44 2.3 Islamic Context 46 2.3.1 Early Islamic Texts in Chinese 46 (1) Najm al-Din Razi (1177-1256) and Mirsad al-ibad 46 (The Path of the Servant from Origin to Return) (2) Abd al-Rahman Jami’s Ashi‘at al-Lama‘at 48 (Rays of the Flashes) and Lawa’ih (Gleams) (3) Aziz al-Din Nasafi (d. c. 1300) and Maqsad-i aqsa 49 (The Furthest Goal) 2.3.2 The Ibn ‘Arabi Tradition and the Concept of the Unity of 51 Existence vi (1) Some Foundational Principles of Ibn ‘Arabi’s Writings 51 (2) History and Development of the Concept of 53 the Unity of Existence in the Ibn ‘Arabi Tradition 2.3.3 The Ibn ‘Arabi Tradition and Sufi Spirituality 57 (1) The Ibn ‘Arabi Tradition and Sufi Thought 58 (2) The Ibn ‘Arabi Tradition and the Concept of the 60 Perfect Man and Muhammadan Reality (3) The Twentieth Century Understanding of Sufi Thought 63 and Islamic Knowledge 2.3.4 Liu Zhi’s Sufi Spirituality as Contextualized 66 Neo-Confucian Wisdom (1) Neo-Confucianism and Zhu Xi (1130-1200) 66 (2) The Relationship between Religion, Chinese Culture 71 and Self-Cultivation (3) Sufi Spirituality as Contextualized Neo-Confucian 74 Wisdom 2.4 Summary and Conclusion 76 3.0 Chapter Three: An Examination of Liu Zhi’s Writings 79 3.1 Liu Zhi’s Trilogy: a Brief Overview 79 3.1.1 The Nature and Principle in Islam 80 3.1.2 The Rules and Proprieties of Islam 81 vii 3.1.3 The True Record of the Utmost Sage of Islam 82 3.2 Other Works of Liu Zhi: an Overview 84 3.2.1 The Explanation of the Five Endeavours 84 3.2.2 Other Works : The Three-character Classic , 85 Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm , Explanation of the Meaning of Arabic Alphabets and Poem of the Five Sessions of the Moon 3.3 Contemporary Scholarship on Liu Zhi’s Works and a Critical 87 Assessment 3.3.1 An Overview 87 (1) Works in English 87 (2) Works in Chinese 90 3.3.2 Discussion of Liu Zhi’s Works in English and Chinese 93 (1) Works in English 93 (2) Works in Chinese 97 3.3.3 Remark and Comment 104 3.4 Conclusion 107 4.0 Chapter Four: Liu Zhi’s Engagement with the Concept of the Unity 108 of Existence of the Ibn ‘Arabi Tradition 4.1 Liu Zhi and the Unity of Existence in the Ibn ‘Arabi Tradition 108 4.1.1 Wang Daiyu and the Ibn ‘Arabi Tradition in China 108 viii 4.1.2 Liu Zhi’s Theological Conversation with 114 a Neo-Confucian Classic: The Three-character Classic 4.1.3 Liu Zhi’s Translation: Abd al-Rahman Jami’s Lawa’ih 119 (1414-1492) and Liu Zhi’s Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm 4.2 Key Themes of the Concept of the Unity of Existence in The 130 Nature and Principle in Islam and Rules and Proprieties of Islam 4.2.1 The Real Ruler: Transcendence and Immanence 131 4.2.2 The Second Grade of Disclosure 134 4.2.3 The Unity of Existence and Return to the Real 137 4.3 Contemporary Scholarship on Liu Zhi’s Concept of the Unity 141 of Existence and Disclosure 4.4 Summary and Conclusion 146 5.0 Chapter Five: Liu Zhi’s Sufi Spirituality in Conversation with the 148 Neo-Confucian Cultural Context in China 5.1 Theological Conversation with the Chinese Culture: Neo-Confucian 149 Classics 5.1.1
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  • 6 Pilgrimage and Hui Muslim Identity in the Republican Era

    6 Pilgrimage and Hui Muslim Identity in the Republican Era

    6 Pilgrimage and Hui Muslim Identity in the Republican Era Yuan-lin Tsai Abstract Pilgrimage (hajj) is the fifth pillar of Islam and the most important symbol of unity of the Muslim ‘Community’ (‘Ummah’). When pan- Islamism and Chinese nationalism met in the early twentieth century, it is interesting to see how the Chinese pilgrims, and the Chinese Muslims as a whole, understood and responded to the Islamic revivalist call to the unity of the Community and the Chinese nationalist voice to build a new nation-state. This chapter explores the relationships between these two forces by researching original official documents, news reports, memoirs, and other biographical materials regarding the Hui Muslims’ pilgrimage experience. It concludes that Hui Muslim pilgrims’ choice is not an either/or question, but a mixture of pan-Islamism and Hui patriotism. Keywords: pilgrimage, Mecca, Hui, Uighur, pan-Islamism, Wahhabi Introduction Islam in China has not yet been a well-explored field despite some ground- breaking books and articles that have been published in Chinese, Japanese, and various Western languages during the last two decades. The scholars in this field have usually made their own efforts in an isolated fashion and have not integrated into the academic communities of either Islamic studies or Chinese studies. This is also true for the studies of the Chinese Muslims’ pilgrimage (hajj). In the two most comprehensive historical works on the pilgrimage – Peters’ The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places (1994) and Wolfe’s One Thousand Roads to Mecca: Ten Centuries of Travelers Writing about the Muslim Pilgrimage (1997) – there is no mention of the Chinese Muslims’ pilgrimage journey.