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African American World War Veterans in Knoxville, Tennessee

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African American World War Veterans in Knoxville, Tennessee University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Masters Theses Graduate School 8-2012 A Jim Crow Welcome Home: African American World War Veterans In Knoxville, Tennessee Kara Elizabeth Kempski [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes Part of the Social History Commons, and the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Kempski, Kara Elizabeth, "A Jim Crow Welcome Home: African American World War Veterans In Knoxville, Tennessee. " Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 2012. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/1246 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Kara Elizabeth Kempski entitled "A Jim Crow Welcome Home: African American World War Veterans In Knoxville, Tennessee." I have examined the final electronic copy of this thesis for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree of Master of Arts, with a major in History. Cynthia G. Fleming, Major Professor We have read this thesis and recommend its acceptance: Ernest F. Freeberg, G. Kurt Piehler Accepted for the Council: Carolyn R. Hodges Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School (Original signatures are on file with official studentecor r ds.) A Jim Crow Welcome Home: African American World War Veterans in Knoxville, Tennessee A Thesis Presented for the Master of Arts Degree The University of Tennessee, Knoxville Kara Elizabeth Kempski August 2012 i This work is dedicated to my wonderful family and friends. Thank you for keeping my life so full of love. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people I would like to acknowledge for helping me throughout this project. I would like to give a special thanks to my advisor, Dr. Cynthia G. Fleming, and committee members, Dr. Ernest Freeberg and Dr. G. Kurt Piehler, for all their help and feedback. I also greatly appreciate Mr. Guy Hall, an archivist at the National Archives at Atlanta, for his creativity in locating sources. I am indebted to the help of the archivists at both the East Tennessee Historical Society and the Knox County Archives for their assistance and interest. Finally I would like to thank my family and friends for their support, including my college roommates. The timely visit of a few of you, I am convinced, helped me to finish this project. iii ABSTRACT This work examines black veterans who returned to Knoxville, Tennessee after both world wars. Knoxville was a moderately sized Southern town that believed itself to be fairly progressive about racial issues. The life of average Knoxvillians was perennially disrupted in this period by two wars, two returns, and the racial tension that occasionally exploded into violence. This thesis attempts to show that the post-WWII experience of Knoxville’s African American veterans was different from what it was after WWI because of the changing sympathies of the federal government, rather than because of changes within the African American community. In many ways, African Americans responded to both world wars with striking similarity: high expectations that the war would bring change, audible complaints at the hypocrisy of discrimination at home while fighting it abroad, and much disappointment in the aftermath. The federal government, however, changed dramatically during the interwar period, both in its treatment of veterans with the GI Bill, and in its treatment of black soldiers with the integration of the military. It was the combination of theses two important changes in federal policy that served as an impetus for social change. Knoxville serves as a case study to demonstrate these larger historical trends, and has a unique story of its own as the Marble City weathered this defining period of American history. iv Remember My Forgotten Man Remember my forgotten man, You put a rifle in his hand; You sent him far away, You shouted ‘Hip, hooray!’ But look at him today. Remember my forgotten man, You had him cultivate the land; He walked behind the plow, The sweat fell from his brow, But look at him right now. And once, he used to love me, I was happy then; He used to take care of me, Won’t you bring him back again?1 1 Joan Blondell, Gold Diggers of 1933, DVD, directed by Mervyn LeRoy [Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video, 2006]. v TABLE OF CONTENTS: CHAPTER 1: The World Wars in American Memory 1 CHAPTER 2: Knoxville in the War to End All Wars 13 CHAPTER 3: The Real Return, 1919-1925 32 CHAPTER 4: And Again: Post-WWII Knoxville and the GI Bill 59 CHAPTER 5: Conclusion 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY: 93 VITA: 108 1 CHAPTER 1: THE WORLD WARS IN AMERICAN MEMORY The image of American soldiers returning from war is stamped on our national memory. As contemporary Americans anxiously await returning veterans, their emotional homecomings recall scenes from past generations of servicemen and their families. After both world wars, Americans of all races excitedly celebrated the triumphant return of those who had made the world safe for democracy, twice. The dreams and expectations of civilians and soldiers, alike predated the end of both wars. Soldiers frequently expressed their impatience to return home in correspondence with loved ones; sentiments that were heartily returned by those waiting in hometowns across the country. This desire also filled soldiers’ diaries and the press coverage from the front.2 These longings were not only articulated in prose, but were captured in other artistic mediums, such as poems and pictures.3 Advertisers capitalized on these feelings to sell not only war bonds, but various other products, from house wares to toothpaste.4 The homecoming fantasy was perhaps best captured in the advertisements created by Community Silver, Oneida Ltd. During World War II. These soft-focus paintings depict beautiful women joyously embracing uniformed men, in ways more wholesome than prurient. Cut from the magazines in which they were originally printed, Oneida advertisements covered the walls of women’s dorm rooms and soldiers’ barracks, presumably offering the soldiers an additional type of comfort that the more anatomical pin-ups did not.5 While these advertisements 2 David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society [1980; repr., Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2004], 205. 3 E.V. Davidson, Scrapbook, Center for the Study of War and Society WWII Collection, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 4 Colgate, “Move Over, Rover!” advertisement, Life, July 1945, 8. 5 “Speaking of Pictures: Sentimental Advertisements Start a New Kind of Pin-Up Craze,” Life, May 14, 1945, 13. 2 are no longer staple features in American collegiate décor, the famous “V-J Day in Times Square” photograph from Life magazine continues to adorn the walls of coeds across the country, suggesting that the romanticized version of the servicemen’s return continues to inspire both longing and joy in a new generation.6 These artifacts serve as physical record of the intangible hopes of two war-torn generations. While the aspirations were undoubtedly sincere, the expectations of the homecoming period contrasted sharply with the much more difficult reality. Many soldiers found readjustment to civilian life daunting, and lingering mental and physical injuries from the war harder still.7 Thus these popular remnants from the past tell only a partial story, inadvertently obscuring for later generations the turbulence of the immediate post-war period. Veterans and their families knew these difficulties painfully well, but the truth for these world war generations is frequently misrepresented in the perceptions and assumptions of popular memory.8 Furthermore, these advertisements and photographs ignore the presence of African- Americans and other non-white soldiers in both wars and both returns.9 But African-Americans were there, in segregated units, returning to the South to segregated cities. These servicemen not only had to deal with the difficult reorientation to civilian life, but they had to do it under the increased strain of segregation and racial violence. 6 Alfred Eisenstaedt, “V-J Day in Times Square,” Life, August 14, 1945. 7 Robert F. Jefferson, “ ‘Enabled Courage’: Race, Disability, and Black World War II Veterans in Postwar America,” The Historian 65 [September 2003]: 1103. 8 Thomas Childers, Soldier from the War Returning: The Greatest Generation’s Troubled Homecoming from World War II [Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009], 2. 9 Unless it was an African-American publication, advertisements featuring American servicemen were always white. This was true of Northern and Southern publications. See for example, the Knoxville News Sentinel and the New York Times. 3 Another common misconception is a general underestimation of the impact of WWI on American society. Overshadowed by the devastation felt by Europe and by WWII a generation later, commemorations of American wars tend to short-change the significance of WWI. Too frequently, it is presented as just a short-term commitment or as a precursor to the more crucial WWII. One need look no further than the nation’s capital for examples. The monument to WWII far outshines the monument to WWI in size and design. The “Price of Freedom” Exhibit at the National Museum of American History dedicates at least five times as much space to WWII than WWI.10 The implication is that WWI and its postwar period are less deserving of critical analysis, but this is to miss its distinctive and enduring legacy within the larger American story. Additionally, popular perceptions diminish the importance of the First World War as part of the quest for racial equality.
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