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Urban Development and Everyday Life of Ordinary Labourers in Wartime Chongqing: 1937-1945 Xiaolu Wu

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Urban Development and Everyday Life of Ordinary Labourers in Wartime Chongqing: 1937-1945 Xiaolu Wu Urban Development and Everyday Life of Ordinary Labourers in Wartime Chongqing: 1937-1945 Xiaolu Wu A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2016 School of Historical and Philosophical Inquiry Abstract After the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese war on 7th July 1937, Chongqing was set as the wartime capital of China. Before the war, Chongqing was a common commercial city in southwest of China. Due to geographical factors, the city was situated away from the political centre of China for a long time. Furthermore, as a part of Sichuan province the city greatly suffered because of the local warlords’ civil war from the 1920s to the 1930s. Although it was faced with many difficulties Chongqing still had some industrial and economic development with the support of local warlords. It laid a foundation for the future political and industrial development of Chongqing. After Chongqing became the wartime capital great changes happened. The city not only changed politically and economically, but it also changed socially because of the impact of these changes on the ordinary people. The social order and structure changed during wartime, while the ordinary people were re-made and re-shaped by the changing daily life. The Guomindang government reached the peak of its power during the war, while what was the distance between the power and the private space of ordinary people? The local individuals were deeply influenced by the political and historical events in their daily life. However they were not only observers of the historical changes that occurred around them but they can also claim ownership of the changes that they helped bring about. I use the perspective of “from the bottom” to examine the ordinary people’s daily lives and try to explore why and how the ordinary people changed, and the result of the changes. With an examination of the westward industrial shift and the ordinary people’ joining the factory to work, this thesis aims to discover how new customs and culture were formed during the process, and how social hierarchy was replaced and remade. The new hierarchy not only distinguished the individuals but also the enterprises themselves. This newly-forming industrial hierarchy structured a new political system. During the wartime, millions of young single people swarmed into the city and spent their youth working in the factories. These young people were pulled out of the traditional hierarchical spaces based on blood relations, and were now disciplined in new spaces such as dining halls and dormitories in the factories. These spaces were highly politicised during wartime. In these spaces the nation’s ideology deeply involved and infiltrated the daily lives of ordinary people through new daily behaviours and regulations. The daily life was repetitive and unavoidable, so there is no doubt that most people were disciplined in these spaces. The contribution of the War to these changes is clear. Due to the intense bombing, the government increased its control of the people by the evacuation and permit system. Although many people could not find any jobs after evacuation the government appeared to ignore their plight. However, the authorities eventually lost the support of the ordinary people because of the inconvenience brought by the evacuations and permit system, and also because the adverse effects of these regulations on the daily lives of the ordinary people were ignored. It showed how crucial it is for any government to consider the effects of any regulation on the daily lives of ordinary people. The resistance from below also appeared in the late wartime period, as the power of the ordinary people formed during the process of disciplining. Because of patriotic pressures, the resistance from below was limited, but the coming victory over Japan released the power of ordinary people. Resistance in daily life appeared and also happened in other areas of the people’s lives, such as the fight for fair salaries and anger about inflation and the black market. Compared to these remarkable political and industrial changes, changes to the lives of ordinary people may not appear so notable but were in fact profound and long-lasting. After experiencing the war in the city the ordinary people were totally different from the people before the war. The changes that occurred actually influenced future social and political affairs. I argue that the daily lives of ordinary people profoundly impacted on social changes during wartime. Moreover, the changes during the war influenced the destiny of the nation. Although the power from below was still largely undetectable and underground, it influenced the succeeding civil war from 1946-1949. Furthermore, the wartime changes in Chongqing promoted the position of Chongqing within China. Historically, it was a hinterland political centre, now and into the future. Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. Publications during candidature Xiaolu Wu, “Lu Zuofu and the modern enterprise of the Tianfu Coal Mining Company (1925- 1945)”, National Maritime Research, no. 12 (2015): 67-82. Xiaolu Wu, “Immigrants and Culture: The community culture and everyday life of oversea Chinese in Australia”, Journal of Australia-China Affairs, (2014): 72-78. Xiaolu Wu, “Book Review on an Interview Record of Mr. Li Chengji”, Chinese Southern Studies, no. 6 (2013): 195-196. Publications included in this thesis Contributor Statement of contribution Author Xiaolu Wu (Candidate) Data collecting (100%) Wrote the paper (100%) Xiaolu Wu, “Lu Zuofu and the modern enterprise of the Tianfu Coal Mining Company (1925- 1945)”, National Maritime Research, no. 12 (2015): 67-82. Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree None Acknowledgements I would like to thank Chi-Kong Lai, Andrew Bonnell, and Patrick Jory and the members of my Thesis Committee, for their intellectual guidance, encouragement and long-time help. I especially would like to express my appreciation for Porf Chi-kong Lai, my Principal Supervisor, for his long time supervision, support and constant help since 2011. I gained suggestions, comments and help from many people, especially Patrick Jory and his family, Judy King, Onanong Thippimol, Ngoc Bich Nguyen – to all of you my deepest gratitude. I also want to express my appreciation for Prof. Ruth Kerr, and Helen Brackin, for their great support and help. I am also thankful to my friends in Brisbane, Hong Kong, and Chongqing, who encouraged and supported me to finish the whole thesis. Thanks is also due to the scholars in Chongqing – Prof. Bai Chenguang, A/Prof. Lv Ping, , Mr. Liu Liangchen – who have given their valuable time and assistance generously by providing crucial information to help in my thesis writing. It is my pleasure to thank the Australian Mining History Association and the CHUNG WAH SOCIETY, Darwin in the Northern Territory, especially Mel Davis, and Chairman Austin Chin, who provided me with the opportunity to explore this new topic in the field of mining history and the overseas Chinese. Finally, I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my mother, who is a constant unwavering source of love. Under her kindness and encouragement, I accomplished this thesis. I also want to dedicate this thesis to my father in Heaven, who passed away 8 months before I started my PhD in Australia. He was a military fan and was very interested in the history of war. He provided the inspiration for me to continue in the study of wartime history. Keywords Ordinary people, daily life, custom, reshaping and remaking, authority, urban culture Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) ANZSRC code: 210302, Asian History, 100% Fields of Research (FoR) Classification FoR code: 2103 Historical Studies, 100% Table of Contents Chapter 1 ...........................................................................................................................................
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