SHELTER IN A TIME OF STORM: BLACK COLLEGES AND THE RISE OF STUDENT ACTIVISM IN JACKSON, MISSISSIPPI DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Jelani Manu-Gowon Favors, B.A., M.A. The Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Warren Van Tine, Adviser Hasan Kwame Jeffries, Co-Adviser Leslie Alexander William Nelson Jr. Approved by Adviser Graduate Program in History Co-Adviser Graduate Program in History Copyright by Jelani M. Favors ABSTRACT The most underdeveloped area of study concerning the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960’s is the effect of Black student activism during the explosive decade. The field is currently dominated by two-dimensional studies that define student activism under the banner of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), or the Black Studies campaigns on white college campuses in the latter half of the decade. Assessing student protests merely through this lens yields a narrow view of this generation of activists. One cause of our failure to identify these students is that scholars of the Civil Rights Movement have ignored the very environment in which the majority of student activists lived, learned, socialized, and ultimately revolted. Analyses of Black colleges invariably conclude that they were paternalistic and their curriculums were conformist, if not geared toward assimilation. Students from these all-Black institutions in the South succeeded in their public and private assault against the policies of Jim Crow and at the dawn of the Civil Rights Movement they vaulted the struggle for human rights to unprecedented levels. This dissertation is a local study of Jackson, Mississippi that focuses on the role of Black student activists at Jackson State University and Tougaloo College. These two institutions played critical roles in sheltering young men and women from the vicious hatred and infamous racism that defined Mississippi’s customs and laws. It was within ii this “closed society” that a “shelter” from political storms and state-sanctioned terrorism was most important. During the early sixties a radical new voice emanated from within the walls of these enclaves that challenged the political and social culture of Mississippi. A study of these voices and the environment that helped to create them will yield new insight into the complexity of southern politics and culture, and the role of historically Black colleges in the struggle for Black freedom. This longitudinal study takes into consideration the social, political, and cultural environment of Jackson State University and Tougaloo College, two institutions that adequately reflect the fluid ideological changes in the student movement from its inception to its demise. This study examines the protest strategies, tactics, and other factors germane to the success and failure of the Black Student Movement in an effort to tease out the complexities of student activism and the environments that simultaneously produced, defined, and hindered their protest objectives. In addition, this community study illuminates the political ingredients and boundaries of Black student protest. This dissertation also examines the complex nature of administrative leadership at the respective schools and the nature of the communities that surrounded these institutions. The goal of this study is to redefine our understanding of Black student activism and the shelter in which this generation was produced, Black colleges. This is essential to constructing new histories that provide thorough and accurate insight on an era that reshaped and reformed America’s political and social landscape. iii Dedicated to the memory of my father, Paris Favors Jr., whose “tough” love molded me into the man that I am. I love you. Also dedicated to the spirit of those whose lives were taken from them in the struggle for liberation. Thank you. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The road toward the completion of this dissertation is paved with a great debt of gratitude to those who have assisted me along this extended and arduous journey. First I give honor to my Lord and savior Jesus Christ who has made all things possible and His grace and mercy has sustained me throughout my academic career. Conclusion of this project would not have been possible without the tireless assistance of a “dream team” committee who have all added significantly to my intellectual development. I am forever thankful for the service of Warren Vantine, William Nelson Jr., Hasan Jeffries, and Leslie Alexander. Warren, throughout this project I have leaned upon your guidance and knowledge about navigating through the discipline and I will always be grateful for your ability and willingness to assist me when I needed it most. Nick, you have been a mentor for me since my arrival in Columbus. You took me under your wing as a student in Black Studies and your tutelage has helped me to refine my scholarship. But most importantly, you extended yourself beyond the classroom and without your intervention, Ohio State would not have been a possibility. You are a true brother and friend and I pledge my lifework to answering the “Nelsonian question.” Hasan, you were a Godsend to me when I was desperate for direction in the field. Your arrival to Ohio State changed everything for me and I am extremely thankful for your tutelage and mentorship. I am proud to know one of the brightest and fastest rising v scholars in the field and even more fortunate to work with you. I pray our relationship will continue to prosper in the years to come. Leslie Alexander. What can I say about what you have meant to me? Our relationship is one that I will treasure for the rest of my life. Our kindred spirits have allowed us to connect on both the plains of scholarship and friendship, and that has been a blessing for me. You unselfishly opened your office and gave of your time to young men and women looking for mentorship and guidance. You embody all that is good about the academy and I pray that our special bond will remain unchanged in the coming years. From the bottom of my heart I thank you for all that you have done. To the Department of History at The Ohio State University, I extend my most sincere appreciation. Your financial support and encouragement over the years has greatly assisted me in the completion of this dissertation. I hope that my future scholarship, teaching, and service will reflect the fine training that I have received as a student in this department. The debts accrued as a researcher in the field are numerous. Several archivists and staff people have helped me bring completion to this project. I extend sincere thanks to the staff of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, the National Archives, the Library of Congress, the Jackson State University Archives, the Tougaloo College Archives, and the Margaret Walker Alexander Research Center. Special thanks to Clarence Hunter, Tony Bounds, Minnie Watson, Laura Helton, and Mrs. Matthews at Jackson State. I am extremely indebted to Mrs. Jan Hillegas. Jan thanks so much for all of your help and for access to your personal archives. vi During my efforts to complete this dissertation, I conducted numerous oral interviews with former participants and observers of the civil rights struggle in Mississippi. I am thankful that you took the time to speak to a young outsider and provided me with valuable information and encouragement, both on and off tape. I have humbly attempted to capture your legacy of struggle and I pray that I will accurately portray the movement and institutions that changed your lives. Special thanks to, Mrs. Dorie Ladner, Mrs. Unita Blackwell, Rev. Ed King, Dr. John Peoples, Mr. Owen Brooks, Mr. Dave Dennis, Mr. Hollis Watkins, Dr. Gene Young, Dr. Leslie Mclemore, Dr. Oscar Rogers, Mr. Charles Scott, Mr. Rims Barber, Mrs. Jan Hillegas, Mr. Hezekiah Watkins, Mrs. Deloris Bolden Stamps, Mr. Otis Brown, Mr. Roy Deberry, Dr. Beverly Hogan, Mrs. Ouida Kinnard, Mrs. Gloria Douglass, Mr. Jesse Morris, and Mr. Jimmy Travis. A debt of gratitude is owed to P and R Productions of Atlanta, Georgia. Thanks to Rachel Barron-Simpson for all of her help with transcriptions. Throughout my travels in Mississippi I was fortunate to have the support of numerous families and institutions that took me in as one of their own. I am extremely grateful for your friendship and support that made my stay in the Magnolia State a pleasant one. Special thanks to Generique Stewart, Stanley Barton, Marcus Burger, Tony Boykins, and Denise Wesley. Off the beaten paths of Mississippi lies one of the most beautiful institutions I have ever had the pleasure of visiting. I am forever indebted to The Piney Woods School in Piney Woods, Mississippi. It is one of only four Black boarding schools remaining in America and it is an absolute treasure. Special thanks to Dr. Charles Beady Jr. and to Mr. Lee Unger. I will never forget the kindness that you bestowed upon me. vii A very special thanks is due to two remarkable women, Regina Jennings and Avis Gray. I am quite certain that my path toward graduate school would not have existed had it not been for your endless love and support of me while I was a young, idealistic student in Greensboro. Thank you for all you did and are continuing to do. I will always acknowledge and give thanks to where it all started for me, North Carolina A&T State University. To the faculty and staff of the History Department, thanks for being the wellspring of my intellectual growth and thanks for keeping the spirit of the “Second Curriculum” alive and well. I am also extremely grateful for the support of the Black Studies Department at The Ohio State University.