BiodiversityStrategyand ActionPlanofthe RepublicofMacedonia

MINISTRYOFENVIRONMENTANDPHYSICALPLANNING SKOPYE,2004

001 Skopye,2003 MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning

Publisher: MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning

Englisheditors: R.DarrellSmith,Ph.D.

Englishtranslation: SvetozarPetkovski,Ph.D.,andVesnaSidorovska,Ph.D.

Technicalpreparation: Grafohartija

Printedby: Grafohartija

Printingrun: 500copies

CIP-Cataloguing-in-PublicationData NationalandUniversityLibrary"St.ClementofOhrid” Skopye

BiodiversityStrategyandActionPlanfortheRepublicofMacedonia Skopje:MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning,2003.-134Pages.:Tables;30cm

Bibliography:pp.

ISBN:9989-110-16-6

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmitted inanyformorbyanymeans,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwritten permissionofthepublisher.

002 ThisdocumentwasbaseduponscientificdatausedinthepreparationoftheCountryStudyfor BiodiversityoftheRepublicofMacedonia.Thepreparationofthisdocumentanditspublicationwere financedbytheWorldBankundertheGlobalEnvironmentalFacility(GEF).

SteeringCommittee:

President: • MenkaSpirovska,Stateadvisor-MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning

Members: • KonstantinSiderovski,MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning • DanicaPavlovska,MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning • StefankaHadzipecova,NationalCommitteeonBiodiversity • KristinaPavlovska,MinistryofFinance • PanceNikolov,MinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandWaterManagement • ZoranStojcevski,MinistryofForeignAffairs • SnezanaTasevska,MinistryofEconomy • TodorIvanovski,MacedonianMuseumofNaturalHistory,Skopye • StojmirkaTasevska,EconomicChamberoftheRepublicofMacedonia • SlavkoDamevski,PelisterNationalPark • VladimirDzabirski,FacultyofAgriculture,Skopye • KrsteRistevski,FacultyofLaw,Skopye • BorisGelevski,MacedonianMovementofEcologists

ProjectManager: • VeselaLambevskaDomazetova

003 MembersoftheWorkingTeamInvolvedinthePreparation oftheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlanfortheRepublicofMacedonia

I. CoreTeam

• VladoMatevski,Ph.D.,Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye • SvetozarPetkovski,Ph.D.,Museumadvisor-MacedonianMuseumofNaturalHistory, Skopye • LjupcoMelovski,Ph.D.,Asst.Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciences andMathematics,Skopye • SretenAndonov,Ph.D.,Professor-FacultyofAgriculture,Skopye • NikolaNikolov,Ph.D.,Asst.Professor-FacultyofForestry,Skopye • SvetislavKrstic,Ph.D.,Asst.Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciences andMathematics,Skopye

II.Members

• BrankoMicevski,Ph.D.,Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyforNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye • ZivkoSekovski,Ph.D.,Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye • JordeJakimovski,Ph.D.,Professor-InstituteforSociological,PoliticalandJuridical Research,Skopye • JovanRistov,Director-InstituteofProtectionofCulturalMonumentsoftheRepublicof Macedonia • SonjaIvanovska,Ph.D.,Assoc.Professor-FacultyofAgriculture,Skopye • MitkoKostadinovski,Ph.D.,Assoc.Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNatural SciencesandMathematics,Skopye • JaneAcevski,Ph.D.,Professor-FacultyofForestry,Skopye • PeceNedanovski,M.Sc.,Assistant-FacultyofEconomy,Skopye • ZlatkoLevkov,M.Sc.,Assistant-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye • VasilKostov,M.Sc.-InstituteofLivestockscience,Skopye • SlavcoHristovski,Assistant-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye

III. OtherParticipants

• VesnaSidorovska,Ph.D.,Vice-president-SocietyfortheInvestigationandConservationof BiodiversityandtheSustainableDevelopmentofNaturalEcosystems(BIOECO),Skopye • GordanaPopsimonova,Ph.D.-InstituteofAgriculture,Skopye • SaskoJordanov,M.Sc.-MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning • GoseStefkov,M.Sc.,Assistant-FacultyofPharmacology,Skopye

004 TABLEOFCONTENTS

TABLEOFCONTENTS

TableofContents ...... I 3.KEYTHREATSTO Foreword ...... III BIODIVERSITY ...... 53

1.INTRODUCTION ...... 3 3.1.Socio-economiccontext ...... 53 3.2.Keyeconomicsectorsaffecting 1.1.TheValueofBiodiversity ...... 3 biodiversity ...... 55 1.2.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity ...... 3 3.3.Underlyingcausesofbiodiversityloss .....62 1.3.BiodiversityStrategy 3.4.Maindirectthreatstobiodiversity ...... 63 andActionPlan ...... 4 3.4.1Habitatloss,modificationand 1.4.Countrycontext ...... 5 fragmentation ...... 63 1.4.1.GeographicPosition ...... 5 3.4.2.Overuseofbiologicalresources ...... 64 1.4.2.Physicalgeography ...... 6 3.4.3.Pollutionoftheenvironment ...... 65 1.4.3.Climate ...... 8 3.4.4.Introducedandinvasivespecies ...... 66 1.4.4.Hydrography ...... 10 3.4.5.Climatechanges ...... 66 1.4.5.Humanpopulationandsettlements ....11 3.4.6.Naturaldisasters ...... 67 3.4.7.Otherfactors ...... 68 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHE REPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ....15 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKFOR 2.1.Diversityofecosystems ...... 15 BIODIVERSITY 2.1.1.Keyecosystems ...... 15 2.1.2.Threatenedecosystems ...... 20 CONSERVATION ...... 71 2.2.Diversityofspecies ...... 26 2.2.1.Micro-organisms ...... 26 4.1.Constitutionalbasis ...... 71 2.2.2.Algae ...... 26 4.2.Legalbasis ...... 72 2.2.3.FungiandLichens ...... 27 4.3.Internationalagreements ...... 79 2.2.4.Higherplantgroups ...... 28 4.4.Institutionalframework ...... 81 2.2.5.Fauna ...... 29 2.3.Endemicandrelictspecies ...... 33 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS ...... 91 2.3.1.Micro-organisms ...... 33 2.3.2.Algae ...... 33 5.1.Currentlossof,oreffectson, 2.3.3.FungiandLichens ...... 33 biodiversity ...... 91 2.3.4.Higherplants ...... 34 5.2.Directcauseofbiodiversityloss ...... 92 2.3.5.Fauna ...... 35 5.3.Underlyingcausesofbiodiversityloss ...92 2.4.Rare,threatenedandextinctspecies 5.4.Keysectorsaffectingbiodiversity ...... 93 andassemblages ...... 37 5.5.Constrainstoconservation ...... 94 2.4.1.Micro-organisms ...... 37 5.6.Oppurtunitesforconservation ...... 95 2.4.2.Algae ...... 37 2.4.3.FungiandLichens ...... 37 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGY 2.4.4.Higherplants ...... 38 ANDACTIONPLAN ...... 99 2.4.5.Fauna ...... 41 2.5.Speciesofeconomicimportance 6.1BiodiversityStrategyforMacedonia .....99 (wildplantsandanimals) ...... 43 6.1.1.TheOverallAim ...... 99 2.5.1.Usageofwildplantsandfungi ...... 43 6.1.2.GuidingObjectives ...... 99 2.5.2.Useofwildanimals ...... 45 6.1.3.StrategicPrinciples ...... 100 2.5.3.Assessmentsofsustainability ...... 47 6.2.BiodiversityActionPlan 2.6.Geneticdiversity(gene-fund) ...... 47 forMacedonia ...... 100 2.7.Agrobiodiversity ...... 48 6.3.ImplementationoftheBiodiversity 2.7.1.Crops ...... 48 StrategyandActionPlan ...... 101 2.7.2.Nativebreedsoflivestock ...... 49 6.4.MonitoringoftheImplementation oftheBiodiversityStrategy andActionPlan ...... 102 BiodiversityActionPlanforMacedonia ....104

005 006 FOREWORD

FOREWORD

Duringtheperiodsinceachievingitsindependence,theRepublicofMacedoniahasbeenstriving tobuildastablepoliticalandeconomiccommunity,withalegalsystemabletofacilitaterapid integrationintotheEuropeanUnionandthewiderinternationalcommunity.Thisprimarystrategic goalhasgivenrisetosectoraltargets,oneofwhichistheestablishmentofefficientenvironmental protectionmeasuresinordertoprovideabasisforanimprovedqualityoflife. Onecomponentofthisstrategicgoalistheconservationofbiodiversityandhabitats.Inthe processtowardachievingthisgoal,theRepublicofMacedoniahasratified: theConventionon BiologicalDiversity(1997), ConventiononWetlandsofInternationalImportanceParticularlyas WaterfowlHabitat(1997), ConventionontheConservationofEuropeanWildlifeandNatural Habitats(1997)andConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals (1999). Theseconventions,togetherwiththeinternationalagreementsassumedfromtheformerSocialist FederalRepublicofYugoslaviabymeansofsuccession,constitutepartofthenationallegislationand representabasisforbiodiversityconservation. Inspiteoftheexistenceoflegalbasesfortheregulationofbiodiversityconservation(Lawonthe ProtectionofNaturalRarities [1973]aswellasothersectorallaws),however,foralongperiodthere hasbeenafeltneedtodevelopanationalstrategyforbiodiversityconservationnotonlyinorderto establishadirectionandidentifyprioritiesinthisarea,butalsoasanobligationarisingfromthe ConventiononBiologicalDiversity.Theactionsbegunin1998,beforetheinvolvementoftheGlobal EnvironmentalFacility(GEF),wereinitiatedwiththesigningoftheagreementforfundingthe project,"ActivitiesRelatedtoBiodiversityandCapacityAssessment."Theyhaveresultedinthe preparationoftheCountryStudyforBiodiversityandtheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlanfor theRepublicofMacedonia. TheCountryStudywasthefirststepinthisprocedureandrepresentsanoverview ofthesituation inMacedoniaasitrelatestospeciesandecosystemdiversity,thelevelofknowledgeofparticular floristicandfaunalgroupsandthelevelsandtypesofdirectorindirectthreatstotheirsurvival.In addition,itdescribestheusesofbiodiversityforcommercialpurposes. TheStrategy,asabasicplanningdocument,definesanintegratedapproachtotheconservation andsustainableuseofthecomponentsofbiodiversity,whiletheActionPlanencompassesspecific activitieswhichmustbeaccomplishedinordertoachievetheOverallAimandGuidingObjectives enumeratedwithintheStrategy. Supportedbythescientificcommunityandwiththeclosecollaborationofnon-governmental organisationsandthewiderpublic,wehavesucceededindevelopingthebasicstrategicdocuments concerningbiodiversitywhichwilldoubtlesslyprovideameaningfulcontributiontothehighquality conservationandsustainableuseofbiologicalresources.

MinisterofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning,

LjubomirJanev

007 TheGovernmentoftheRepublicofMacedoniaonits67thsession, heldonthe19thofJanuary,2004hasadoptedTHEBIODIVERSITY STRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

008 1.INTRODUCTION

1.INTRODUCTION

1.INTRODUCTION 1.1.Thevalueofbiodiversity

Humansareaninherentpartoftheglobalecosystem,whetheritisacknowledgedornot,andwehavea uniqueroletoplaybecauseofourabilitytoinfluencethisverysystemandbecausethethreattobiodiversityis alsoathreattothebasiclife-supportprocessesthatmaintainthelivingworldoftheplanetEarth. Theroleofmicro-organisms,plantsandanimalsinprovidingecologicalservicesofvaluetohumanityis themostimportantanthropocentricreasonforconservingbiodiversity.Amyriadoforganismsunderpinthe ecologicallife-supportfunctionsthatenablehumansocietytoexist. Thevalueofbiologicaldiversitythusarisesbyvirtueoftheecologicalservicesderivedthroughthe interactionsbetweentheorganisms,populationsandcommunitiesofthenaturalenvironment;thevalueof biodiversitylosscorrespondstothesensitivityoftheseecologicalservicestoboththedepletionandthe completelossofspecies.Thereisathresholdofdiversitybelowwhichmostecosystemscannotfunction.In otherwords,allself-organisinglivingsystemsrequireaminimumdiversityofspeciesinordertocapturethe sun'senergyandtodevelopthecyclicrelationoffundamentalcompoundstoproducers,consumersand decomposers. Themajorthreattobiodiversityisnotthedirectexploitationofspeciesbyhumansbut,rather,the alterationanddestructionofhabitatwhichresultsfromthegrowthofthehumanpopulationandfrom damaginghumanactivities.Habitatchangebyhumansiscauseddirectlythroughland-usechanges, urbanisation,infrastructuredevelopmentandindustrialisation.Indirecthabitatchangeiscausedthrough environmentalimpactsresultingfromtheuseandextractionofresourcesfromtheenvironmentandfromthe dischargeofvariouswastesintotheair,soilandwater.Includedwithinthisprocessaretheglobalchanges causedbytheburningoffossilfuelsandtheemissionofgreenhouseandozone-depletinggases. Thenaturalprocessofspeciation(creationofnewspecies)isconstantlygeneratingbiologicaldiversity. Differentiationofpopulations,however,normallyoperatesonatimescaleoffromthousandstomillionsof years. Allestimatesofpresent-dayextinctionratesshowthemtobedrasticallyhigherthantherateatwhichthe naturalprocessesthatcreatebiodiversitycouldexpecttocompensatefortheselosses.Theextinctionoutputs farexceedthespeciationinputs,andEarthisbecomingimpoverishedasaresult. TheRepublicofMacedoniaisnotexemptfromtheglobal,regionalandnationalprocesseswhichcause thelossofbiodiversity.Inspiteofthefactthat,onanationallevel,thecomponentsofbiologicaldiversityare inbetterconditionthanthoseofthemoredevelopedEuropeancountries,thisshouldnotbeamandatefor complacency.Onthecontrary,itshouldbeachallengetobemoredeliberateinimplementingactivities focusedonbiodiversityconservationinitsentirety.

1.2.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity

TheConventiononBiologicalDiversity (CBD)wasadoptedinRiodeJaneiroin1992;morethan180 partieshavesinceratifiedit.Thisconventionprovidesacomprehensivedocumentoutliningtheprinciplesof biodiversityconservationandsustainableuseor,moreprecisely,itclearlydefinestherelationshipsamong protection,sustainableuseofnaturalresourcesandsustainablehumandevelopment.InratifyingtheCBD, the"PartiestotheConvention"undertakeacommitmenttoimplementtheconventionatanationalleveland tocontributetoachievingitsgoalsandobjectivesatagloballevel. AtthetimetheCBDwasadopted(1992),theRepublicofMacedoniawasstillnotaregularmemberofthe UnitedNations(UN).AfteracceptanceintotheUNandaftermanyyears'effortsbyrelevantgovernment Ministriesandscientificinstitutions,theParliamentratifiedtheCBDin1997.Uponitsagreementwiththe provisionsoftheconvention,theUNGeneralSecretarynotifiedtheRepublicofMacedoniathatitbecamean officialpartytotheCBDon2March1998.

3 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

1.3.BiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan

Duetoglobalenvironmentalchanges,significantinfluencesonbiologicalresourcesandthefunctioning ofecosystemshavebeennoticed.Itisnecessaryforcoordinatedactivitiesonaregional,nationalandlocal leveltobeundertakeninordertoprevent,reduceandmitigateharmfuleffectstobiodiversity,effectsthatare seeninthealarmingdataregardingthepermanentlossofspeciesrichness.Inordertoaccomplishthis,the BiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan(BSAP)willdefinethenationalprioritiesforeffectiveandintegrated conservation,aswellasessentialactions,projectsandprogramsforbiodiversityconservation. ImplementationoftheBSAPshouldinvolveallrelevantinstitutions,suchasthelegislativeauthorityand thegovernment,aswellasthosemembersofsocietywhoareinvolvedintheeducationalprocessof developingandincreasingpublicawareness.

Figure1. Viewonthe tworelictlakes- TheBSAPpresentsaprocessbywhichawidespectrumofparticipantsmaybeunitedwithonemaingoal OhridLake(right)and inmind-theconservationandmaintenanceofbiodiversity.Fourmaincomponentsareincludedwithinthe PrespaLake(left)- BSAP: Galicicamountain betweenthem (Photo:M.Dzingo) •Thebasicdocumentincludesinformationaboutthecurrentlevelofknowledgeregarding biodiversity,aswellaspotentialthreats.Inaddition,thisdocumentprovidesafoundationupon whichfurtherplanning,decisionmakingandestablishingofprioritiesfortheconservationofthe componentsofbiodiversitycanbebased. • TheStrategyexplainsthegoals,objectivesand tasksforbiodiversityconservation.Itisadocument whichdefinesanintegratedapproachbaseduponthemanystrategiccomponentswithintherealm oftheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity. • TheActionPlanforbiodiversityconservationconsistsofspecifictaskswithapreciselydefined timetableandbudgetandofdetailedactivitiesforachievingthestrategiccomponents.TheAction Planalsogivesdetaileddescriptionsoftheactivitiestobeusedinreachingpredictablemain objectives,aswellasvariousalternativesthatmightbeundertakentorealizetheproposedgoals. • Thefinaldocumentwillincludethedetailsoftheimplementation,evaluationandmonitoringofthe outcomeoftheBSAPandofassociatedactivitiesregardingbiodiversityconservation.

4 1.INTRODUCTION

1.4.Countrycontext

1.4.1.Geographicposition

Position: • TheRepublicofMacedoniaissituatedinthe centralpartoftheBalkanPeninsulabetween40°50' and42°20'N.L.and20°27'30"and23°05'E.L. • Veryimportanttransportationroutespassthrough thecountry • Theneighbouringcountriesare: -onthewest,Albania -onthesouth,Greece -ontheeast,Bulgaria -onthenorth,SerbiaandMontenegro • Totallengthoftheborder:849km •²Totalarea:25,713km • Population:1,945,932(accordingtothe1994 census) •²Populationdensity:75,7inhabitants/km • Numberofhumansettlements:1632 • Capitalsity:Skopje-444.760inhabitants • Highestpeak:GolemKorab-2764mmsl. • Longestriver:Vardar-301km(inRepublicof Macedonia) • Totalforestland:997.000ha • Totalagriculturalarea:1.244.000ha Figure2. Geographicposition ontheRepublicofMacedonia

Figure3. Thereliefandthe hydrologymapontheRepublicofMacedonia

5 55 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

1.4.2.Physicalgeography

ThelandformofMacedonia,asapartoftheBalkanPeninsula,ischaracterisedbycomplexgeotectonic features,whichproducedevelopedrelief,complexgeologyand,hence,adiversityofsoiltypes.Thisisan importantfactorinexplainingtherichbiodiversityofthecountry.Thechiefreasonforthecomplex geotectonicevolutionoftheinternalpartoftheBalkanPeninsula(Macedonia)isthelargenumberof orogeniccycles,fromtheoldestyetknown,totheyoungestalpineorogenesis. TheRhodopemassifistheoldesttectonicunitontheBalkanPeninsula.ItextendspartlyintoMacedonia, notasasolidformation,butbrokenintoseveralblocksofdifferingformsanddimensions. ThePelagonianandSerbian-MacedonianmassifsareproductsofaPrecambrianorogenesisevent.The separationofthetwomasses(PelagonianandSerbian-Macedonian)fromthemotherRhodopemassifand fromeachother,whichwasconnectedwiththecreationoftheVardarzone,occurredduringthePalaeozoic Era.Theso-calledHercynianorogenesisphasehadanextremeinfluenceinthewesternpartsofMacedonia, wherethesedimentcomplexisfoldedandmetamorphosed. TheRepublicofMacedoniaposs- essesacomplexmosaicofvarious metamorphic,sedimentaryand igneousrocksinalltectonicunits. Thereliefstructureofthecountry isveryinterestinganddiverse,andis representedbymountains,valleys, ravines,narrowgorges,saddlesand otherforms.Thepresentrelief structureismorphogenicallydiverse aswell,withbotholderandyounger reliefforms.Themostimportant amongthelargereliefformsare "mountains,"whichcoverapproxi- matelytwo-thirdsoftheterritory. Theyfallintotwogroupsdepending upontheirtimeofformation, geologiccompositionandsizeof extension;thesearetheRhodopeand Dinaricgroups. TheRhodopegroupisconsidered tobeolderandwasformedduringthe Hercynianorogenesis.Themoun- tainsOsogovskiPlanini,Plachko- Figure4. Limestones vitsa,BelasitsaandOgrazhden,situatedprimarilyintheeasternpartofthecountry,arecharacteristic reliefformsof representatives. SharPlanina-Gorna TheDinaricgroupextendsthroughthewestern,south-western,southernandcentralportionsofthe Leshnica country.Thesemountainswereformedduringthealpineorogenesis.Theseinclude:theSharPlanina (Photo:Lj.Melovski) mountaingroup(SharPlaninaMountain,Korab-thehighestpeakinMacedonia,Bistra,Stogovo,Yablanitsa andGalichitsa),Vardarzone(Zheden,Vodno,Kitka,Mariovo,NidzeandKozhufontherightdescending bankandSertaandPlavushontheleftdescendingbank)andPelagonianhorstanticline(Baba,Yakupitsa, Karadzitsa,Babuna,Goleshnitsa,SelechkaPlaninaandothers). “Valleysandlargerplains"aretheseconddistinctmorphologicfeatureofthereliefstructure.Theyare distributedoverapproximatelyone-thirdofthecountry.MostdistinctaretheonesextendingalongtheVardar River.Fromthenorthwesttothesoutheast,theyaresituatedasfollows:Polog(373km),Skopye(1,840² km²),Tikvesh(604km)²²andtheGevgeliya-ValandovoValley(620km).Theyareintersectedbythe respectivegorgesZheden(Derven),TaorandDemirKapiya. ThelargestvalleyintheRepublicofMacedoniaisthePelagoniaValley,whichissituatedinthesouth- westernpartofthecountryandoccupiesanareaofabout4,000km.Otherchar² acteristicvalleysandplains include:Ohrid-StrugaValley,PrespaValley,DebarskoPolePlain,BerovoValley,Piyanets,KochaniValley, OvchePolePlain,Strumitsa-RadovishValley,KumanovoValley(628km²)andSlavishkoPolePlain. Old,so-called"palaeo-relief"ischaracterisedbysaddles,whichareremnantsofformerfluvialerosion. Thebestknownsaddlesare:Pletvar,Prisad,Bukovo,Gyavato,StrazhaandPreseka. Tracesof“glacialrelief”canalsobefoundinMacedonia.Thereareremnantsofbothglaciersandcirques onsomeofthemountains,andofonlycirquesonothers duetothesmallsizeoftheglaciers.Someofthe cirqueshavefilledwithwaterandbecomeglaciallakes.Suchreliefischaracteristicmainlyofthehigh MountainsinwesternMacedonia.

6 1.INTRODUCTION

Figure6. CrnoEzero withaviewon “Karsticrelief”isrepresentedbyalltypesof theRudoka surface(depressions,crevices,fissuresandkarstic -SharPlanina plains)andundergroundkarsticforms.Underground (Glacialrelief) (Photo:Lj.Melovski) formsincludeabout164cavesand12pitsand sinkholes.LimestoneisfoundmostlyontheSuva Gora,Zheden,Yakupitsa,Galichitsa,Bistra,and higherpartsofSharPlanina,mountains. Otherreliefformsinclude“gypsumandyounger Figure5. Thecliffon fluvialrelief.” theBabunariver-Peshti Inconjunctionwiththecomplexgeotectonic (Photo:M.Velevski) features,developedanddiverserelief,aswellas climaticcharacteristics,theRepublicofMacedonia alsoaboundsinvarioussoiltypes.

Figure7. PaleoreliefonSelechkaPlanina (Photo:M.Velevski)

7 55 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

1.4.3.Climate

Duetospecificnaturalandgeographiccharacteristics,therearetwomaintypesofclimatesinthe RepublicofMacedonia:Mediterraneanandcontinental.Thus,twoprominentseasonsoccur:cold,wet wintersanddry,hotsummers.Inadditiontothese,inthehigh,mountainousareasthereisalsoamountain climatecharacterisedbyshort,coolsummersandconsiderablycoldandmoderatelywetwinters,where precipitationismainlyintheformofsnow. InspiteofthefactthatMacedonialiesrelativelyclosetotheAegeanandAdriaticSeas,theinfluenceofthe Mediterraneanclimatedoesnotreachverydeeplyintothecountry,exceptwithinafewvalleys.Thisisaresult ofthehighmountainswhichriseupinthewestandsouthofthecountry.TheinfluenceoftheAegeanSeacan befeltalongthevalleyoftheVardarRivernorthwardtoDemirKapiya,andslightlylesssointheSkopye Valley.SomeslighteffectalsoreachesthevalleysoftheStrumitsaandBregalnitsaRivers,aswellasthe proximityofDoyranLake.TheinfluenceoftheAdriaticSeaonportionsofwesternMacedoniaextends primarilyalongtheCrniDrimvalley. Thecontinentalinfluenceentersfromthenorthandcontinuestowardthesouth.Asaresult,the characteristicsofthisclimatearefeltdeeplywithinthecountry,especiallyinthenortheastandeastern regions.

5.Beechforestzone: 1.Shrub-oakforestzone a)sub-montanebeechforestzone

2.Pubescentoakforestzone b)montanebeechforestzone

3.Italianoakforestzone 6.Sub-alpineforestzone

4.Sessileoakforestzone 7.Alpinepastureszone

8 1.INTRODUCTION

Theaverageannualtemperatureis11.3° C.Thehottest townsareValandovoandGevgeliya,withtemperaturesof 14.5°°Cand14.3C,respectively.Inthemountainclimatic areas,themeanannualtemperaturesare:onPopovaShapka, 4.7°C,inLazaropole,6.8°°CandinKrushevo,8.2C(1951 -1980). TheaverageprecipitationwithinMacedonia(1951- 1980)is683.7mm/year.Theareasofhighestprecipitation occurinMavroviAnoviandResen,with1,197mmand 757.9mm,respectively,andthelowestinOvchePolePlain withonly490.3mm.Hailfallsmostoftenintheperiodfrom ApriltoOctober,withthehighestincidencesinApriland May. ItismostfrequentintheOvchePole,Pelagonianand TikveshareasandinthevalleysofGevgeliya-Valandovo andSkopye. Winds blowmainlyfromthenorthernquadrantbut,in specificareas,thedirectioncanchangeaccordingtothe Figure9. Oak-shrub reliefstructure.Althoughthebest-knownwindsarethe (Quercuscoccifera)in VardaretsandYugo,localwindssometimeoccurinvalleys thesubmediterranean orravines. climateregion Annually,thequantityofsunlightpresentisabout2,100- (Photo:Lj.Melovski) 2,450hours,whilethemeanannualcloudinessratingis between4.3and5.7ona10-pointscale. Theaveragenumberofcleardaysis130inthesouthand73 daysintheSkopyeValley.Theaveragenumberoffoggy daysrangesfrom4-72,mostlyoccurringinautumnand wintermonths.FogispresentmainlyintheSkopyeValley (72days)andinPolog(33days),andoccursleastoftenin theStrumitsa-RadovishValleyandinMalesheviya,where theaverageannualnumberoffoggydaysis3-5.

Figure10. Morina persica (Photo:O.Matevska)

Figure11. Theoakregioninthe continentalclimate-zonalregion (Photo:M.Dzingo)

Figure12. SharPlanina- Kobilica-TheAlpineclimateregion withhighmountainvegetation (Photo:V.Matevski)

9 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

1.4.4.Hydrography

TheRepublicofMacedoniacontainsanadequatenumberofwaterresources,bothundergroundand surface,buttheyarenotuniformlydistributed.Undergroundwatersinclude:phreatic,artesian,subartesian andwellwaters.Theyhavegreatimportanceforthecountry,becauseitisestimatedthatnearly60%ofrural and50%ofurbandrinkingwatersuppliescomefromwells. Withrespecttosurfacewaters,4,414springshave beenrecorded,withatotalcapacityof approximately31.4m/sor991.90×106³³m/year.A greatnumberhavenotyetbeenmeasured,butare includedonhydrologicmaps.The capacityofabout 800ofthespringsrangesfrom1-5l/s,butthereare also90springswithcapacitiesofmorethan30l/s, with58yielding100l/s.Ofthespringsoccurring onlyinkarsticareas,themostcharacteristicare: Rasche,inthefoothillsofZhedenMountain(4ms³/ capacity);Ostrovo,nearthemonasteryofSt.Naum byOhridLakeandBilyanaSprings,nearthecityof Ohrid.Therearealsonumerousmineralsprings,the mostnoteworthyofwhichisnearthevillageof Bansko,withwateratemperatureof72° C. Therivers ofMacedoniaaredividedintothree primarywatersheds:oneflowingtotheAdriaticSea andtwototheAegeanSea.Anotherverysmall watershedflowstotheBlackSea TheVardarRiver(Aegeanwatershed)isthelargest river,containing80%ofthewaterflowleavingthe RepublicofMacedonia.Oftheremaining20%,13% flowsthroughtheCrniDrimRiver(Adriatic watershed),withonly7%throughtheStrumitsa River,atributaryoftheBulgarianStrumaRiver (Aegeanwatershed).ThetotallengthoftheVardar Figure13. Riveris388km,ofwhich300kmarepresentin Themiddle-flowof Macedonia.AtthepointwhereitexitsMacedonia theRadikaRiver nearGevgeliya,itsaverageflowis174m³/s.Its (Photo:M.Dzingo) majorwesterntributariesare theCrna River(207kminlengthwitha37m/s³ averageflowatitsmouth)andthe TreskaRiver(138km,30m³/s).The longesteasterntributariesoftheVardar aretheBregalnitsaRiver(225km,28 m³/s)andthePchinyaRiver(135km, 16m³/s).TheCrniDrimRiverflows only48kmwithintheterritoryof Macedoniaand,togetherwithits tributary,theRadikaRiver,oneof Macedonia'smostattractiverivers, encompasses1,772km² ofwatershed area.TheStrumitsaRiver'swatershed is1,465km.² Hydrologicandhydrographic featuresspecifictotheRepublicof Macedoniaarethenaturaltectonic lakesOhrid,PrespaandDoyran. OhridLakeisthelargest, occupyinganareaof348.8km,² of which229.9areintheRepublicof Macedonia.Itis30.5kmlongand15 Figure14. TheVardar kmwide.Thedeepestpointis287mandtheaveragedepthis144.8m.Thelakeissituatedat699mmsl.In River-thelower-flow (Photo:Lj.Melovski) additiontoflowfromtheCrniDrimRiver,thelakereceiveswaterfrom80surfaceandundergroundsprings andfromPrespaLake,whichislocatedtothesoutheastatahigheraltitude.

10 1.INTRODUCTION

PrespaLake,withanareaof274km² (176.8 km² ofwhichbelongtoMacedonia),isthesecond largestinthecountry.Itslengthis28.6kmandits width,16.9km. Itsgreatestdepthis54m,withanaveragedepthof 18.8m.Thelengthoftheshorelineis100.1km. PrespaLakeissituatedat853mmsl. DoyranLake,situatedinthesouth-eastern cornerofthecountry,occupiesanareaof42.7 km.²²Ofthisamount,27.1kmiswithinthe RepublicofMacedonia.Priortotherecent hydrologicperturbationscausedbybothclimatic andhumanfactors,thelake'smaximumdepthwas 10mandtheaveragedepth,6.7m. Among theotherMacedonianwater resources,thereare110majorandminorartificial lakes,butonly20withvolumeslargerthan 1,000,000m.³ Theyareusedforirrigation,watersupplyand theproductionofhydroelectricpower.

Figure15. ThePrespa 1.4.5.Humanpopulationandsettlements Lakewiththe GolemGradisland (Photo:M.Dzingo)

Demographiccharacteristics. TheterritoryoftheRepublicofMacedoniahasbeencontinuously inhabitedsinceancienttimesduetoitsfavourablegeographiclocationandclimaticconditions.Thereare archaeologicalfindingsthatindicateintensivehumanactivity(settlementsandotherobjects)datingfromthe PalaeolithicandNeolithicperiods,BronzeAge,IronAge,andfromtheClassicalperiod(ArchaeologicalMap oftheRepublicofMacedonia-MacedonianAcademyofScienceandArts,1994).Thesefindingsaremost numerousintheareasoftheVardarRiverandPelagonia,andinthevalleysofsomeoftheVardar'stributaries. ThecurrentappearanceandcharacteristicsofmanyofthelandscapesinMacedoniaaretheresultofthe distributionofsettlementsfromprehistorictimestothepresent(e.g.,degradationofthenaturalzonal vegetationinsomeregions,strongculturalcharacteristicswithincertainareasetc.). Consideringthelong-termdemographictrendsandtheirinfluenceonthequalityofsocio-economic developmentandtheenvironment,itwillbeusefultomentionthegrowth, structureanddistributionofthepopulation. Table1. Population Census Population oftheRepublicof DataforthepopulationofMacedoniaoverthepast50yearsare Year (totalNumber) presentedinTable1.From1948to1994,aperiodof46years,thetotal Macedoniabyyear populationgrewby729,946inhabitants,or69%. 1948 1.152.986 (accordingto censusdata) Table2showsaconstantdecreasingtrendfornaturalpopulation 1953 1.304.514 Source:Calculations growthrate,however.Suchtrendsunfavourablytransformtheage usingdatafrom structureofthepopulation(duetothecontinualagingprocess). 1961 1.406.003 theStatisticYearbook oftheRepublicof Theprocessofdemographicaging(i.e.,thattheaverageageofthe 1971 1.647.308 Macedonia2001, p.48,Skopje2001 populationistendingtoincrease),issubjecttoboththenaturaland 1981 1.908.136 mechanicalcomponentsofpopulationgrowth.Thelevelofspatial mobilitywithinthecountryconforms,toagreatextent,tothesizeand 1994 1.945.932 distributionofethnicandmigrantpopulations.Thenumberofmigrants Table2. Dynamicsof includedwithinthetotalpopulationfiguresincreasedfrom12%to36% Census Population thepopulationgrowth, duringtheperiod1948-1994. Year Growth 1953-1994 Accordingtothecensusof1994,46%ofthemigrationwasoflocalorigin, Source:Calculations 1953 23,1 42%wasbetweenmunicipalitiesand12%wasfromabroad. usingdatafrom 1961 20,6 theStatisticYearbook MigrationwithintheRepublicofMacedonia,exemplifiedbytherapid oftheRepublicof growthofcitiesandanunbalancedregionalpopulationdistribution,has 1971 15,4 Macedonia2001, p.48,Skopje2001 resultedinnumerousproblems,includingtheunsustainableuseof 1981 13,6 biologicalresources.Consequently,problemsresultingfromtheobserved demographicpatternsshouldbeconsideredwhencreatingimplementa- 1994 8,5

11 5 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

tionandmonitoringpoliciesforthe programmesconnectedwiththesustainable useofbiologicalresources.Consideringthe meanpopulationagewithintheState,themost desirableagestructureisseenwithinlarge cities,whiletheworstsituationispresentin ruralsettlements(Table3).

Table3. Agestructureofthepopulation

Age Mace Cityof Other Villages Structure donia Skopye Towns 0-19 33,2 30,2 32,2 36,0

20-30 30,8 30,5 30,3 30,5

40-59 22,8 26,7 34,5 18,9

60andolder 13,0 12,6 12,0 14,1

Figure16. Village Unknown 0,2 0,0 0,0 0,3 Lisec(SharPlanina) -themountainvillage Settlements.ModernsettlementswithintheRepublicof Source:Calculationsusingdatafrom ofcompacttypewith Macedoniadifferfromeachotherinsize,spatialorganisa- theCensusof1994,Population,housing typicalrurallandscape tionandsocialandculturalcharacteristics.Ruralandurban andagribusinesses,BookV,Skopje1996 (Photo:Lj.Melovski) socialorganisationvariesmainlywithdemographicand economicindicators.Theprincipaldifferencesbetweenvillagesandtownscanbeseenintheaffinitiesof theircommunities.Villagesareinclinedtowardagriculture,incontrasttotowns'professional/industrial orientationinthesecondaryandtertiarysectors.Therearealsootherrural-urbandifferences,suchasthesize ofthecommunity,levelofdispersalofstructures,socialdifferentiationandstratification,mobility,ambient surroundingsandsystemsofinteraction. Highpopulationconcentrationsinthelargercities(Skopye-444,760inhabitants,Bitola-86,174,Kumanovo -94,589,Prilep-71,899andTetovo-65,318),theinappropriatesitingofindustrialfacilitiesandan inadequatecommunalinfrastructurecreateseriousproblemsinensuringaqualityenvironment. Demographic,economic,socialandenvironmentalcharacteristicswithinthepopulationalsodemonstrate significantrural-urbandifferences.Whiletheprocessesofindustrialisationandurbanisationhavehada positiveinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftownsandtheirnearbyvillages,theyhavenegativelyimpacted distanthillandmountainvillages. TheofficialterritoriallimitsofMacedonianvillagesencompass86.7%ofthenation'slandareaand include40.2%ofthetotalpopulation(recordsfrom1994).Villageshavinglessthan50inhabitantsrepresenta specificproblem(360villages-20.6%ofthetotalnumberofvillages).Itisexpectedthatthevillageswithin thissubgroup,especiallytheoneshaving10orlessinhabitants,willeventuallybetotallyabandoned(104 villages).ThesituationisespeciallyseriousintheregionsofPrilep,Kavadartsi,Shtip,Veles,Ohrid,Demir HisarandBitola.

Figure17. The Creshkavillage (OvchePole)- abandonedvillagein thelowestpart ofOvchePole (Photo:M.Velevski)

12 2.BIODIVERSITY WITHIN THEREPUBLIC OFMACEDONIA

2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

2.BIODIVERSITYWITHIN THEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Therichnessandheterogeneityofspeciesandecosystemsarethemoststrikingfeaturesofthe biodiversityoftheRepublicofMacedonia. ThissituationisaresultofMacedonia'sspecificgeographicposition,climate,geology,geomorphology, hydrography,pedologyandothercharacteristics,suchasthechangeswhichoccurredduringpastgeologic periods(e.g.,fromtheendofTertiarythroughtheIceAge,withitsglacialandinterglacialphases). Ahugenumberofrelictspeciesandecosystemsaretheresultofthesechanges,whichcontinuetohavean effectontherecentflora,faunaandfungi. Accordingtorecentdata,theimposingnumberofmorethan18,000taxaofflora,faunaandfungi-900of whichareendemics-expressMacedonia'srichbiodiversity.Thepresenceofmorethan260plant assemblagesalsoshowsthegreatdiversityofecosystems. BaseduponananalysisofbiodiversityrichnesswithinthecountriesoftheEuropeancontinent,the RepublicofMacedoniaholdsthetoppositiononthe"EuropeanHotspot"list.Despitethefactthatthe biodiversityofthefloraandfaunahasnotbeenfullystudied,thefindingstodateindicateitsgreatabundance. Asanexample,thediversityofinvertebratespeciesonarelativelylimitedsurfaceatsomesites(OhridLake, marshecosystemsandothers)canbedirectlycomparedtothediversityofcoralreefs;insomecases,the biodiversityinMacedoniaishigher.

2.1.Diversityofecosystems

Therichnessanddiversityofecosystemsisaresultoftheheterogeneityofnaturalconditionswithinthe State,suchasreliefandgeologicfeatures,climate,soilsetc. EventhoughMacedonia'slandareaisrelativelysmall,itexhibitsagreatdiversityofreliefforms,with heterogeneousgeologicsubstrataandacomplexpedologicstructure,combinedwithparticularclimatic influences. Duringthecountry'slonggeologichistory,influencesfromthesefactorshelpedtocreatearichmosaicof relictandrecentecosystems(e.g.,wetland,meadow,halophytic,steppe-like,hillydryland/grassland,forest, mountain,sub-alpineandalpine),coupledwithanthropogenicallydevelopedruderal(i.e.,growingonwaste orinwasteplaces),weed,andagriculturalecosystems.Inaccordancewiththeirimportance,range,genetic andspeciesdiversityrichness,ecologicalfunctionality,aswellaseconomicvalue, thefollowingkey ecosystemsmaybedistinguished:forest,dryland/grassland,mountainandaquatic/wetland.

2.1.1.Keyecosystems

Forestecosystems. TheseecosystemscoveralargeportionofthelandareaoftheRepublicofMacedonia atelevationsof150-2,200m.Broadleafforestsdominate(Hornbeam[Carpinusbetulus],Chestnut [Castaneasativa],Beech[Fagussylvatica],Hop-hornbeam[Ostryacarpinifolia]andOak[Quercussp.]), whileevergreenforests(Fir[Abiessp.],Spruce[Piceasp.]andPine[Pinussp.])aswellasmixedforests (Beech-Fir)aredistributedinsmallareas. Duetoover-harvesting,theyhavebeendegradedinthelowlandareasandcompletelydestroyedinsome places.Nevertheless,theyarerepresented byover80pureforeststandsandincludespeciesfromseven classes. Forestecosystemsarepresentinthefollowingqualitativeregions:

15 5 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

· • The"Oakregion"isdistributedwithinlowlandsandhighlandsto 1,100mmsl.Theaverageannualtemperatureinthisregionrangesfrom9- 14.2°C,andtheaverageprecipitationis500-850mm.Theprevailingsoil typeiscinnamon-colouredforestsoils,butothersoiltypesarealsolocally present(e.g.,redpodzolicsoils[terrarossa],chernozem,pseudogley- gley,luvic,brownpodzolicetc.).Climate-zonalOakforestsdominatein theseregions,mixedwithorographically-edaphicallyandhydrologically conditionedChestnut,Commonash(Fraxinusexcelsior),Maple(Acer sp.),Poplar(Populussp.),Willow(Salixsp.)etc.inplaces.Withrespectto vertebratefauna,typicalinhabitantsofthisregionareeastern MediterraneanandSyrianborealspeciessuchas:Balkanwhipsnake (Colubergemonensis),Fallowdeer(Damadama),Easternhedgehog (Erinaceusconcolor),Weasel(Mustelanivalis ),Balkanspadefoottoad (Pelobatessyriacusbalcanicus),Greenwoodpecker(Picusviridis),Cat snake(Telescopusfallax),Wormsnake(Typhlopsvermicularis)etc.

Figure18. Hungarian -Italianoakforest (Quercetumfrainetto- cerrismacedonicum)- Debarca •The"Beechregion"coversthemountainousareasbetween1,100-1,700mmsl.Thefactthatit (Photo:M.Dzingo) encompassesonly22%ofMacedonia'stotalforestedareanotwithstanding,thisregionpossessesthe largesttimbermassinthecountry.Theaverageannual temperatureinthisregionrangesfrom6.4-8°C;the averageprecipitationis900-1100mm.Lightbrown podzolicsoils(inthelowerbelt)andbrownpodzolic soils(inthehigherbelt)aretheprevailingsoiltypes. Thesub-mountainBeechregionispresentbetween 1,100-1,300m(chieflyconsistingoftheclimate-zonal community,assn.Festucoheterophyllae-Fagetum). RefugialtypesofBeechforests,aswellasPineforest communities(Blackpine[Pinusnigra]),maybe foundhere.Themountainbeltspreadsbetween1,300 and1,700m(therangeoftheclimatogenicassn. Calaminthograndiflorae-Fagetum)andisformedby varioustypesofBeechandBeech-Firforests.Inthe

Figure19. Upperlimit ofaBeechforeston successionalhabitats,forestsofAspen Belasicamountain (Populussp.),Birch(Betulasp.)andWhite (Photo:Lj.Melovski) pine(Pinussylvestris)arealsopresent. Typicalfaunalinhabitantsinthisregion are:Slowworm(Anguisfragilis),Roedeer (Capreoluscapreolus),Reddeer(Cervus elaphus),Aesculapiansnake(Elaphe longissima),Wildcat(Felissilvestris), Pinemarten(Martesmartes),Fire salamander(Salamandrasalamandra)etc.

Figure20. Sub-mountainBeechforest(Festuco heterophyllae-Fagetum)onBistramountain (Photo:M.Dzingo)

16 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

•The"pre-mountain(sub-alpine)region"isthehighestforestbelt,locatedbetween1,700mand approximately2,100mmsl.Theannualmeantemperatureis3.5°Candtheaverageprecipitationis about1,000mm.Theprevailingsoiltypeisbrownpodzolic;othertypesareveryinfrequent.Inthis belt,forestsarecomprisedofNorwayspruce(Piceaabies),Dwarfmountainpine(Pinusmugo)and Molikapine(Pinuspeuce),aswellasaheathofBruckenthaliaspiculifolia,Vacciniummyrtillusetc. Inthe"pre-mountain"forestcomplexes,characteristicanimalspeciesconsistofSiberianboreal faunalelements,typicalinhabitantsoftheforestedareasofSiberiaandnorthernEurope.Suchspecies include:Waxwing(Bombicillagarrulous),Lynx(Lynxlynx),Three-toedwoodpecker(Picoides tridactylus),Redsquirrel(Sciurusvulgaris),Blackgrouse(Tetraotetrix),Capercaillie(Tetrao urogallus),Hazelhen(Tetrastesbonasia),Brownbear(Ursusarctos)andAdder(Viperaberus).

Figure21. MolikapineforestonPelistermt.withstonerivers- Figure22. Mixedfir-beechforestin auniquephenomenonintheRepublicofMacedonia Mavrovo (Photo:V.Matevski) (Photo:M.Dzingo)

Dryland/grasslandecosystems: Theseoccurinthelowlandand highlandbeltsfrom60-1,200mmsl. Thesoilsonwhichtheydevelopare geologicallydiverse(silicate,lime- stone,dolomiteetc.). Theclimaticcharacteristicsare similartothoseoftheOakforest region.

Figure23. Vegetationonthehighland Figure24. Saganatolia pasturesonthelimestonequarryes (Photo:M.Dzingo)

17 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Dryland/grasslandecosystemsencompassahighernumberofdiffering plantcommunitiessuchas:meadow,halophyticandsteppe-like,aswellas theplantcommunitiesofhighlandpastures.Theyusuallydevelopwithin successionalhabitats,primarilyduetothepermanentdegradationofforest phytocoenoses(mainlyOak),butalsoonabandonedagriculturallandareas. Fromafaunalstandpoint,eremial(i.e.,grasslandorsemi-desert) elementsoriginatingfromtheAral-Caspianrefugialcentreandadaptedto lifeinsteppe-likeorsemi-desertconditionsaredominantwithinthe dryland/grasslandecosystems.Typicalspeciesinclude:Stripedfieldmouse (Apodemusagrarius),Stonecurlew(Burhinusoedicnemus),Commonquail (Coturnixcoturnix),Sandboa(Eryxjaculus),Lessermolerat(Nannospalax Figure25. Julodis leucodon),Greatbustard(Otistarda),Commonpartridge(Perdixperdix), ehrenbergii Balkanwalllizard(Podarcistaurica),Littlebustard(Tetraxtetrax)etc.

Mountainecosystems. Mountainecosystemsarepresentwithina largeportionoftheRepublicofMacedonia;however,optimalconditions fortheirdevelopmentareonlypresentonmountainswithelevations above2,000m.Theaverageannualtemperatureinthisbeltis-4°C;the averageprecipitationis800mm.Withintheareashavingalimestone substratum,limestone-dolomiticblacksoils(mould-zonalsoiltype)are mostoftenpresent,whereastherankersoiltypeistypicalinareas withoutlimestone.Thecommunitiesofthemountainpastures,located onsilicate(vegetativeclassCariceteacurvulae)andcarbonate (vegetativeclassElyno-Seslerietea)soils,arerepresentedby approximately15associations.Communitiesthatdeveloponlimestone andsilicaterocks,limestonescrees,undersnowbanksetc.arealso includedwithinmountainecosystems. Thefaunaofmountainecosystemsiscomplexincontentbecauseitis amixtureoffaunalelementsofvariousorigins.Themoststrikingfeature ofthisfaunaisthepresenceofindigenousrelict-endemic,palaeo- Mediterraneanandoreal(high-mountain)faunalelementssuchas: Balkansnowvole(Dinaromysbogdanovi),Balkanalpinechamois (Rupicaprarupicaprabalcanica),Mountainsouslik(Spermophilus citelluskaramani)andBalkanmole(Talpastankovici),aswellasavery largenumberofinvertebratefauna,ofwhichthemostdominantis Figure26. Pelister butterflies.Tundral(arctic)faunalelementsarepresentonlyinvery -mountainstream restrictednumberswithinmountainecosystems.Examplesincludethe withalongstream bird,Ringouzel(Turdustorquatus),andmorebutterflyspeciesofthe vegetationofgrasses plants genusErebia. (Photo:M.Dzingo)

Figure27. Montainmeadow Figure28. Vegetationonthemountainpasturesandquarries (Photo:M.Dzingo) (Photo:V.Matevski)

18 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Aquatic/wetlandecosystems.Thegroupofkeyaquatic/wetlandecosystemsincludesthethreenatural lakes,thewell-developedrivernetwork-especiallythewatershedoftheVardarRiver-andremnantsof formerlywidespreadmarshesandswamps.

• OhridLake.ThisisthelargestlakeintheRepublicofMacedonia andissituatedinatectonicvalleyinthefarsouth-westernportionof thecountry.OhridLakeisatypicaloligotrophiclakewith outstandingtransparency,lownutrientcontentandlowproductivity. Withitsrelictandendemicorganisms,itrepresentsthemost significantlakeecosysteminEuropeandisundertheprotectionof theUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization (UNESCO). ThediversityofphytoplanktonandzooplanktoninOhridLakeis relativelypoor.Thephytoplanktonisdominatedby,Bacillariophyta ChlorophytaandwCyanophyta hilethezooplanktonbyWaterfleas (Cladocera),Copepods(Copepoda)andRotifers(Rotatoria).The benthosatshallowdepthsisrepresentedbyabundantmacrophytic vegetation(representativesofCharophyta),andatdeeperdepthsby thedominantdiatoms.Zoobenthosconsistsprimarilyofsegmented worms(Annelida),snails(Gastropoda),Ostracods(Ostracoda), flatworms(Plathelminthes)andsponges(Porifera),withahighlevel ofendemism.Amongthenektonicorganisms,themostimportantare therelictandendemicspeciesofsalmonidfish.

•PrespaLake. Thislakeislocatedinatectonicvalleybetween GalichitsaandPelisterMountains.RichencrustinglayersofGreen andBlue-greenalgaeanddiatomscanbefoundontherocky Figure29. Floating submergedsubstrate.Inaddition,significantareasofmacrophyticvegetationarepresent.LikeOhrid aquaticvegetation withNymphaeaalba Lake,thezooplanktonisrepresentedprimarilybyspeciesofCopepods,RotifersandWaterfleas, (Photo:M.Dzingo) whilethezoobenthosisdominatedbyflatworms,Ostracods,segmentedworms,snailsandsponges. Therelictspeciesoffisheswhicharedistinguishedbyahighlevelofendemism arealsodominantamongthenektonic organismsofthelake.

Figure30. GolemGrad-PrespaLake,epiliticcommunities (Photo:Z.Levkov)

•DoyranLake.Characterisedbyhighfloristicandfaunaldiversityanda lowlevelofendemism,thisisatypicaleutrophiclake.Diatomsaredominant Figure31. Aquatic amongthephytoplanktonandperiphyton.Amongthezooplankton,Copepods,Protozoans andmarshes (Protozoa),RotifersandWaterfleasaredominant,whilewithinthezoobenthos,flatworms,Molluscs vegetationinthe (Mollusca),Ostracods,segmentedwormsandspongespredominate.Cyprinidspeciesoffishes coastalzone ofthePrespaLake dominatethenektonicorganisms. (Photo:M.Dzingo)

Thethreenaturallakesprovidefavourableconditionsforthedevelopmentofaquaticmacrophytic (floatingandsubmersed)vegetation,aswellasthedevelopmentofshorelinemarshspecies.

19 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

•Riverineecosystems. The riverineecosystemsarecharacter- isedbywelldevelopedwater mosses,aswellasAlgalflora, especiallyintheupperreachesof theVardarRiver.Withinthese ecosystems,zooplanktonispoorly represented,andthebenthoswhich doesoccurhasveryreduced populations.Nektonischaracter- isedbyrichrelictandendemic Figure32. Lutralutra fauna,especiallyfish. (CourtesyofMacedonian MuseumofNaturalHistory)

•Wetlandecosystems:Wetlandvegetation,whichin thepastusedtocoverlargeareas,todayappearsmainlyas fragmentarypatchesalongtheshorelinesofthethree naturallakes(e.g.,OhridMarsh,PrespaMarshandStruga Marsh),aswellaswithinremnantsofotherformerlakes andmarshes(e.g.,KatlanovoMarsh,themarshnear NegortsiSpa,MonospitovoMarsh,themarshnear Gostivaretc.).Thefaunaofwetlandecosystemsis characterisedbyahighlevelofdiversityandendemism, expressedespeciallywithinthetaxonomicgroupsof invertebratelimnofauna(Cyclopoida,Harpacticoida, Isopoda,OligochaetaandOstracoda).

Figure34. Swampvegetation- NegorskiBanji Figure33. (Photo:V.Matevski) Orthetrumcancellatum

2.1.2.Threatenedecosystems

WithintheRepublicofMacedonia,manyrare,relictandendemiccommunitiesoccurinalmostall vegetationtypes.Ofspecialimportancearethosewithrestricteddistributionamongtheaquatic,wetland, meadow,halophytic,steppe-like,forest,sub-alpineandalpinevegetativecommunities,aswellasthose presentwithinthevegetationofhighlandpastures.Nevertheless,someoftheseareseriouslyendangeredor threatenedwithextinction,whileothersareconsiderablyreducedintheirpopulationsandbiological viability. Thespectrumoffactorswhichthreatensecosystemdiversityisfairlybroadandofcomplexnature.The characterandintensityoftheirinfluencesvaryandarespecifictoeachindividualecosystem.

20 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

•Forestecosystems. Threatstoforestecosystemsarequitevaried andincludedesiccation,die-backprocesses,forestfiresandvarious diseases.Forexample,desiccationoftheFir-Spruceforest(assn. Abieti-Piceetumscardicum)alongtheTetovskaRiver,theBeech-Fir forest(assn.Fago-Abietetummeridionale)onBistra(Senechka) Mountain,theChestnutforest(assn. Castanetumsativae macedonicum)alongtheBrajchinskaRiveronPelisterMountainetc. havebeenobserved.Thelargenumberofforestfiresisalso threateningcommunitiesofDwarfmountainpine(assn. Pinetum mugomacedonicum)onYakupitsaMountain,theBlackpineforests (assn.Pulsatillomacedonicae-Pinetumnigrae)ofKaradzitsa Mountain,aswellasassemblagesofassn. Phillyreo-Juniperetum excelsaeandassn.Querco-Carpinetumorientalismacedonicum at DemirKapiyaGorgeetc.Seriousconsequencesarealsoappearingasa resultofhumanactivities.Theviabilityofspecificforestcommunities isbeinginfluencedbyinappropriatereforestationactivities(Ephedro- Prunetumtenellae inthevicinityofLyubashnearKavadarci),water capture/extraction(Tiliocordatae-Fagetum onDrevenichka MountainnearDemirHisar),drainage(Periploco-Fraxinetum anguistifoliae-pallisaenearNegortsiSpa; Caricielongatae-Alnetum glutinosae inthePologValleyandDebartsaregions)etc.Recently, forestecosystemshavealsobeguntobethreatenedasaresultofthe constructionofroads,railroads,artificiallakes,touristsettlements, ski-lifts,rubbishtips(dumps)etc.Duetothedestructionofcertain forestecosystems,particularspeciesofFungiarealsodisappearing (e.g., Antrodiajuniperina,Boletusdupainii,Inonotustamaricis, Pyroformesdemidoffii, etc.).Manyofthesefactorsalsoaffectthe statusofdifferentrelatedfaunalgroups.Thereductionofthe 35a populationsofindividualspeciescanbebestseenintheOakregion. Withrespecttovertebrates,thefollowingspeciesareconsideredtobe Figure35. Adzina extinctinMacedonia:Goldenjackal(Canisaureus),Reddeer(Cervus Reka-thesouthern elaphus)andFallowdeer(Damadama),althoughthelasttwohavebeenreintroduced.Thespecies, borderof Blackvulture(Aegypiusmonachus),Beardedvulture(Gypaetusbarbatus),Pinemarten(Martes thespruceforest martes)andMarbledpolecat(Vormelaperegusna),exhibitthemostreducedpopulations. (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure35a. Picea abies-cones (Photo:V.Matevski)

Figure37. Pulsatilla hallerisubsp. macedonica (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure36. Pyrofomesdemidoffi-verydangerous parasitontheGreeckJuniper.InEuropeknown onlyinMacedoniaandBulgaria (Photo:M.Karadelev)

21 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

•Dryland/grasslandecosystems. Ingeneral,thedryland/grassland ecosystemsarenotthreatened.Exceptionsarepresentwithinsomespecific communities(e.g.,assns.Crypsidetumaculeataebalcanicumand Pholiureto- Plantaginetumbalcanicum)whichdeveloponsalinesoilsintheOvchePolePlain, aswellastheViolaallschariensisandV.arsenica communitiesinthehighland pasturebeltwhicharefoundonsoilscontainingantimonyandarsenic(atAlshar nearKavadartsi).Thesecommunities,presentonlyinsmallareas,areinpotential dangerofdestructionduetoagriculturalactivities(inthefirstinstance)andmining (inthesecond).Someinsufficientlystudiedcommunitiesfoundonlimestoneand dolomiticsubstratesarealsobeingthreatenedbythequarryingofmarble(Pletvar, SivetsandTser).Withinthesevariousecosystems,reductionsinthepopulationsof thefollowingfaunalspecieshavebeenrecorded:Stonecurlew(Burhinus oedicnemus),Commonquail(Coturnixcoturnix),Sandboa(Eryxjaculus), Figure38. Viola Geoffrey'sbat(Myotisemarginatus),Whiskeredbat(M.mystacinus),Lessermole arsenica-threatened rat(Nannospalaxleucodon),Greatbustard(Otistarda),Commonpartridge speciesfrom (Perdixperdix),Europeansouslik(Spermophiluscitelluscitellus),Commonmole Alshar,Kavadarci (Photo:V.Matevski) (Talpaeuropaea)andLittlebustard(Tetraxtetrax).

Figure40. Ablepharuskitaibelii (Photo:G.Dzukic)

• Mountainecosystems. Mountainandhighmountainecosystemsareless threatenedsinceanthropogenicinfluencesarereduced(duetotheirlimited accessibilityandunfavourableclimaticconditions). Typicalactivitieswhichcouldnegativeaffecttheviabilityoftheseecosystems Figure39. includeovergrazingandtheuncontrolledcollectionofcertainplantspecies(e.g., Elaphesitula (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Althaeaofficinalis,Anacamptispyramidalis,Arctostaphylosuva-ursi,Centauriumerythraea, Dactylorhizamaculata,D.sambucina,Gentianaluteasubsp.symphiandra,Gentianapunctata, Hypericumperforatum,Juniperuscommunis,Origanumvulgare,Primulaveris,Pulmonaria officinalis,Sideritisraeseri,S.scardica,Thymustoseviivar.Degenii,etc.). Theconstructionofski-lifts,mountaineers'towers,televisiontransmittersandotheraerialsystems usuallyinstalledonmountainpeaksoftencausethedegradationofplantcommunitieswhichhave restricteddistributionsonthesummitsofmountains. Withregardtothefaunalcomponentofmountainecosystems,indirectanthropogenicimpactsdo notthreatenthestabilityofthesepopulations.TheonlydirecthumanimpactconcernstheBalkan alpinechamois(Rupicaprarupicaprabalcanicus),whichneverreachesitsoptimalpopulation numberduetouncontrolledhunting.

Figure41. Gentiana Figure42. Gentianapunctata-threatenedspecies luteasubsp. byuncontrolledexploitation symphyandra- (Photo:Lj.Melovski) threatenedspecies (Photo:V.Matevski)

22 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

• Aquatic/wetlandecosystems. FreshwaterecosystemswithintheRepublicofMacedonia consistofflowing,lacustrine,temporaryandundergroundwaters.Ofthespeciespresentwithinthese ecosystems,thedominantgroups(baseduponplaceoforigin)consistofbothfloristicandfaunal elementsoriginatingfromtheBlackSea/Caspianrefugialregion(immigrantsfromthepost-glacial age),aswellasacomplexofindigenousrelict-endemicelementswhicharemostnumerouswithinthe threenaturallakes.Lakesaremostsensitivetoanthropogenicimpacts,incomparisontotheother typesoffreshwaterecosystems,andtheirrestorationisverydifficult.Therefore,theyshouldbe dedicatedforcompleteconservation.

OhridLake

ThelacustrineecosystemofOhridLake,togetherwiththeoldcentreofthecityofOhrid,have beendeclaredaUNESCOWorldCulturalandNaturalHeritageSite.Themainproblemswhichhave led,toagreaterorlesserextent,tothedisturbanceoftheecologicalbalancewithinthisecosystemare excessivewaterreleases-inordertoprovideahigherlevelofelectricityproduction-andthe temporaryshuttingdownoftheintegratedcollection/treatmentsystemforcommunalandindustrial wastewaters.Asaresultofwaterlevelfluctuations,onlyfragmentsoftheformerlyabundantfloating macrophyticvegetationcanbeseen.Fromthestandpointoffauna,OhridLake,withits216relict- endemictaxa,istherichestandmostimportantfreshwatercentreofendemisminEurope.Asisthe casewiththeotherreliclakes,theprocessofintra-lacustrinespeciationisalsohighlyexpressedin OhridLake,especiallywithinthetaxonomicgroupsof Gastropoda,Oligochaeta,Ostracoda, PlathelminthesandPorifera.Althoughthedegreeofthreatstoinvertebratefaunaisstillinsufficiently studied,withregardtovertebrates,sixofsevenendemicOhridfishspecies(accordingtothe InternationalUnionforConservationofNature[IUCN])areincludedwithinthecategory,"V" (Vulnerable),whileonespeciesisconsideredtobe"EX"(Extinct).Thetwospeciesoftrout(Salmo balcanicusandS.letnica)areparticularlycaughtforfood,sotheirpopulationsarecontinuouslybeing reduced.

Figure43. Sourceof theriverCrnDrim nearSt.Naum (Photo:M.Dzingo)

23 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

PrespaLake

PrespaLake: Theconstantreductionof thewaterlevelofPrespaLakeovertheyears hasadverselyaffectedthestateofthefloating vegetationandfaunalcommunitiesinthe littoralzoneofthelake.Thepresenceoflarge quantitiesoforganicsiltonthelakebottomis acceleratingtheprocessofeutrophication, whichmanifestsitselfwiththeappearanceof phytoplanktonbloomsduringthesummer period.Ofthefloatingmacrophytic vegetation,themostsignificantistheassn. Lemno-Spirodelletumpolyrhizaesubassn. aldrovandetosum,whichdevelopsonlywithin theinshoreareasofPrespaLake (nearDolno Figure44. Prespa Perovovillage)andisdirectlyendangeredby Lakewiththebay theloweringofthewaterlevel.Ofthetotal nearthevillage numberofendemicspecies(24),themost Stenje(Pelister threatenedarefishes.Amongthesixendemic mountainin speciesoffishes,thePrespableak(Alburnus theback) belvica)isthemostcaught;nevertheless,its (Photo:J.Acevski) populationisremainingstable.Dueto uncontrolledfishing,theCarp(Cyprinus carpio)isthemostendangeredspeciesin PrespaLakeand,accordingtoIUCN,itis includedonthelistofspeciesbeingatcritical risk(CR).Theestablishmentofthestrictly protected"Ezerani"reserveandtheinitiative currentlyunderwayforproclaimingPrespa Parkatransboundaryparkwillsurely contributetotheimprovementofthestateof thislakeecosystem.

Figure45. Prespa Lake-GolemGrad (Photo:M.Dzingo)

Figure46. Prespa Lake-swamp vegetation (Photo:M.Dzingo)

24 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

DoyranLake

ThestatusofDoyranLakeisthemost alarming.Since1988,thelevelofthewater surfacehasdrasticallyfallen,contributingtoa decreaseinwaterdepthandarecessionofthe shoreline,accompaniedbyacompletelossof thelittoralzoneanditsrelatedbiological communities. Acceleratedeutrophicationhasledtointensive sedimentationandadramaticreductioninthe epibenthiccommunities,aswellasseriouschanges inthestructureoftheAlgalmicroflora.These changeshaveparticularlyaffectedtheCommon reed(Phragmitesaustralis)zoneandotheraquatic macrophyticvegetation(assn. Myriophyllo- Nupharetum iscompletelyextinct). Thezooplanktoncommunity,underthe influenceofthesechanges,haslostitslimnetic character.Until1988,94zooplanktontaxawere presentintheopenwatersofthelittoraland Figure47. Doyran pelagiczones,whereastherecentstatusofthiscommunityshowsareductiontoonly28taxa. Lake-“island” Comparativepopulationdensityanalysesindicatethattheabundanceofthezooplanktoncommunity ofdeadshells withinthepelagiccomplexisone-seventhitsformerlevel,andthatofthelittoralcomplexone-tenthof (Photo:P.Stojanovski) itspreviousnumbers.Althoughcurrentlyseverelydisturbed,thebenthiccommunitylikelystillhas enoughgeneticpotentialtocompletelyrestoreitself.Thestatusofthebenthoscanbeinferredfromthe amountoftheannualfishcatch,whichinoptimalconditionsusedtobeasmuchas500tonnes.Inthe pastfewyearsithasbeenreducedto70tonnes,droppingtoonly25tonnesin2002.Theaccelerated successionofthislakeecosystemisevidencedbytheappearanceoftheCalanoidcopepod (Eudiaptomusgracilis),atypicalrepresentativeofmarshecosystems,whichwasrecordedinDoyran Lakeforthefirsttimein1995.Inordertorestorethedisturbedenvironmentalbalance,effortshave beenmadetobringadditionalquantitiesofwatertothelake,whichisexpectedtoimprovethestateof thebiologicalcommunitieswithinthelakeecosystem.

Riverineecosystems.Asthemajorrecipientsforalltypesofwastewater,theseecosystemsareundergreat anthropogenicpressures.ThesituationwiththeriversBregalnitsa,Crna,PchinyaandVardararethemost alarming.Someoftheartificiallakes(reservoirs),suchasKalimanciandTikveshLakes,functionassinksfor persistentsubstances.Others,whichprovidedrinkingorindustrialwater(e.g.,Mavrovo,Strezhevoand Turiya),haveexperiencedadeteriorationinwaterqualityduetoexcessivewaterextraction.Benthic communitiesintheriverineecosystemsareshowingreducedabundance,whichwillultimatelyleadtoa declineinfishpopulations.Sixofthe20endemicfishspecieswithintheRepublicofMacedoniaarefoundin riverineecosystems.Threeoftheseareconsideredtobegloballythreatenedspecies(Gobiobanarescui, SalmopelagonicusandS.peristericus).

Wetlandecosystems. Marshcommunitiesarethemostreduced,despitethefactthat,inthepast,they coveredverylargeareas.Asaresultofdrainageactivitieswithinthelast50-60years,mostwetlandhabitats havebeeneithertotallyconvertedtoagriculturalproductionorremaininonlyafragmentedstate.Such communitiesinclude:Cypero-Caricetumacutiformis(Gostivar),Glycerietummaximae(Pelagonia), Scirpo- Alopecuretumcretici (MonospitovoMarsh)etc. Mountainmarshesandpeatbogsarealsounderanthropogenicpressuresasaresultofthe capture/extractionofwaterfrommountainspringsandstreamsforuseindrinkingwatersystems.Therefore, themarshcommunitiesofthevegetativeclassesMontio-Cardamineteaand Scheuchzerio-Cariceteafuscae, aswellasthediversityofAlgae,havebeendegraded.

25 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Fromafaunalstandpoint,impactstomostoftheswampsand marsheshavecausedareductioninthepopulationsofallAmphibians, aswellasindividualspeciesofotherinvertebrateandvertebrate groups.Themostaffectedare:Watervole(Arvicolaterrestris), Eurasianbittern(Botaurusstellaris),Europeanpondterrapin(Emys orbicularis),Otter(Lutralutra),Balkanterrapin(Mauremys rivulata),Dicesnake(Natrixtessellata),Miller'swatershrew (Neomysanomalus),Watershrew(N.fodiens),Balkanspadefoottoad (Pelobatessyriacusbalcanicus),EurasianSpoonbill(Platalea leucorodia)andGreekmarshfrog(Ranabalcanica). OnlyBelchishtaMarshstillexistsinitsoriginalstate,wherethe populationofOtters,agloballythreatenedspecies,isthelargest.

Figure48. Plathalea leucorodia (Photo:V.Anastasovski)

Figure50. Pelobatessyriacus (Photo:V.Sidorovska)

Figure49. Partof thestrictnatural reserve“Ezerani” (Photo:S.Petkovski) 2.2.Diversityofspecies

2.2.1.Micro-organisms

Fromataxonomicaspect,micro-organismsarepoorlystudied.Themainbodyofresearchdealswiththe quantitativestructureofindividualphysiologicgroupsofbacteria. DataonboththequalitativeandquantitativestructureofthebacterialcommunityofOhridLakedoexist, however.Bycontrast,thereareonlydataonthestructureofsomephysiologicgroupsofbacteriawithin riverineecosystemsandreservoirs.

2.2.2.Algae

Withregardtothelowerplantgroups,theGreen,Silicate(diatoms)andBlue-greenalgaearedominant, withothergroupsfoundinsmallernumbers.Todate,1,580speciesofAlgaehavebeenidentified,ofwhich diatoms-Bacillariophyta(40.1%)andGreenalgae-Chlorophyta (35.3%)formamajority.Theothergroups

26 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

(Chrysophyta,Euglenophyta,Pyrro- phytaandXanthophyta)arerarely studiedand,consequently,itwillbe necessarytoinitiatebasicresearchon theirstructure,distributionandeco- logy.Themostimportantcentresof AlgaldiversityareOhridandDoyran Lakes.Therearenocurrentsystematic studiesforPrespaLake.Inadditionto thereliclakes,mountainaquatic ecosystems(especiallypost-glacial lakes)appeartobeequallyimportant Figure51. Navicula oblonga- ararespecies centresofAlgaldiversity. inthealgalflora intheRepublic ofMacedonia (Photo:Z.Levkov)

2.2.3.FungiandLichens Table4. Numberofspecifictaxaofknown algalgroupsin theRepublicofMacedonia Fungirepresentaveryheterogeneous groupoforganisms;however,studiestodate Taxonomic Total havedealtmainlywithAscomycota and Group Families Genera Species Varieties Forms Basidiomycota. Theotherordersarepoorly Taxa studied. Cyanophyta 16 48 204 10 58 273 Thereareapproximately1,250recorded Pyrrophyta 5 8 12 3 1 16 speciesofFungi.Mostbelongtotheorders Chrysophyta 4 7 10 4 - 14 Ascomycota(130),Basidiomycota (1050), Bacillariophyta 13 69 512 109 12 633 Myxomycota(10),Oomycota (20)and Phaeophyta ------Zygomycota(35). Xanthophyta 2 2 9 - - 9 Lichens(lichenoidFungi)()Lichenes Euglenophyta 3 5 23 3 1 27 numberapproximately340species. Chlorophyta 29 90 398 124 35 557 Charophyta 2 2 18 - 3 21 Rhodophyta 6 7 7 - - 7 Glaucophyta 1 1 1 - - 1 Eustigmatophyta 1 1 1 - - 1 Total 82 240 1195 256 128 1580

Table5. NumberofFungalandLichenfamilies, generaandspecieswithintheRepublicofMacedonia.

Taxa TypesofFungiFamiliesGeneraSpecies Ascomycota (withoutLichenes) 35 60 130 Basidiomycota 49 284 1.050 Chytridiomycota 5 6 10 Myxomycota 7 7 10 Oomycota 5 9 20 Zygomycota 9 12 35 TotalFungi 110 378 1250 Figure52. Witchesheart(Clathrusruber) Lichenes 11 73 340 inthecliffofthePchinjaRiver TotalFungiandLichenes 121 451 1590 (Photo:M.Karadelev)

27 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

2.2.4.Higherplantgroups

Thefloraofthehigherplantgroupsisquiterich,possessingdiversefloralelements(arctic-alpine, Caucasian,Eurasian,Greek-Anatolian,Illyric,Mediterranean,Middle-European,Tertiaryrelictand cosmopolitan)andalargenumberofendemicspecies(Balkan,Macedonian,southBalkanetc.).Itis representedby210families,920generaandapproximately3,700species.Themostnumerousgroupis flowering(Angiosperm)plants,withabout3,200species,followedbymosses(350)andferns(42).

• Mosses. Mossesarerepresentedby67families,167 generaand349species.TheclassAnthocerotae includesone speciesandtheclassHepaticae,52species,whiletheclass Musci possesses296species.Itseemslikelythatfuture studiesofmossesintheRepublicofMacedoniawillincrease thesenumbers.

Figure53. Buxbaumiaviridis-uniquespeciesofmoss fromtheRepublicofMacedoniaontheredlistofIUCN

• Peatmosses. Thisgroupisrepresented bysixspecieswhichmainlyinhabitmoist areasandbogsinmountainandhigh mountainareas.Theyareonlyrarelyfoundin lowlands(mostoftenonsilicatesoils).The species Diphasiumalpinum,Huperzia sellago,Isoetesphrygiaand Lycopodium clavatumhaveveryrestricteddistributions.

Figure54. TherelictplantIsoetesphrygia ofSelechkaPlanina (Photo:V.Matevski)

• Horsetails.Horsetailsarerepresentedbysevenspecieswhichmaybefoundinverymoistplaces, fromlowlandstohighmountainareas(bygorges,marshes,moistmeadows,mountainstreams,rivers andvalleys).ThemostfrequentspeciesareEquisetumarvenseandE.palustre,withtherarestbeing E. fluviatileand.E.Sylvaticum

• Ferns. IntheRepublicofMacedonia,42speciesofferns in15familiescanbeobserved.Themostpolymorphicgenera areAsplenium(11species)andDryopteris (6).Thefollowing speciesarecharacterisedbyarestricteddistribution: Adiantumcapillus-veneris,Blechnumspicant,Crytogramma crispa,Ophioglossumvulgatum,Osmundaregalis,Phyllitis scolopendriumandThelipterispalustris ,aswellasthe endemicspeciesAspleniummacedonicum (inthevicinityof Prilep).Thisgroupalsoincludesthetwospeciesofaquatic ferns(MarsileaquadrifoliaandSalvinianatans).

Figure55. Macedonianfern-Aspleniummacedonicum onitsLocusclassicus-MarkoviKulinearPrilep (Photo:V.Matevski)

28 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

•Gymnosperms. Thesearerepresented • Angiosperms. Angiospermsare byfourfamiliesandsixgenera,including representedby120families,720genera 15indigenousspecies(themost andapproximately3,200species(5,000 polymorphicarethegeneraJuniperus and taxa).Themostpolymorphicfamiliesof Pinus,eachwithfivespecies). theclassDicotyledonae arethefamilies Caryophylla-ceae (345species), Compositae(c.470),Cruciferae (264), Labiatae(c.260),and Leguminosae (457),whereasoftheclass Monocotyledonae,thefamilies Gramineae(c.280)andLiliaceae (c. 130)aremostpolymorphic.

Withregardtohigherplantgroups, completestudiesexistonpeatmosses, horsetails,gymnospermsand78familiesof angiosperms(Dicotyledonae:Choripetalae). Thereare24familiesofthegroup Figure56. Blackpineonlimestonerocks (Photo:J.Acevski) Dicotyledonae:Sympetalae,aswellas16 familiesoftheclassMonocotyledonae that stillneedtobestudied.

Table6. Numberoffamilies,genera,species andlowertaxaofhigherplantsintheRepublicofMacedonia

Subspecies GroupFamilliesGeneraSpecies Varietes Total Forms Taxa

Totalmoses)(Bryopsida 67 167 349 -Hepaticae 1 1 1 -- -Anthocerotae 25 36 52 -Musci 41 130 296 Peatmoses()Lycopsida 3 5 6 - 6 Horsetails()Sphenospida 1 1 7 13 20 Ferns()Filicinae 15 21 42 18 60 Gymnosperms 4 6 15 7 22 ()Gymnospermaae TotalAngiosperms c.120 c.720 c.3200 c.1700 c.4900 ()Angiospermae -Dicotyledonae c.102 c.565 c.2600 c.1500 c.4100 -Monocotyledonae c.18 c.155 c.600 c.200 c.800 Figure57. Lilliumalbanicum Totalhigherplants c.210 c.920 c.3700 c.1740 c.5350 (Photo:V.Matevski)

2.2.5.Fauna

Withregardtothestatusofselectedfaunalgroups,thesituationisasfollows: Protozoa (Protozoans)-Thediversityofthisgroupoforganismsismainlyconcentratedinthewatersof thethreenaturallakes(Ohrid,PrespaandDoyran).Atotalof113specieshasbeenrecorded,ofwhich79 belongtothegroupoffree-livingProtozoans.OftheparasiticProtozoans,therearefivesubphyla;however, onlythesubphylumCiliophora hasbeenstudied(34species). Porifera (sponges)-Todate,ninespeciesandonesubspecieshavebeenrecorded,allinhabitingthethree naturallakes.

29 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Plathelminthes (flatworms)-Withinthisgroup,85specieshavebeenrecorded.Fromtheclassof Turbellarianworms(Turbellaria),65specieshavebeenrecorded,withthedominantrepresentativescoming fromtheorderTricladida(atotalof40species).Theothertwoordersinclude25species(Rhabdocoela-24; Allocoela-one).Twoclassesofthisphylum,Trematodaand Cestoda,arerepresentedby10specieseach.Thelargest centreofbiodiversityforthisgroupoforganismsisOhrid Lake,with48recordedspecies. Cnidaria (Cnidarians)-Thesearerepresentedbytheclassof Hydroidzoophytes(Hydrozoa)infreshwaterecosystems,of whichtwospecieshavebeenrecorded. Nemertea (Nemertineworms)-Foundinthesublittoral zoneofOhridLake,Stichostemmagraecense istheonly recordedspecies.Nemathelminthes (roundworms)-Ofthe roundworms,studieshavefoundonlytwoclasses, Rotifera (Rotifers)andNematoda (Nematodes),representedby613 species.ThedataonRotiferaoriginatefromtheanalysesof theplanktoncommunitiesofthethreelakesandrecognise 60species.Asplanktonicorganisms,theyarecharacterised byawideareaofdistributionandpossessnoendemic species.Researchtodatehasidentifiedatotalof553species ofNematodesinMacedonia,whichislikelytobemuchless thantheactualnumberofspecies. Inthefirststudyof roundwormsinOhridLake,23aquatic,free-living Figure58. Endemic Nematodeswerefound.Later,greaterstresswasgiventothe Planarias studyofterrestrialNematodes,mainlyinforestecosystems fromLakeOhrid (450species),aswellasNematodeswhichparasitiseearly (Photo:S.Stankovic,1956) vegetables,animalsandhumans(80species). Mollusca (Molluscs)-Molluscsarewellstudied,witha totalof282knowntaxa(276speciesandsixsubspecies).Theclassofsnails(Gastropoda)isrepresentedby 267taxa(262speciesandfivesubspecies),with102(97speciesand5subspecies)belongingtotheaquatic Gastropods.TheterrestrialGastropods,althoughincompletelystudied,showagreatdiversityofspecies, with165recordedtodate.FromtheclassofBivalves(Bivalvia),15specieshavebeenrecorded.Themost importantcentreofdiversityforthisgroupisOhridLake. Annelida (segmentedworms)-Thisisarelativelywellstudiedgroup,withatotalof182recordedtaxa (160speciesand22subspecies).WithregardtotheclassOligochaeta (Oligochaetes),139taxahavebeen recorded(123speciesand16subspecies),whiletheclassHirudinea (leeches)isrepresentedby35taxa(29 speciesandsixsubspecies).Centresoftheirdiversityarenaturallakesandotheraquaticbiotopes. Arthropoda (Arthropods)-Thisgrouphasnumerousrepresentativesintheanimalworldandisalsowell representedwithintheRepublicofMacedonia,withalargenumberoftaxa(7,743),including7,574species and169subspecies. Withregardtothesubphylum Chelicerata (Chelicerates),representativesoftheclass Arachnida (Arachnids)total825taxa(819 speciesandsixsubspecies).Withregardto thesubphylumChelicerata (Chelicerates), representativesoftheclass Arachnida (Arachnids)total825taxa(819speciesand sixsubspecies).Amongthesixordersin thisclass,theorderAranea(spiders)is dominantwith558species.Theorder Figure59. Pseudoscorpiones (Pseudo-scorpions)is Lycosa representedby37taxa(36speciesandone praegrandis subspecies)andtheorder Opiliones fromBabuna, (Daddylonglegs)by40taxa(38species nearVeles andtwosubspecies).Theorder Scorpiones (Scorpions)isrepresentedbythreespeciesandtheorderSolpugida (Sunspiders)byonespeciesonly.The orderAcarina (ticksandmites)isrepresentedby196taxa(193speciesandthreesubspecies),mostofwhich belongtothegroupofterrestrialmites(123species),withtheremainderbeingaquaticmites(70speciesand threesubspecies).ThewesternportionofMacedoniaisanimportantcentreofbiodiversityforthisgroup, whichispresentinvarioustypesofhabitats.

30 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

ThesubphylumBranchiata(Branchiatearthropods),withitsuniqueclassCrustacea (Crustaceans), representsoneofthemostthoroughlystudiedgroupsoforganisms,withatotalof513taxa(486speciesand 27subspecies).ThesubclassCopepoda (Copepods)isrepresentedby140taxa(136speciesandfour subspecies),separatedintothreeorders.TheorderCyclopoida isrepresentedby60taxa(57speciesandthree subspecies),theorderHarpacticoida by50taxa(49speciesandone subspecies)andtheorderCalanoida byasmallnumberofspecies(30). FromthesubclassBranchiura (Branchiurans),onlyonespecieshasbeen recordedtodate-theCarplouse(Argulusfoliaceus)inDoyranLake.The subclassOstracoda(Ostracods)possesses172knownspecies.Within thesubclassBranchiopoda(105species),theorderAnostracais representedbysevenspecies,theorderNotostracabytwospecies,the orderConchostracabythreespeciesandtheorderCladocera by93 species.ThesubclassofMalacostracans (Malacostraca)isrepresented by95taxa(72speciesand23subspecies),separatedintothreeorders. TheorderIsopoda isrepresentedby47taxa(34speciesand13 subspecies),theorderAmphipoda by43taxa(33speciesand10 subspecies)andtheorderDecapoda byfivespecies. SincetheBranchiatearthropodsinMacedonia arelinkedwith freshwaterecosystems,thelargestcentresofbiodiversityoccurinthe Figure60. Centipede threenaturallakes,especiallyOhridLake. ofthegenusJulus (Photo:Lj.Melovski) ThesubphylumTracheata (Tracheates)isrepresentedbyatotalof 6,405taxa(6,269speciesand136subspecies).Theclass Myriapoda (Myriapods)includes72taxa(71speciesandonesubspecies),separated intotwoorders:theorderDiplopoda (millipedes)with59taxa(58 speciesandonesubspecies)andtheorderChilopoda (centipedes)with 13species. TheclassInsecta(Insects)hasatotalof6,333taxa(6,198speciesand 135subspecies),separatedintotwosubclassesThesubclass Apterygota (truewinglessinsects)hasasmallnumberofrecordedspecies(18) belongingtothreeorders:Collembola(6),Protura(2)andDiplura (10). ThesubclassPterygota (wingedinsects)has6,315taxarecordedwithin Macedonia(6,180speciesand135subspecies).Oneofthebeststudied groupsoftheclassInsectaistheorderLepidoptera(butterflies),witha totalof2,295taxarecorded(2,261speciesand34subspecies). Theotherordershavethefollowingnumberofrecordedtaxa: Figure61. Caterpillar Ephemeroptera(mayflies)-63taxa,Odonata(dragonflies)-52taxa,Plecoptera (stoneflies)-93taxa, oftheHyleseuphorbiae Orthoptera(grasshoppers)-178taxa,Isoptera(termites)-twotaxa,Psocoptera (book-lice)-48taxa, (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Thysanoptera(thrips)-4taxa,Heteroptera(truebugs)-778taxa,Homoptera (Homopterans)-332taxa, Trichoptera(Caddisflies)-73taxa,Diptera(fliesandmosquitoes)-606taxa,Hymenoptera (antsandbees)- 264taxaandColeoptera(beetles)-1,527taxa.Themostimportantbiodiversitycentresfor Tracheates Figure62. (Tracheata)arethemountainmassifsofSharPlanina,Galichitsa,Yakupitsa,andtherefugialcentresinthe Apolon’sButterfly- gorgesoftheTreska,Babuna,TopolkaandVardarRivers. Parnassiusapollo (Photo:Lj.Melovski)

Figure63. Sub-endemicspeciesofthe groundbeetlesfamilyCarabuscavernosus forthecentralpartoftheBalkan (Photo:Lj.Melovski)

31 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

PhylumChordata (Chordates)-ThefaunaofMacedoniaisrepresented bythesubphylumVertebrata (Vertebrates),separatedintofourclassesand onesuperclass. ThesuperclassPisces (fishes)isrepresentedby58indigenousspecies, withcentresofbiodiversityinthethreenaturallakes,aswellasintheVardar Riveranditswatershed.TheclassAmphibia (Amphibians)isrepresentedby 15speciesandtwosubspecies,whiletheclassReptilia (Reptiles)by32 speciesandeightsubspecies.Themostimportantcentresofbiodiversityfor Figure64. Stream Amphibiansarethemarshecosystemsandthetemporalaquaticbiotopes. trout-inhabitant WithregardtoReptiles,themostimportantbiodiversitycentresforthe onthemountainstreams

Figure65. Common Figure66. Hyllaarborea salamander (Photo:J.Acevski) Salamandra salamandra (Photo:Lj.Melovski) MediterraneanandAral-CaspianfaunalelementsarethelowlandareasofthelowercourseoftheVardarRiver andDoyranregion.ForthecentralEuropean,borealandoreo-tundralherpetofauna-themountainmassifsof Galichitsa,Pelister,SharPlaninaandYakupitsaareimportantcentres. TheclassAves (birds)isalso wellstudied,with338recorded taxa(319speciesand19 subspecies).Ofthetotalnumber ofrecordedtaxa,213species breedlocally,whiletheothers appearduringthewinterorin periodsofmigration.Themost importantcentresofbiodiversity forornithofaunaarethethree naturallakes(forwaterbirds)and thegorgesoftheBabuna, Topolka,TreskaandVardar Rivers(forbirdsofprey).The Figure67. Testudohermanni-inmating (Photo:S.Petkovski) mountainmassifsinwestern Macedoniaarethemost importantcentresofbiodiversity fortheborealandarctic-alpine complexofornithofaunal elements.

Figure69. Pelicanus crispus (Photo:M.Schnaider- Figure68. Viperaammodytes-viper Jakobi) (Photo:Lj.Melovski)

32 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

TheclassMammalia (Mammals)isrepresented by82speciesandonesubspecies,belongingtosix orders,18familiesand51genera.Eightspecieshave beenintroducedbyhumans,eitherdeliberatelyor accidentally.ThreespeciesareextinctinMacedonia, ofwhichtwohavebeenreintroducedintothewild. Thelargestcentresofbiodiversityforthe Mediterraneanelementsofthisclassarethelowland areasinsouth-easternMacedoniaand,forthecentral Europeanfaunalandborealelements,themountain massifsofwesternMacedonia.

Table7. Diversity Figure70. Brownbear-Ursusarctos (CourtesyoftheMacedonian ofanimalsbygroup MuseumofNaturalHistory)

TaxonomicGroup

Phyl um Protozoa (Protozoans) 113 - 113 Phyl um Porifera (sponges) 9 1 10 Phyl um Plathelminthes (flatworms) 85 - 85 Phyl um Cnidaria (Cnidarians) 2 - 2 Phyl um Nemertea (Nemertineworms) 1 - 1 Phyl um Nemathelminthes (roundworms) 613 - 613 Phyl um Mollusca (Molluscs) 276 6 282 Phyl um Annelida (segmentedworms) 160 22 182 Phyl um Arthropoda (Arthropods) 7,574 169 7,743 Phyl um Chordata (Chordates) 506 30 536 Total 9,339 228 9,567

Table8. Numberof Figure71. Cyclotellafottii- endemicAlgaltaxa endemicdiatomforLakeOhrid intheRepublcof Macedoniaby Algaltypes 2.3.Endemicandrelictspecies Taxonomic Species Varieties Forms Total 2.3.1.Micro-organisms Group Bacillariophyta 62 16 7 85 Accordingtothestudiestodate,endemicspecies Charophyta 1 1 5 7 ofbacteriahavenotbeendiscovered. Chlorophyta 10 5 1 16 Chrysophyta 2 - - 2 2.3.2.Algae Cyanophyta 10 2 11 23 Amongthelowerplantgroups,Algaeare Euglenophyta 1 - - 1 representedbythegreatestendemism,with135 Eustigmatophyta - - - - endemictaxa,or8.5%ofthetotalAlgalflora.Most Glaucophyta - - - - havebeenrecordedinOhridandPrespaLakes,but Phaeophyta - - - - thesedataareoldandshouldberevised. Pyrrophyta 1 - - 1 2.3.3.FungiandLichens Rhodophyta - - - - Xanthophyta - - - - TherearenoknownendemicspeciesofFungior Total 87 24 24 135 LichensintheRepublicofMacedonia.

33 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

2.3.4.Higherplants

Amonghigherplants,inadditiontothenumerousBalkanandsouth-Balkanendemicspecies,alarge numberofMacedonianendemicsarepresent.MostofthemarerepresentativesoftheAngiosperms(114). Certainofthehighmountains(GalichitsaandSharPlanina)andrivergorges(Vardar,TreskaandBabuna),as wellassomeportionsofthelowlandbelt(Mariovo,vicinityofPrilepetc.),areconsideredtobecentresof Table9. Numberof endemism. endemicspecies Therelictspecieswhichareoldfromanevolutionarystandpoint(i.e.,taxawithveryrestrictive amongthehigher distributions)areofspecialinterestwithinthefloraoftheRepublicofMacedonia.Theyhavebeenusefulas plantswithinthe biologicalindicatorsofpastclimatechangeswithinthegeographicarea.Consideringthegeologictimescale, RepublicofMacedonia relictscanbeclassifiedasTertiary,glacial,borealand steppic. NumberofEndemic Group Species Mosses ()Bryopsida 2 Peatmosses ( Lycopsida) - Horsetails()Sphenopsida - • Tertiaryrelictsmaybeobservedinalmostall partsofthecountry,especiallyinthedeepriver Ferns ()Filicinae 1 gorgeslocatedmainlyinthesouthernandwestern Gymnosperms ()Gymnospermae - regions,wheretheinfluenceoftheIceAgewasmuch Angiosperms ()Angiospermae lesser.Suchrelictsinclude:Aesculushippocastanum, -Dicotyledonae 109 Buxussempervirens,Ilexaquifolium,Isoetes phrygia,Osmundaregalis,Pinuspeuce,Ramonda -Monocotyledonae 5 nathaliae,R.serbica,Taxusbaccata,Thymus oehmianus,Violakosaninii etc. Totalnumberofendemictaxa 117

•Glacialrelictsareremnantsof IceAgefloraandaredistributedin highmountainregionsinrefugial andalpinehabitats,suchasneve (snow/iceformedbyrepeated freezingandthawing),erodedcliffs andmountainpastures(Dryasocto- Figure72. petala, Loiseleuriaprocumbens, Crocuscvijiciion Salixherbacea,S.reticulata, Figure73. TertiaryrelictRamondanathaliae themountain Saxifragaopositifalia,Selaginella Galichica inthecliffofPchinjaRiver selaginoides etc.). (Photo:O.Matevska) (Photo:V.Matevski)

• Borealrelictsarefloraoftheconiferousforests andpeatbogswhichdevelopedduringglacialand interglacialphasesandwhichstillremainonthe BalkanPeninsula.Thesespecieshadtheirmaximum distributionalextentwithinthesouthernportionsof Europe.DuringtheTertiaryPeriod,theboreal elementswerewidespreadwithintheextreme northernzoneoftheHolarcticRegion,whileduring theIceAge,theydescendedintotheBalkan Peninsula.Currently,intheRepublicofMacedonia, borealelementsarerepresentedbyconiferousforests (mainlySpruceandSpruce-Fir),aswell asbythe plantsofmountainpeatbogs(Coralorhizatrifida, Cypripediumcalceolus,Goodyerarepens,Listera cordata etc.).

34 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

• Steppicrelictsareremnantsofthesteppic florathatdevelopedduringparticularlydryand hotperiodsoftheinterglacialphases.Currently, theserelictscanbefoundwithinthesteppic regionsofMacedonia,aswellasatcertain locationsinthewesternpartofthecountry(Adonis vernalis,Comandraelegans,Irispumila,Morina persica,Onobrychishypargyrea,Prunustenella, Figure74. Ranunculusillyricus,Sternbergiacolchiciflora Tulipamariannae- etc.). endemicspeciesfrom theverydry(steppe) regionsofthe RepublicofMacedonia (Photo:E.Mayer)

2.3.5.Fauna

Withatotalof674endemictaxa(602speciesand72subspecies),the RepublicofMacedoniarepresentsoneofthemostimportantcentresof endemisminEurope,inspiteofitssmalllandarea.Theendemictaxaare distributedinthefollowingdifferentfaunalgroups:Twoendemicspecies offreelivingProtozoansarefoundinOhridLake.Oftheparasitic Protozoans(subphylumCiliophora),thereare30endemicspecies which,togetherwiththeirhosts(Oligochaeta),representrelictspecies. ThedegreeofendemisminCiliophora isashighas88%.Comparative analysesbetweenparasiticCiliates fromOhridLakeandfromBaikal Lakepointtogreatsimilarity. Outof10taxa(ninespeciesandonesubspecies)ofsponges (Porifera),fivespeciesandonesubspeciesareendemic;thedegreeof endemismis60%.ThespeciesOchridospongia rotundaisthebest knownofthefourendemicspongesfoundinOhridLake,andit representsarelictgenusandspecies,withitssphericalshapeclosely Figure75. resemblingtheendemicspongesoftheSeaofGalileeandBaikalLake. Someendemicsnails WithregardtothephylumPlathelminthes (flatworms),thehighest fromLakeOhrid degreeofendemismisfoundintheclassTurbelaria(orderTricladida -25 (Radoman,1973) taxaandorderRhabdocoela -10).Thereareonlythreeendemic Nemathelminthes(roundworms)species;allare Nematodes restrictedto OhridLake. ThephylumMollusca (Molluscs)showsthegreatestdegreeof endemismintheaquaticGastropods,withatotalof76endemictaxa consistingof71speciesandfivesubspecies(degreeofendemism,74.5%). Incontrast,terrestrialsnails,whicharestillinsufficientlystudied,havea limitednumberofendemicforms-21.Ofthe15recordedbivalvetaxa,four areendemic(threespeciesandonesubspecies),allofthegenus.Pisidium Figure76. Segmentedworms,thephylumAnnelida,include54recordedendemic Calosomarelictum- taxa,thedominantamongthembeingtheclassOligochaeta (Oligochaetes), sub-endemicspecies with39endemics.ItisfollowedbytheclassHirudinea (leeches),with11 ofthegroundbeetles, endemics,andthetaxonomicallynon-differentiatedgroupof foundonsome mountainsinwestern Branchiobdellidae,withfourendemictaxa. Macedonia Thelargestanimalphylum,Arthropoda,has419recordedendemictaxa (367speciesand52subspecies).ThesubphylumChelicerata (Chelicerates) has71endemicforms(65speciesandsixsubspecies),subphylumBranchiata (Branchiatearthropods)-137 endemics(113speciesand24subspecies)andsubphylumTracheata (Tracheates)-themostendemicforms- 211(189speciesand22subspecies).ThehighestdegreeofendemismamongtheChelicerates isseeninthe ordersPseudoscorpiones(73%)andOpiliones(47.5%).AmongBranchiata,the highestdegreeofendemism isshownbythesubclassMalacostraca(ordersIsopoda[85%]andAmphipoda [81.4%]),butisalsoseenin thesubclassOstracoda (26%).

35 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

WithinTracheates(Tracheata),classMyriapoda(orderDiplopoda)showsthehighestdegreeof endemism(37%)andwithinclassInsecta,theorderLepidoptera hasthelargestnumberofendemics(90).

Figure77. Ohridtrout-letnica,endemicspeciesofOhridLake

WithregardtoVertebrata,thesuperclassPisces (Fish)hasthehighestdegreeofendemism(34.5%). Amongtheotherclasses,onlyfourendemicmammalsareknown(Mammalia). Ofthemajorcentresoffaunalendemism,thethreerelictlakesareespeciallynoteworthy.Thelargest, OhridLake,with216endemictaxa,hasbeendescribedasthemostimportantcentreforendemismin Macedoniaandnearbyareas.NolessimportantarePrespaandDoyranlakeswhich,duetotheirshallower depths,havefewernumbersofendemicandrelictspecies.Ofparticularinterestisthepresenceofsix endemictaxa(fourspeciesandtwosubspecies)commontobothOhridandPrespalakes,whichconfirmsthe commonoriginoftheselakesfromtheformerPlioceneDesaretLake. Thegroundwater,springsandcavesofMacedoniaaresecondinimportanceascentresofendemism. Theyarecharacterisedbythepresenceofthalassophreatic(i.e.,fromsalinewaters),limnophreatic(i.e.,from freshwaters)andterrestrialrelictfaunawhichdatefromtheUpperTertiary.

Table10. Numberofendemictaxaofvarious faunalgroupsintheRepublicofMacedonia

Restrictedto:

TaxonomicGroup

Phyllum Protozoa (Protozoans) 32 - - - 32 Phyllum Porifera (sponges) 4 1 1 - 6

Phyllum Plathelminthes (flatworms) 32 2 - 1 35 Phyllum Nemathelminthes (roundworms) 3 - - - 3 Phyllum Mollusca (Molluscs) 61 8 1 31 101 Phyllum Annelida (Segmentedworms) 26 3 5 20 54 Phyllum Arthropoda (Arthropods) 51 4 4 360 419 Phyllum Chordata (Chordates) 7 6 1 10 24

Totalnumber ofendemictaxa 216 24 12 422 674

36 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

2.4.Rare,threatenedandextinctspeciesandassemblages

2.4.1.Micro-organisms

Duetoinsufficienttaxonomicstudies,itisnotpossibletomakean assessmentregardingthedegreeofthreatstospeciesortaxaofbacteria. Figure78. Decussatahexagona- 2.4.2.Algae rareandthreatened diatomspecies (Photo:Z.Levkov) Therearemanyendemic,rareandthreatenedAlgaltaxawithinthe RepublicofMacedonia,butsofarnonehasbeenplacedunderanysort ofprotectionregime.TherisksthreateningAlgalspecies(especially periphyton)arisefromhabitatlossduetodecliningwaterlevels(in naturallakes),aswellasfromtheaccumulationoforganicsediments whichcovermacrophytesandrock-encrustingcommunities(this situationisparticularlyserious inDoyranLake).Thenumbersofthe populationsofoligotrophicandoligosaprobicindicatorspecieswithin theaquaticecosystemsareconstantlydecreasingasaresultof intensiveanthropogenicimpacts. DataconcerningthedegreeofthreatstoAlgaltaxaexistonlyfor Figure79. diatoms.Accordingtotheresearchtodate,manyimperilledspeciesare Naviculabalcanica- foundinOhridandPrespaLakes(Achnanthesinflata,A.minuscula, rareandthreatened species Diploneisdomblitensis,Eucocconeisquadratareaand Hippodonta (Photo:Z.Levkov) rostrata),DoyranLake(Naviculaoblonga,Nitzschiaelegantulaand N. reversa)andtheglaciallakesonSharPlaninaandPelisterMountains (Decussatahexagona,Naviculaamphibola,N.concentrica,N.tridentula, Pinnulariaalpina,P.infirma,Planothidiumperagallii,Stauroneisobtusa etc).

Table11. Numberofdiatomspeciesaccording todegreeofthreatintheRepublicofMacedonia

Category NumberofSpecies Extinctorprobablyextinctspecies 9 Threatenedspecies 107 Rarespecies 107 Endemicspecies 85

2.4.3.FungiandLichens

ThePreliminaryRedDataListofFungiwithintheRepublicof Macedoniahasbeenpreparedandincludes67speciesoftheorder Basidiomycota.ThefollowingspeciesofFungiweredeterminedtobe rare: Amanithavitadinii,Basidiodendroncaesiocinereum,Battarea phalloides,Creolophuscirrhatus,Dichomitusalbidofuscus, Dichostereumdurum,Mycoacianothofagiand.Myriostomacoliforme Ofthe67speciesofBasidiomycota potentiallythreatened,of particularconcernare Amanitacaesarea,Antrodiajuniperina, Apoxonanitida,Battareaphalloides,Boletusregius,Chroogomphus Figure80. helveticus,Hygrophorusmarzuolus,Inonotustamaricis,Pleurocybellaporigens,Peniophoratamaricicola, Poroniapunctataand Poroniapunctat,PyrofomesdemidoffiandSuillussibiricus.WithintheLichens,thefollowingspeciesare Battarraeaphalloides consideredtobethreatened: Everniadivaricata,Hypogimniaphysodes,H.tubulosa,Lobariapulmonaria, -rarespecies,some Nephromaresupinatum,Parmelinaexasperatula,P.omphaloides,P.pastillifera,P.sorediata,Parmelia ofthe50macromytes sulcata,Peltigeracanina,P.venosa,Pertusariacoccodes,Pseudeverniafurfuracea,Ramalinacarpatica,R. suggestedfor polymorpha,R.farinacea,Staurotheleclopimoides,Stereocaulonpaschale,Usneacarpatica,U.hirta,U. monitoringand mappinginEurope florida,U.glabrescensand.U.causasica (Photo:M.Karadelev)

37 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

2.4.4.Higherplants

TheRedDataListofthreatenedplantspecieswithintheRepublicofMacedoniahasnotyetbeenprepared, althoughthereissufficientdatatodoso.GreatnumbersofhigherplantspeciesexistwithinMacedonia,represent- ingaportionofthegloballythreatenedspeciesincludedinmanyinternationaldocuments-internationalRedData Lists,conventionsanddirectives(IUCNGlobalRedDataList,BernConvention,EuropeanUnion[EU]CORINE [CO-oRdinationofINformationontheEnvironment]BiotopesProgrammespecies),listsofspeciesofnational importance(localendemicand relictspecies),listsofendangered speciesand,unfortunately,acertain numberwithinthelistofextinct species. TheIUCNGlobalRedData List1997(WalterandGillet,1998) contains70taxafromtheRepublic ofMacedonia(ofwhich19arelocal endemics).Ofthese,onespecies hastheworldstatus"EX"(Extinct) -Thymusoehmianus Ronninger& Soska(itisourbeliefthatthis informationisincorrectsincevital populationsofthisspeciesstillexist Figure81. withintheRepublicofMacedonia;amoresuitablecategorywouldbe"EN"[Endangered]);twospecieshave Thymusoehmianus- worldstatus"EX/EN"(Extinct/Endangered)-AstragalusphysocalyxFischandRanunculusdegenii Kummerle& threatenedspecies fromthecanyon Jav.;whileonespecieshasworldstatus"V"(Vulnerable)-Ranunculuscacuminis Strid&Papan.Oftheremaining ofRiverTreskanear 66taxa,61haveworldstatus"R"(Rare)andfivehavestatus"I"(Indeterminate). Zdunje(Map:location Appendix1oftheBernConvention*includes12species(11vascularspeciesandonespeciesofmoss)with ofThymusoehmianus) portionsoftheirrangeslocatedwithinMacedonia-Aldrovandavesiculosa,Astragalusphysocalyx,Buxbaumia (Photo:V.Matevski) viridis,Campanulaabietina,Fritillariagraeca,F.gussichiae,Galiumrhodopeum,Linderniaprocumbens, Marsileaquadrifolia,Ramonda serbica,Salvinianatansand Trapa natans.Ofthespecieslistedinthe EUHabitatDirective†AnnexII, twospeciesofvascularplantsand onespeciesofmossarepresent withinMacedonia.Threespecies (F.gussichiae,L.procumbens and R.serbica)arealsopresentfrom AnnexIV. FromtheEuropeanCORINElist, ninespeciesarepresentinMacedo- nia: Coeloglossumviride,Jurinea taygetea,Nartheciumscardicum, Orchiscoriophora,Ramonda nathaliae,R.Serbica,Ranunculus Figure82. cacuminis,R.fontanusandSilenevulgaris,whereasfromthenationalCORINElist,19arepresent- Aldrovanda Astragalusphysocalyx vesiculosa,Aspleniummacedonicum,Astragaluscernjavskii,A.physocalyx,Colchicummacedonicum, Crocus -endemicinsouthern Balkan(Map: cvijici,C.pelistericus,Drosera theuniquelocationof rotundifolia,Isoetesphrygia, Astragalusphysocalyx Osmundaregalis,Potentilladoer- nearBogdanci) fleri,Ranunculusdegeni,Salvia (Photo:V.Matevski) jurisicii,Sambucusdeborensis, Silenepaeoniensis,Thymusoeh- mianus,Tulipamariannae,Viola arsenicaand.V.kosaninii Figure83. Ranunculuscacuminis -localendemicon Kaymakchalan mountain (Map:locationof Ranunculuscacuminis) (Photo:V.Matevski)

38 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Theexistinglegalregulationsaddressingtheprotectionofplants includeportionsoftheimportantfloristicareasoftheRepublicof Macedoniaand,withinthisframework,acertainlevelofprotection hasbeenachieved.Explicitlyprotectedpopulationsofspecies coveredundertheseactsconsistof:Abiesborisii-regis (Braychino), Aesculushippocastanum (GarskaRiver,DrenachkaRiverandSuvi Dol),Arbutusandrachne(Gevgeliya),Betulapendula (Neprtka), Fagussylvatica(Kaloyzana),Juniperusexcelsa (villageofKozhle), Osmundaregalis(Bansko),Piceaabies (SharPlaninaMountain- PopovaShapka),Pinusmugo(Yakupitsa),thePinusnigra forest (Mariovo),thePlatanusorientalis forest(IberliskaRiverand Mokrino),Quercustrojana (Trpeytsa)etc.Alloftheimportant floristicsiteshavenotbeencompletelyprotected,however(although someareintheprocessofbeingaddedtotheprotectedlist).

Extinctorprobablyextincthigherplantspecies Figure84. DrainageactivitieswhichwereundertakeninthepastinmostofthevalleysofMacedonia,aswellasthe Ranunculusdegenii- constructionofhydropowerreservoirsetc.,haveresultedinaconspicuousreductioninthepopulationsof threatenedspeciesin certainspeciesand,insomecases,apparentextinction.Suchextinctspeciesincludethefollowing: thewesternpart ofthecountry Acoruscalamus-Struga:CrniDrimRiver (Map:localitiesof AlliumobtusiflorumDC(A.maritimum Rafin)-OvchePolePlain Ranunculusdegenii) (Photo:V.Matevski) Gentianapneumonanthe -MavrovoPlain Lysimachiathyrsiflora -MavrovoPlain Sagittariasagittifolia -PelagoniaMarsh-villageofNovaci

Figure85. OhridLake (nearKalishta)- fragmentsoffloating communitesof Myriophyllo- Nupharetum stillexist (Photo:V.Matevski)

Figure86. Acommunityof Osmundaregalis, nearBanskoin theStrumitzavalley (Photo:V.Matevski)

39 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

RareandthreatenedcommunitiesintheRepublicofMacedonia

Community Location TypeofThreat

assn. Myriophyllo - Nupharetum DoyranLake:Nikolich Waterreceding Limiteddistribution, assn. Lemno-Spirodelletumpolyrhizae Prespa:Ezerani subassn. aldrovandetosum waterreceding assn. Caricetumelatae subassn. OhridLake: Limiteddistribution, Lysimachietosum Studenchishte desiccation Limiteddistribution,land assn. Osmundo-Thelipteretum Bansko usurpation Limiteddistribution, assn. Mariscetum NegortsiSpa fragmentation assn. Limiteddistribution, Cypero-Caricetumacutiformis Gostivar drainage Limiteddistribution, assn. Scirpo-Alopecuretumcretici MonospitovoMarsh drainage assn. Pelagonia:village Glycerietummaximae Chepigovo Drainage Limiteddistribution, assn. Hordeo-Caricetumdistantis Gevgeliya,Skopye loweringofthe areas groundwatertable Limiteddistribution, assn. Camphorosmetummonspeliacae OvchePolePlain directdestruction assn. Pholiureto -Plantaginetum OvchePolePlain Limiteddistribution, balcanicum directdestruction Limiteddistribution, assn. Crypsidetumaculeatae OvchePole Plain balcanicum directdestruction assn. Ephedro-Prunetumtenellae Kavadartsi -Lyubash Reforestation assn. Aesculohippocastani -Fagetum VillageIzvor:SuviDol Relict,rare assn. Periploco-Alnetumglutinosae MonospitovoMarsh Drainage assn. Abietti -Piceetumscardicum TetovskaRiver Forestdesiccation assn. Castanetumsativae macedonicum Forestdesiccation assn. Pinetummugomacedonicum Yakupitsa Forestfires assn. Pulsatillomacedonicae-Pinetum Karadzitsa Forestfires nigrae assn. Querco-Carpinetumorientalis Forestfires macedonicum assn. Phillyreo-Juniperetumexcelsae DemirKapiya Forestfires assn. Caricetummacedonicae Bistra,Pelister Watercapture/extraction assn. Sclerantho -Biserruletum Mariovo:Gorgeof Constructionofartificial pelecinae CrnaRiver reservoir assn. Edrayantho -Oxytropetum Bistra Limitedarea assn. Seslerietumkorabensis Korab,Bistra Limitedarea assn. Rindero- Acantholimonetum Galichitsa Limitedarea assn. Dianthokaimakczalanicensis - Kaymakchalan Limitedarea Festucetum assn. Dianthoscardici- Festucetum SharPlanina Limitedarea assn. Dianthojakupicensis - Elynetum Yakupitsa Limitedarea assn. Micromerio -Violetumkosaninii Yakupitsa,Kozyak Limitedarea

40 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Figure87. Droserarotundifolia-intheRepublic Figure88. Chestnutdiebackisfrequent ofMacedoniaexistsonlynearPehchevo inwesternpartsofthecountry (Photo:V.Matevski) (Photo:K.Sotirovski)

Figure89. Yakupitca-SolunskaGlava,upperlimit ofPinusmugo;Populationsofpinusoftencatchfire (Photo:J.Acevski)

2.4.5.Fauna

TheEuropeanRedDataListincludes113ofthevertebratespeciespresentwithintheRepublicof Macedonia(30fishes,66birds,16MammalsandonespeciesofReptile).Seventeenofthe20endemicfishes areincludedwithinthecategoryofgloballythreatenedspecies.SevenarerestrictedtoOhridLake (Acantholinguaohridana,Phoxinellusepiroticus,Rutilusohridanus,Salmoaphelios,S.balcanicus,S. letnicaandS.lumi),sixtoPrespaLake(Alburnusbelvica,Barbusprespensis,Chondrostomaprespense, CobitismeridionalisandRutilusprespensis),onetoDoyranLake(Sabanejewiadoiranica)andthree endemicspeciesoccurwithinotheraquaticecosystems(Gobiobanarescui,Salmopelagonicusand S. peristericus). BecausetheNationalRedDataListforMacedoniahasyettobeprepared,themostimportantspeciestobe protectedatthenationallevelareconsideredtobetheendemicfishspecies.Theremainingendemic vertebratespeciesshouldalsobeincluded,aswellassomeotherspecificvertebratespecieswhoserangesend inorpassthroughMacedonia(Algyroidesnigropunctatus,Colubergemonensis,Cyrtopodionkotschyi,

41 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Lacertaagilis,Pelobatessyriacus,Ranabalcanica,R.graeca,R. temporaria,Testudograeca,Triturusalpestris,Viperaberusetc.). Thereasonforthedisappearanceofspeciesand/orthereductionoftheir populationsisdueprimarilytohumanactivity,buttherearealsoglobal causeswhichhavenotbeencompletelyidentified.Ifglobalfactors endangeringbiodiversity,includingchangesinclimate,areexcluded,then allremainingessentialfactorshavingdirectorindirectimpactsonfaunal diversity,theobservedchangeswithinecosystems(especiallyaquaticand foresttypes),changesintheozonelayer,somefungalpandemicsetc.,areof anthropogenicorigin. Regardingtheconservationofaquaticsystemsandtheirenvirons,where thegreatestfaunaldiversityhasbeenrecorded,itisnecessarytonotesome keyfactorswhichcausedisturbancestonaturalconditionswithinbiotopes and,thus,thereductionofbiodiversityasawhole.Theseinclude: Figure90. Ranabalcanica (Photo:S.Petkovski)

• Changesmadeinlocalisedorwiderareasthroughhabitat destruction,fragmentationandisolation; • Huntingforcommercialpurposesandcollectionforscientific, hobbyandothernon-scientificuses; •Colonisationbyinvaderspecies; • Insufficientknowledgeregardingbasicpopulationparameters andthedistributionofindividualfaunalgroups.

Table12.Threatenedvertebratespecies intheRepublicofMacedonia

Figure91. ThreatenedspeciesofFishes 30 Testudograeca (Photo:S.Petkovski) ThreatenedspeciesofReptiles 1 ThreatenedspeciesofBirds 66 ThreatenedspeciesofMammals 16 Totalnumberofthreatenedspecies 113

Figure92. Algyroides nigropunctatus (Photo:Lj.Melovski)

Figure93. Falcoperegrinus (Photo:M.Velevski)

42 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

2.5.Speciesofeconomicimportance(wildplantsandanimals)

2.5.1.Usageofwildplantsandfungi

Pastures. Althoughpasturesareusedin livestockproductionandrepresentthemost importanteconomicnon-cultivatedplant resource,theirtotalproductivity,whichis directlyinfluencedbyseasonalclimatic conditions,hasnotbeencalculatedtodate. PasturesaremanagedbythePublicEnterprise forPasturesatthenationallevel.Mostarenot utilised,beingpresentinthehighmountains.In someofthesehighmountainpasturesonthe largermountains(SharPlaninaMountain, Bistra,Korab,Yakupitsa,SuvaGoraMountain etc.),aninventoryhasbeenundertakenforthe purposeofdeterminingcarryingcapacities. Thisprocessshouldbecontinuedinthefuture. Thelackofsignificantgrazinginthesepastures hascontributedtoachangeinthecomposition ofherbaceousvegetation,theinvasionof woodyshrubsandthedegradationofthehumic layer.

Otherspecies. Therearelegalregulations coveringthisgroup(RegulationsontheManner ofUseofOtherForestProducts,Official GazetteoftheRepublicofMacedonia13/00), buttheydonotprovideamechanismfor Figure94. obtainingapreciseassessmentofthecurrentstatusofwildplantspecies.Thus,oneoftheprioritiesisto Mountainpastures preparenewregulationsdefiningthesustainableuseofthesespecies. areusedfor Speciesofplantsintendedforhumanconsumptionyieldbothfresh,whole,semi-processedandfully sheepgrazing processedproducts.Thefollowinggroups (Photo:M.Dzingo) ofwildplantsareofgreatesteconomic importancefortheRepublicofMacedonia:

Mushrooms. Mushroomsappearto possessanenormouseconomicvaluefor thelocalpopulation;however,thereisno publisheddataonthenumberofcollectors orthequantityoffreshwildmushrooms purchaseddomestically.Ofthespecies collectedlocallyforfood,some(Agaricus spp.,Amanitacaesarea,Boletusspp.,Can- tharelluscibarius,Craterulluscornocopo- ides,Lactariusdeliciosus,Macrolepiota proceraandMorchellaspp.)canalsobe foundinmarketsacrossthecountry. Themushroomspeciesmostoften Figure95. Ceasar’sMushroom,oneofthetastefulmushrooms purchasedforexportare: Boletusaereus, (Photo:M.Karadelev) B.edulis,B.pinophulus,B.reticulatus, Cantharelluscibariusand Morchellaspp. Theyrepresentanimportantexportproduct(328,693kg/year;estimatedvalue$2,000,000)forthecompanies registeredtopurchasewild-collectedmushrooms,buttherealquantitycollectedperyearisneverknown. Althoughapermitfortheexportofcommercialspecies(i.e.,notonthelistofendangeredspecies)canbe obtainedfromtheMinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning(MoEPP),noregionalorlocal productivitydataexistonwhichtobasesustainableuserestrictions.

43 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Herbalteas. IntheRepublicofMacedonia,thereisvirtually nocultivatedteaproduction.Thelittlethatdoesexistis insignificantcomparedwiththewildcollectionperformedby localcitizensforpersonaluseandforsaletovariouscompanies (e.g.,Alkaloid,Bilka,Jaka,Koroetc).Theamountofteaexported in2001was1,127,825kg,withatotalvalueof$1,453,052.In otheryears,asmuchas$4.5to5millionwererealisedfromtea exports.

Wildfruitsandnuts. Theseconsistmainlyofhighmountain fruits,themostimportantofwhichistheblueberry(Vaccinium myrtillus),aproductusedchieflyforexport(in2001,83,284kg worth$86,196).Blueberriesarefoundinalmostallhighpastures (over1,300mmsl).Inrecentyears,therehasbeenanincreasein Figure96. thecollectionofjuniperberries(Juniperuscommunis)forthe Sideritisscardica productionofessentialoils.Byintensityofcollection,afterberriesfollowDogrose(Rosacanina),Raspberry (Photo:V.Matevski) (Rubusidaeus),blackberry(Rubusspp.),Corneliancherry(Cornusmas)andBlackthorn(Prunusspinosa). Wildapples,pearsandcherriesareusedasingredientsinthe fruitteasverymuchindemandforexport.Inaddition,the collectionofChestnuts(Castaneasativa)isvery widespread,withapproximately250,000kgcollectedper year,intendedmostlyforthehomemarket.

Timber/fuelwood. Accordingtodataobtainedfrom MacedonianForestsin2001,thelegaltimberharvestinthe RepublicofMacedoniawas520,915m³ (ofwhich463,840 m³ werecutbylocalMacedonianForestsbranchesand 57,075m³ byprivateindividualsinpublicforests).Thetotal quantitiesoftimberharvestedincluded417,355m³ of fuelwoodand97,837m³ ofcommercialtimber.Thetree speciesprimarilyharvestedare:Beech(fuelwoodand commercialtimber),Oak(fuelwoodandcommercial timber)andPine(commercialtimber).Otherspecies (Chestnut,Fir,PoplarandWalnut[Juglans sp.])areof significantlylesserimportance. Thedeteriorationofthesecuritysituationduringthe courseof2001and2002contributedtoamarkedincreasein illegaltimbercutting,especiallyintheregionsofBitola, Kumanovo,Resen,theSharPlaninaMountaingroup, Skopye,Strugaandothers.Atthepresenttime,itwouldbe difficulttomakeanaccurateassessmentoftheactual magnitudeofillegalharvesting,butitisassumedtobe ongoingatthesameintensityasbefore. Figure98. Spruceforest Figure97. (Photo:J.Acevski) Decorativespecies- Horticulture. Traditionally,wildspeciesofflowers,as Edraianthushorvatii wellasdecorativeplants,aregrowninhomegardens.Asmallpercentagearecollectedandsoldinlocal (Photo:O.Matevska) markets,suchas: Buxussempervirens,Colhicumautumnale, Crocusspp.,Cyclamenhederifolium,Galanthusnivalis,Geranium spp.,Helleborusodorus,Narcissuspoeticus,Primulaspp.,Syringa vulgaris,Violaspp.etc.

Medicinaluses. Thereareapproximately3,500vascularplant speciesinMacedonia,ofwhich700havemedicinalproperties; however,only120speciesaregenerallyutilised.Theirqualitative andquantitativedistributionswithintheRepublichavenotbeen fullydetermined(i.e.,achorographicatlasofthemedicinalplants hasyettobepublished).Availabledatadonotreflectthecurrent situationwithmedicinalplants,duetoalackoflegalregulations fortheircollection,use,care,conservation,tradeandexport. Existingdataregardingmaximumannualquantitiesofmedicinal plantmaterialexportedinthelastdecade(Hypericumperforatum [5,000tonnes],Lichenes[1,200tonnes],Altaheaofficinalis [80

44 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

tonnes],Chamomillarecutita[75tonnes],Tiliacordata[60tonnes]andGentinaluteaandG.punctata [3-4 tonnes]),indicateanalarmingsituation. Thecollectionanduseofmedicinalplantscanbedividedinto threecategories:personaluse,retail/wholesaletradeandother economicpurposes.Amechanismforregulationandclassificationis necessarybeforetheamountofdryplantmaterialanindividualcan collectfromanareacanbedeterminedandbeforeapermitforthis collectioncanbeissued.Thecollectionofmedicinalplantsfor economicpurposesinMacedoniavarieswidelywiththespecies collected,thecollectorsthemselvesandtheseasonalquantityofthe collectedmaterial.Thelargeseasonaldemandbyforeignbuyersfor specificplantspeciesismostseriousandisfacilitatedbycertain localtradecompanieswhichhavenopreviousexperienceinthis field.Plantspecieswhichareusedwhole(i.e.,withrootandbark)are mostthreatened. Accordingtodistributionpatterns,themostthreatenedplantsare thosewithlimitedranges(i.e.,theyarepresentonlyincertain restrictedareas;e.g.,Acoruscalamus,Salviaofficinalisand Sideritis scardica).Basedupondatafromthepasttenyears,themost troublingsituationsarewiththespecies Adonisvernalis, Arctostaphyllosuva-ursi,Colchicumautumnale,Gentianalutea,G. punctata,Herniariaglabra,H.hirsuta,Hypericumperforatum, Figure99. Lichenes,variousspecieswithinthefamilyOrchidaceae (whosepartsareusedintheproductionofsalep), Thymustosevii-one Sideritisraeserii,S.scardica,Thymusspp.andothers. ofthemostfrequent medicalhergbinthe Otheruses,includingspeciesusedinforeigntrade. Wildspeciesaresometimesusedinthecosmetics, RepublicofMacedonia alcoholandconstructionindustries.Lichensusedinthecosmeticsindustryarecollectedintheeasternand (Photo:M.Dzingo) westernmountainsofMacedoniaandthenexported(theannualpurchasereaches600-800tonnesdryweight; theexportedamountin2001was83,334kg,valuedat$79,624).Essentialoilsareextractedfromcones, needlesandseedsofPineandotherplantspecies.Theexportedamountin2001was991,067kg,valuedat $758,463.Theannualpurchaseofjuniperberriesbyvariousorganisationsis3,000-4,000tonnes.Cattails, reedsandWillowsareusedinconstruction,eitherdried,woven,asthatchorinhandicraftproducts.Theyare mainlycollectedonthelakes(Doyran,OhridandPrespa);however,thisactivityisonthedecline. In2002,thetotalamountofexportedplantmaterial,withtheapprovaloftheMoEPP,was1,035,025kg. AccordingtodatafromtheDepartmentofPlantProtection (withintheMinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandWater Management[MoAFWM]),thetotalquantityofmedicinal plantmaterialexportedwas1,244,959kg.

2.5.2.Useofwildanimals

Hunting. Huntingisconductedthroughhunting associationscombinedundertheHuntingUnionof Macedonia.Macedoniaisdividedinto11managed huntingareas,with107huntingsitesforlargegame(47% ofthetotalarea,excludinglakes)and145huntingsitesfor smallgame(49%ofthearea).Thesehuntingleasesare managedbothbythehuntingassociationsthemselvesand byorganisationsworkinginthefieldofforestry.In addition,fiveenclosedareastotalling4,041haforthe breedingoflargegameandonepheasantfarmwithayearly productioncapacityof40,000two-month-oldpheasants havebeenestablished. Thegreatestportionofthelandarealicensedfor huntingconsistsofforestsandforestedareas.WiththeLaw onHunting,127speciesofgame(24fur-bearinganimals and103birds)havebeengivenspecialconsideration. Unfortunately,protectivemeasuresforthecareofforests andforthecareofgameoftendonotagree.Therefore, thereisaneedtocoordinatesuchmeasureswithinthetwo Figure100. Hunting sectors. (Photo:M.Dzingo)

45 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Fishing. Licensedfishingisallowedonall naturallakes,reservoirsandrivers,and encompassesbothcommercialandsportfishing. Fishspeciesthatarecommerciallyimportant include: OhridLake:Bleak(Alburnusalburnus),Eel (Anguillaanguilla)andOhridtrout(Salmo letnica).Thegreatestpercentageofthetotalannual catchisfromthesethreespecies.Inthepast,the annualcatchinOhridLakewas220-240tonnes, 50%ofwhichwastrout.Atpresent,thisquantityis considerablyless(under100tonnes).Thetrout catchhasdeclinedmarkedly,fromtheperiodswhen over140tonneswerecaughtannuallytothepresent catchofonly35tonnes. PrespaLake:Prespableak()Alburnusbelvica andCarp(Cyprinuscarpio).Theannualcatchin PrespaLakeis100tonnes. DoyranLake:Bleak,Carp,Perch(Perca fluviatilis),Roach(Rutilusrutilus),andRudd (Scardiniuserithrophthalmus).Traditionally,these speciesamountto98%ofthetotalfishcatch.While theannualcatchinDoyranLakewasformerlyover 500tonnes,inthelastfewyearsithasrangedfrom 70-90tonnes/year.Theannualcatchin2002was only25tonnesandwasdominatedbyCrucianCarp (Carassiuscarassius),withminoramountsofCarp andPerch. Asregardsthefishcatchinreservoirs,thereare novalidstatisticaldata.Thereareestimatesthat over200tonnes/yeararecaughtfromTikveshLake Figure101. Fishing alone,mostlyRoach,followedby,indecreasing (Photo:M.Dzingo) order,Carp,Wels(Silurisglanis),Bleak,Perchand,toalesserextent,Nase(Chondrostomanasus)and Balkanvimba(Vimbamelanops). Withrespecttosportfishing,inadditiontothosespecieslistedpreviouslyundercommercialfishing, importantspeciesalsoinclude:Balkanvimba,Barbel(Barbusbarbus),Mediterraneanbarbel(B. meridionalis),Browntrout(Salmotrutta),Chub(Leuciscuscephalus),Vardarchub(L.delineatus),Gudgeon (Gobiogobio),NaseandWels.Again,therearenorelevantdataonthetotalfishcatchbysportsanglers. Occurrencesofillegalfishingandtheuseofprohibitedfishinggearcausegraveconcern.Usingthebasicdata onthenumberofwaterbodiesandtheirareas,estimatesarethattheannualfishcatchintheRepublicof Macedoniarangesfrom800to1,200tonnes;however,amajorportionofthecatchisnotrecorded.

Collectionformedicinalpurposes.Incomparisonwithplants,thecollectionofanimalsformedicinal usesisratherinsignificant.TherestrictedpopulationoftheMacedonianendemicsubspeciesoftheEuropean souslik(Spermophiluscitelluskaramani)isfoundonYakupitsamountainatthesite,"BegovoPolePlain." TheMacedoniancommonnameforthissubspecies(Stobolka)isrelatedtoitsuseintraditionalmedicine,that is,itwasbelievedtobeabletocure100aches(stobolki).AlthoughthecollectionofEuropeansouslikhas declinedinrecentdecades,itdoesstilloccur,directlythreateningthesurvivalofthisMacedonianendemic subspecies.

Otheruses,includingspeciesusedinforeigntrade. Otheranimalsusedprimarilyasforeigntradeitems consistofseveralsnails.Twooftheseareparticularlyimportant:

• TheEdible(French)snail,Helixpomatia,thecollectionofwhichisforbiddenaccordingtothe internationalBernConvention.Inaddition,incompliancewithIUCN,itbelongstothecategoryof "vulnerable"species.Thefactthatthisspeciesislistedaspurchasablebuthasareducedpopulation makesitverylikelythatitsfuturecollectionandsalewillbeprohibitedinordertorebuildthe populations.

46 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

• TheRoman(Turk)snail(Helixlucorum),for whichtherewasnopurchaselimituntilrecently,is presentthroughoutMacedonia.Approximately200 tonnesusedtobepurchasedannually,butitsnumbers havedeclinedduetouncontrolledcollection.This specieshasbeenrecommendedforprotectionandits collection,purchaseandexportwillberegulated throughtheimpositionofatemporarybanonthese activitieseverytwoyears.Duringthealternateyears whencollection,purchaseandexport(1June-1 October)areallowed,aquotaof40,000kgofwhole livespecimenswillbeintroduced.In2001,1,323,795 kgofwholesnails(valuedat$3,063,991)were Figure102. exportedfromMacedonia. Helixlucorum

• PermanentprotectionwillalsobeprovidedtotheCommonsnail(Helixvulgaris),asouth-Balkan endemicspecies,theStripedsnail(Cepaeavindobonensis),asouthernandeasternEuropeanspecies, andthespeciesHelixfigulina,asouth-Balkanendemic.

2.5.3.Assessmentsofsustainability

Duetotheimportanceofbiologicalresources,aswellastheexcessiveanduncontrolledexploitationof wildplantandanimalspecies,thereisaseriousdangerthatmanywilldisappear.Becauseofthis,thereisa pressingneedtoadoptregulationsconcerningthesespeciesandtospecifyannualcollectionquotas.

2.6.Geneticdiversity(gene-fund)

Theimportanceofplantgeneticmaterial(includingwildspecies,aswellasthemanylocalvarietiesand wildrelativesofvariouscrops)forthedevelopmentofplantgeneticsandselectionwasemphasizedforthe Figure103. firsttimewithintheRepublicofMacedoniaduringthe1960s.Besidesthecollection,investigation, Cyto-genetic maintenanceanduseofgeneticmaterial laboratory (Photo:S.Andonov) fromvariouslocalcrops(whichhada priorityforstudyduetotheirimportancein humannutrition),activeinvestigationson thegeneticdiversityofnaturalpopulations ofAngiospermswerealsobegun. Sincenumerousendemicandrelict speciesofnationalsignificancewithin Macedoniaareactuallyorpotentially threatenedintheirnaturalhabitats,alossof geneticdiversitycouldbecomeareality. Ontheotherhand,appropriategenetic investigationsandmaintenanceofagene- fundcan,inlargemeasure,beusedasa meansfortheappropriatefuturereintro- ductionoflostspecies;conversely,thelack ofsuchreintroductioncouldalsobecon- sideredaseriousthreattogeneticdiversity. Fromaconservationstandpoint,deter- mininggenotypesthroughdefiningthe chromosomenumberinnaturalpopula- tionsofhigherplantsisveryimportantfor thepreparationofRedDataListsandRed DataBooks,aswellasforthegene-banks withtheirvariouscollections.

47 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

OfthefloraofMacedonia,theChromosomeAtlasofAngiospermsindicatesthat548taxaof171genera and30familieshavebeenstudied.Theexistenceofsuchasurveyofthechromosomenumbersofthese Angiospermsisasolidfoundationforestablishingacontemporaryinformationtechnologydatabase. Accesstoplantgeneticresourcesstoredingene-banksisnotlegally regulatedintheRepublicofMacedonia.Thecollectionsinthegene- banksarefreelyavailableforexchangeswithanyothergene-bank.All onemustdoismakearequestbyordinaryletter,sincesuchcasesare generallyarrangedthroughpersonalcontacts.Macedoniancollections cannotbefoundontheinternet,norareanyportionsofthedatabases presentonotherplantnetworks. Thenumberofvarieties/speciesusedinagriculturalproduction withinMacedoniaisevidenceofitsgreatbiologicaldiversity.Thereare 129recogniseddomesticvarietiesand2,205importedvarietiesused domestically.TheInstituteofAgricultureinSkopye,theInstitutefor SouthernCropsinStrumitsaandtheTobaccoInstituteinPrilepmaintain collectionsoflocalvarieties. Withregardtodomesticatedanimals,concretemeasuresfor conservationofthePramenkasheep"Karakachanska"havealreadybeen undertaken.WiththeassistanceprovidedbytheMoAFWM,acollection Figure104. of100sheepand12ramshasbeenestablished.Theheadswereplacedin Collectionofdifferent twoindependentlocationsformorphological ryevarieties characterisation.They arenowalsoundergoing (Photo:S.Ivanovska) biochemicalanalysesofDNAandproteinsinorderto determinepolymorphismwithinthemicro-satellite bandsandgeneticmarkers.Inthefuture,itisplanned tocryogenicallypreserveasufficientquantityof spermandfertilisedembryos,inordertofacilitatethe long-lastingconservationofgeneticmaterial. 2.7.Agrobiodiversity

Biologicaldiversityinagricultureisoneofthe Figure105. Karakachanska- mostcriticalareasofoverallglobalbiodiversity,with strainofPramenka 75%ofallfoodproductionbasedupononlyabout100 breed plantspeciesanddomesticatedanimals.As (Photo:S.Andonov) civilisationsdeveloped,humansstrovetocreateplant varietiesanddomesticatedanimalswithmoreuseful traits.Theprocessofdeliberatecreationofvarietiesandbreedshasbeenoccurringforatleastthepast50-100 years,andmorespecialisedgenotypescharacterisedbytheterm,"highinput-highoutput,"arenowbeing promoted.Asaresultofthetendencytoneglecttraditionalbreeding,manyoldvarietiesandbreedshavebeen permanentlylostasgeneticresources.WithinMacedonia,thebiologicalresourcesrepresentedbyindigenous Figure106. Wheat varieties,breedsandspeciesneedtobepreservedforthesakeofeconomic,scientific,cultural,socio- (Photo:M.Dzingo) economicandenvironmentalinterests.

2.7.1.Crops

Macedoniapossessessignificantagrobiological plantdiversityduetoitsfavourablegeographic locationandclimaticconditions.Thediversityofa largeportionofthelocalspecieshasnotbeenadversely affectedbecauseagriculturalproductionisnot intensiveinmanyregions.Insuchareas,indigenous speciesandlocally-bredvarietiesarestillgrown, representinganimportantsourceofgeneticmaterialno longerappearingwithinthegenotypeofcommercial species Themajorportionofthetotalarablelandisused forfieldandgardenproduction(84.2%),fruitand grapeproduction(7.1%)andpastures(8.5%).The trendsintheproductionofindividualcropsvaryby year,asevidencedbythedisappearanceofsomecrops

48 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Figure107. Localcucurbitvarities Figure108.. Localbeansvarities (Photo:S.Ivanovska) (Photo:S.Ivanovska)

(E.g.,poppy,flax,hempandcotton).Thebulkofthecropsproducedconsistsofcommercialvarieties,the majorportionofwhichareimportedfromabroad,withaminornumberoflocally-developedvarieties, mainlycreatedbytheInstituteofAgricultureinSkopye.Alargenumberofsmallproducersdocontinueto growlocalvarietiesandindigenousspecies.

Wildrelativesofcrops. MostofthecropsinMacedoniastillhavelocalwildrelatives(Avenaspp., Cannabissativa,Hordeumspp.,Papaverspp.,Triticumspp.etc.).Infruitproduction,wildrelativesareused mostoften,bothforfoodandasrootstocks.Foddercrops,mainlydistributedwithinploughedfieldsand meadows(naturalorsown),werecreatedbyselectionandcultivationofwildspecies.Somehavebeen cultivatedsincelongago,andothersbegantobecultivatedonlyrecently.

2.7.2.Nativebreedsoflivestock Figure109. Busha (Photo:S.Andonov) Domesticatedanimalscon- tribute30-40%oftheworld's foodproduction.Manyofthe breedsdevelopedforspecific climaticregimesorbreeding zonesappearnottobeableto thriveundertheconditionsof modernlivestockproduction. Duringthepast50years,new, moreproductivebreedshave beenimported.Althoughthe originalimportedbreedsare stillpresentinMacedonia, crossesbetweenindigenous breeds/strainsandimported breedsareknowninseveral species: Busha.Localbreedofcattle foundinhighlandandmountain areas.Duringthelast30-40 years,itwascrossedwithmany importedbreeds.Accordingto officialstatisticaldata,Bushas comprise50%ofthetotal numberofcattleraised.

49 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Pramenka. Localbreedofsheeprepresentedbythreestrains:Karakachanska,Ovchepolskaand Sharplaninska.TheKarakachanskastrainisconsideredtobeendangered,whiletheothertwostrainsare widelyusedinsheepproduction.

Domestic(Balkan)goat. Althoughitsnumbersareontheincrease,itisdifficulttomakeaclear distinctionbetweenthisandotherbreeds.Localprimitivepig.Slowgrowingbreedraisedonrangesinseveral regionsofMacedonia.Althoughitisaveryprimitivebreed,morefieldandlaboratoryresearchareneededin ordertoclearlydefineitsstatus.

Figure110. Domestic (Balkan)goat (Photo:S.Andonov)

Localprimitivepig. SlowgrowingbreedraisedonrangesinseveralregionsofMacedonia.Althoughitis averyprimitivebreed,morefieldandlaboratoryresearchareneededinordertoclearlydefineitsstatus.

Sheepdog-Sharplaninets. Thisindigenousbreeddevelopedinanindependent,naturalandauthentic mannerwithoutanyparticipationbyhumans,whichisitsgreatadvantage.Itsnamederivesfromitsplaceof origin(themountainmassifsofSharPlanina,Bistra,KorabandKozhuf).UpontherequestoftheKinological AssociationofMacedonia(KAM),theFederationCynologiqueInternational(FCI)registeredthisanimal underthenameSheepDog-Sharplaninets.Itislistedashavingadualcountryoforigin,theRepublicof MacedoniaandSerbiaandMontenegro.

Figure111. Localprimitivepig (Photo:S.Andonov)

Figure112. .Sheepdog-Sharplaninets (Photo:M.Dzingo)

50 3.KEYTHREATS TOBIODIVERSITY

3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY

3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY

WithintheRepublicofMacedonia,therearemanygeneralreasonsforthereductionorlossof biodiversity.Theyresultfrombothdirectandindirectimpactsandthreats,aswellasfromseveralmore fundamentalcauses.Thesefundamentalreasonsderivemainlyfromtheexistingsocio-economicproblems withintheState,withthedirectandindirectthreatsresultingfromimpactsbyvariouseconomicsectors. 3.1.Socio-economiccontext

Education. Withinthelast50years,theoveralllevelofeducationoftheMacedonianpopulationhas risen.Eventhoughdifferencesineducationalapproachesbetweenurbanandruralsettingshavediminished, 62.5%oftheilliteratepopulationcontinuestoliveinruralareas.Thelowlevelofliteracyamongwomenand theruraladultpopulationconstrainsdevelopmentactivitiesinallspheres.Thereisalsoacloserelationship amongeducation,naturalpopulationgrowthrate,qualityoflabourforceandthesustainableuseof biodiversity. Educationisakeyfactorinthepromotionoftheeconomic,social,ecologicalandculturalvaluesof biologicalresourcesandbiodiversity.Theeducationsectorshouldpromoteeconomicandsocial understandingoftheimportanceandroleofbiodiversity.Specialattentionshouldbegiventothemost threatenednaturalresourcessuchaswaterandsoil,aswellastonaturalecosystemsandbiodiversityin general. Withintheirworkingplansandprogrammes,institutionsinthefieldsofeducation,healthservices, information,cultureandscienceareobligatedtoincorporatesuchmaterialconcerningbiodiversitythatwill increasegeneralunderstandingandwillencourageactiveparticipationintheimprovementofnature conservation.InTable13,dataconcerningtheeducationalstructureandcharacteristicsofthepopulationby locationarepresented. Table13. Structureandcharacteristicsofthepopulationbylocationandeducationlevel(1994).

Other Censusof1994 Macedonia CityofSkopye Villages Towns Illiterate* 5.4 2.9 3.6 8.6 Withoutschooleducation 6.6 3.5 4.4 10.5 Notcompletedprimaryschool 18.4 9.2 14.8 27.4 Primaryschool 33.4 25.2 30.6 41.1 Secondaryschool 32.3 46.7 38.4 17.7 Advancedanduniversity 8.7 15.1 11.3 2.5 Unknown 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.8 *age10andolder;†age15andolder

Source:CalculationsusingdatafromtheCensusof1994, Population,housingandagriculturalbusinesses,BookV,Skopje1996

Strengtheningthesocialandeconomicsecurityofthepopulation. Twoofthemostnoticeable characteristicsofthepastfewyearsarethesignificantchangesinsocietalstructure(i.e.,economic stratificationofthepopulation)andanincreaseinthenumberofimpoverishedMacedoniancitizens. Thegreatestproportionofthepopulationofloweconomicstatusisconcentratedinundevelopedareas andruralmunicipalities.Unlessbasicconditionsarechanged,theirnumbersmayincrease.Thepeoplein thesecommunitiespossessandusefewmodernconveniences,donothaveaccesstocommonsocialservices andareinsufficientlyintegratedintosociety. Povertyproducesagreaterintensityofnaturalresourceexploitationandcauseslargechangeswithin naturalecosystems.Thelevelofpovertyhasincreasedfrom19.0%in1997to22.3%in2000.Thoselivingin povertyincludepeoplewithalowlevelofeducation,theelderly,familieswithsmallchildren,the unemployedandtheportionofthepopulationlivinginhillormountainsettlements.Ahighproportionofpoor householdsareinruralareas.Thegapbetweentherichandthepoorisalsoincreasing.Morethanonethirdof thepopulationoftheRepublicofMacedonialivesinpoverty,andmanyarehungryeveryday(23%haveno

53 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

moneytobuyfood)(Reportoftheprojecton"SocialExclusion andInsecurityoftheCitizensofMacedonia,"Instituteof SociologicalandPolitical-LegalResearch,Skopje,2000).In 2000,around77,000households(or15%ofthetotalnumber) receivedsocialassistance,whichamountsto57%oftheincome establishedasthepovertylevel.

Graph1. Numberofhouseholdsthatreceived Socialassistanceduringtheperiod1995-2000.

100 80 60 40 20 0

Numberofhouseholds(in1000s)

Figure113. Domesticfireplacein amacedonianvillage Mostofthepoorhaverestricted (Photo:M.Dzingo) accesstoincome,education,health careandfood,especiallythe populationsinhilly,mountainousand undevelopedareas.Theyfacepoverty duetotheirlimitedaccesstoarable landandbecauseofmigration,which seriouslyreducestheportionofthe populationcapableofworking.One ofthefactorsthatkeepspeoplein povertyisthelackofadequate infrastructure,whichparticularly affectsthepopulationinundeveloped areas.Thislimitstheiraccesstothose institutionsprovidingpublicbenefits- health,educationalandcultural services;publicadministrationetc. Littleprogresshasbeenmadein theareaofdisposableincome.Funds availableforpersonalconsumptive usewithintheRepublicofMacedonia decreasedby30%perhousehold duringtheperiod1998-2000.Thishas broughtaboutchangesinthestructure andmannerofconsumption.Food, Figure114. Traditionalwayofwheat housing,fuel,lighting,healthand grindinginruralareas-watermill hygienecostshaveincreasedwhile,at (Photo:M.Dzingo) thesametime,fundsavailableto purchaseclothes,shoesandhouseholditemsortobesetasideassavingshavedecreased.Thisisindicativeof alowlivingstandardandqualityoflife. Theunemploymentrateishighandcontinuestorise.Incomparisontothebeginningoftheperiodof transition,unemploymenthasdoubled.In2000,accordingtoofficialstatistics,theunemploymentratewas 32.1%,whichindicatesthebreadthandseverityoftheproblem.Thetimespentsearchingforajobaverages overfouryearsfor59.4%ofunemployedpersons(1999data). Possibilitiesforsocialsecurityandpovertyeradication. Becausepovertyisacomplex, multidimensionalproblem,thereisnotone,universalsolution.Povertyislinkedtoalackofcontrolover

54 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY

resourcessuchasskills,knowledgeandcapital.Therefore,inordertomakeadvancesagainstpoverty,itis necessarytoapplyamultidimensionalapproachaddressingthoseeconomic,socialandnaturalfactorsthat willgenerateanacceptableincomeandcreatebasicsocialservicesforthecitizens.Inordertoachievethis goalitisnecessaryto:

• Introduceequalopportunitiesforallcitizens,whilepromotingeconomicandsocialdevelopment; • Strengthentheeducationalsystemandenablethepeopletoearnalivinginasustainablemanner; • Includethelocalpopulationintheconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicalresourcesand thesharingofthebenefitsofnaturalresourceswithintheregion.

Politicalpluralismandmarketeconomy. The1991ConstitutiondefinestheRepublicofMacedoniaas asovereign,independent,democraticandsocialStatewithitscivilgovernmentbaseduponthedemocratic electionofrepresentatives.Itisagovernmentwhichalsoallowsthecitizenstoexpressthemselvesdirectly throughreferendaandinothermannersandforums. Politicalpluralismhasitsmainpillarsintheformofpoliticalparties,amarketeconomyallowingprivate ownershipandlocalself-governmentbymunicipalities.TheConstitutionguaranteesthebasicpersonaland politicalfreedomsspecifiedunderinternationallaw:therighttolive,therighttoliberty,therighttoexpress one'sethnicaffiliation,theprotectionofone'sphysicalandmoralintegrity,theprohibitionofdiscrimination andequalitybeforethelaw.Citizensenjoyequalrightstocandidacyinelectionsandotherfunctions,bothat thelocalandnationallevels,withoutanyfearofdiscrimination. TheConstitutionguaranteeseconomicandsocialfreedomandothercitizens'rightsincluding:therightof propertyownership,therighttowork,therighttostrike,therighttoinherit,therighttosocialinsurance and socialcare,therighttohealthcare,therighttoahealthyenvironment,therighttoeducationetc.The principlesofmarketfreedomandentrepreneurship,fundamentalvaluesoftheconstitutionalorderofthe RepublicofMacedonia,allowforbroadopportunitiestostrengthentheeconomyandtoincreasethe productivityoflabourandprivateinitiativesinallareasoftheeconomicsystem.Nevertheless,thecurrent unsatisfactoryenvironmentallegislationmayacceleratebiodiversityloss. Figure115. Arablelandand greenhouseswith intensiveagricultural production 3.2.Keyeconomicsectorsaffectingbiodiversity (Photo:M.Dzingo)

Agriculture. Thissectorhasbeenproviding arelativelystablecontributiontotheGDP(by methodofproduction)ofabout11%overthe courseofthelastseveralyears(or,more precisely,10.9%in1997,11.4%in1998and 11.0%in1999).Duringthissameperiod, capitalexpenditureshaveexperiencedrela- tivelyhighfluctuations. Thetotalareaofagriculturalproductionhas notedadecliningtrend(whichisthemain indicatorofnon-sustainableandinefficient utilisation).Thissametrendcanbeseenin arableland,whichfellfrom658,000ha(1996) to598,000ha(2000).Arablelandareatypically completelycoversvalleyrelief.Inthecaseof pastures,whichcomprisetheremainingareasof agriculturalproduction,anoppositeorincreas- ingtrendhasbeenobserved,from632,000ha (1996)to636,000ha(2000). Thecurrentstateofagricultureisburdened withmanyproblems:agrarianoverpopulation inthelowlandsandtheneedfordeagrarianisa- tion;fragmentationofagriculturalareasandthe needfortheirmoreeffectiveuse;poorqualityof equipmentandtheneedformodernisation;and thedegradationofsoils.

55 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

DeagrarianisationinMacedoniahas beenconductedinaspontaneous, disorganised,prematureandexcessive manner.Becauseofthis,theportionof thetotalpopulationworkingin agriculturedecreasedfrom22% (accordingtothe1981census)to14.7% in1991andto11.8%in1994. Fromaneconomicstandpoint,the poorqualityofequipmentand infrastructureisthenextproblemtobe solvedinthefieldofagriculture.Thisis oneofthemainreasonsforthe increasingdependenceonnatural weatherandlandconditions. Themostsignificantprogressover thecourseofthepastdecadehasbeen madeinprivatisationofthesocially ownedandcooperativesectorandthe associateddenationalisationofland, thatis,thereturnofagriculturalareasto theirformerowners.Thelandwas takenduringagrarianreformsin1945 andnationalisationin1953. Agricultureisasectorposinga severethreattothebiologicaldiversity oftheRepublicofMacedonia,espe- ciallyduetothecurrentunfavourable conditionsandnegativedevelopment trends.

Figure.116. Cultivatedfields Forestry. Forestryisasectorwhichhasbeenneglectedforalongperiodandinadequatelytreatedbythe (Photo:M.Dzingo) economicpolicymakers.SuchacourseisbaseduponitslimitedcontributiontotheGDP.Thismaybefurther evidencedbythefactthat,intheofficialstatisticalmethodology,forestryiscombinedwithagriculture, makingitimpossibletogleanexplicitinformationonitssolecontributiontotheGDP.Itispossible,however, Figure117. todrawcertainconclusionsregardingthecapitalexpendituresmadeinthissectoroverthecourseofthelast Exploitationsofpine severalyears.Ananalysisofthemagnitudeofinvestments intheforestrysectorconfirmsitslowsignifi- logs-Kajmakchalan cance. (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Morespecifically,in1997the modestshareforestryreceived outofthetotalsumofcapital expendituresintheMacedonian economywasonly0.9%.It decreasedinsubsequentyearsto 0.4%in1999(Source: Statistical YearbookoftheRepublicof Macedonia2001,StateStatistical Office,Skopje,p.397). ForestsintheRepublicof Macedoniacover950,594ha, representing37%ofthetotalland area.Bygrowthform,high forestsconstitutelessthan30% ofthetotalforestcover,whilelow forestsaccountfor70%.Asa result,onlyone-thirdofthe forestsareconsideredtobe suitableasasourceofraw materialsforthelumberindustry.

56 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY

Overthecourseofthelast10years,theaveragegrossvolumeoftimberharvestedhastotalled1,033,000 m3,ofwhich76%(786,000m)originatedfromState-ownedforestsand24%(247,000m)fromprivate³³ ones.Statisticaldataonthetimberharvestedfromprivateforestsarenotavailable.Atpresent,itisnot possibletomakeasatisfactoryestimateofthetreeharvest,norisitpossibletoestimatethelevelofutilisation ofharvestingequipment. Usage,bycategory,oftimberharvestedfromState-ownedforestshasalsobeeneconomicallyinefficient foralongperiodoftime.Fuelwoodisthepredominantuse,withashareofmorethan75%ofthetotalvolume ofharvestedtimber.Woodintendedforindustrialprocessing,thatis,sawingforlumber,constituteslessthan 20%.Inefficienteconomicutilisationisevidencedbythefactthatthehighestandbestusageoflogs,for veneer,eitherdoesnotoccurorexistsonlyinnegligiblequantities.Constructionofforestroadshasbeen increasing,allowingbetteraccesstoremoteareas. Foreigntradewithinthelumberindustryhasbeenexperiencinganupwardtrend.Thisindustryhasnoted amuchhigherincreaseinimportsrelativetoexports,whichhavealsoincreased,butatamuchlowerrate.The lumberindustryshareoftheGDPoftheRepublicofMacedoniaisverylow(0.3%). Usageofforestsduringtheperiodoftransitionhasnotexperiencedanydramaticchange,althoughthe mannerofmanagementhasundergoneatransformation(apubliccompanyforforestrymanagementwas established).Althoughthenamehasbeenchanged,thesameformerenterpriseshaveessentiallyremainedin place,controllingthesameforestareasandusingthesameforestrymanagementplanning. Impactstobiodiversity fromforestryactivitiesareprimarilymanifestedwithintheforestecosystems themselves.Impactsfromforestroads(erosion),over-harvesting(illegal),andecosystem-widechangesin nutrientcyclingresultingfromthehugequantitiesofbiomass(i.e.,waste)leftbehindafterharvestingdiffer ineachdifferentforestecosystem. Changesoccurringwithinindigenousforesttypeswhichresultfromtheintroductionofalientreespecies orfrommodificationstonaturalvegetationcausedbytheplantingofinappropriatespecies(e.g.,Arizona cypress[Cupressussp.],BlackpineandDouglas-fir[Pseudotsugamenziesii])areofparticularrelevance.

Figure118. Illegal woodcutting (Photo:N.Nikolov)

Since1990,considerableattentiononinvestigationofforestdiebackinMacedoniahasbeenfocused, wichhasalsobeenaprobleminrecentyearsinEuropeaswell.Accordingtocarriedoutresearches,itis concludedthatthemostthreatenedtreespeciesisoakQuercusspp..Forillustration,someresultsfromthe researchinwichanassessmentofoakshealthconditionismade,50%ofinvestigatedtreeshadnosymptoms ofsrowntransparence,whileonly28,4%hadnosymptomsofdieback.Also,35%ofoaktreeshadadeadtop. Overthepast20yearsthefrequencyoffiresgraduallyincreased,particularlyduringthelast13years.The totalnumberofoccurredfires(1989-2000)is3272withannualaverageof272.7fires.Thelargestnumberof firesoccurredintheyearof2000(1187),thanin1999(452),1993(390)etc.Thetotalburntareais83,928.3 ha(1989-2000)withannualaverageof6994.0ha. Thisshowingthattheproblemswithforestdiebackandforestfiresareseriousthreatforthebiodiversityin theRepublicofMacedonia.

57 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Fisheries. TherearenopublisheddataonthetotalincomefromthefisheryindustryintheRepublicof Macedonia.Accordingtoofficialstatisticaldata,theconsumptionoffishintheRepublicamountstoaround 7,500-8,000tonnes/year,orconsumptionof3.4-3.7kgpercapita.Officially,domesticproductionmeetsonly 13.2-13.5%ofthistotalannualdemand. Thecurrentpoliticalandeconomiccircumstanceswithinthecountryandregionhavehadanadverse impactonfisheries.Totalfishproductionin1999wasabout420tonnes(249.3tonnesofTrout,138tonnesof Carpand30.3tonnesofotherspecies).Unfortunately,thisislessthanhalfofthefishproductionrecordedfor 1990,whentotalproductionamountedto1,000tonnes.Thegeneralassessmentofchangestofishinginopen waterbodieswithinMacedoniaisnegative.Drasticreductionsintheannualfishcatchinthethreenatural lakeshavebeennoted.

Figure119. Traditionalfishing houseinDoyranLake (Photo:M.Dzingo)

DoyranLake,recordedinworldscientificliteratureasoneofthemostproductivelakesinEurope,usedto haveaverageannualfishproductionof180kg/ha.Inthepast,asanintegralpartoftheStatefisheriesecon- omy,itplayedanimportantroleinsupplyingthepopulationwithfish.Itsaverageannualcatchrepresented 50%ofthetotalnationalfishcatch(priortothebeginningofmoreintensiveconstructionofartificial fishponds).ThemainreasonforthedrasticreductioninfishstockswithinDoyranLakeisitscatastrophic hydrologiccondition. Althoughfishingisthemainmannerforutilisingthefishstocksofaquaticecosystems,plannedand organisedfishingdoesnotsignificantlyadverselyimpactbiodiversity.Thecurrenttrendofintensive, uncontrolledfishing,however,doesimpactfishpopulationsandleadstoanunbalancedecosystemby reducingthepopulationsofonefishspecieswhilefavouringothers.Theintensivecultureoffishinartificial fishpondsisrecordingasteadyincrease,andmayhelpmeetsomeofthedemandforediblefish. Thestatusoffishbiodiversityinriversissignificantforseveralreasons.Adrasticdeclineinthepopula- tiondensitiesofcertainspecieshasbeenrecorded,otherspeciesthatusedtobeintegralpartsofthe ichthyofaunaofsomewatercoursescannolongerbefoundandtherehasbeenachangeinthehorizontal distributionofsomespecies.Inaddition,inseverallakesandreservoirs,exoticspeciesarenowpresent, introducedwithoutanyjustificationeitherbyerrororasaresultofignorance.

Industry. IntermsofitscontributiontotheMacedonianGDP,industrystilloccupiestheleadingposition intheMacedonianeconomy,despitethefactthat,fromthebeginningoftheprocessoftransition,industry's averagesharehasbeendeclining.Itisinterestingthat,duringthelastyearsofthepastdecade,industry contributedabout18%totheMacedonianGDP.Capitalexpendituresinindustrytendtomaintainrather stablelevelscomparedwithtotalinvestmentsintheMacedonianeconomyasawhole. SomeofthecurrentproblemsfacedbyindustryinMacedoniainclude:adisproportionatesharebycertain industries(traditionalandrawmaterialsrelatedbranches,whicharecharacterisedbylowproductivity,low levelsofcapitalreserves,lowrevenuesandfewexports);laggingtechnicalknowledgeandtechnologies,a lowlevelofmodernisationandahighincidenceofage-relatedequipmentfailure;lowproductivityandover- employment;insufficientutilisationoffacilities;andpoorexportcapability.

58 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY

Thedeclineintheproductivityof thissectorreached-15%/yearatthe beginningofthelastdecade.More recently,industryhasexperienced somewhatofarevitalisingtrend,that is,manyyearshaveseenpositive growth(4.5%in1996,2.9%in1997, 4.5%in1998,-2.5%in1999and 5.0%in2000). TheindustrialsectorofMace- doniacontributesbothdirectand indirectadverseimpactstothe environment(air,waterandsoil). Industryalsosignificantlyadver- selyaffectsbothhumanhealthand biodiversityduetoitsgeographic distribution,oldtechnology,failure toapplytechnicalandtechnological standardsforthetreatmentofgas- eouspollutants,poormanagement ofeffluentsandwastes,useoftoxic productionmaterialsanddirty energyresources,non-compliance withenvironmentalcodesetc.

Construction. Constructionisa significantsector,holdingadistinct Figure120. positioninMacedonia.Intermsof Industrialcapacity- availablecapacity,itexceedsthe ceimentplant marketwithinthecountry,whichwas (Photo:M.Dzingo) asituationinheritedfromtheformer SocialistFederalRepublicof Yugoslavia. TheconstructionsectorinMace- doniahasundergoneagreatupheaval duringthelastseveralyears.Its contributiontothegenerationof domesticmacroeconomicaggregate variableshasexhibitedadecreasing trend,from10.4%in1980to4.6%in 1990.Aminorimprovementwas recordedin1995(7.3%),whenthe firstmodestsignalsofaMacedonian economicrecoveryappeared; however,inthecourseofthenexttwo tothreeyears,itscontributiontothe GDPhadstabilisedatabout5%. Theconstructionsectoradversely affectsbiodiversitythrough:air pollution,newimpactstonatural landareas,useofmechanisation, noise,pollutionofaquaticecosys- temsandsoils(duetothedisposalof wastematerialsfromconstruction anddemolitionactivities),destruc- tionofhabitatsandtheirfragmenta- tionandisolation.Thereareno specificdataavailableontheextent oftheseimpactsintheRepublicof Figure121. KozyakDam Macedonia. (inconstruction) (Photo:M.Dzingo)

59 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Mining. Thereisnorelevanteconomic informationspecifictotheminingsector, becausethissectorisincorporatedwithinthe establishedcategoryofmetallurgy.Inthe RepublicofMacedonia,thissectoris representedbytheextractionofbothmetals andnon-metals.Theminingofleadandzinc ore(easternMacedonia),ironore(centraland westernMacedonia),coal(south-western Macedonia)andnon-metals,mainlymarbles andtravertines(centralandnorth-eastern Macedonia),dolomites,lime,silicates, ceramicclay,feldspar,gypsum,diatomaceous earthetc.,isofparticularimportance. Inthepast,thenon-metalsindustry contributed2.2%towardtheeconomic structureofthecountry;however,sincethe establishmentofthevalue-addedtax(VAT) forindustryandmetallurgy,itnowrepresents 2.7%oftotalcurrentproduction. Themainactivitiescausingnegative impactsonbiodiversityareexcavation,the openingofnewminesandpollutioncausedby wastewaterfromtheflotationprocessand fromslagpiles.

Figure122. Surface coalmining-Suvodol (Photo:M.Dzingo)

Energy. Theenergysector(togetherwith gasandwatersupplies)participatesintheGDP ofMacedoniawithamodest4.5%.This percentagewasmaintainedthroughoutthe secondhalfofthe1990s.Theshareofcapital expendituresinelectricity(25%)isrelatively highcomparedwithoverallinvestmentsinthe social,cooperative,mixedandState-owned sectors. Themostimportantdomesticenergy resourcesavailableforuseinthefutureare coalreserves(forthenext10-15years), fuelwood,hydropowerandgeothermalenergy. Itisnecessarytodecreasetheconsumptionof fuelwood,tobeaccompaniedbyagradual increaseintheareasofsolarenergy,wind power,biomassetc.Thisiscertainlyrelatedto thestatusofthepaymentbalancethatwould eitherprovidefororpreventtheimportationof adequatetechnologiesforutilisationofthese typesofenergy. Thissectorimpactsbiodiversitythrough electricitygeneration(pollutionofair,soiland water),transportationanddistribution Figure123. Refinery (fragmentationofhabitats). plantforoilprocessing inMiladinovci nearSkopye (Photo:M.Dzingo)

60 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY

Transport. Thetransportationsectorof theRepublicofMacedoniaisexperiencing conditionssimilartothosepresentwithin theoverallMacedonianeconomy,thatis,a laggingbehindthecurrenttrendsseenin othercountries.Ingeneral,itcanbestated thattheexistingtransportationand communicationsystemsintheRepublicof Macedoniaarenotyetfullydeveloped. Oneofthissystem'smostseriousproblems isitslackofmodernisation. Anothermajorproblemfacedbythe transportationsectorisitsconfiguration, thatis,theroutesofthemaintransportation lines.DuetoMacedonia'smulti-decade existencewithintheconfinesofawider community(theformerSocialistFederal RepublicofYugoslavia),itsoveralltrans- portationinfrastructureischaracterisedby markeddevelopmentofthemain,north- southhighwaycorridor(apartofEuropean Corridor10).Incontrast,theeast-west Figure124. corridor(partofEuropeanCorridor8)hasbeenalmostcompletelyneglected.Inaddition,Macedoniahasa Thehighwayfrom relativelylowdensityofrailwaynetworks(27kmofrailwaylinesper1,000km,i.e.,339kmoflinesper² DemirKapiya millioninhabitants). toGevgeliya Despitealloftheseproblems,transportationasasectorhasbeengraduallyincreasingitscontributionto (Photo:Lj.Melovski) theGDPoverthelastseveralyears.Thus,froma6.1%GDPsharein1997,itsshareincreasedto7.3%in1998 andto8.2%in1999. Thetransportationsectorimpactsbiodiversitythroughthefragmentationofhabitats,aswellasthrough airpollutionandnoise.ConsideringthecurrentcircumstancesintheRepublicofMacedonia,theseimpacts arelowbycomparisonwiththoseofdevelopedEuropeancountries.Nevertheless,thisisoneofthemost severepotentialthreatstobiodiversityinMacedonia. Figure125. Mavrovo recreationalcentre Tourismandrecreation. Atpresent,touristicandcateringactivitiesemployaround10,000people -cabletrolley (2,895ofwhomarefemale),oronly3.2%ofthetotal (Photo:M.Dzingo) numberofemployedpersonsinMacedonia.Total revenuesgeneratedbytourismandcateringactivities during2001amountedto€8.5millionor2.0%ofthe GDP. Withregardtotouristturnover,thetotalnumber oftouristsintheRepublicofMacedoniain1990was 974,537,spendingatotalof3,099,508nights.Since thisperiod,primarilyduetosocialandpolitical eventsinthisregionoftheBalkans,touristturnover appearstohaveexperiencedapermanentdecrease, reachingitslowestvaluein1997,whenthecountry wasvisitedbyonly476,025touristswhospentatotal of1,587,146nights. Consideringthescopeoftheterm'biodiversity,'it isabsolutelyundisputablethattourismand biodiversityareinanuninterruptibleinteractionwith eachother.Whilebiodiversityhasapositiveeffecton tourism,tourismhasanegativeimpacton biodiversity.Onenotablecaseistheillegal constructionofvarioustouristicstructuresonthe shoresofMacedoniannaturallakes.Adverseimpacts areevidentnotonlyinthedegradationofsurrounding uplandecosystems,butalsointhedirectpollutionof thelakesthemselves.Therearemanyspecific examplesofthis(LagadinonOhridLake,1,200 weekendhousesaroundMavrovoLakewithin MavrovoNationalParketc).

61 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Sectoralanalysis. Acarefulanalysisofthepreviouslypresenteddatawillshowthatnotallsectors impactbiodiversityequally.Apreliminaryrankingofthemaineconomicsectorsbytheirimpacton biodiversityincludes:

• Agriculture,whichhadaparticularlysevereimpactonbiodiversityinthedecadesfollowingWorld WarII.SeriousthreatstofishdiversityintheRepublicofMacedoniaarecausedbyover-fishing (especiallyinOhridLake); • Transportationsector,especiallyduetothefragmentationofhabitats; • Energysector,whichrepresentsathreattobiodiversityforseveral reasons,includingpollution, constructionofhydropowerreservoirsand,especially,thetransmissionofenergy; • Industryandmining; • Tourism,whichalsoposesaseriousthreattobiodiversity.Inthiscontext,illegallyconstructed weekendsettlementsandincompletecommunalinfrastructureinthemaintouristresortsareof particularconcern; • Construction,whichcreatesathreatduetotheuseofagriculturallandofhighcadastralclassfor non-productivepurposes.Thissectorwouldnotberankedveryhighly,however.

ThemostimportantsecondarybenefitrelatedtotheprotectionofbiodiversityintheRepublicof Macedoniawouldbetheadoptionofaninter-sectoralapproach.Suchanapproachtowardproblemsolvingis consideredtobeamatterofsomeurgency.TheStrategyandtheActionPlanforbiodiversityprotectioncanbe consideredafirststeptowardthisgoal.

3.3.Underlyingcausesofbiodiversityloss

ThebasicfactorswhichhaveledtothecurrentunfavourablestateoftheenvironmentintheRepublicof Macedoniainallspheres,includingbiodiversity,includegeneralhistoricalprocesses,abadsocio-economic situation,anunstablepoliticalsituation,inadequatespatialplanningandinappropriatelanduse.

Severalmainreasonsforthepermanentlossofbiologicaldiversitycanbedistinguished:

• Alowlevelofeducationandalackofinformation,especiallyinruralareas,whichhascontributed toalowawarenessamongthegeneralpublicoftherelationshipbetweenhumanactivitiesandthe environment,thesustainableuseofbiologicalresourcesandthesustainabletransferofbio- technology; • ReducedandunstableeconomicinfluencebytheState,inadditiontothemilitaryactionsthathave beenconvulsingtheregionforalongperiodoftime; • Growingpoverty,whichdoesnotrecognisetheprinciplesofsustainabledevelopment.Itis manifestingitselfthroughillegalforestandotherresourceoveruse,huntingandfishingexcesses, non-sustainabledevelopmentofagricultureetc.; • Inadequateandincompletelegislationwhichfailstoclarifydutiesoraddresstheoverlapin responsibilitiesandcompetencieswithintheagenciesliableforenforcement; • Non-compliancewithexistingregulations; • Lackofspatialplanningregulationsforareaswithspecialnaturalvalues; • Uncontrolledurbanisation,deagrarianisation (inthetraditionalsense)andindustrialisation.These arethemainprocessesthatdisturbtheenvironmentalbalance(consideringthecumulativeeffects ofpollution); • Thecontinualprocessofmigrationofthepopulationfromvillagestotowns.Increased concentrationsofpeopleinurbancentresrepresentagrowingproblemnotonlyfromaglobal, socio-economicaspectbutalsofromaspatialaspect; • Themechanismofearningaprofitunderhighlycompetitivemarketconditions,thepermanent trendtowardglobalisationandthefavouringofnewer,moreprofitableplantvarietiesandanimal breedswhichhavefullysupplantedtheindigenous,lowproducingandlessprofitablegenetic types.

62 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY

3.4.Maindirectthreatstobiodiversity

Severaldirectthreatstobiodiversity,distincttoMacedonia,canalsobeidentified.Allplayaspecificrole inthereductionofbiodiversity,buttheyarenotallequallysignificant.

3.4.1.Habitatloss,modificationandfragmentation

IntheRepublicofMacedonia,habitatloss,modificationand fragmentationhavebeenoccurringfromprehistorictimestothe present;however,theseprocesseshaveintensifiedoverthepastfew decades,andaremainlyrelatedtoconversionanddegradationof land,togetherwiththefragmentationofhabitats.

•Landconversion. Thelossofnaturalhabitatsduetoconver- sionismostevidentwithinaquatichabitats,particularlyswamps andmarshes.DuringthedecadesfollowingWorldWarII,almost allofthemajorswampsandmarshesweredrained,chieflyfortwo reasons:toacquirenewagriculturalareasandtocombatmalaria. Becauseofthis,marshbiocoenosesbecameseriouslyendan- Figure126. Salvinianatans-treatened gered,fragmentedorthreatenedwithextinction. speciesduetolandconversion Anothermethodofhabitatmodificationisthroughtransfor- (Photo:V.Matevski) mation.InMacedonia,thisisseenparticularlyasaresultof artificialreservoirconstruction.Inthepast,duringtheconstruc- tionofmorethan20majorreservoirs,noregardwasgivenasto whethervaluablehabitatswouldbedestroyed. Currently,theconversionofnaturalhabitatsintoagricultural usesdoesnotrepresentaseriousthreattobiodiversity.

•Landdegradation.Oneofthemostseriousreasonsforthe lossofhabitats(orportionsthereof)isinadequateplanningfor theexpansionofurbancentres,weekendhomesandtour- ist/recreationzones.Thesituationissimilarwithrespecttothe majorandminorindustrialcomplexeswhich,duetolackof adequatecontrols,areconstructedinvariousnaturalorsemi- naturalhabitats. Figure127. Abandonedantimonymineland degradation-Alshar (Photo:V.Matevski) •Fragmentationofhabitats. Themaincauseofhabitat fragmentationistrafficinfrastructure.Somemainroads,for example,intersecthabitatsthatserveasbiocorridorsfor vertebrates,especiallylargemammals.Anincreaseintrafficor theconstructionofnew,limitedaccesshighwayscouldcom- pletelydisruptsuchcorridors.Railwaysareveryunderdevel- opedcomparedwithroadsanddonotrepresentasignificant threattonaturalhabitats. Fragmentationofaquatichabitats(e.g.,theupperandmiddle coursesofriversandstreams)isafrequentoccurrencewithinthe country.Additionally,recommendationsforbiologicalmini- mumsforwatercoursesandfortheconstructionoffishpassages arenotobserved.Afurtherexampleofhabitatfragmentation concernsaerialtransmissionlines,someofwhichpassthrough nationalparks. Itisobvious,then,thattheloss,modificationandfragmenta- Figure128. RegionalroadBitola-Resenisbreaking tionofhabitatshavenegativeimpactsandjeopardisethe bio-corridorofBrownBear(fragmentationofhabitats) inventoryofbiodiversity. (Photo:M.Dzingo)

63 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

3.4.2.Overuseofbiologicalresources

•Overgrazingofgrasslandsandpastures. The RepublicofMacedoniahasapproximately650,000 haforuseassummerandwinterpastures(hillyand high-mountainzones).Pasturedegradationis chieflyduetotheexpansionofshrubbyvegetation, resultingfromalackofgrazingratherthanfrom overgrazing.Theincreasingdominanceofshrub vegetationreducesbiodiversitybecausegrass communitiesaremoreheterogeneousandricherin species.Inthismanner,thetypesofhabitatsinthe landscapearechanging. •Over-hunting/fishing. Eventhoughhunting managementplansandaPublicEnterpriseforGame WardensandHuntingInspectionsexist,poachingis stillatahighlevel.Inaddition,occurrencesofillegal fishingandtheuseofprohibitedfishinggear (includingcertaintypesofnets,chemicalsand explosives)causegraveconcern.

Figure129. Winterpasturesinlowland (Photo:M.Dzingo) •Tradeinwildlife(animals,fungi andwildplants). Unfortunately, completecurrentdataonthecommerce innaturalproductsdonotexist;there- fore,itisnotpossibletomakeanassess- mentofhowtradeinwildlifeaffects biodiversity.Priorto2002,therewasno informationontheexportofwild species,noranysanctionstopreventit. Implementationofthe Conventionon InternationalTradeinEndangered SpeciesofWildFauna andFlora (CITES),whichregulatesthecontrolof internationaltradeinwildspecies,faces manydifficultiesintheRepublicof Macedonia.Thesearedueprimarilyto anoverlapinadministrativeresponsibil- ities,especiallywithintheMoAFWM, butalsoduetoalackofpersonnelinthe Figure130. Arctostaphyllosuva-ursi-oftenlyusedmedicalplant departmentsresponsibleforthe (Photo:J.Acevski) inspectionandcontroloftrade.

•Waterextraction.AsaresultofthearidclimateandthehydrologicregimewithintheRepublicofMacedonia, extractionofwaterfromtheupperandmiddlecoursesofriversandstreamsisverycommon.Unfortunately,the priorityofprovidingsafedrinkingwaterseldomtakesprotectionofnaturalwatercoursesintoconsideration.Water extraction(i.e.,watersupplysystems)isunderthepurviewoftheMoAFWM(AdministrationforWater Management).Incasesofmajorwaterwithdrawals,newconstructionprojectsmustprovideforthecontinuanceof anecologicalminimumwaterflow,whichisoftencalculatedastheflowofthesmallestrecordedwatercourseinthe watershed.Withsuchprojects,severalseriousproblemscanoccur:

• AccurateflowmeasurementsareunknownformostofthesmallwaterwaysinMacedonia; • Inadequateecologicalminimumsmaybechosen; • Control(orcompliance)mechanismsandmethodsforsanctioningarelacking.

Agenerallackofmonitoringforanytypeofwaterextractionoperationisalsowidespread.Theproblemofwater extractionisseriousenoughtoberankedamongthebasicthreatstobiodiversityinMacedonia.

64 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY

3.4.3.Pollutionoftheenvironment

• Waterpollution. Surface watersintheRepublicof Macedoniaareseriously endangeredbyvarioussources ofphysical,chemicaland biologicalpollution.Thetrend towardthedramaticdeteriora- tionofwaterqualityinriverine ecosystemswasfirstnotedin themid-1970s.Itresultedfrom thedevelopmentofheavy industryandanincreasein urbanpopulationsontheone hand,andacompletedisregard fortheproblemofcommunal andindustrialwastewaters,on theother.Thestateofeutrophic aquaticecosystemsisalso alarming.Althoughdirect effortshavebeenundertakenfor theprotectionofOhridLake, Figure131. littlehasbeendonetoprotectPrespaLake,eventhoughtheyareoneuniquehydrological,relict Pollutionof system.Inaddition,themajorreservoirsStrezhevo,TikveshLakeandTuriyaarealsoundergreat VardarRiver pressure. (Photo:S.Krstic) Ingeneral,thereisnocontinuousmonitoringofthestateofthegroundwater,withanalysesbeing madeonlyonanas-neededbasis.Onlythoseaquaticsystemslocatedhighinthemountainsare relativelyunspoiled,butpastmilitaryoperationswhichtookplaceonSharPlaninaMountainare likelytohavehadsomeadverseimpactsoneventhese.

• Terrestrialandsoilpollution. SoilpollutioninMacedoniaisextensiveandrepresentsaserious threattobiodiversity.Thereareseveraldistinctsourcesofpollution,characteristicoftheconditions inMacedonia-industryandmining,overuseofpesticidesandfertilisers(inthepast),improper disposalofwastes,transportationetc.

• Airpollution.Airandsoilpollutionarecloselyrelated.Themostfrequentpollutantsoftheairin urbanorindustrialcentresareSOx,NOx,COx,chloro-fluorocarbons(CFCs),smokeandbreathable dust(<10µm)andhighconcentrationsofheavymetals. Accordingtotheeconomicindicators,industrialproductionintheRepublicofMacedoniahas experiencedasteadydecreaseoverthe pasttenyears,resultinginareductioninair pollution(exceptintheregionofVeles). Thereverseistrueregardingtraffic,which hasseenasteadyincreaseinpassenger vehiclesandacorrespondingincreasein thetotalamountofairpollutiongenerated. Thiscontinuestobeaproblem,especially inurbancentres,primarilySkopye.Add- itionally,theageandpoormaintenanceof thevehiclesandthelowqualityoffuel increasinglyburdentheairwithpollut- Figure132. ants. Pseudotsugamenziesii, Evenso,itcanbeconcludedthatair frequentlyintroduced pollutionisnotakeythreattothe andinvasivespecies biodiversityoftheRepublicofMacedonia. inbeechforests

65 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

3.4.4.Introducedandinvasivespecies

InMacedonia,mostoftheinvasiveplantspeciesarefoundonruderalsitesandinsomeaquatic ecosystems.AnexampleisthespeciesElodeacanadensis(Elodea),whichwasfirstintroducedintoOhrid LakethroughthechannelStudenchishtein1957.Itisaninvasiveweedyspecieswhichrapidlyreproduces andexpands,out-competingtheindigenoussubmersedmacrophyticspeciesandoccupyingtheirhabitat. AnotherinvasivespeciesistheAsianAilanthusaltissima,whichhasspreadthroughoutlargeareasof lowlandsandischaracterisedbyahighreproductivecapability.Overthepastfewyears,alargenumberof newAmericanspecieshavealsobeenrecorded.Withregardtoforestryandreforestation,careful considerationmustbegiventotheexcessiveplantingofmonoculturesofDouglas-fir. MostoftheintroducedandinvasivespeciesoffaunabelongtothesuperclassPisces(11)andclassMammalia (8).Invasivespeciesfromtheothervertebrateclasses(Amphibia,ReptiliaandAves)havenotyetbeenfound amongtheintroducedspecieswhichareperiodicallyrecorded.

3.4.5.Climatechange

Onthebasisofanevaluationoftheimpactsofclimaticchangesonbiodiversity,thefuturehorizontaland verticaldistributionofplantandanimalspeciesareexpectedtochange,(i.e.,migrationtowardthenorth and/ormigrationtohigherelevations).Suchchangeswillparticularlyaffecttherelictplantandanimal specieslivinginhighmountainzones. AccordingtoresultspresentedbytheMoEPPintheFirstNationalReportonClimateChange,theareas mostsensitivetoclimaticchangesaretherefugialzones:TaorGorge;TreskaRivergorge;CrnaRiver, includingthegorgesoftheRaetsandBlashnitsaRivers;Jama;Mavrovo-Radika;Pelister;Ohrid-Prespaand Nidze-Kozhuf.Withinthesezones,manyrefugialphytocoenosesarepresentwhichwouldbeendangeredby temperatureincreasesandbydistributionalchangesinprecipitation.Increasesintemperaturewouldalso dramaticallyaffectalpinepastures. Incontrast,thermophiliccommunities,suchasthepseudomaquis (atypeofMediterranianshrubland), wouldexpandtheirrangesintonorthernregionsandhigheraltitudes.

Figure133. Refugial Scotspineforest onKaymakchalan (Photo:Lj.Melovski)

66 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY

3.4.6.Naturaldisasters

Naturaldisastersdooccur,butonlyinfrequentlyandwithminorintensity.Nevertheless,Macedoniaisa seismicarea,alargepartofitsterritoryisaridorsemiaridandtherearefrequentlandslides,avalanchesetc. Droughtsarefrequentnaturalcalamities.Inadditiontothedroughtsofshortdurationwhichare characteristicforamajorportionofthecountry,therearealsoextendedperiodicdroughts,whichcausegreat economichardshipsforagriculture,aswellasseriousdamagetothenaturalinlandmesophilicecosystems. Examplesofthisincludeareductioninthegrowthratesofforests,defoliationandincreasedsusceptibilityto parasitesandotherpests,thedesiccationofmarshecosystems,disturbancestothehydrologyofaquatic ecosystems(DoyranandPrespalakes)etc. Duetothelowintensity,lowfrequencyornarrowscopeofavalanches,floodsandlandslides;the ecosystems'abilitytoadapttoaridconditions;andthelimitedextentoffires,naturaldisastersarenot consideredtobeseriousthreatstobiodiversityintheRepublicofMacedonia.

Figure134. Firein beech-fir-pineforest- JavorskaReka, Kavadarci (Photo:P.Ristevski)

Figure135. Postburning actioninpineforest inBerovo-Pehchevo (Photo:N.Nikolov)

67 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

3.4.7.Otherfactors

Otherfactorsthatcanhavenegativeimpactsonbiodiversityorcauseachainofeffectsare:

• Lackof,orinappropriate,legalregulationsontheconservationofbiodiversity,lackofclarityininstitutionalauthority, overlapofresponsibilitiesandauthoritiesandlackofenforcementofthelegalregulationswhichdoexist; • Lowpublicandinstitutionalawarenessoftheimportanceofbiodiversityandinsufficientlydevelopedawarenessamong non-governmentalorganisations(NGOs); • Economicinstability,lowstandardoflivingandunemployment,whichstronglycontributetotheoveruseofbiodiversity; • Inappropriateimplementationofspatialplanningguidelines; • Armedconflictsincertainregionswithinthecountry,whichposeseriousanddirectthreatstonaturalresources.The governmentoftheRepublicofMacedoniadoesnotyethavefullcontroloversomeoftheseareas; • Erosion,aseriousproblemdevelopingasaresultofpreviousandcurrentagriculturalpracticesinMacedonia; • IncompleteresearchonvariousaspectsofbiodiversityinMacedonia:therearenoRedDataListsorBooks,vegetation maps,pedologicmaps,mapsofecosystemsandhabitatdistribution,listsofcharacteristicandendangeredspecies, informationsystemsnordatabases,andtherearefewprofessional,scientificandinstitutionalpersonnelworkinginthe fieldofbiodiversity; • Insufficientpersonnelintheinstitutionsofthegovernmentalsystem:MoEPP,inspectionservices,customs,Fundforthe Environmentetc.; • Poorinteragencyco-operation; • Nomonitoringsystemforbiodiversity(exceptforpartialmonitoringinthethreenationalparks).

Thereareotherlessimportantfactorswhichcanalsocauseachainofeffectsnegativelyimpacting biodiversity,includingvariousformsofnon-sustainableusesofnaturalresourcesinalleconomicsectors.

Thespecificdirectcausesofbiodiversitylossaremanyandvaried.Mostofthemarecommontoalltypesof biodiversity,whilesomearecategoryspecific.Verycommoncausesinclude:

• Inadequatemanagementofaquaticecosystems; • Drainageofmarshesandswamps; • Constructionofhydropowerreservoirsinrivergorges; Figure136. • Lackofwatertreatmentplants(forriverineandlakeecosystems); Stonefigures • Mineexcavationsandothergeologicalworks; inerosivearea • Constructionofskilifts,transmissionlines,televisiontransmittersandotherantennasystems; -Kuklicanear Kratovo • Lossofhabitats(orportionsthereof)duringunplannedexpansionofurbancentres,weekendsettlementsand (Photo: tourist/recreationzones; O.Matevska) • Modificationofhabitats; • Fragmentationofhabitats,duemainly totafficinfrastructure,wherehighways intersecthabitatsthatareimportantas vertebratecorridors(particularlyforlarge mammals).Whenaquatichabitatsare artificiallyfragmented,recommendationsfor maintainingecologicalminimumflowsin watercoursesarenotfollowed; • Destructionofareaswithnaturalhalophytic andmeadowvegetation; • Uncontrolleddestructionofforests,forest fires,clearingforbuildingsites,construction ofroadsandrailroads,expansionof touristsettlementsandforestdesiccation; • Uncontrolledcollectionofmedicinalplants andwildanimals; • Illegalcollectionofrareplants(especially endemicplants)byprofessionaland commercialcollectors,illegalcollectionof birds'eggsandcertainspeciesofbutterflies etc.

68 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKFOR BIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORK FORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

4.1.Constitutionalbasis

Theterm"biodiversity"isnotusedinMacedonia'shighestlegalframework-TheConstitutionofthe RepublicofMacedonia.ThewordingoftheConstitution,however,isbroadenoughtoprovideprotectionfor thoseresourcesincludedwithinthisconcept.Suchconstitutionalphrasesinclude:environment,nature, naturalheritage,floraandfauna,goodofthecommoninterestetc.

TheconstitutionalmandatefortheprotectionofbiodiversityintheRepublicofMacedonia consistsofsevenkeyelements,towit:

• Environmentalprotectionandrestorationarefundamentalvaluesoftheconstitutionalorderof theRepublic(Article8,Paragraph1,Item10); • Everyonehastherighttoahealthyenvironmentinwhichtolive (Article43,Paragraph1); • Everyoneisobligedtopromoteandprotecttheenvironment (Article43,Paragraph2); • TheRepublicprovidesconditionsfortheexerciseoftherightofcitizenstoahealthyenvironment (Article43,Paragraph3); • Thefreedomofthemarketandentrepreneurshipcanberestrictedbylawonlyforreasonsof defenceoftheRepublic,protectionofnature/wildlifeorpublichealth (Article55,Paragraph3); • AllthenaturalresourcesoftheRepublicofMacedonia,thefloraandfauna,amenitiesin common use,aswellastheobjectsandbuildingsofparticularculturalandhistoricalvalueasdetermined bylaw,areitemsofcommoninterestfortheRepublicandenjoyparticularprotection (Article56, Paragraph1); • Thelawregulatesthemodeandconditionsunderwhichspecificitemsofcommoninterestwithin theRepubliccanbecededforuse (Article56,Paragraph3).

Asaresult,theconstitutionalframeworkseemstobeasolidplatformforestablishinganddevelopinga coherentsystemofnatureconservation,underwhichaclearmodelofbiodiversityconservationcanbe promoted.

Conservationandpromotion Conservationanduse Landrestoration oftheenviromentandnature offloraandfauna andconservation

Biodiversity

Protectionof Protection Otherrelevant naturalrarities againstpollution sectoralregulations

Graph2. Schemeoftheexistingmodelofbiodiversityprotection

71 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

PreviousMacedonianConstitutions (inchronologicalorder)

1946ConstitutionofthePeople'sRepublicofMacedonia • Nospecificlegalprovisionsaddressingbiodiversity

1963ConstitutionoftheSocialistRepublicofMacedonia • Protectionofnaturalrarities(Article32)

1974ConstitutionoftheSocialistRepublicofMacedonia • Specialprotectionofthegoodofthecommoninterest(Article104-107) • ProtectionofHumanenvironment(Article108) • Conservationofnature,naturalsitesandrarities(Article244,Paragraph2)

4.2.Legalbasis

IntheexistinglegalsystemoftheRepublicofMacedonia,mattersofbiodiversityconservationareneither separatednoridentifiedasparticularobjectsofregulation.Onthecontrary,theexistinglegislative implementationofbiodiversityconservationisafragmentaryapproach,splittingsomeofitsprovisions amongmultipleseriesofregulationsandincludingotherswithintheregulationsofnotclearlyrelatedsectors. Someregulationsareunintelligibleorevencontradictory. Suchanapproachhascomplicatedanyacknowledgementoftheexistenceofabiodiversityconservation systemasadistinctentity.Inaddition,ithasnegativelyinfluencedtheimplementationofthesubject regulations. Theseissuesnotwithstanding,thelegislativebasisfortheexistingsystemofbiodiversityconservation containsover100regulations,ofwhichthemostnumerousarethelawsoftherelatedsectors(Table14). Generallyspeaking,Macedonianlegislationdealing withbiodiversityconservationisinseriousneedof Table14. Normativebasisfor reformationbothfromtheaspectofthelegislative thesystemofbiodiversityconservation conceptitself,aswellasfromthestandpointofits structurewithintherelatedsectors.Thelegislative TypeofAuthority Number protectionofbiodiversityshouldbeestablishedupona highstandardofconservation. Constitution 1 LawontheConservationandPromotionof Laws 45 theEnvironmentandNature Internationalagreements 20 Regulations 3 Inordertoestablishtheconstitutionallyguaranteed rightofcitizenstoahealthylivingenvironment,theLaw Statutes 15 ontheConservationandPromotionoftheEnvironment Decisionsbylocalcommunities 25 andNaturewasadoptedin1996.Itcontainsgeneral Total 109 guidelinesfortheconservationoftheenvironmentand nature,andestablishestherequirementforwiseuseof Macedonia'snaturalheritage.Atthesametime,it establishestherightsandobligationsoftheStatetocreateappropriateconditionsforconservationand improvementoftheenvironmentandnature,aswellastherightsanddutiesofotherlegalandphysical entitiesinthissphere. Thislawalsoregulatesthemethodofdisposalofhouseholdandtechnologicalwastesandthemannerin whichthelong-termuseofnaturalresourcesmustbeconductedinordertosafeguardthelifeandhealthof humans,aswellastheplantandanimalkingdom. Thelawwaspassedwiththeambitiousgoalofrepresentingan"Eco-Constitution",thatis,ageneral regulatorysystemthatwoulduniversallydeclarethebasisforthe"environmentalconservationsystem"and "thesystemfortheconservationofnature".Thisgoalnotwithstanding,withinthelegalconceptionofthelaw, thesetwosystemsareactuallypresentedasawholelegislativeunit(i.e.,asoneuniquesystemfor conservation).Throughoutthetextofthelaw,noclearlegaldistinctionbetweentheterms"environment"and "nature"ismade.Consequently,theexistinglegalsystemhasmanyweaknessesanddeficiencies,especially fromtheaspectsoftheconservationanduseofnature.

72 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

Keydeficienciesinthecurrentlaw

• Problemwithdifferentiationbetweentheterms"environment"and"nature"(i.e.,usingthem merelyasgenericterms); • Problemwithdifferentiationbetweentheterms"conservation"and"promotion"(i.e.,usingthem merelyasgenericterms); • Invalidterminologyidentifyingprotectedobjectsunderthecategory"naturalwealth"and categorisingthemunderthenon-constitutionalterm"specificnaturalwealth"; • Invaliddefinitionofthephrase"conservationofnature"andequatingitwith"conservationofthe naturalheritage"; • Marginalisingthevalueofandnecessityformoreappropriatesystematicregulatorymeasuresfor natureconservationasawhole,butespeciallybiodiversityconservation,geodiversity conservation,maintenanceofthenaturalbalanceandconservationofthenaturalheritage; • Inappropriatemethodologies,lackofcomprehensivelegislationandinefficiencyofbasic instrumentsforconservationofthenaturalheritage,biodiversityandotherelementswithinthe systemofnatureconservation; • Inappropriateorganisationofnatureconservationatthenationalgovernmentallevel,especially concerningbiodiversityand naturalheritageconservation(i.e.,managementandoversightof protectedareas); • Insufficientnumberofdeclarativeanddirectiveregulations.

Figure137. LakeOhrid (Photo:V.Matevski)

ItisrecommendedthattheprovisiononnatureconservationbeexcludedfromtheLawonthe ConservationandPromotionoftheEnvironmentandNatureandberegulatedseparately.

Lawsonfloraandfauna

Theprotectionanduseoffloraandfaunaarenotcoveredbyonlyonelaw.Onthecontrary,thereareeight lawsforthispurpose,eachadoptedaccordingtothetypeofobjectortypeofeconomicactivityitgoverns. Theselawsare:

73 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

• LawonFishing (1993):regulatestheuse,directionandconservationoffishstocksinwaters wherefishingisallowed. • LawonHunting (1996):regulatesthekeeping,breeding,conservation,huntinganduseofgame animals. • LawonCattleBreeding (1997):regulatesthekeepingandtradeoflivestock,receiptoflivestock products,andproductionofandtradeinlivestockfodder. • LawonForests (1997):regulatesthecare,useandconservationofforests. • LawonPastures (1998):regulatesthemanagement,promotionanduseofStatepastures. • LawonPlantProtection (1998):regulatestheprotectionofplantsfromdiseases,healthcontrol relatedtothetradeofplants,productionanduseofmaterialsfortheprotectionofplantsand equipment/measuresforpreventingharmfulconsequencestohumanandanimalhealthfromthe useofsuchmaterials,aswellasprotectionoftheenvironmentandnature. • LawonVeterinaryHealth (1998):regulatestheprotectionofanimalhealthfromdiseases, veterinaryexaminationsandprocedures,protectionandpromotionoftheenvironmentandnature, feesandexpensesforveterinaryservices,andthemannerinwhichveterinaryactivitiesare conducted. • LawonSeeds,SeedlingsandMaterialsforPropagation,Recognition,Approvaland ProtectionofVarieties (2000):regulatestheproductionandtradeofseedmaterial,seedlingsand plantbreedingmaterial,aswellas theacceptance,approval,andconservationofplantvarieties (exceptseedmaterialandseedlingsfromforests).

Figure138. RareplantsintheRepublicofMacedonia-upfromlefttoright:Violaalchariensis, Liliumheldreichii,Asperuladoerfleri;downfromlefttoright:Crocusscardicus, Phelipaeaboissieri,Pulsatillahallerisubsp.macedonica,Gentianaverna (Photo:V.Matevski&Lj.Melovski)

Allcitedlawshavebeenadoptedinordertorevivetheconstitutionalconceptof"specialprotectionforthe goodofthecommoninterest,"bywhich,activitiesharmingthisconstitutionalcategorymaybecurtailed. Thefactisthat,inalmosteveryspeciallawcited,anattempthasbeenmadetoachieveabalancebetweenthe public'sinterestin"conservation"and"use"of"naturalwealth"asan"economiccategory."Itmustbe stressed,however,thatinthisscheme,thescaleshavebeentippedtoward"use"attheexpenseof "conservation.” Thecurrentmannerinwhichfloraandfaunaareregulateddemandsthattherebecertainadjustmentsto thelegislativeconcept,especiallyinlightoftheneedforthecreationofaharmonisedsystemofnature conservation.

74 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

Figure139. Upfromlefttoright:Zygaenacarniolica,Papiliomachaon,Argiopebruencihi; Downfromlefttoright:Agrodiaetusamanada,Pterostickubruckii,Manthisreligiosa,Chlorophorusvarius

Elementsofthesystemforconservationoffloraandfauna Forests: • Prohibitionagainstdestroyingforests* • Prohibitionagainstcuttingrarespeciesoftreesinforests* • Prohibitionagainstdestructionofmarksandsignsinforestsorcuttingoftreespossessingmarksorsigns • ProhibitionagainstovergrazingbylivestockandgatheringofacornsinForests* • Prohibitionagainstsettingfiresinopenareaslessthan200mfromthemarginofaforest* • Prohibitionagainstproducingsparksorsimilaractivitieslessthan200mfromthemarginofaforest*thatcould accidentallystartafire • Prohibitionagainstpollutingforestsbydepositingwastematerials· • Prohibitionagainstpurchasingorprocessingtreeswhichhavenoforestrystamporspecialidentifyingdocuments • Prohibitionagainstsellingorresellingbypersons*ofwoodcutfromforestsownedbytheState

Game: • Prohibitionagainsthunting,pursuingordisturbinggameduringanyperiodtemporarilyorpermanentlyclosedto hunting • Permanentprohibitionagainsthuntingofspeciallyprotectedspeciesofgame • Prohibitionagainstkilling,takingyoungordestroyingthenests,lairsoreggsofprotectedgame • Prohibitionagainstsettingfiresinfieldsofstubble,weedsorotherplantwasteswithinhuntingreserves

Fisheryresources: • Prohibitionagainstfishingduringspawningseasonsorperiodsclosedtofishing • Prohibitionagainstfishingwithinwaterbodiesthataretemporarilyorpermanentlyclosedtofishing • Prohibitionagainstharvestingfishesthatareundertheminimumlegalsize • Prohibitionagainstfishingwith"osti,"speargunsortheuseofhandsalone • Prohibitionagainstfishingforrareorvulnerablefishspecieswithinsomeorallwaterbodies • Prohibitionagainstpollutingwatersusedforfishingwithharmfulordangeroussubstances • Prohibition,withinwatersusedforfishing,againstfencingwithpermanentortemporarystructureswhichrestrictthe freepassageoffishes • Prohibitionagainstextractionofwaterfromfishingareas

Plants: Inordertopreventtheappearanceanddispersalofplantpests,theauthorisedMinistercanconductthefollowing prohibitions: • Temporarybanoncertainareasand/orraisingofcertainspecies/varietiesofagriculturalandforestplants • Prohibitionagainsttradeofplantsoriginatingfrombothinfectedandnon-infectedareas • ProhibitionagainstimportationortransportationthroughMacedoniaofcertainplantspecies

*Exceptionsareallowedonlyincasesdefinedbythespecificlaw

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Foroverfivedecades(since1945),thevaluableobjectsthatcomprisethenaturalheritageoftheRepublic ofMacedoniahavebeenofficiallycalled"naturalrarities."Itisakeyconceptthatencompassesbothmobile andstationarycomponents,aswellaslivingandedaphicnaturalelementswhich,accordingtotheirscientific, aesthetic,health,cultural,educational,tourist/recreationalandothervaluablefunctionsasculturalobjects, areunderthespecialprotectionofthecommunity.Conversely,insomenewerlaws,theterminologicaland conceptualidentificationoftheseselfsameobjectsisreplacedbyanewlegislativephraseandconcept- Table15. "specificnaturalwealth."Inaddition,accordingtothevariousratifiedinternationalagreements,theterms Actsdealingwith "naturalheritage,""protectedareas"andsimilarphrasesarealsoinuse.Inshort,fromtheaspectof naturalrarities terminologicalidentificationoftheobjectsinquestion,thereisagreatdealofconfusion. conservation Activitiesconnectedwithnaturalraritiesconservationare organizedintothreelaws: Acts Objects Type Number Number • LawontheProtectionofNaturalRarities (1973) • LawontheProtectionofNationalParks (1980) Laws 6 8 • LawontheProtectionofOhrid,PrespaandDoyran Localcommunitydecisions 27 27 Lakes (1977),whichalsohasaprovisionforpromulgating Resolutions 42 42 regulations. Total 75 77 InaccordancewiththecitedLaws,the conservationofnaturalraritieshasbeen establishedbaseduponamodelof individualprotection(i.e.,accordingthe statusof"protectedobject"withina particularcategory),bywhichanatural raritymaybedesignatedonlybymeansofa specialactforprotection.Thus,thetypeof actforprotectionandtheprocessbywhich theactisadoptedarerelatedtothetypeof naturalraritytobeprotected.Itthen followsthatsometypesofnaturalrarities areprotectedbynationallaw,whileothers bydecisionofthelocalcommunityon whoseterritorythespecificobjectis situated.Beforeaspecificactorresolution ispasseddeterminingthecategoryofa naturalrarity,theremustfirstbean Figure140. investigationofthenaturalcharacterofthe LakePrespa (Photo:M.Dzingo) area. WithintheRepublicofMacedonia,the experiencesofthepast50years demonstratethattherehasnotbeenan appropriatepolicyfortheconservationof naturalrarities,especiallybecauseofthe failuretogivefullattentiontothenecessary "promotionofnaturalrarities"fromwithin thecategorynowknownas"protected areas.” Accordingtoofficialinformation, whichwasbaseduponpreviousscientific research,thereare116designatednatural rarities,coveringabout18%oftheland surfaceoftheRepublicofMacedonia.The actualnetworkofprotectedareascurrently includesonly77,however,coveringan areaof184,187haor7.14%oftheland surface. Currentlyprotectednaturalproperties Figure141. andthoseyettobeprotectedaredistributed DobraVoda- throughoutMacedonia.Mostofthemarelocatedinthewesternpartofthecountry,withsomealsobeing beechforest presentinregionswithhighlevelsoftourism. (Photo:V.Matevski)

76 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

Table16. Numberofobjectscurrentlyprotectedandobjectproposedforprotection

NaturalObjects Code Classification Authority Not Protected Protected 01 NatureReserves 011 CommonNatureReserves State 3 2 0111 NationalParks 0112 StrictNatureReserves State 2 9 Scientific Research 0113 State 14 Reserves SitesofSpecialNatural Local 0114 Character Community 3 14 Local 0115 CharacteristicLandscapes Community 012 SpecialNatureReserves State Local 02 NaturalMonuments Community 48 State NaturalSitesofHistoric Local 03 Importance Community

AreasoutsideNature ReservesContaining 04 State 21 CertainPlantandAnimal Species Total 77 39

Theclassificationsystemforconsideringprotectedpropertiesasnaturalraritiesdoesnotcorrespondto theschemedevelopedbyIUCNortheUnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgramme's(UNEP)World ConservationMonitoringCentre(WCMC).Inthisregard,harmonisationofthenationalclassification systemforprotectedareaswithinternationalstandards(number,nameanddefinitionofcategoriesof protectedareas)willbeoneoftheprioritytasksindevelopingnewlegalmeasuresfornatureconservation, specificallyofbiodiversity. Takenasawhole,thecurrentlegislationaddressingnaturalraritiesconservationisgenerallyoutdated.In addition,theexistingsystemhasmanylegislativegapscreatedbythenullificationofagreatnumberof regulationsandthedelayedpassageofnewregulationstotaketheirplace.

Deficienciesinlegislationregardingnaturalrarities

• Outdatedregulations; • Existenceoflargelegalgaps; • Outdatedprotectionmodel; • Lackofefficientinstrumentsforprotection; • Problemsindelineatingjurisdictionbetweenthecentralandlocalgovernments; • OverlappingofresponsibilitiesamonggovernmentalMinistriesandotherbodiesandinstitutions atthecentralgovernmentallevel; • Lackofimplementinglegislation; • Lackofreviewofdeclaratoryacts; • Lackofcorrelationwithinternationalterminologyandprotectionstandards; • Inappropriatetreatmentofmatterspertainingtothemanagementofprotectedareas.

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Lawsonlanduseanddevelopment

ForcertainaspectsofbiodiversityconservationintheRepublicofMacedonia,thefollowinglawsregardingdevelopment andlandarepertinent:

• LawonAgriculturalLand (1998),whichregulatestheuse,managementandprotectionofagriculturallands; • LawonProtectionagainstDamagetoFarmFields (1990); • LawontheReorganisationofLand(1976); • LawontheRedistributionofLand(1990); • LawonConstructionSites (2001); • LawonSpatialandUrbanPlanning (1996),accordingtowhichmeasuresforconservationoftheenvironmentand natureareobligatoryineverytypeofplan.Inaddition,thereisaprovisionforthepassingofspecial"SpatialPlansfor NationalParks.”

Lawsonpollution

Withregardtobiodiversityconservation,thisgroupoflawsisespeciallyrelevant:

• LawonWater (1998),whichregulatesthelegalstatusofwaters,theirmannerofuse,protectionofwatersfrompollution, interstatewatersetc.; • LawonWaste (1997),whichregulatesthetransportationandstorageofwasteinordertoprotecttheenvironmentand nature; • LawonHazardousWasteTransport(1990); • LawonPublicUtilities (1997); • LawonPublicHygieneMaintenanceandtheCollectionandTransportofCommunalSolidandTechnological Wastes (1998); • LawonProtectionagainstAirPollution (1974),whichregulatestheconditionsandmeasuresforthepreventionofair pollutioninordertoprotectfloraandfauna; • LawonProtectionagainstIonisingRadiationandonRadiationSafety (2002),whichregulatesthesystemofcontrols oversourcesofionisingradiation,aswellasprotectingthepopulationandtheenvironmentfromexposuretoionising radiation.

Otherrelevantsectorlegislation

Otherrelatedlawswhichdirectlyorindirectlyaffectbiodiversityinclude:

• LawonConcessions (2002),whichregulatesthemanner,processandgeneralconditionsforobtainingconcessionsfor itemsofcommonnationalinterest,aswellasthedevelopmentofrelatedactivities,butonlywhereaspeciallawhasbeen passedprovidingtheopportunityforsuchconcessions; • LawonEnergy (1997),whichregulatesprotectionoftheenvironmentandnaturefromadverseimpactsarisingfrom energy-relatedobjects,devicesandinstallations; • LawonMineralRawMaterials (1999),whichdeterminestherequirementsforgeologicexploration, exploitationof mineralrawmaterialsandmeasuresforenvironmentalprotection,aswellasthestipulationthatgeologicexplorationwithin protectedareasbedoneonlywithgovernmentalapproval; • LawonPublicRoads(1996); • CriminalCode (1996),whichestablishes17relatedcriminalacts; • LawonInvestment (1990); • LawonPropertyandOtherMaterialRights(2001); • LawontheOrganisationandOperationofPublicAdministrativeBodies (2000); • LawonLocalSelf-Government (2002); • LawonFireFighting (1986); • LawonProtectionagainstNaturalCatastrophes (1977); • LawonForeignTradeOperations (1996),whichprovidestheopportunityforthegovernmenttoprohibittheimportation andtransportationofwastethroughthenation'sborders,ortodeterminespecialconditionsforthistypeofimport/export.

78 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

Crimesdealingwithmattersofbiodiversity

WithintheCriminalCode,thefollowingcrimesdealingwithmattersofbiodiversityhavebeen established: • Pollutionoftheenvironment(Article218); • Productionofharmfulproductsfortreatinglivestockorpoultry(Article220); • Misrepresentationinprovidingveterinaryservices (Article221) • Transmissionofinfectiousdiseasesamonganimalandplantlife (Article222); • Pollutionoflivestockfodderorwater (Article223); • Destructionofcropsbyusingharmfulsubstances (Article224); • Unauthorizedseizureoroccupationofrealestate (Article225); • Destructionofforests (Article226); • Causingofaforestfire(Article227); • Huntingunlawfully (Article228); • Fishingunlawfully (Article229); • Endangermentoftheenvironmentwithwastematerials (Article230); • Bringingofdangerousmaterialsintothecountry(Article232); • Tortureofanimals (Article233); • Damageordestructionofnaturalrarities (Article264); • Unauthorizedseizureoroccupationofnaturalrarities (Article265); • Carryingabroadofnaturalrarities (Article266).

4.3.Internationalagreements

Bilateralcooperation

TheRepublicofMacedoniahassignedadditionalbilateralactswhichaddresstheconservationof biodiversity:

• Albania: MemorandumofUnderstandingandCooperationinthefieldsofenvironmental conservationandsustainabledevelopment. • Austria: Statementaddressingtheintentiontoestablishfriendlyrelationsandco-operationinthe fieldofenvironmentalconservationwiththeprovince,LowerAustria. • Bulgaria:Contractforcooperationinthefieldofconservationoftheenvironmentandnature. • Croatia:Contractforcooperationinthefieldofconservationoftheenvironmentandnature. • Greece:MemorandumofUnderstandingandCooperation. • RussianFederation,The:Agreementforcooperationinthefieldofconservationofthe environmentandnature. • SerbiaandMontenegro:Agreementforco-operationinthefieldoftheenvironment. • Switzerland:ContractforamonitoringsystemforriversintheRepublicofMacedonia. • NGOConsortium:MemorandumofUnderstandingfortheconservationofthefourspeciesof Europeanvulture.

CooperationwiththeEU

IntheStabilisationandAssociationAgreementbetweentheRepublicofMacedoniaandtheEU,it wasestablishedthatbothpartiestotheAgreementwoulddevelopandstrengthenwaysforco- operationindealingwiththedegradationoftheenvironmentandinsupportingsustainableuse,aswell asinprotectingandconservingforests,naturalhabitants,flora,faunaandbiodiversity.

79 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Internationalcooperation

The30internationalandregionalconventions,protocolsand theiramendments(multilateralacts)applyingtomattersof biodiversityconservationareanintegralpartoftheinternallegal systemofMacedonia. Inratifyingthesubjectacts,theStatehasacceptedagreatmany obligations.Whilesomeofthemhavealreadybeenundertaken, mostareyettobediscussedinthenationallegislature.Asaresult,it iscorrecttostatethattheexistingnationallegislationconcerning biodiversityconservationisnotinaccordancewiththeratified internationalconventionsandprotocols.Thus,alegislativepriority inthesphereofbiodiversityconservationshouldbeapplicationof thevariousprovisionsoftheinternationalagreements.

Figure142. Neophronpercnopterus- Egyptianvulture (Photo:B.Grubac)

Ratifiedinternationalagreements

ConventiononWetlandsofInternationalImportanceParticularlyasWaterfowlHabitat (Ramsar,1971)-ratified1977; ConventionontheProtectionoftheWorld'sCulturalandNaturalHeritage (Paris,1972)-ratified1974; ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora (CITES)(Washington,1973)-ratified 1999; ConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals (Bonn,1979)-ratified1999; ConventionontheConservationofEuropeanWildlifeandNaturalHabitats (Bern,1982)-ratified1997; AgreementontheConservationofBatsinEurope (London,1991)-ratified1999(AmendmenttotheAgreement-ratified 2002); AgreementontheConservationofAfrican-EurasianMigratoryBirds (Hague,1995)-ratified1999; BaselConventionontheControlofTransboundaryMovementsofHazardousWastesandtheirDisposal (Basel,1995)- ratified1997; ConventiononBiologicalDiversity (RiodeJaneiro,1992)-ratified1998; ConventiononAccesstoInformation,PublicParticipationinDecision-MakingandAccesstoJusticeinEnvironmental Matters (Aarhus,1998)-ratified1999; ConventiononEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentinaTransboundaryContext (Espoo,1991)-ratified1999; ConventiononLong-RangeTransboundaryAirPollution (Geneva,1979)-ratified1997,includingeightprotocolswhich werenotratified; ConventionontheProtectionoftheOzoneLayer (Vienna,1985)-ratified1990; MontrealProtocolonOzoneLayerDepletingSubstances (Montreal,1987)-ratified1994(threeamendmentstothis Protocol werealsoratified:London,1990[in1998],Copenhagen,1992[in1998]andMontreal,1999[in1999]); UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertificationinCountriesExperiencingSeriousDroughtand/orDesertification, ParticularlyinAfrica (UN,2000)-ratified2002. UNFrameworkConventiononClimateChange (NewYork,1992)-ratified1997; EuropeanConventionontheProtectionofVertebrateAnimalsusedforExperimentalandOtherScientificpurposes (Strasbourg,1986)-ratified2002; EuropeanConventiononLandscapeDiversity (Florence,2000)-ratified2003.

Internationalagreementsintheprocessofratification · EuropeanConventionfortheProtectionofPetAnimals(Strasbourg,1987).

80 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

Non-ratifiedinternationalagreements

• ConventionontheProtectionandUseofTransboundaryWatercoursesandInternational Lakes (Helsinki,1992); • ConventiononForests (UNForumonForests); • CartagenaProtocolonBiosafety(Montreal,2000).

4.4.Institutionalframework

Governmentalagencies InadditiontotheMacedonianParliament(withitsauthorizedcommissions)and thenationalgovernment,asthemainresponsibleentities,biodiversity conservationfallswithintheresponsibilitiesoftwoMinistries,includingcertain oftheiragencies,offices,servicesandinspectorates.

ParliamentoftheRepublicofMacedonia

Governmentof NationalCommiteeforBiodiversity theRepublicofMacedonia Figure143. Workshop CITESconvention (Photo:S.Georgiev) MinistryofEnvironment MinistryofAgriculture,Forestry andPhysicalPlanning andWaterManagement

StateInspectorat Veterinary fortheEnvironment Administration

AgencyfortheEnvironment WaterManagement Administration ServiceforSpatial InformationalSystems Hydro-Meteorological Administration

GeodeticAdministration SeedandSeedling Administration

PlantProtection Administration StateInspectorat forAgriculture

Graph3. SchemeofStateagencies StateInspectoratefor andbiodiversityauthorities ForestryandHunting

NationalCommitteeforBiodiversity

TheNationalCommitteeforBiologicalDiversity,establishedbyadecisionofthegovernmentof theRepublicofMacedoniaasaStateobligationarisingfromtheConventiononBiologicalDiversity, iscomposedoftwentydistinguishedscientistsandexpertshavingmadesignificantachievementsin thefieldofbiodiversityconservation.Itsobjectivesaretomonitortheimplementationofthe conventionatthenationallevel,andtocontributetothemakingofqualitydecisions.

81 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

TheMinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanningconductsactivitiesrelatedto:

• Monitoringofthestateoftheenvironment; • Conservationofwater,soil,floraandfauna; • Protectionoftheairandozonelayerfrompollution; • Protectionfromnoiseandradiation; • Protectionofbiodiversity,geodiversity,nationalparksandprotectedareas.

WithintheAgencyfortheEnvironmentaretwospecialorganisationalunits:

•DepartmentforBiodiversity •DepartmentforConservationofSpecificNaturalTreasures

TheMinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandWaterManagementconductsactivitiesrelatedto:

•Agriculture,forestryandwatermanagement; •Useofagriculturalland,forestsandothernaturalresources; •Huntingandfishing; •Protectionoflivestockandplantsfromdiseasesandpests; •Otherissuesdeterminedbylaw.

Publicinstitutions

Theorganisationalstructureofthepublicinstitutionsauthorizedtoconductactivitiesrelatedto biodiversityisveryspecific.Theseinstitutionsmaybedividedintotwomaingroups:

• Publicinstitutionsinthefieldofconservationandmanagement; • Publicinstitutionsinthesphereofeducationandscience

Thepublicinstitutions forconservationandmanagementareallundertheauspicesofthreedifferent Ministries(Table17).Ontheotherhand,someofthepublicinstitutionsinthesphereofeducationandscience havespecialorganisationalformsastheyrelatetothetopicofbiodiversity(seeGraph4).

Figure144. NationalPark “Mavrovo”-view fromBistra- MedenicatoKorab (Photo:N.Spasenovska)

82 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

Table17. Publicinstitutionsforconservationandmanagementwithrelatedministries

PublicInstitutionforConservation ResponsibleMinistry andManagement

NationalParksAdministration MinistryofEnvironment MavrovoNationalPark andPhysicalPlanning PelisterNationalPark GalichitsaNationalPark MacedonianMuseumofNaturalHistory MinistryofCulture ZoologicalGarden – Skopje ZoologicalGarden – Bitola

MinistryofEducationandScience Hydro-BiologicalInstitute – Ohrid

PublicInstitutionsintheFields ofEducationandScience

MASA(MacedonianAcademy Faculties Institutes ofScienceandArts)

FacultyofNaturalSciences FacultyofForestry InstituteofAgriculture andMathematics FacultyofAgriculture InstituteofLivestockScience InstituteofBiology VeterinaryFaculty InstituteforSouthernCrops BotanicalGarden FacultyofPharmacology TobaccoInstitute

VeterinaryInstitute

Graph4. Schemeoforganizationofthepublicinstitutionsinthe sphereofeducationandscienceasitrelatestothetopicofbiodiversity Hydro-BiologicalInstitute

Figure145. Herbarium-InstituteofBiologyFaculty Figure146. Violakosaniinii(ExSitu)- ofNaturalSciencesandMathematics(FNS)-Skopye BotanicGarden-FNSSkopye (Photo:S.Andonov) (Photo:O.Matevska)

83 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Figure148. Ramondanathaliae(ExSitu)- BotanicalGarden,FNSSkopye (Photo:B.Veselinovski)

Figure147. BotanicalGarden FNSSkopye-facility Localstructures foraclimatisation, andreproduction Thenewlawregardinglocalcommunities ofendemic,relict, delegatestheauthorityforenvironmental rareandmedical plants conservationtothelocalcommunitylevel.As (Photo:B.Veselinovski) ofyet,however,therearenoorganisational structuresspecificallyforbiodiversity conservationinplaceinlocalcommunities.In thedomainswherespecialstructuresfor environmentalconservationdoexist,theyare incorporatedwithinotherrelatedareas(e.g., urbanplanning,publicutilitiesetc.).

Non-governmentalstructures

WithintheRepublicofMacedonia,over50 citizens'associationsrelated,toagreateror Figure149. Sambucusdebarensiis(ExSitu), lesserextent,totheissueofbiodiversity BotanicalGarden,FNSSkopye conservationexistandwork. (Photo:A.Petrisevac) Figure150. MacedonianMuseum ofNaturalHistory

Figure151. Reproductionofsalmonat theHydro-BiologicalInstituteinOhrid (Photo:Lj.Melovski)

84 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

DeficiencieswithinNGOs'biodiversityprograms

• LackoffinancesforNGOactivities; • Problemswithcreationofasuitableworkingenvironment(e.g.,workspace,equipment,suppliesetc.); • Lackofemployedpersonnel; • Lackofconsiderationtotheirpublicmandateunderthelaw.

TheNGOswithinthisdomaingenerallyworkatalocallevel,managingparticularprogramactivities. Theirworkcannotbedeemedveryuseful,especiallyfromthestandpointofimprovingpublicawareness aboutbiodiversityconservation.Theempowermentoftheroleofthenon-governmentalsectorinthefieldof biodiversityconservationshouldbeoneoftheState'spriorities.

Deficienciesintheinstitutionalframeworkforbiodiversityconservation

• LackofaseparatebodywithintheStateadministrationfortheprotectionofnature(i.e., inappropriateorganisationalstructureregardingbiodiversityconservationandprotectionofthe naturalheritage,includingex-situconservation); • ProblemswithdefiningjurisdictionsrelatedtobiodiversityconservationamongtheMinistries, otherStateofficialsandlocalcommunities; • Inappropriatecontrolofinstitutesandotherpublicinstitutionsbythecentralgovernment; • Lackofanetworkofauthorities,co-ordinationbodiesandinstitutionsforbiodiversity conservationatthelocallevel; • Avoidancebypublicauthoritiesoflegallypermissibleopportunitiestodelegatecertain responsibilitiesforbiodiversityconservationtonon-governmentalorganisations; • Lackofco-ordinationandco-operationbetweentheauthoritiesandotherinterestedgroupswithin thesystemofbiodiversityconservation; • Inappropriateorganisationofmeasuresforapplyingtheprovisionsofratifiedinternational agreements.

Figure152. Future NationalPark “SharPlanina” hasplentyofglacial lakes-BlackLake (Photo:Lj.Melovski)

85 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

Educationandpublicawareness Publicinstitutionsinthefieldofeducationhavealegalobligation,withintheirworkingplansand programmes,toprovideconditionsforacquiringknowledgeandcreatingapositiveattitudetowardthe conservationandrestorationofnatureandtheenvironment.Thisobligationappliestoeachpubliceducational institution,startingwithprimaryschool. Similarly,publicinstitutionsinthefieldsofeducation,health,information,scienceandculturehavea strictlegalobligationtodeveloppublicawarenessconcerningprotectionoftheenvironmentandnature. Todate,specificresearchconcerningthepresenceofthesubjectbiodiversityconservationwithinthe educationalplansandprogrammesofpublicinstitutionsdealingwitheducationhasnotbeenconducted.In addition,therearenocomparativeanalysesofuniversityteachingplansandprogrammesinthefieldsof biology,forestry,agriculture,veterinarymedicine,environmentallawandothereducationalareaswithregard tothesubjectofbiodiversityconservation.AftertheratificationoftheAarhusConventionin1999,a MacedonianInformationCentre,whichdealswithissues concerningtheenvironmentandnature,andan OfficeforPublicRelationswereformedwithintheMoEPP.

Electronicandpublishedmedia

Typically,thepublishedandelectronicmediadonotgiveenoughattentiontotheproblemsof biodiversityconservation,especiallywhenthereisaneedforrelevantsystematicmonitoring.

MainobjectivesoftheOfficefor PublicRelationswithintheMoEPP

• Supplyinginformationtothepublicregardingdifferentaspectsoftheenvironment; • Improvingeducationinthefieldofprotectionoftheenvironmentandnature; • Supplyingaccurateandpreciseinformationtothepublicconcerningactivitiesundertakenbythe institutionsofthegovernment,NGOsandcitizens,includingsuccessfulecologicalinitiatives; • Increasingpublicawarenessandunderstandingofimportantecologicalproblemsandoptionsfor possiblesolutions; • Obtainingusefulinformationfromcitizensandorganisationsthathavepersonaland/or specializedknowledgeoftheresourcesandproblemsoftheenvironmentandnaturethatcannot begainedinotherways; • Providinginformationaboutdecisionsconcerningecologicalprioritiesandresolutionswhich reflectpublicopinion.

86 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

IUCNCategoryIII - NaturalMonuments;58,084ha(2.25%)

™ ½ ó OhridLake NetworkofProtectedAreas ™ ½ ó PrespaLake ½ ó_ DoyranLake Thenetworkofprotectedareascurrently includes77,coveringanareaof184,187haor ™ ž ½ ó Matkagorge 7.14%ofthelandsurface.Accordingtothe ™ ½ ²_ Katlanovolandscape SpatialPlanoftheRepublicofMacedonia: ™ ²_ ☺ MarkoviKuli ConservationofNaturalHeritage,116areas Monospitovomarsh andnaturalobjectscovering18%oftheland ™ ž ó DemirKapiya surfacearedesignatedforprotection. ♣ GaziBabaArboretum ♣ GolChovek _ Drenochkagorge ™ Surfacegeomorphologic ² KarshiBavchi features ♣ Murite ž Subterranean ♣ Konche geomorphologicfeatures ♣ Morodvis ½ Hydrologicfeatures ½ Vevchanisprings Memorialnaturalmonuments ž UpperSlatinocave _ Floristicfeatures ♣ Oak(Kochani) ♣ Dendrologic/forestry ♣ Oak(Orashats) features _ Kermesoak ó Faunalfeatures ™ Duvalo ² Geologic-paleontological, ² Zvegor Minerological-petrographic ² Zrze features ♣ Aspen ² BanychkoKale ² Kale ² Kalnitsa IUCNCategoryI-StrictNaturalReserves;- 12,730ha(0,49%) ² Karaslari ™ ½ GradeshkaRivercanyon ó Ezerani ™ ½ Koleshinowaterfall ó Tikvesh ™ Konopishte ♣ Macedonianoak ² Monastery IUCNCategoryII-NationalParks; ² Orashats 108,388ha(4,21%) ó Ostrovo ž Mlechnikcave Mavrovo Galichitsa ž ó Ubavicacave Pelister ♣ Easternplanetree(Smolare) ♣ Easternplanetree(Koleshino) ♣ Easternplanetree(Ohrid) IUCNCategoryIV-SitesofSpecial Easternplanetree(Struga) NaturalCharacter;2,338ha(0,09%) ♣ ♣ Easternplanetree(Tetovo) ♣ Leskoets ² Prevalets ♣ Vodno ♣ Rechitsa ♣ Kozhle ♣ Easternplanetrees ♣ Blackpoplar ♣ Blackmulberry ♣ Black walnuts

87 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

IUCNCategoryV-AreasoutsideNature ReservesContainingCertainPlant andAnimalSpecies;2,647ha(0.10%)

♣ GarskaRiver ♣ GolemKozyak ♣ DrenachkaRiver ♣ IberliskaRiver ♣ Kaloyzana ó Katlanovomarsh ♣ Menkovameadow ♣ Neprtka ♣ PopovaShapka ♣ Rupa ♣ Ruchitsa ♣ SuviDol ♣ Tumba ♣ ChamChiflik

Figure153. LakePrespa- Oteshevo,protected withlawfor protectionofthethree naturallakes (Photo:M.Dzingo)

IUCNCategoryIII

ExampleofIUCNCategoryIII-Natural Monuments

DemirKapiya-Thisisthelongestgorgeofthe VardarRiver(19km).Itpassesthroughlimestone andvolcanicrocksthatdividetheTikveshvalleyon thenorthwestandtheGevgeliya-Valandovovalley onthesoutheast.Theentranceintothegorgeisan especiallyimpressivecanyon,0.9kminlength,with variousdifferentkarsticshapesonitsslopes.The DemirKapiyagorgeisamongtherichest ornithologicalreservesinEurope.Therarebirdsof preywhichcansometimesbeseenincludethe Goldeneagle(Aquilacrysaetos),Long-legged buzzard(Buteorufinus),Short-toedeagle (Circaetusgallicus),variousfalcons(Falco naumanniandF.peregrinus),Griffonvulture(Gyps fulvus)andEgyptianvulture(Neophron percnopterus).Otherrareandscientifically importantbirdspeciesarealsopresentinthisarea. IntheDemirKapijagorge,importantmammal, reptileandinsectspeciesarealsopresent,aswellas rareandendemicplantspecies(Calodonia macedonica,Kitaibeliavitifoliaand Lilium Figure154. CanyonoftheRiverVardaratDemir-Kapiya martagon). (Photo:M.Dzingo)

88 5.PROBLEM ANALYSIS

5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

5.1.Currentlossof,oreffectson,biodiversity

ThepresentstatusofbiodiversityintheRepublicofMacedoniaisaconsequenceoftheenvironmental conditionsinwhichitscomponents(speciesandecosystems)aredeveloping,globalchangesand anthropogenicimpacts. Aquaticandwetlandecosystemsarethemostendangered.Theassn.Myriophyllo-Nupharetum (Doyran Lake)hasalmostdisappeared,whereasassn.Lemno-Spirodelletumpolyrhizaesubassn. aldrovandetosum (PrespaLake)isthreatenedwithextinction. Relictlowlandmarshcommunitiescanbefoundonlyinagenerallyfragmentedstate,withsixbeing particularlyendangered(assn.Caricetumelataesubassn.lysimachietosum-OhridLake,nearStudenchishte; assn.Cypero-Caricetumacutiformis-Gostivar; assn.Glycerietummaximae-Pelagonia;assn.-Mariscetum NegortsiSpa;assn.Osmundo-Thelipteretum-Banskoandassn.Scirpo-Alopecuretumcretici -Monospitovo Marsh). Withregardtomeadows,themostendangeredarethoseassociationsdevelopingonverywetterrain(assn. Hordeo-Caricetumdistantis -GevgeliyaandSkopye).Threecommunitiesamongthehalophyticvegetation aremostendangered,particularlyassn. Camphorosmetummonspeliacae. Amongforestvegetation,nineforestphytocoenosesareendangered:assn.-Aceriheldreichii-Fagetum YakupitsaandSharPlaninaMountains;assn.Alnetumviridis-Belasitsa;assn. Caricielongatae-Alnetum glutinosae-PologandDebartsa;assn.Daphno-Cytisanthetumradiaticalcicolum -Galichitsaand Yablanitsa;assn.Ephedro-Prunetumtenellae-KavadartsiandLubas;assn. Juglando-Aesculetum hippocastani-SuvDol,nearIzvor,andYablanitsa;assn.Periploco-Alnetumglutinosae -Monospitovo Marsh;assn.Periploco-Fraxinetumangustifoliae-pallisae-NegortsiSpa;andassn. Tiliocordatae-Fagetum -DrevenickaMountain. Withinthelowerplantgroups,thebestavailableknowledgeisonphylumBacillariophyta.Ninespecies areconsideredtobeextinctand107areendangered.AsfortheFungi,aPreliminaryRedDataListhasbeen developed,including67endangeredspeciesfromphylumBasidiomycotaand12fromLichenes. Amongthehigherplantgroups,themostendangeredgroupisthatofAngiosperms(280-300endangered species),ferns(15),mosses(20)andGymnosperms(7).FivespeciesofGymnospermsareconsideredtobe extinct.

Figure155. NationalPark "Pelister"- SmallLake (PhotoS.Petkovski)

91 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

ThecurrentfaunaldiversityoftheRepublicofMacedoniaisfacinggreatpressureresultingfromdirect andindirectanthropogenicimpacts.Thus,asmanyas113vertebratespeciesareincludedinthecategoryof threatenedspecies,whichis22.3%oftheentirevertebratefauna(17areMacedonianendemicspecies). Invertebratefaunaldiversitysuffersfromevengreateranthropogenicpressure,whichhasledtoa reductioninthepopulationsoflargenumbersofspeciesandmayeventuallyleadtoextinction.Special attentionandcareneedstobepaidto650endemicinvertebratetaxa,manyofwhicharelimitedtothethree naturallakes(DoyranLake-11,PrespaLake-18andOhridLake-209). Despitealargeamountofresearch,thereisstillnotenoughinformationconcerningthecurrentstatusof thepopulationsofalargenumberofendemicspeciesnorthedirectthreatstotheirsurvival.

5.2.Directcausesofbiodiversityloss

Thedirectcausesofbiodiversitylossaremanyandvaried.Mostofthemarecommontoalltypesof biodiversity,whilesomearespecifictoeitherflora,faunaorecosystems:

•Inadequatemanagementofaquaticecosystems; •Drainageofmarshesandswamps; •Constructionofhydropowerreservoirsinrivergorges; •Lackofwatertreatmentplants(forriverineandlakeecosystems); •Mineexcavationsandothergeologicworks; •Constructionofskilifts,transmissionlines,televisiontransmittersandotherantennasystems; •Lossofhabitats(orportionsthereof)duringunplannedexpansionofurbancentres,weekend settlementsandtourist/recreationzones; •Modificationofhabitats; •Fragmentationofhabitats,duemainlytotrafficinfrastructure,wherehighwaysintersecthabitats thatareimportantasvertebratecorridors(particularlyforlargemammals).Whenaquatichabitats areartificiallyfragmented, recommendationsformaintainingecologicalminimumflowsinwatercoursesarenotfollowed; •Destructionofareaswithnaturalhalophyticandmeadowvegetation; •Uncontrolleddestructionofforests,forestfires,clearingforbuildingsites,constructionofroads andrailroads,expansionoftouristsettlementsandforestdesiccation; •Uncontrolledcollectionofmedicinalplantsandwildanimals.Illegalcollectionofrareplants (especiallyendemicplants)byprofessionalandcommercialcollectors,illegalcollectionofbirds' eggsandcertainspeciesofbutterfliesetc.

5.3.Underlyingcausesofbiodiversityloss

Thebasicfactorswhichhaveledtothecurrentunfavourablestateinallenvironmentalsphereswithinthe RepublicofMacedonia,includingbiodiversity,includegeneralhistoricalprocesses,abadsocio-economic situation,anunstablepoliticalsituation,inadequatespatialplanningandinappropriatelanduse. Inthedesiretoaccomplisheconomicdevelopmentatanycost,ageneraltrendtowardtheerosionofmoral andtraditionalsocietalvalueshasbeenobserved,neglectingtheprincipleofsustainabledevelopment. Instead,naturalresourcesareusedbeyondthelimitsoftheirsustainability,whichproducesatangiblethreat ofextinctionforendangeredplantandanimalspeciesandvarieties,andthusimpingesupontraditionalrural landscapes. AidinginthisprocessisthepoorawarenessbythecitizensofMacedoniaoftheissuessurroundingthe conservationofnationalbiologicalresourcesandthepossibilitiesfortheirsustainableuse.Thissituationis particularlyevidentwiththosebiologicalresources(wildplantsandanimals)whichhaveeconomicvalue. Ontheonehand,theStatehasnotdevelopedlegalregulationstofacilitatethesustainabilityof populations.Ontheother,inarushtoachievequickprofits(oftenbypeoplelivingatthebaresubsistence level),wildspeciesarecollecteduncontrollablyandwithoutanycarefortheirnormalreproductiveprocesses orforenvironmentalimpactsresultingfromtheirdisappearance.

92 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

Severalbasicreasonsforthepermanentlossofbiologicaldiversitycanbedistinguished:

•Alowlevelofeducationandalackofinformation,especiallyinruralareas, whichhascontributedtoalowawarenessinthegeneralpopulationofthe relationshipbetweenhumanactivitiesandtheenvironment,the sustainableuseofbiologicalresourcesandthesustainabletransferof biotechnology; •ReducedandunstableeconomicpoweroftheState,inadditiontothe militaryactionsthathavebeenconvulsingtheregionforalongperiodof time; •Growingpoverty,whichdoesnotrecognisetheprinciplesofsustainable development.Itismanifestingitselfthroughillegalforestandother resourceoveruse,huntingandfishingexcesses,non-sustainable developmentofagricultureetc.; •Inadequateandincompletelegislationwhichfailstoclarifydutiesor addresstheoverlapinresponsibilitiesandcompetencieswithinthe agenciesliableforenforcement; •Non-compliancewithexistingregulations; •Lackofspatialplanningregulationsforareaswithspecialnaturalvalues; •Uncontrolledurbanisation,deagrarianisation(inthetraditionalsense)and industrialisation.Thesearethemainprocessesthatdisturbthe environmentalbalance(consideringthecumulativeeffectsofpollution); •Thecontinualprocessofmigrationofthepopulationfromvillagestot owns.Increasedconcentrationsofpeopleinurbancentresrepresenta growingproblemnotonlyfromaglobal,socio-economicaspectbutalso fromaspatialaspect; •Stagnationoftheeconomy,useofoutdatedtechnologies,poorqualityof energysources-resultingfromloweconomicpower-andlackof Figure156. Thewaterfall treatmentofwastewaterandwastegases,whichleadstodeteriorationof SmolarskiVodopad (Photo:V.Anastasovski) theair,soil,surfacewaterandgroundwaterquality; •Outdatedspatialplanningwithinsufficientcontinuity,improperlandusechanges,constructionofinfrastructure systemsandpreviousagriculturalconversion; •Themechanismofearningaprofitunderhighlycompetitivemarketconditions,thepermanenttrendtoward globalisationandthefavouringofnewer,moreprofitableplantvarietiesandanimalbreedswhichhavefully supplantedtheindigenous,lowproducingandlessprofitablegenetictypes.

5.4.Keysectorsaffectingbiodiversity

OnthebasisoftheanalysisofdatainSection3.2,apreliminaryrankingofthemaineconomicsectorscanbemade inaccordancewiththeireffectsonbiodiversity:

•AgriculturehadaparticularlysevereenvironmentalimpactinthedecadesfollowingWorldWarII.Mostofthe marshesandswampsweredrained,andarablelandwasexpandedintoothernaturalhabitatswithoutregardfor theirimportance.Anotherseriousthreattobiodiversitywastheenlargementofagriculturallandsurfaces duringtheperiodofnationalisation,whentheareasofnaturalvegetationattheedgesofcultivatedfieldswere destroyed.This,inturn,ledtoalossofimportantbiocorridors.Inmorerecenttimes,thereductionofagricultural activitiesinrural(especiallyhilly)areashascontributedtothefulldegradationofthecenturies-oldappearanceof theMacedonianlandscape. •Thereductionoflivestockandthegradualabandonmentoftraditionalpracticesofcattlemanagement(i.e., widespreadgrazinginfavouroffeedlots)hasreducedtheamountofcarrionintheenvironmentandmayhave alreadyledtotheextinctionoftwovulturespecies. •Uncontrolledfishingisaseriousthreattofishdiversity,especiallyinOhridLake. •Inthetransportsector,habitatfragmentationisanimportantthreattomanymammals,especiallylargeones.Ithas beenthenormtousethecheapestproposedalternativeandabandontheonesthatarepotentiallythemost appropriatefortheundisturbedexistenceofwildspecies.

93 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

•Theenergysectorresultsinseveraltypesofimpacts,suchasenvironmentalpollution,construction ofhydropowerreservoirsandtransmissionofenergy. •Industryandminingrankhighonthislist.Environmentalpollutioncausedbyindustryhasdeclinedoverthe pastseveralyearsduetoareductioninthecapacityofindustrialplants;however,inindividualcases, pollutionisgrowingasaresultoftheuseoflow-qualityfuelsandthelackoffunctionaltreatmentsystems- botharesultofadeficiencyinfinancialresources.Thissectorcausesthedegradationofsoilsoverlargeareas throughtheactivitiesofsurfacemining,slagdeposition,disposaloftechnologicalwastesfromsmeltingand energycomplexes,creationofindustriallandfillsofharmfulanddangerouswastesandfailuretoreclaim abandonedminingareasandlandfills.Systemsforthetreatmentofwastegasesandcommunalandindustrial watersdonotexistand,consequently,thequalityofsurfacewatersandgroundwaterdeteriorates. •Tourismaffectsbiodiversity,especiallythroughillegalweekendsettlementsandpoorcommunal infrastructureinthemaintouristiclakeandmountaincentres.Animportantadditionalaspectisthe inappropriatebehaviouroftouristswhenoutdoorsduetotheirlowawarenessofnaturalsustainability. •Constructionactivitiescontributetotheconversionofagriculturallandswithhighlevelsofproductivityto non-productivepurposes,especiallyinthevicinityoflargersettlementsandcities,aswellastothe abandonmentofexistingcultivatedlands,resultinginalossofagriculturallyproductiveareas.Evenso,this sectorcannotberankedhighly.

5.5.Constraintstoconservation

•Astrategyforthehighqualityconservationofbiologicaldiversityislacking. •TheNationalEnvironmentalActionPlan isnowoutdated. •LegislationisnotharmonisedwiththatoftheEU. •Thereisinsufficientimplementationoftheexistinglegislationonbiologicaldiversity. •Inspectionsareinefficient. •Thejudicialsystemisinefficient. •Implementationoftheprovisionsofthesignedandratifiedconventionsrelatedtobiodiversityisinsufficient. •Implementationoftheprincipleofsustainabledevelopmentandsustainableuseofnaturalresourcesisneglected. •ResponsibilitiesoverlapwithinthegovernmentalMinistriesoftheRepublicofMacedonia. •Long-termandshort-termplanswithdefinedprioritiesforactivitiesleadingtobiodiversityconservationdonot exist. •Thereisalackofanindependentinstitutionwhichcouldbedirectlyfocusedontheproblemsofmonitoringand conservationofbiodiversity. •ContinuousmonitoringofbiologicaldiversityandhabitatsinharmonywithEuropeanandworldstandardsdoes notexist. •Institutesandlaboratoriesdealingwiththeseissuesaredetachedandlackappropriatetechnicalequipmentand personnel. •Auniquedata bankonthebiologicaldiversityofMacedonia,withananalysisofimpactsleadingtoitsincreaseor reduction,doesnotexist. •Registers(RedBooks)ofendangeredplantandanimalspeciesdonotexist. •Literatureonbiologicaldiversityisinsufficientlyavailable. •Transparencybetweenthegovernmentalsector,scientists,thenon-governmentalsectorandthebusinesssectoris low. •EffortsofNGOsinthefieldofbiologicaldiversityareinsufficient,inspiteoftheirincreasingnumber. •Knowledgeandeducationofthepublicisunsatisfactory. •Thereisashortageoffinancialresourcesforthedevelopmentofactivitiesforbiodiversityconservationand promotion. •Thereisalackofinterestwithintheinternationalcommunityforinvestinginbiologicaldiversityconservation duetoinsufficientinformationandalackofengagementbytheMacedoniangovernmentinthesematters. •Implementationofscienceinthepracticalconservationofbiodiversityisinsufficient. •Thereisafailuretoconductbothstrongsupervisionandlawenforcementintheareaofbiodiversityconservation. •Educationandinstructionoftheyoungergenerationisincompleteorthereispoorcoverageoftheprinciplesof biodiversityintheeducationalprocess. •Therelationshipbetweencitizensandnaturalresourcerichness,whichisthenecessaryingredientforquality primaryconservation,isnotproperlydeveloped. •Influencebyspecialinterestgroupsandthegeneralpoliticisationofenvironmentalissuesarecounterproductive.

94 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

5.6.Opportunitiesforconservation

Withintheframeworkofthecurrentlyestablishedmechanisms,therearecertainactivitiesaimedat furtherextensionofthescopeandefficiencyofbiodiversityconservationintheRepublicofMacedonia. Someofthemare:

•Developmentoflegalandstrategicdocumentsonbiodiversity; •ApproximationofthenationallegislationtothatoftheEUandotherinternationalconventions; •Inclusionofbiodiversityconservationwithinthespatialplanningprocess; •Developmentofmechanismsforimpactassessment(EnvironmentalImpactAssessment[EIA]andStrategic EnvironmentalImpactAssessment[SEIA]studies); •Increaseinthenumberofprojectsinthesphereofbiodiversitystudyandconservation,financedbyinternational andnationalsources; •StrengtheningoftheMoEPP,aswellastheaccompanyingscientificandprofessionalinstitutions; •Strengtheningofco-operationbetweentheMoEPP,NGOsandscientificinstitutions.

Figure157. Newstrictreserve-Litotelmi-Ploche,closetothevillageStratsin (Photo:S.Petrovski)

95 6.BIODIVERSITY STRATEGYAND ACTIONPLAN

6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN

TheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlanarebasedontheresultsoftheCountryStudyforBiodiversity oftheRepublicofMacedonia.Forthispurpose,aseriesofworkshopswasorganized.Theproposalsand suggestionsfromallrelevantinstitutions,NGOsandindividualsarisingthroughthepublicdiscussion processhavebeenincorporatedintothefinaldraft.

6.1.BiodiversityStrategyforMacedonia

TheNationalBiodiversityStrategyconsistsof:

• TheOverallAimforbiodiversityconservationwithintheRepublicofMacedonia,whichshouldbeattained duringtheperiod2004-2008andoverwhichtheBiodiversityActionPlanwilloperate; •ThechangesthatareexpectedinkeyelementsofbiodiversityandothersectorsinsupportoftheGuiding Objectives; •TheStrategicPrinciplesfordevelopmentoftheBSAPcomprisingthemechanismsandtechniquesthat shouldbeusedinachievingtheproposedchanges.

6.1.1.TheOverallAim

TheOverallAimoftheBSAPoftheRepublicofMacedoniaistogiveavisionofwhattheBiodiversityStrategy andActionPlanwillachieve:

TOCONSERVEBIODIVERSITYANDUSEBIOLOGICALRESOURCESINASUSTAINABLE MANNERFORTHEWELFAREOFTHEPEOPLE,TAKINGINCONSIDERATIONTHE UNIQUENATURALVALUESANDTHERICHTRADITIONOFTHEREPUBLICOF MACEDONIA.

6.1.2.GuidingObjectives

TheGuidingObjectivesestablishtheresultsthatshouldbeachievedthroughimplementationoftheBSAP.Theorderinwhich theyarepresenteddoesnotindicateanyparticularimportance:

1.Toincorporateconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversitywithinallgovernmentalpolicies,strategies, plansand programmesby2006; 2.Toincreasebiodiversityconservationandrestorationby30%,throughproportionateinternalandexternalinvestments; 3.Toincreasehumanresourcesandimprovetechnicalcapacitybuildingwithinthoseinstitutionsconnectedwithbiodiversity conservationby30%,inordertoengenderprojectsforresearchandwithpracticalapplication,by2008; 4.Toimprovetheco-operationandexchangeofinformationamonggovernmental,scientific,privateandNGOsectorsby30%, throughrealisationofjointprojects,by2006; 5.Toestablishadatabaseforspecies,habitatsandprotectedareasby2005; 6.Toimprovethemanagementsystemwithintheexistingprotectedareas(inaccordancewithinternationalstandards)andto extendthenetworkofprotectedareasby50%by2008; 7.Toreducethenumberofthreatenedspeciesby5%by2008; 8.Toimplementsustainableforestrymanagementby2008; 9.ToapproximatenationallegislationinaccordancewithEUdirectives,andtoincorporatetheprovisionsofadopted internationalconventionsintothelegislationoftheRepublicofMacedoniabytheendof2007; 10.Tointroduceappropriatemechanismsforstimulatingbiodiversityconservationanddeterringbiodiversitylossoutsideof protectedareasbytheendof2005; 11.Toincreasepublicawarenessofconservationissuesthroughoutthecommunityby100%,baseduponpreviouslyestablished levelsofknowledge,by2008; 12.ToestablishalawobligingthepreparationofEIAandSEIAstudiesforallenvironmentalprogrammes,plansandinterventions by2005.

99 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

6.1.3.StrategicPrinciples

StrategicPrincipleshavebeendevelopedfromtheprinciplesoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity, issuesthatarespecifictotheRepublicofMacedoniaandissuesthatwereraisedduringtheBSAPplanning process.

InordertoachievetheOverallAimandtheGuidingObjectives,interestedgroupsshouldbegovernedbythefollowing StrategicPrinciples:

1.Integrationoftheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityintotheoverarchingprioritiesofthecountry-economic andsocialdevelopmentandpovertyeradication; 2.Equalsharingoftheresponsibilityfortheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversitybyeveryone,becauseall citizensaredependentuponthefullrangeofitsimportantvalues,includingecological,social,economic,genetic, scientific,educational,cultural,recreational,aestheticandintrinsicvalues; 3.Adoptionofappropriatemeasuresforin-situconservationofnaturalecosystemsandspecies,restorationofdegraded ecosystemsandrecoveryofthreatenedspecies; 4.Adoptionofappropriatemeasuresforex-situconservationofbiodiversitycomponents; 5.Achievementofsuccessfulconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversitythroughactualandintegratedcross-sectoral planningofactivities,includingtheparticipationofallinterestedgroups; 6.Overcomingofthelackofinformationandknowledgeconcerningbiodiversityasabasicprerequisiteforsuccessful planningandconductingofconservationmeasures; 7.Notusingalackoffullscientificcertaintyasareasonforpostponingmeasurestoavoidorminimizeasignificant threatto biodiversity; 8.Usebysocietyofallmeasurestoenhanceandcomplementexistinginternational,nationalandlocalresources,including institutions,agreements,financialmechanisms,plansandprogrammesrelatingtotheconservationandsustainableuseof biodiversity; 9.Regularmonitoringandevaluationoftheeffectivenessofmeasuresfor theconservationandsustainableuseof biodiversityinordertodeterminetheirsuccess,applyinglessonslearnttootheractivities; 10.Nationalandlocalagenciesofthecountrybeingultimatelyresponsibleforthemanagement,conservationandsustainable useofbiodiversity,withtheassistanceofexternalagenciesbeingnecessaryandwelcomed; 11.Anexpectationofabroadrangeofenvironmental,economicandsocialbenefitsresultingfromthesubstantialinvestments requiredforbiodiversityconservation; 12.Legislationtakinginternationalobligationsintoaccount,co-ordinatingbetweensectors,andprovidinganenabling environmentforbiodiversityconservationthroughsuitableincentives.

6.2.BiodiversityActionPlanforMacedonia

TheActionPlanencompassesspecificactivitieswhichshouldberealizedinordertoachievetheOverall AimandtheGuidingObjectivesenumeratedwithintheBiodiversityStrategyforMacedonia.Duringthenext fiveyears,theRepublicofMacedoniashouldimplementtheprovisionsforconservationandsustainableuse ofbiodiversityinaccordancewiththeStrategicPrinciplesoutlinedintheBiodiversityStrategy(Section 6.1.3.).OnthebasisoftheStrategicPrinciples,StrategicApproacheshavebeendeveloped.EachStrategic Approachconsistsofaseriesofactionsandmorespecificactivities.Theactionsmaybeconsideredasgeneric itemstobeaccomplished,withoutspecifyinghowtheyshouldbedone.Incontrast,theactivitiesexplainhow anactionwillbeachieved,includingdetails.WithintheBiodiversityActionPlanforMacedonia,the followingStrategicApproacheshavebeendeveloped:

A.In-situconservation(connectedwithStrategicPrinciple3) B.Ex-situconservation(connectedwithStrategicPrinciple4) C.Sustainableuseofbiodiversity (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples1and5) D.Institutionalimprovement(connectedwithStrategicPrinciples5,8and10) E.Investigationandmonitoring(connectedwithStrategicPrinciples6and9) F.Publicawarenessandeducation (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples2and6) G.Impactassessment (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples6and7) H.Incentivemeasures (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples1and8) I.Legislation (connectedwithStrategicPrinciple12) J.FinancialresourcesforimplementationoftheBSAP(connectedwithStrategicPrinciples8,10and11) K.Co-ordinationandimplementationoftheBSAP(connectedwithStrategicPrinciples8and10)

100 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

EachofthelistedactivitiesiscorrelatedwithothercloselyassociatedactivitieselsewhereintheActionPlanandGuiding Objectives.Duration,estimatedbudget,outputs,andpriorityarealsoprovided.Allofthesedataarepresentedin separate columnsinthetabularActionPlanandareexplainedbelow:

NumberoftheActivity: Inthefirstcolumn,auniquecodeforeachactivityisgiven. NameoftheActionorActivity:Abriefheadingordescriptionofeachactionoractivityisshown. RelatedActivities: Inthiscolumn,othercloselyassociatedactivitieselsewhereintheActionPlanareindicated.This informationallowscross-referencingwithotherrelatedactivitieswhichcouldhaveajointimplementationorjointbudget. RelatedGuidingObjectives: Thiscolumnindicatestowardwhichoftheguidingobjectiveseachactivityisexpectedto contributeinordertoachievetheoverallaimoftheStrategy.Thenumbersinthiscolumncorrespondwithtothenumbering oftheGuidingObjectivesinsection6.1.2. Duration: Thiscolumnindicateswheneachactivityshouldtakeplaceduringthefiveyearimplementationperiod(2004- 2008)oftheActionPlan.When"2004->"ispresentinthiscolumn,itindicatesthattheactivitywilllastlongerthan the durationoftheActionPlan. EstimatedBudget: Theestimatedbudgetarycategoryforeachparticularactivityisindicatedinthiscolumn.These categoriesareapproximatelyasfollows:

•CategoryI(indicatesabudgetofuptoUS$100,000) •CategoryII(indicatesabudgetintherangeofUS$100,000-US$500,000) •CategoryIII(indicatesabudgetoverUS$500,000)

Outputs:Foreachparticularactivity,verifiableachievementsandoutputsarelisted. Priority: Therelativepriorityforeachparticularactivityonathree-pointscaleisgiven."I"indicatesthe highestpriority,"II"medium,and"III"thelowest.Thedeterminationofprioritywasmadebytakinginto considerationtherelationshipoftheactivitytotheOverallAimandtheGuidingObjectives,theurgencyfor undertakingactivitiesaddressingthreatenedbiodiversitycomponents,financialimplicationsetc.Insome cases,theprioritymaynotnecessarilyindicateimportance;instead,itmayindicatethatotheractivitiesmust becompletedfirstbeforeitcanbeinitiated.

ThemembersoftheworkinggroupinvolvedinthepreparationoftheBiodiversityStrategyandAction Plan(BSAP)forMacedonia,especiallythemembersoftheCoreTeam,havebeengiventheenormous responsibilityofproposingastrategicdocumentthatwouldincludeallaspectsofconservationand sustainableuseofbiodiversity.Moreover,thisdocumentisintendedtobetheframeworkanddirectionforall futureactivitiesthattheRepublicofMacedoniaoughttoundertakeduringtheperiodendingin2008. ConsideringthatthisisthefirstnationaldocumentofitskindeverpreparedwithintheRepublicof Macedonia,itiseasytoseewhyitissovoluminous,incorporatingmostoftheactivitiesnecessaryforthe conservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity.Althoughthemembersoftheworkingteamandinterested groupsareacutelyawareoftheextentofthisdocument,theworkinggroupdecideditwouldbebetterto submitalargerActionPlanthanacceptadocumentinwhichcertainnecessaryactivitiesweremissing.

6.3.ImplementationoftheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan

TheearnestdesireofthegovernmentofMacedoniaisthattheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan (BSAP)beimplementedeffectively,baseduponrealisticpossibilitiesexistingwithintheRepublicof Macedoniaandsupportedbylocalandforeignexperts,withfinancialsupportfromthenationalbudget,as wellasfromforeigndonors. Inaccordancewithitslegislativeresponsibilities,theleadingMinistryforimplementationoftheBSAP willbetheMinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning(MoEPP). Becauseofthecomplexityoftheproblemsencompassedbytheconceptofbiodiversityconservationand alsobecausesomeoftherelatedresponsibilitiesareincludedundertheauspicesofotherMinistriesor governmentalsectors(i.e.,outsidethepurviewoftheMoEPP),thegovernmentwillestablishaSteering Committeetoprovideoversight.

101 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

ThecompositionandthenumberofmembersoftheSteeringCommitteewillbeestablishedbyspecial governmentaldecree.Inordertoworkmoreeffectively,theSteeringCommittee,inaccordancewith perceivedneeds,willestablishvariousexpertgroups.

TheBSAPCo-ordinatingBodywillbeaunitestablishedwithintheAgencyfortheEnvironment,a partoftheMoEPP.Thedirectorofthisagencywillbetheco-ordinatorfortheunit.TheCo-ordinating Bodywillbeauthorisedandresponsiblefor:

• Co-ordinationandmonitoringoftheoperationalimplementationoftheBSAP; • CollaborationwiththeExpertGroupsinordertoachievemoreeffectiveimplementationofthe BSAPandnatureconservation; • CollaborationwiththeExpertGroupsandresponsiblepersonsofrelatedinstitutionsinorderto developindicatorsformonitoringtheimplementationoftheBSAP; • CollaborationwithrelatedinstitutionsresponsiblefortheimplementationoftheBSAPand summarisationoftheirindividualannualprogrammesandreportsintoonemainunitprogramme andreporttobepresentedtotheSteeringCommitteeforadoption; • ProvidingcontinuousmaintenanceoftheinternetwebsitefortheBSAP(i.e.,regularupdating withappropriatebiodiversitydata); • PlanningspecificactivitieswithintheframeworkoftheBSAP,preparingannualprogrammesand plansandharmonisingthemwithinthelimitsofthenationalannualbudget; • Seekingopportunitiesforfinancialsupportfromforeigndonorsfortheactivitiesplannedwithin theBSAP; • PreparationofalistofprioritieswithinspecificfieldstobeproposedtotheSteeringCommitteefor implementationandpresentationtoforeigndonors; • PreparationofannualreportsconcerningthecurrentstatusofbiodiversitywithintheState,with theirpresentationtotheSecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(withpriorapproval bytheExpertGroupsandtheSteeringCommittee); • SuggestingrevisionstotheBSAPbaseduponthecurrentsituation; • OrganisationofthemeetingsoftheSteeringCommitteeandtheExpertGroups,including technicalandprogrammepreparation; • TransferringinformationconnectedwiththeimplementationoftheBSAPtoallstakeholdersand individuals.

6.4.MonitoringoftheImplementationoftheBiodiversityStrategy andActionPlan

MonitoringoftheimplementationoftheBSAPwillbecarriedoutusingindicatorspreviouslydeveloped andcompiledforthatpurpose.TheindicatorswillbepreparedbytheBSAPCo-ordinatingBodyandExpert GroupsandapprovedbytheSteeringCommittee.

Indesigningthemonitoringplan,severalquestionsareworthyofconsiderationfordetermining theindicators.Suchquestionsinclude:

• Towhatextenthavetheplannedactivitiesachievedtheiroutputs? • Towhatextenthavetheoverallobjectivesoftheplanbeenachievedthroughtheseactivities? • Concerningcompletedactivities,whatlessonshavebeenlearntwithintheBSAPimplementation processor,inotherwords,whatwasdonecorrectlyandwhereweremistakesmade? • WhatgapsexistintheBSAP? • Howcanthefurtherdevelopmentofexistingactivitiesortheadditionofnewonesfillinthese gapssuchthatqualityconservationofnaturemightbeattained?

MonitoringandevaluationoftheimplementationoftheBSAPwillbeachievedthroughtheprocessof planningandreporting,aprocesswherebythepreviouslydeterminedindicatorswillbethebasisfor successfulassessment.

102 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

Planningprocess

Onthebasisofthefive-yearplanofactivitiesincludedintheBSAP,thenationalbudgetwillsupportthe preparationofannualprogrammesandoperationalplans. Thepreparationofthesebudget-supportedannualprogrammesandoperationalplanswillbe accomplishedthroughasynchronisedsystemaddressingallrelevanttopicsunderthefive-yearprogrammeof activitiesincludedwithintheBSAP.

TheprogrammesfortheimplementationoftheBSAPshouldbepreparedinthefollowingorder:

• Relatedinstitutions • Co-ordinatingBodywithintheMoEPP • SteeringCommittee

TheAnnualProgrammeandOperationalPlanpreparedbytheSteeringCommitteewillbesubmittedto thegovernmentofMacedoniaforapproval.

Reportingprocess

Baseduponthespecificoperationalplanswhicharesupportedwithfinancialresourcesfromthenational budget,progressreportswillbegeneratedusingthesameorderofpreparationasintheplanningprocess. ThegovernmentwillapprovetheannualreportspreparedbytheSteeringCommittee. TheBSAPisadynamicdocument.Onthebasisoftheannualreportsforactivitiesandactionsundertaken duringeachyear,anygaps,shortagesornewpriorityissueswillbedetermined,allowingtheBSAPforthe followingyeartobeimprovedandchanged. Aftertheimplementationperiodoffiveyears,anevaluationoftheresultsachievedwillbemadeinorder tofacilitatethepreparationofanewfive-yearBSAPthatwillbeproposedtothegovernmentforadoption.

103 BIOIDIVERSITYACTIONPLAN FORTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

StrategicApproachA IN-SITUCONSERVATION ActionA.1.IMPROVEMENTOFPROTECTEDAREASSYSTEMMANAGEMENT

Developaspatialplanningdatabase A.2.1 Definitionofthepurpose, A.2.2 1,6, A.1.1 -spatialandurbanplaninngas 2004-2008 II regulation,use,conservation I 7,12 itrelatestoprotectedareas A.3.1 andplanningofurbanspaces A.3.2 Preparemanagementplans forprotectedareas A.1.2 accordingtoaccepted internationalmethodologies A.3.2 Preparemanagementplans 1,6, Improvedmanagingof A.1.2.1 I.1.3.2 2004-2006 II I forstrictnaturalreserves 7,12 strictnaturalreserves I.1.4.10 A.3.2 Preparemanagementplans 1,6, A.1.2.2 I.1.3.1 2004-2006 III Improvedmanagingofnationalparks I fornationalparks 7,12 I.1.4.10

Preparemanagementplans A.3.2 1,6, Improvedmanagingof A.1.2.3 forotherprotectedareas I.1.4.9 7,12 2006-2008 III otherprotectedareas II I.1.4.10 A.2.1 Developaninventoryand A.2.2 Establishmentofadatabase A.1.3 5 2004-> II II databaseofprotectedareas D.2.4 informationcentre E.3.1 ActionA.2.ESTABLISHMENTOFANETWORKOFPROTECTEDAREAS Integratedatafromallprevious A.1.3 projects(CORINE,Emerald,IPA, 1,6, Synthesisofdatafromallprevious A.2.1 A.2.3 2004 I I IBA,CCetc.)Inordertoestablish 9,12 protectedareaprojects aprotectedareanetwork E.3.1

A.1 Evaluatethevaluesandperform A.6.2 A.6.3 A.2.2 areviewoftheexisting 4,5 2004-> III Categorisationofprotectedareas I E.1.4 categoriesofprotectedareas E.1.5 E.1.10 Establishacoherenteco-network Establishednetworkofprotected ofregionswithspecific A.2.1 A.2.3 6,7 2005-2008 II areas,includingdifferent II naturalvaluesinaccordance E.1.10 typesofeco-systems withEuropeancriteria I.1.4.10 ActionA.3.EXTENTIONOFTHESYSTEMOFPROTECTEDAREAS

A.3.1 Proclaimnewprotectedareas

A.2.1 1,6, ProclamationofJakupitsa A.3.1.1 JakupitsaNationalPark A.2.3 2004-2006 II I 7 NationalPark I.1.3.1

107 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

A.2.1 1,6, ProclamationofShar-Planina A.3.1.2 Shar-PlaninaNationalPark A.2.3 2004-2006 II I 7 NationalPark I.1.3.1 A.2.1 1,6, ProclamationofNidze-Kozhuv A.3.1.3 Nidze-KozhuvNationalPark A.2.3 2006-> II II 7 NationalPark I.1.3 A.2.1 1,6, ProclamationofJablanitsa A.3.1.4 JablanitsaNationalPark A.2.3 2006-> II II 7 NationalPark I.1.3 A.2.1 1,6, ProclamationofBelasitsa A.3.1.5 BelasitsaNationalPark A.2.3 2006-> II II 7 NationalPark I.1.3 A.2.1 BelchishtaMarsh 1,6, A.3.1.6 A.2.3 2004-2006 I Proclamationofprotectedarea I protectedarea 7 I.1.3 A.2.1 Monospitovo-BanskoMarsh 1,6, A.3.1.7 A.2.3 2004-2006 I Proclamationofprotectedarea I protectedarea 7 I.1.3 A.2.1 MarshatNegortsivillage 1,6, A.3.1.8 A.2.3 2004-2006 I Proclamationofprotectedarea I protectedarea 7 I.1.3 A.2.1 1,6, A.3.1.9 Peshtiprotectedarea A.2.3 2004-2006 I Proclamationofprotectedarea I 7 I.1.3 A.2.1 SaltedsoilsinOvchePolePlain 1,6, A.3.1.10 A.2.3 2004-2006 I Proclamationofprotectedarea I protectedarea 7 I.1.3 A.2.1 Slatino-MakedonskiBrod 1,6, A.3.1.11 A.2.3 2004-2006 I Proclamationofprotectedarea I protectedarea 7 I.1.3 A.2.1 TemporarypoolsatGolemo 1,6, A.3.1.12 A.2.3 2004 I Proclamationofprotectedarea I Konyareprotectedarea 7 I.1.3 A.2.1 PlocheRockPoolsofStratsin 1,6, A.3.1.13 A.2.3 2004 I Proclamationofprotectedarea I protectedarea 7 I.1.3 A.1.1 Establishprotectivebelts 6,7, Mitigationofimpacts A.3.2 A.1.2 2004-> II II inprotectedareas 8 ofprotectedareas A.2.3 A.1.2 Establishbio-corridors A.2.1 6,7, Improvedconnections A.3.3 2004-> II II amongprotectedareas A.2.3 8 amongprotectedareas E.1.10

108 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

Prepareproposaltonominate A.2.1 A.2.3 wetlandecosystemstotheWorld 6,7, A.3.4 A.6.2 2004-2008 I Preparedproposals II RamsarList(DoyranandOhrid 8 Lake,MonospitovoMarsh) A.6.3 E.1.6.1 Prepareproposaltonominate A.2.2 6,7, A.3.5 certainplacestotheWorld A.6.2 2004-2008 II Preparedproposals II 8 HeritageList(UNESCO) E.1.6 ActionA.4.RESTORATIONOFPROTECTEDAREAS A.4.1 Restorenaturallakes D.2.5.1 1,2, Improvedqualityof A.4.1.1 DoyranLakewatershed E.1.5 2004-> III I 4,7 lacustrineecosystem E.1.6.1 OhridLake(includingStruga 1,2, Improvedqualityof A.4.1.2 E.1.6.1 2004-> III II andStudenchishtaMarsh) 4,7 lacustrineecosystem D.2.5.1 1,2, Improvedqualityof A.4.1.3 PrespaLake 2004-> III II E.1.6.1 4,7 lacustrineecosystem A.4.2 Restoremarshes 1,2, Revitalisedmarshecosystem A.4.2.1 KatlanovoMarsh E.1.6.1 4,7 2004-> II I 1,2, A.4.2.2 MonospitovoMarsh E.1.6.1 2004-> II Revitalisedmarshecosystem I 4,7 A.4.3 Restorerivers 1,2, Achievementforoptimalconditions A.4.3.1 RadikaRiverandtributaries E.1.6.1 4,7 2004-> II forriverspecies II A.4.5 Restoreforests

Chestnutforest A.5.2.3 1,2, A.4.5.1 (MavrovoNationalPark) A.5.3 4,7 2004-> II Restorationofchestnutforest II E.1.7.4 ActionA.5.REVITALISATIONANDIN-SITUCONSERVATIONOUTSIDEOFPROTECTEDAREAS Performstudytoevaluatethe E.1.4 1,2,4, Collectionofvaliddataconcerning A.5.1 currentlevelofdegradation E.1.5 2004-2006 II I 7,8 thelevelofdegradation inkeyecosystems E.1.6

A.5.2 Restoreandconservedifferent segmentsofkeyecosystems Wetlandecosystems: II II 1.Peatbog,Pehchevo 1,2, A.5.2.1 E.1.6.1 2004-> I Restorationofwetlandecosystems II 2.PodgorechkoLake 4,7 3.LabuneshkoLake I II

Grasslandecosystems: Restorationofcertainthreatened 1,2,4, II II A.5.2.2 1.Lowlandmeadows E.1.6.2 2004-> lowlandmeadowandhillypasture 7,8 2.Hillypastures II ecosystems II

109 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

Forestecosystems: Collectionofvaliddataconcerning 1.Assesstheconditionof E.1.7.4 1,2,4, A.5.2.3 2004-> III thelevelofthreatstoforests I 7,8 forestsandundertakemeasures E.1.7.3 andrestoredforestecosystems fortheirrestoration

1,2,4, Restorationofcertainthreatened A.5.2.4 Mountainecosystems E.1.6.2 2006-2008 II II 7,8 mountainecosystems Cavesandother 1,2, Restorationofcertainthreatenedcaves A.5.2.5 undergroundformations E.1.5 4,7 2004-2006 II andundergroundformations I

Identifyandinvestigate C.1.1 1,2,4, Developmentofalistof A.5.3 2004-2006 II I significantforestareas E.1.4 7,8 significantforestareas E.1.5 Identifyandinvestigate A.6.2 1,2,4, Developmentofalistof A.5.4 2004-2006 II I significantfungiareas A.6.3 7,8 significantfungiareas Identifyandinvestigate E.1.3 1,2,4, Developmentofalistof A.5.5 2004-2006 II I significantareasoffloraandfauna E.1.4 7,8 significantareasoffloraandfauna Developmentoflegislativeconditions Identifyandinvestigaterefugal A.3.1.3 1,2,4, suitablefortheconservationof A.5.6 areaswithforestvegetation A.3.1.5 7,8 2004-> II I E.1.4 significantbiodiversityelements

A.6.5 C.2.1 Developin-situ(on-farm) C.2.3 Provisionoffarmmodels conservationofagricultural 5,6, A.5.7 C.5.2.1 2005-> II forthemaintenanceofindegenous I cropstrainsandbreeds 7,10 F.1.2.1 breedsandstrains ofdomesticanimals F.2.1.4 H.1.3

ActionA.6.CONSERVATIONOFSPECIES A.6.1 Conservemostthreatenedspecies Endemo-relictspecies B.1.3 1,2, A.6.1.1 2004 I Conservationofspecies I Thymusoehmianus B.2.1.1 7 Vultures: 1.Constructfeedingsites 1,2, II I A.6.1.2 B.1.5.1 2004 Conservationofspecies forvulturesandbirdsofprey 7 I I 2.Antidoteprogramme

A.6.4 D.1.1 A.6.2 PrepareRedDataLists D.1.6 1,7 2004-2006 II Evaluatedlistofthreatenedspecies I F.1.1.1 F.1.1.2 A.6.4 D.1.1 PreparedRedDataBook A.6.3 PrepareRedDataBooks 1,7 2004-> III I D.1.6 ofthreatenedspecies F.1.1.1 F.1.1.2

110 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

Completedatanecessary PrepareActionPlans A.6.2 A.6.4 1,7 2004-> II toundertakeappropriate I regardingthreatenedspecies A.6.3 conservationofspecies

Reintroduceindegenous A.5.7 Establishmentofconditionstogrow A.6.5 7 2006-2008 II II agriculturalcropsandvarieties C.5.2.1 agriculturalcropsandvarieties

StrategicApproachB EX-SITUCONSERVATION ActionB.1.IMPROVEMENTOFMECHANISMSFOREX-SITUCONSERVATION Prepareinstructionsfor Detailedinstructionsforproper B.1.1 thecollectionandmaintanance I.1.4.1 3,7 2004-2006 I collectionandmaintananceof II ofspecies speciesinex-situconditions Preparemethodologiesforthe Detailedguidelinesfor 3,7 B.1.2 reintrodutionofextinctspecies I.1.1 2004-2006 I reintroductionofextinctspecies II

EstablishedNationalBotanical EstablishaNational A.6.1.1 1,3, B.1.3 2004-2006 III Gardenwithsuitableconditionsfor I BotanicalGarden D.1.5 7 ex-situconservationofplantspecies

Organizedfacillityproviding B.1.5.2 1,3, B.1.4 EstablishaNationalArboretum 2004-2006 III conditionsforex-situconservation I D.1.5 7 ofwoodyspecies

Establishnationalcentresfor B.1.5 ex-situconservationof plantandanimalspecies

Furtherdeveloptheexisting networkofreproductioncentres Increasednumbersoflarge B.1.5.1 A.6.1.2 3,7 2004-> III III forindigenousspeciesoflarge mammals,birdsofpreyandfish mammals,birdsofpreyandfish

Furtherdeveloptheexisting Pernamentmechanismforthe B.1.4 B.1.5.2 networkofplantnurseriesfor 3,7 2004-> III reproductionofindigenous I B.2.1.1 indigenouswoodyspecies woodyspecies

111 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

ActionB.2.GENE- ANDSEED-BANKS B.2.1 EstablishGeneBanks

Genebanksforendemic,relct,rare andthreatenedplantandanimal species: II II 1.Conserveplantgeneticmaterial II II 2.Cryopreserveplantandanimal Formationofappropriatecentres B.2.1.1 D.2.3.1 3 2004-2008 geneticmaterial II formaintananceofgeneticmaterial II 3.Conservegeneticmaterial in-vitro II II 4.Establishseedcollectionsof wildplantspecies

Formationofappropriatecentres B.2.1.2 Genebanksforforesttreespecies D.2.3.1 3 2004-2008 II II formaintananceofbio-material

Plantresourcegene-banksforfood andagriculture: II II 1.Establishmentofgene-banks foraromaticandmedicinalplants II II 2.Cryopreservationofgenetic A.5.7 Formationofappropriatecentres B.2.1.3 andreproductivematerial(DNA, A.6.5 3 2004-> formaintananceofbio-material embryos,eggcells,spermcells) D.2.3.1 fromindigenousbreedsof domesticanimals III III 3.Repatriationofcollections keptex-situinothercountries

Establishmentofappropriate Establishnational B.2.1.4 E.1.4 1,3 2004-2008 II conditionsformaintanance II mycologicalcollection offungalspecies Establishmentofappropriate Establishnationalcollection B.2.1.5 E.1.4 1,3 2004-2008 II conditionsformaintanance II ofmicro-organisms ofmicro-organisms

Establishnationalpollenbank Formationofnationalpollenbank B.2.1.6 (regardingalergenicspecies) D.2.3 3 2004-2008 II foralergenicspecies II

StrategicApproachC SUSTAINABLEUSEOFBIODIVERSITY ActionC.1.ASSESSMENTANDDETERMINATIONOFLIMITSFORUSEOFBIOLOGICAL RESOURCES Qualitativeandquantitative C.1.1 assessmentofbio-resources intheRepublicofMacedonia

C.1.2.1 Acompleteevaluationofexistingdata Determineeconomically 8,10, C.1.1.1 E.2.2 2006-2008 II onbio-resourcesandestablishment II valuablewildspecies 11 I.1.4.1 oftheireconomicsignificance

112 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

Establishintegratedprogrammes C.1.2 fortheuseofbio-diversity C.1.1.1 Determinationofoptimalbiological Determinelimitsfortheuse 8,10, C.1.2.1 D.2.2 2006-2008 II thresholdsoverwhichresources II ofbiologicalresources 11 I.1.4.1 shouldnotbeused ActionC.2.IMPROVEMENTOFMETHODOLOGIESFORSUSTAINABLEUSEOFAGROBIODIVERSITY Supportagro-ecological C.2.1 programmes

A.5.7 Organizedorganicproduction Stimulateanddeveloporganic C.5.2.1 1,2, ofindigenousvarietiesand C.2.1.1 III I productionasameanstoward F.2.1.4 3,4, 2004-2008 strains,withtheirpromotion sustainabledevelopment H.1.1 10 totheconsumermarket H.1.3 Stimulateanddevelopproduction 1,2, Organizedproductionofcultivated C.5.1.1 C.2.1.2 ofcultivatedindigenousmedicinal 3,4, 2004-2008 II indigenousmedicinalandaromatic II H.1.3 andaromaticplants 10 plants Seriesofproductsobtainedfrom Introducelabellingofproducts indigenousvarieties,breedsand whichderivefromindigenous 1,4, strains,licensedinaccordancewith C.2.2 varietiesandstrains C.5.2.1 10, 2005-2008 II II worldstandards,bearingaspecial (qualityandorigin) 11 labeloforigin A.5.7 Organizeexperimentalfarmswith C.5.2.1 Farmswithtradicionalproduction 6,7 C.2.3 tradicionalagriculturalproduction F.2.1.4 2005-2008 II systemsandwithorganisedvisits II H.1.1 H.1.3 ActionC.3.PROMOTIONOFSUSTAINABLEUSEANDRESTORATIOJNOFFORESTRESOURCES 1,4, C.3.1 Conductcertificationofforests I.2.1.2 10, 2004-2007 III Sustainableuseofforests I 12 1,8, Re-establishfundsforreforestation C.3.2 I.2.1.2 10, 2004-2006 I Fundestablished I ofbarrenterrain 12 Promoteprogramme 1,8, Restorationofforestresources forreforestation C.3.3 I.2.1.2 10, 2004-2006 II usingindigenousspecies II withindigenoustreespecies 12 Establishindicatorswhichcanbe 1,8, C.3.4 useddeforestationwithin I.2.1.2 10, 2004-2006 I Developmentofalistofindicators I theRepublicofMacedonia 12 ActionC.4.SUSTAINABLEUSEOFGAMEANDFISHERIES

Increasepopulationofindigenous huntedgamewhiletaking I.2.1.1 2,5, Establishmentofsustainableuse C.4.1 2004-2008 II II thebiologicaloptima I.2.1.3 7 ofhuntedgame ofspeciesintoconsideration

113 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

Increasethepopulationof 2,5, Establishmentof C.4.2 indigenousfishwhiletakingthe I.2.1.1 2004-2008 III I biologicaloptimaintoconsideration 7 sustainableuseoffish ActionC.5.PROMOTIONOFTRADICIONALUSESOFBIODIVERSITYANDECO-TOURISM Preparestudiesconcerning C.5.1 tradicionalusesofbio-diversity Preparestudyconcerning theuseofbio-diversity C.5.1.1 C.2.1.2 1,4 2004-2008 I Completedstudy III intradicionalmedicaltreatments andethno-pharmacology Promotethevaluesofold-fashioned C.5.2 localvarietiesofagriculturalcrops A.5.7 Implementationofprogrammes A.6.5 promotingtheexpandeduseof Prepareintegratedprogramme C.2.1.1 old-fashionedlocalvarietiesand forpromotionofhealthyfood, 1,2, C.5.2.1 C.2.2 2004-2008 I tradicionalwaysofmanaging II ethnologicalvalues,tradition 4,11 C.2.3 bio-resources,includingspecial andculture F.1.2.1 programmesfortrainingandbetter F.2.1.4 accesstointernationalmarkets

Identifyandpromotelocations Developmentofalistofeco-tourism C.5.3 1,4 2004-2008 II III thataregoodforeco-tourism locationsandpromotionoftheiruse

StrategicApproachD INSTITUTIONALIMPROVMENT ActionD.1.IMPROVENTOFINSTITUTIONSENGAGEDINTHE INVESTIGATIONANDCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITY Preparedassessmentofthepresent Prepareanassessmentoftheneed situationcontainingideasfor D.1.1 forinstitutionalimprovement 3 2004 I I institutionalimprovement Establishsectionsinallrelated Establishmentofdepartmentswith D.1.2 divisionsandassignindividuals 3,4 2004-2006 I individualsassignedtotrack I toberesponsibleforbiodiversity thestatusofbiodiversity Assignementofanadvisorfor Establishdepartmentsfor 1,2, agrobiodiversityandsilvicultural D.1.3 agrobiodiversityandsilvicultural 3,4, 2004-2006 I I biodiversityconservation biodiversitywithintheMoAFWM 10 withintheMoAFWM Improvetechnicalandpersonnel Developmentofofficesforforestry, agriculture,fisheries,conventions, D.1.4 competenceofthebiodiversity 3 2004-2006 I I departmentwithintheMoEPP economy,transportand communications

Improvetechnicalandpersonnel Increasedoppurtunitiesfortheuse competencesofinstitutions D.1.5 3,4 2004-2006 III oftechnicalandpersonnelinthe I involvedinbiodiversity studyofbiodiversity investigations

114 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

Developandstrenghten Establishmentandstrenghtening D.1.6 capacitiesformonitoring 3 2004-2006 III ofbiodiversitymonitoring I Establishabodyofscientific expertswithinthegovernmentof Establishmentofabody D.1.7 theRepublicofMacedonia 3 2004 I I ofscientificexperts responsiblefortheconservation ofbiodiversity Developadministratively-skilled Establishmentof bodyforconservation D.1.8 3 2004-2007 I administratively-skilledbody I ofbiodiversity ActionD.2.CAPACITYBUILDINGFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Establishnationalcomittees Fulfilmentofnationalobligations responsibleforeachratified 1,3, D.2.1 I.3.1 2004-> I underratifiedinternationalagreements I internationalagreement 9 Equipandtrainthestaff D.2.2 3 2004-> II Improvedbiodiversityconservation I ofinspectorates Developnewnationalinstitution D.2.3 -GeneBank

Equipacentralgenebankfor B.2.1.1 Establishmentofacentralgene-bank D.2.3.1 plantgeneresources B.2.1.2 3 2003-2006 II II B.2.1.3

E.2.1.1 Establishmentofacentrefor E.2.1.2 2,3, Establishbiodiversitymonitoring E.2.1.3 collectinginformationandconducting D.2.4 4,5, 2004-2006 II I E.2.1.4 monitoringwithintheentiretyof centrewithintheMoEPP 7,11 E.2.1.5 theRepublicofMacedonia E.2.2

D.2.5 Establishmonitoringstations A.4.1.1 Monitoringstationsfor A.4.1.3 D.2.5.1 3,4 2004-2006 III Establishmentofmonitoringstations I DoyranandPrespaLakes E.2.1.1 E.2.1.3 Monitoringstationsfor D.2.5.2 E.2.1.4 3,4 2004-2006 III Establishmentofmonitoringstations I theVardarRiverwatershed Developanetworkamongall institutionsintheRepublicof 3,4, Establishmentofco-ordination D.2.6 2004-2008 II II Macedoniaconnected 5 ofinstitutionalactivities withbiodiversity

115 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

StrategicApproachE INVESTIGATIONANDMONITORING ActionE.1.RESEARCHPROJECTS Preparenationalbiodiversity E.1.1 A.6.2 3,4, Completednational registersofofficially 2004-2008 III I A.6.3 5 biodiversityregisters recognisedspecies A.6.2 Preparescientific A.6.3 Completedscientific 3,4, E.1.2 catalogues/checklistsofspecies F.1.1.1 2004-> III catalogues/checklistsforcertain I 5 withincertaintaxonomicgroups F.1.1.2 taxonomicgroups F.1.1.3 Completedvegetationmap 3,4, E.1.3 Preparevegetationmap 2004-2008 III depictingdistributionsofdifferent I 5 vegetationtypes A.6.2 A.6.3 Collectionofdataconcerningthestatus E.1.4 Preparestudyonendemic B.2.1.4 4,5 2004-> III anddistributionofthreatenedendemic I andrelictfloraandfauna B.2.1.5 andrelictplantandanimalspecies E.1.9

Preparestudyonthreatenedspecies A.6.2 Collectionofdataforthreatened E.1.5 4,5 2004-2008 III I andtheirnaturalhabitats A.6.3 specieswithintheirnaturalhabitats

Preparestudyon E.1.6 endangeredhabitats

A.4.1 Completedstudyconcerningthelevels Studytoevaluatethelevels A.4.2 ofthethreatstowetlandecosystems E.1.6.1 4,5 2004-2008 III I ofthethreatstowetlandhabitats A.4.3 andimplementationofspecific A.5.2.1 activitiestoreducethethreats

Completedstudyconcerningthelevels Studytoevaluatethelevels ofthreatstodryland/grassland E.1.6.2 ofthreatstodryland/grassland A.5.2.2 4,5 2004-2008 III andmountainecosystems II andmountainecosystems andimplementationofspecific activitiestoreducethethreats

Preparenationalstudyregarding effortstoconserveagrobiodiversity E.1.7 andsilviculturalbiodiversitywithin theMoAFWM

Completedstudyconcerningthelevels Preparenationalstudyon ofthreatstoagrobiodiversityand E.1.7.1 4,5 2004-2006 II I agrobiodiversityconservation implementationofspecificactivities toreducethethreats

116 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

Preparestudyregarding Completedstudyregarding developmentofanationalstrategy developmentofanationalstrategy E.1.7.2 E.17.3 8 2004-2008 II I forprotectionagainstfire forprotectionagainstfire innaturalareas innaturalareas Preparestudyregardinguseof Completedstudyregardinguseof indigenousfireresistanttreesand A.5.2.3 indigenousfireresistanttreesand E.1.7.3 8 2004-> II I shrubsasameansofprotection E.1.7.2 shrubsasameansofprotection againstfireinnaturalareas againstfireinnaturalareas Conductstudyconcerning A.4.4.1 Completedstudyforforest E.1.7.4 protectionofforestsfromdiseases, A.5.2.3 8 2006-2008 III protectionfromdiseases,pests I pestsandhumaninfluence andhumaninfluence Establishmentofnew Applycontemporarymethods methodsanddevelopment E.1.8 inbiodiversityinvestigations 3 2006-2008 III II ofbiodiversityresearch

Preparechromosomalatlas E.1.9 E.1.4 3,5 2004-2008 II Completedchromosomalatlas II ofMacedonianflora

Preparestudyfordevelopment A.2.2 3,4, Completedstudyfordevelopment E.1.10 ofecologicalnetwork A.2.3 5,6 2004-2006 II ofecologicalnetwork II A.3.3 Determinenational Completedlistofnational 7,12 E.1.11 biodiversityindicators 2004-> II biodiversityindicators I ActionE.2.MONITORINGACTIVITIES Identificationandmonitoringof E.2.1 priorityandthreatenedspecies, communitiesandecosystems Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor A.4.1.2 3,5, E.2.1.1 MonitorOhridLake 2004-> III theimprovementofpresentstatus I D.2.4 12 andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Establishmentofmonitoringsystem A.4.1.1 andcollectionofavailabledatafor 3,5, E.2.1.2 MonitorDoyranLake D.2.4 2004-> III theimprovementofpresentstatus I 12 D.2.5.1 andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Establishmentofmonitoringsystem A.4.1.3 andcollectionofavailabledatafor 3,5, E.2.1.3 MonitorPrespaLake D.2.4 2004-> III theimprovementofpresentstatus II 12 D.2.5.1 andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor D.2.4 3,5, E.2.1.4 MonitorVardarRiver 2004-> III theimprovementofpresentstatus I D.2.5.2 12 andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention

117 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor 3,5, E.2.1.5 MonitorBelchishtaMarsh D.2.4 2004-> II theimprovementofpresentstatus I 12 andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Establishmentofmonitoringsystem Monitorthreatenedwildplant C.1.1.1 andcollectionofavailabledatafor speciespresentinnational 3,5, theimprovementofpresentstatus E.2.2 andinternationaltrade C.1.2.1 2004-> III I 12 andforuseindeterminingtheneed (includedintheCITESconvention) D.2.4 forecologicalintervention

Updatethenetworkofdata Improvednetworkofbioindicator 5,8, datacollectionsitesand E.2.3 collectionsitesforbioindicators 2004-> III I offorestecosystems 12 long-terminsightinto thehealthconditionsofforests Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor Identifyandmonitorinvasive 3,5, theimprovementofpresentstatus E.2.4 andallergenicspecies 2004-> II II 12 andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Monitortheinfluenceof 3,5, Establishmentofmonitoringsystem E.2.5 2004-> II II climatechangesonbiodiversity 12 andcollectionofavailabledata ActionE.3.DEVELOPMENTOFDATABASES A.1.3 Developdatabaseforbiodiversity Establishmentof E.3.1 C.1.1 5 2004-> III I (excludingagrobiodiversity) informationcentredatabase E.1.1 Developdatabase Establishmentof E.3.2 E.1.1 5 2005-> II I foragrobiodiversity informationcentredatabase

118 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

StrategicApproachF PUBLICAWARENESSANDEDUCATION ActionA.1.INCREASINGPUBLICAWARENESS F.1.1 Publishingactivities A.6.2 Publishscientific-popularliterature A.6.3 Preparationofpublications F.1.1.1 11 2004-> I II concerningbiodiversity C.5.2 concerningbiodiversity E.1.1 E.1.2 A.6.2 Preparemultimediapresentation A.6.3 ProductionofCDandmultimedia F.1.1.2 11 2004-2005 II II andproduceCDaboutbiodiversity C.5.2 presentationaboutbiodiversity E.1.1 E.1.2 A.6.2 Provideincentivesfor A.6.3 C.5.2 Updatedbiodiversitywebpage F.1.1.3 thecollectionofdatafor 11 2004-> II II E.1.1 availabletothepublic awebpageonbiodiversity E.1.2 E.1.4.7 Establishwebpageabout C.5.3 F.1.1.4 traditionalusesofbiodiversityfor 11 2004-2005 I Establishmentofwebpage II G.2.2 theencouragementofeco-tourism Promotebiodiversityconservation F.1.2 withinmassmedia Publishanddistributepromotional C.5.1 F.1.2.1 materialsregardinglocalvarieties 11 2004-2005 I Printedpromotionalmaterials II C.5.2.1 andindigenousstrains

Conductprogrammesforengaging C.3.3 NGOsandlocalcommunitiesin C.5.1 Establishmentofprogrammes F.1.3 programmesforsustainableuse C.5.2 11 2004-2005 I II andconservationofbiodiversity F.2.1.3 F.2.1.4 Increasethelevelofavailable On-goingprofessionalandscientific F.1.4 biodiversityinformation F.1.1 11 2004-2005 I programmes,interactiveprogrammes, II withinmassmedia poll/surveys,tests,quizzesetc. E.1 F.1.5 Publishbulletinonbiodiversity E.2 11 2004-> I Publishingofbulletin II E.3 ActionF.2.EDUCATION F.2.1 Educationalactivities Introducethesubjectofbiodiversity Productionofappropriate 3,11 F.2.1.1 inkindergartenprogrammes 2004-2005 I publicationsandgivingoflectures II Introducethesubjectofbiodiversity Developmentoflessonplansand intheprogrammesofprimary 3,11 F.2.1.2 2004-2005 II programmes;publishingoftextbooks II andsecondaryschools

119 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

Organisationofshortcourses Organisetrainingforallinterested F.2.1.4 3,4, andtraining(scientificandpractical) F.2.1.3 groupsinconservationand 2004-2008 II I atthegovernmental,expert sustainableusesofbiodiversity H.1.3 11 andappliedlevelsI A.5.7 Organisationofshortcourses Organisetrainingforthosefarmers C.2.1.1 andtrainingforfarmerswhoraise F.2.1.4 responsibleforon-farm C.2.3 6,7 2004-2008 I I andmaintainold-fashioned conservationofagrobiodiversity C.5.2.1 localvarieties,breedsandstrains H.1.3

StrategicApproachG IMPACTASSESSMENT ActionG.1.ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT(EIA)STUDIES Establishcriteriaanddevelop Developmentandimplementation G.1.1 instructionsforpreparing 1,12 2004-2005 I I biodiversitysectioninEIAstudies ofinstructions Definitecriteriaforinstitutions Productionofdefinitecriteria G.1.2 andindividualswhoarelicensed 1,12 2004-2005 I I forissuinglicenses toprepareEIAs ActionG.2.STRATEGICBIODIVERSITYIMPACTASSESSMENT A.4 A.5 Preparestudyassessing C.1.1 C.1.2 G.2.1 socio-economicbenefits 1,12 2004-2005 II Completedstudy I C.2.1 ofbiodiversityconservation C.3.3 C.4.1 C.4.2

ConductStrategicEnvironmental C.5.1 C.5.2 CompletedSEIAfortheimpacts G.2.2 ImpactAssessment(SEIA) 12 2005-2006 II II foreco-tourismdevelopment C.5.3 totheenvironmentfromeco-tourism F.1.1.4

120 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

StrategicApproachH INCENTIVEMEASURES ActionH.1.INITIATIVESANDPROGRAMMES Promotethenecessityfor Educationalseminarsinorder biodiversityconservationamong C.2.1.1 H.1.1 1,10 2004-2005 II topromotetheneed I decision-makersof C.2.3 forbiodiversityconservationI macroeconomicpolicy Createfavourableconditionswithin theadministrativeframeworkfor Creationofannualprogrammesin H.1.2 developmentandimplementationof 1,10 2005-2006 II eachMinistryforincentiveactivities II measuresforsupport leadingtobiodiversityconservation ofbiodiversityconservation A.5.7 Conducteducationalseminarsin Promotetheuseofappropriate C.2.1.1 C.2.1.2 ordertointroducethenewest H.1.3 technologiesforbiodiversity 2004-2005 I II C.2.3 10 technologicaldevelopments conservation F.2.1.3 forbiodiversityconservation F.2.1.4 ActionH.2.CONCRETEECONOMICMEASURESFORIMPROVEMENTOFBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Introducetaxandcustoms Adoptionofchangesintaxand incentivesforimplementation customsregulationsinorder 1,10 H.2.1 ofappropriatetechnologiesfor I.2.4.3 2004-2005 I topromoteimplementation I biodiversityconservation ofappropriatetechnologies Incentivemeasuresfor H.2.2 developmentofeco-tourism Establishmentofsmalltourist Promotethevaluesof C.5.1 attractionswithappropriate biodiversitytodomesticand C.5.2 H.2.2.1 10 2005-2008 I infrastructuredevelopment II foreigntouroperators C.5.3 F.1.1.4 (informationdisplays,signsetc.) Introducetaxandcustoms Adoptionofchangesintaxand incentivesforeconomicandlegal H.2.2.2 I.2.4.3 1,10 2004-2005 I customsregulationsinorderto II entitiesconcernedwith facilitateeco-tourismdevelopment eco-tourismdevelopment

C.2.1 Establishmentofsectionswithinthe Establishofficesfordirect C.2.3 2,7, localofficesofMoAFWMpossessing H.2.3 exchange(buyingandselling)of 2005-2008 II I C.5.2 10 seedmaterialandinformationfor seedmaterialfromlocalvarieties F.1.2.1 thetypicalregionalvarietiesavailable

121 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

StrategicApproachI LEGISLATION ActionI.1.ADOPTIONOFNEWREGULATIONS

1,2, AdoptionoflawbyParliamentand Adoptgeneralframeworklaw I.1.1 9,10, 2004 II publishingintheOfficialGazette I forconservationofnature 12 oftheRepublicofMacedonia

AdoptionoflawbyParliamentand Adoptspeciallawongenetically publishingintheOfficialGazette I.1.2 modifiedorganisms(GMO) 9 2006-2008 II II oftheRepublicofMacedonia

Adoptionoflegislationproclaiming I.1.3 protectedareasandspecies AdoptionoflegislationbyParliament Adoptlegislationproclaiming 2,6, I.1.3.1 A.3.1 2004-2006 II andpublishingintheOfficialGazette II nationalparks 7 oftheRepublicofMacedonia

AdoptionoflegislationbyParliament Adoptlegislationproclaiming 2,6, I.1.3.2 A.3.1 2004-> I andpublishingintheOfficialGazette I strictnaturalreserves 7 oftheRepublicofMacedonia

I.1.4 Adoptionofsubsidiaryacts Adoptsubsidiaryactaddressing AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister thecollectionofplants,fungiand C.1.1 I.1.4.1 5,8 2004 I andpublishingintheOfficialGazette I theirparts,aswellasthecollection, C.1.2 captureorkillingofanimals oftheRepublicofMacedonia Adoptsubsidiaryacttoestablish AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister measurestopreventaccidental I.1.4.2. 10 2004 II andpublishingintheOfficialGazette I introductionofexoticspecies oftheRepublicofMacedonia withintheRepublicofMacedonia

Adoptsubsidiaryactregarding AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister 5,9, I.1.4.3. tradeinwildspeciesofplants, 2004 II andpublishingintheOfficialGazette I fungiandanimals 10 oftheRepublicofMacedonia

A.6.2 AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister Adoptsubsidiaryactforprotection I.1.4.4 A.6.3 10 2004 I andpublishingintheOfficialGazette I ofwildanimals A.6.4 oftheRepublicofMacedonia

AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister Adoptsubsidiaryactforprotection A.6.2 andpublishingintheOfficialGazette I.1.4.5 ofwildplants A.6.3 10 2004 I I A.6.4 oftheRepublicofMacedonia

A.6.2 AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister Adoptsubsidiaryactforprotection I.1.4.6 A.6.3 10 2004 I andpublishingintheOfficialGazette I offungi A.6.4 oftheRepublicofMacedonia

122 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

Adoptsubsidiaryactcontaining AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister measuresforthemaintenance I.1.4.7 A.5.2 10 2004 I andpublishingintheOfficialGazette I ofvarioustypesofhabitats oftheRepublicofMacedonia inafavourablecondition Adoptsubsidiaryactcontaining AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister measuresforthemaintenance I.1.4.8 A.6.3 7,10 2004 I andpublishingintheOfficialGazette I ofspeciespopulations oftheRepublicofMacedonia inafavourablecondition Adoptregulationsestablishing Adoptionbythegovernmentof internationallysignificant A.2.1 A.5.3 5,6, theRepublicofMacedoniaand I.1.4.9 ecologicalareasandproceduresfor 2004 II II theirmanagementwithin A.5.4 9 publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia theRepublicofMacedonia A.5.5 Adoptregulationsforestablishing ecologicallysignificantareas, A.5.3 Adoptionbythegovernmentof ecologicalnetworksandasystem A.5.4 5,6, theRepublicofMacedoniaand I.1.4.10 2004 II I ofecologicalcorridorsin A.5.5 9 publishingintheOfficialGazette accordancewiththePan-European E.1.10 oftheRepublicofMacedonia EcologicalNetwork(PEEN) Developnewcriteriafor certificationofvarieties C.2.1.1 Preparationofmanualforcertification I.1.4.11 andtheirincorporationwithin C.2.2 1,10 2004-2008 I ofvarietiesandtheirincorporation I thelistofacceptedvarieties C.5.2 withinthelistofacceptedvarieties ofagriculturalcrops

Adoptmethodologiesfor Completedmethodologiesfor 2,6, I.1.4.12 preparationofmanagement A.1.2 2004 II preparationofmanagement I plansforprotectedareas 7 plansforprotectedareas

AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister Adoptsubsidiaryactforregulation 1,7, I.1.4.13 C.2.1.2 2005-> II andpublishingintheOfficialGazette II ofmedicinalandaromaticplants 9 oftheRepublicofMacedonia

ActionI.2.TRANSPOSITIONOFINTERSECTORALREGULATIONS Reviewandreviseregulations I.2.1 regardinguseofbiodiversity accordingtoaspecialprogramme

AdoptionbyParliamentand I.2.1.1 ReviewandreviseLawonHunting C.4.1 9,10 2004-2005 I publishingintheOfficialGazette I oftheRepublicofMacedonia

C.3.1 AdoptionbyParliamentand C.3.2 8,9, I.2.1.2 ReviewandreviseLawonForests 2004-2005 I publishingintheOfficialGazette I C.3.3 10 oftheRepublicofMacedonia C.3.4

AdoptionbyParliamentand I.2.1.3 ReviewandreviseLawonFishing C.4.2 9,10 2004-2005 I publishingintheOfficialGazette I oftheRepublicofMacedonia

123 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

Reviewandreviseregulatoryacts concernedwithorganisation I.2.2 anduseoflandaccordingto aspecialprogramme AdoptionbyParliamentand Reviewandrevise 1,9, I.2.2.1 A.1.1 I publishingintheOfficialGazette I LawonSpatialandUrbanPlanning 12 oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand Reviewandrevise 1,10, I.2.2.2 A.1.1 I publishingintheOfficialGazette I LawonConstructionSites 12 oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand Reviewandrevise I.2.2.3 A.1.1 9,12 I publishingintheOfficialGazette I LawonInvestment oftheRepublicofMacedonia Reviewandreviveregulatoryacts I.2.3 concernedwithpollutionaccording toaspecialprogramme AdoptionbyParliamentand 1,9, I.2.3.1 ReviewandreviseLawonWater I publishingintheOfficialGazette I 12 oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand ReviewandreviseLawon 1,9, I.2.3.2 I publishingintheOfficialGazette I ProtectionagainstAirPollution 12 oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand 1,9, I.2.3.3 ReviewandreviseLawonWaste I publishingintheOfficialGazette I 12 oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand 1,9, I.2.3.4 ReviewandreviseLawonNoise I publishingintheOfficialGazette I 12 oftheRepublicofMacedonia Reviewandreviseregulatory actsconcernedwithother I.2.4 sectoralregulationsaccording toaspecialprogramme AdoptionbyParliamentand Reviewandrevise 1,9, I2.4.1 2004-2006 I publishingintheOfficialGazette I LawonConcessions 12 oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand 1,9, I.2.4.2 ReviewandreviseCriminalCode 2004-2006 I publishingintheOfficialGazette I 12 oftheRepublicofMacedonia

Reviewandrevisetaxandcustoms Adoptionofchangesthatfavourthe I.2.4.3 regulatoryactsinorderto H.2.1 12 2004-2006 I useofappropriatetechnologies I incorporatecertainincentives forbiodiversityconservation

124 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

ActionI.3.RATIFICATIONANDIMPLEMENTATIONOFINTERNATIONALAGREEMENTS Intensifyeffortsforratificationof I.3.1 internationalagreementstowhich theRepublicofMacedonia isnotaparty RatificationoftheCartagenaProtocol byParliamentandpublishing I.3.1.1 RatifytheCartagenaProtocol 9 2006-2008 I II intheOfficialGazetteof theRepublicofMacedonia I.3.2 Improvementofbilateralco-operation Prepareco-operationagreement 2,4, I.3.2.1 betweentheRepublicof 2004 I Signedandratifiedagreement I MacedoniaandtheCzechRepublic 9 Prepareco-operationagreement 2,4, I.3.2.2 betweentheRepublicof 2004 I Signedandratifiedagreement I 9 MacedoniaandtheUkraine Designationofmembersfrom Establishjointworkinggroups 2,4, bothcountries,preparationof I.3.2.3 betweentheRepublicof 2004 I I 9 aactivitiesmanualandachievement MacedoniaandAlbania ofregularmeetings Designationofmembersfrom Establishjointworkinggroups 2,4, bothcountries,preparationof I.3.2.4 betweentheRepublicof 2004 I I 9 aactivitiesmanualandachievement MacedoniaandGreece ofregularmeetings Designationofmembersfrom Establishjointworkinggroups 2,4, bothcountries,preparationof I.3.2.5 betweentheRepublicof 2004 I I 9 aactivitiesmanualandachievement MacedoniaandCroatia ofregularmeetings Designationofmembersfrom Establishjointworkinggroups 2,4, bothcountries,preparationof I.3.2.6 betweentheRepublicofMacedonia 2004 I I aactivitiesmanualandachievement andSerbiaandMontenegro 9 ofregularmeetings Developprogrammeforexecuting Approvalofprogrammeby I.3.3 9 2003-2004 II I ratifiedinternationalagreements theappropriateMinister

125 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

StrategicApproachJ FINANCIALRESOURCESFORIMPLEMENTATIONOFTHEBIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN(BSAP)* ActionJ.1.REVISIONOFBUDGETARYFINANCIALSTRUCTUREOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Establishspecialparagraphwithin theStatebudgetregarding Establishmentofspecialparagraph biodiversityconservation K.1- 2,10 J.1.1 2005 I withintheStatebudget I (estimatedamount-20%ofthe K.4 totalbudgetforexecutionofBSAP) Providedirectsupportfromt Attainmentofsupportfrombudget J.1.2 hecentralbudgetfor A.1 2,6 2004-> I fororganisationsconducting I activitiesinprotectedareas activitieswithinprotectedareas ActionJ.2.OTHERFINANCIALRESOURCES Obtaintaxbenefitsformeasures Adoptionofchangeswithin undertakeninorderto J.2.1 I.2.4.3 2,10 2005 I thetaxregulationsinorderto I financebiodiversityprotection incorporateappropriateincentives withintheprivatesector Developprogrammeforapplied Establishmentof J.2.2 2,10 2005 I I projectsconcerningbiodiversity prioritylistprogramme Providecompensation Paymentofcompensationand (orchangesintaxregulations)for 2,10 J.2.3 I.2.4.3 2004-2005 I adoptionofchangestotaxregulations I useofbiologicalresources ActionJ.3.DEVELOPMENTOFMECHANISMSTOSTIMULATE EXTERNALINVESTMENTINBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Conductreviewofpotential Preparationofalistofdonors J.3.1 externaldonorsandprogrammes 2 2004 I andprogrammesexamined I Developprioritylistofprojects J.3.2 forforeigninvestment 2 2004 I Preparationoflist I inbiodiversityconservation Provisionofpossibilitiesforaccessing Implementthemeasure secondarydebtmarketsinorder J.3.3 2 2004-2005 I II “debt-for-nature" toprovideforthedevelopment ofcreditcompensationfunds

*Thisstrategicapproachisnotconnectedtotheotherdescribedapproaches.

126 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN5.PROBLEMANALYSIS

No. Activity

StrategicApproachK CO-ORDINATIONANDIMPLEMENTATIONOFTHEBSAP ActionK.1.ESTABLISHMENTOFSTEERINGCOMMITTEE AppointtheSteeringCommittee January, K.1.1 All All I Approvalbymeans I andensuregovernmentaladoption 2004 ofgovernmentalresolution Createandadoptlegislative regulationsconcerningthe March, Creationofstatutes,working K.1.2 All All I I responsibilitiesanddutiesof 2004 plansandprogrammes theSteeringCommittee ActionK.2.ESTABLISHMENTOFEXPERTWORKINGGROUPS IdentifytheExpertGroups Specificationofappropriatedomain, K.2.1 anddeterminetheroles All All 2004 I workingrolesandresponsibilities I andresponsibilitiesforeach foreachExpertGroup AppointtheExpertGroups K.2.2 ResolutionbytheSteeringCommittee (i.e.,determinemembership 2004 I I All All determiningmembershipandleaders andselectleadersforeach) Createandadoptworking Adoptionofprotocolsforeach K.2.3 protocolsforeachoftheExpert All All 2004 I I Groupsthatwilldefinethe ExpertGroup,definingfrequencyof frequencyofmeetingsand meetingsandsubmissionofreports submissionofreports ActionK.3.DEVELOPMENTOFTECHNICALSUPPORTMECHANISMS EstablishaCo-ordinatingBody K.3.1 withintheMoEPPthatwillbe EstablishmentofCo-ordinating responsibleforimplementation All All 2004-> I BodywithintheMoEPP I oftheBSAP Determinetheco-operative Approvalbymeansofgovernmental relationshipbetweenthe resolutionoftheobligationsof Co-ordinatingBodyandtherelated K.3.2 All All 2004 I therelatedinstitutionsresponsible I institutionsresponsiblefor forbiodiversityconservation biodiversityconservation

K.3.3 Maintainandregularlyupdate Establishmentofspecialofficewithin theestablishedbiodiversitydatabase All All 2004-> I theAgencyfortheEnvironment I

ActionK.4.MONITORINGOFTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFBSAP Preparationofindicatorsfor Developindicatorsformonitoring K.4.1 All All 2004 I monitoringbyworkinggroups I theimplementationoftheBSAP approvedbyCo-ordinatingBody Prepareannualactionplansby theSteeringCommittee, K.4.2 ExpertGroupsandauthorised All All 2004-2008 I Preparationofannualactionplans I-III institutionsconcerning implementationoftheBSAP

127 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA

No. Activity

Prepareannualreportsbydifferent involvedagencies/organisations K.4.3 concerningtheimplementationof All All 2004-2008 I Preparationofannualreports I-III theBSAPandsubmitthem totheSteeringCommittee Prepareannualreportsbythe Co-ordinatingBodywithinthe K.4.4 MoEPPconcerningthe All All 2004-2008 I Preparationofannualreports I-III implementationoftheBSAPand submitthemtotheExpertGroups Prepareannualreportsby theExpertGroupsconcerning K.4.5 thelevelofimplementation All All 2004-2008 I Preparationofannualreports I-III oftheBSAPandsubmitthem totheSteeringCommittee PrepareannualreportsbytheSteering Committeeconcerningthelevelof K.4.6 implementationoftheBSAPand All All 2004-2008 I Preparationofannualreports I-III submitthemtothegovernmentofthe RepublicofMacedoniaandtheCBD Conductannualreviewof implementation,reviseBSAP K.4.7 documentandsubmittothe All All 2004-2008 I RevisionoftheBSAP I-III governmentoftheRepublic ofMacedoniaforapproval Produceafullreportreviewing implementationoftheBSAPatthe Productionoffullreportconcerning K.4.8 endofthefive-yearperiodand All All 2008 I implementationoftheBSAP III submittothegovernmentofthe duringthefive-yearperiod RepublicofMacedoniaandtheCBD

128