25 : S.R

للعام 5343هـ - 5341هـ Lane 332 THE SOUNDS OF

AN INTRODUCTION TO PHONETCS

LANE 332

هلخص + هصطلحبث + ًوبذج أسئلت

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تجىيف اًفي  nasal cavity لثت  األًف  nose الشفبٍ  lips األسٌبى  teeth شفرة اللسبى  blade طرف اللسبى  tongue tip حٌك  plate تجىيف الفن  oral cavity  velum اللهبة  uvula  tongue back  pharyngeal cavity  epiglottis أحببل صىتيت  vocal folds  glottis الحٌجرة )صٌدوق الصىث( (  larynx ( box تجىيف اًفي  Nasal cavity اللسبى  Tongue الحٌك الٌبعن  Soft palate البلعىم  Pharynx الشعب الهىائيت  Bronchi بلعىم اًفي  Nasal pharynx بلعىم فوي  Oral pharynx  Adam’s apple  Pharyngeal wall الرئتيي  Lungs

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علن األصوات :  صوتن : هاتف : phones نسخة تسجيل صوتي : هفصلة : articulation طريقة : manner  voiced :the sound produced with a vibration of the ينتج الصوت باهتساز الحبال الصوتية :vocal cards  voiceless: the sound produced without a vibration of the ينتج الصوت بدوى اهتساز الحبال الصوتية :vocal cards حركة : حرف : نسخة تسجيل ضيق :  narrow transcription نسخة تسجيل واسع :  broad transcription نسخة تسجيل صوتوي :  phonemic transcription  a single unit (a single morpheme) can actually have more than one pronunciation

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5 للعام 5343هـ - 5341هـ Lane 332 KEY POINTS

- Phonetic transcription is the use of phonetic symbols to write down the way on utterance is pronounced.

- There different Accents of English the most popular ones are: RP& GA.

-RP received pronunciation

-GA: General American.

- Consonant are sounds that involve the obstruction or construction of the vocal cards.

-Vowels are mode with very open vocal cards.

- The is the description.

-:

-Coda: the element after the nucleus.

-The rhyme: the nucleus + coda.

-A syllable with empty coda empty syllable.

- Where the obstruction occurs in the vocal tract.

- Vowels there lax and tense vowels.

-There voiceless and voiced consonant -place of articulation: labiates coronals dorsal

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-syllables

- Structure

-The nucleus P is the vowels of a syllable, and any following semi vowels.

- The onset: the elements before the nucleus.

-The form with stress is called the strong form.

-Vowels are described by 3 dimensions height, backness, Rounding.

-A Glid or semi is a moving vowel. - Glides always occur next to a vowel.

-Labial: sounds made with one or both lips.

-Labial sounds include: billable labiodentals and lingo-labials.

-Coronal: sounds made with the apex or lamina of the tongue.

-Cornets sounds include dentals alrealars ,alveo-polatals postatveolars and retroflex.

-Trills: two types ft trills are commonly found one with the tip of the tongue at the alveolar [r] or dental [r] region.

-The other trill is uvular [R] with the uvular strikes against the dorsum of the tongue.

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-Taps are often described as a trill of one vibration. -Flaps: the active articulator returns its point of origin

-Phonotactics: the study of possible combinations of sounds.

أ

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-CHAPTER1 THE STUDY OF PHONETICS

ENGLISH PLACES OF ARTICULATION

 THE STUDY OF PHONETICS

phonetics, the study of sounds and their physiological production and acoustic qualities. It deals with the configurations of the vocal tract used to produce speech sounds (articulatory phonetics), the acoustic properties of speech sounds (), and the manner of combining sounds so as to make syllables, words, and sentences (linguistic phonetics).

[Phonetics] is divided into three main branches, corresponding to these three distinctions:

 articulatory phonetics is the study of the way the vocal organs are used to produce speech sounds

 acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds

is the study of the way people perceive speech sounds

 ARTICULATORY PHONETICS

The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics. In studying articulation, phoneticians explain how humans produce speech sounds via the interaction of different physiological structures.

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Generally, articulatory phonetics is concerned with the transformation of aerodynamic energy into acoustic energy. Aerodynamic energy refers to the airflow through the vocal tract. Its potential form is air pressure; its kinetic form is the actual dynamic airflow. Acoustic energy is variation in the air pressure that can be represented as sound waves, which are then perceived by the human auditory system as sound

All memos university's library Ibn Sina in Jeddah The vocal tract can viewed through an aerodynamic-biomechanic model that includes three main components:

1. air cavities 2. pistons 3. air valves

 ENGLISH PLACES OF ARTICULATION

Place of articulation

The active articulator usually moves in order to make the constriction. The passive articulator usually just sits there and gets approached.

A sound's place of articulation is usually named by using the ajective for the active articulator (ending with an "o") followed by the Latin adjective for the passive articulator. For example, a sound where the tongue tip (the "apex") approaches or touches the upper teeth is called an "apico-dental". Most of the common combinations of active and passive articulator have abbreviated names (usually leaving out the active half).

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bilabial

The articulators are the two lips. (We could say that the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper lip the passive articulator, though the upper lip usually moves too, at least a little.) English bilabial sounds include [p], [b], and [m].

 labio-dental

The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive articulator. English labio-dental sounds include [f]and[]

 denta

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Dental sounds involve the upper teeth as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade -- diacritic symbols can be used if it matters which. Extreme lamino-dental sounds are often called interdental. English interdental sounds include [t] and [ d].

alveolar Alveolar sounds involve the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue blade or (usually) the tongue tip -- diacritic symbols can be used if it matters which. English alveolar sounds include [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l].

 postalveolar

Postalveolar sounds involve the area just behind the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade -- diacritic symbols can be used if it matters which. English postalveolars include [ ] and [ ].

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 retroflex

In retroflex sounds, the tongue tip is curled up and back. Retroflexes can be classed as apico-postalveolar, though not

The closest sound to a retroflex that English has is [ ]. For most North Americans, the tongue tip is curled back in [ ],

 palatal

The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the hard palate. The English glide [] is a palatal.

 velar

The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the soft palate. English velars include [k], [], and [ ].

glottal

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articulation: physical points of articulation

phonetics: tongue positions for vowel sounds

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articulation: physical points of articulation Consonant Articulation

• The shape of the sound is modified as it moves through the vocal tract

• Place of articulation = a point where the airstream can be modified

• Labial (lips) – as in [p] of pin, [b] of bin, and [m] of mitt

• Labio-dental (teeth and lips) - as in [f] of fish

• Dental (teeth) – as in temps and dire in European French

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• Interdental (tongue between teeth) - as in [ɵ] thin

• Alveolar (the bumpy ridge just behind your upper teeth)

- as in [t] of top, [d] of deer, [l] of lip, and [n] of neck

• Alveopalatal (the area between the alveolar ridge and

the hard palate) - as in [ʃ] of ship.Places of Articulation

• Palatal (hard palate, or 'roof' of the mouth') - as in [j] of yet

• Velar (soft area toward the rear of the roof of mouth) - as

in [k] of cat, [ɡ] of guy, and [ŋ] of hang.

(The velum can open or close to control airflow into the

nasal cavity)

• Uvular (flap hanging down from velum) – as in rouge in European French.

• Pharyngeal (pharynx) – found in dialects of

• Glottal (the vocal cords) - as in [h] hen

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CHAPTER 2

PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION

Transcription is the use of phonetic symbols to write down the way an utterance (a stretch of speech) is pronounced. One obvious goal of phonetics is to be able to transcribe accurately any utterance in any language. Achieving this goal is in fact rather more complex than you might think at first

 THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET IPA

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PULMONIC

IPA Phonetic Chart

Consonants

hot - shut - vet -

sit - think - win -

tell - other - sing -

man - vision - zen -

nut - chat - but -

dig - get - fig -

king - pet - yes -

lit - run - just -

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Vowels bird - bought -

bait - wet - about -

father - bite - boy -

bat - boat - hut -

wear - food - pig -

beer - foot - computer -

feet - hot - pure -

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EXA English Irregular Verbs with Phonetic Transcription

Beat /bi:t/ beat /bi:t/ beaten /'bi:tn/ Become /bɪ 'kʌm/ became /bɪ 'keɪm/ become /bɪ 'kʌm/ Begin /bɪ 'gɪn/ began /bɪ 'gæn/ begun /bɪ 'gʌn/ Bend /bend/ bent /bent/ bent /bent/ Bind /baɪnd/ bound /baʊnd/ bound /baʊnd/ Bite /baɪt/ bit /bɪt/ bitten /'bɪtn/ Bleed /bli:d/ bled /bled/ bled /bled/ Blow /blou/ blew /blu:/ blown /bloun/ Break /breɪk/ broke /brouk/ broken /'broukən/ Bring /brɪŋ/ brought /brɔ:t/ brought /brɔ:t/ Build /bɪld/ built /bɪlt/ built /bɪlt/ Burn /bɜ:rn/ burnt /bɜ:rnt/ burnt /bɜ:rnt/ Burn /bɜ:rn/ burned /bɜ:rnd/ burned /bɜ:rnd/ Buy /baɪ/ bought /bɔ:t/ bought /bɔ:t/ Catch /kætʃ/ caught /kɔ:t/ caught /kɔ:t/ Choose /tʃu:z/ chose /tʃouz/ chosen /'tʃouzən/ Come /kʌm/ came /keɪm/ come /kʌm/ Cost /kɒst/ cost /kɒst/ cost /kɒst/ Cut /kʌt/ cut /kʌt/ cut /kʌt/ Dig /dɪg/ dug /dʌg/ dug /dʌg/ Do /du:/ did /dɪd/ done /dʌn/ Draw /drɔ:/ drew /dru:/ drawn /drɔ:n/ Dream /dri:m/ dreamt /dremt/ dreamt /dremt/ Dream /dri:m/ dreamed /dri:md/ dreamed /dri:md/ Drink /drɪŋk/ drank /dræŋk/ drunk /drʌŋk/ Drive /draɪv/ drove /drouv/ driven /'drɪvən/ Eat /i:t/ ate /eɪt, et/ eaten /'i:tn/

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Fall /fɔ:l/ fell /fel/ fallen /'fɔ:lən/ Feed /fi:d/ fed /fed/ fed /fed/ Feel /fi:l/ felt /felt/ felt /felt/ Fight /faɪt/ fought /fɔ:t/ fought /fɔ:t/ Find /faɪnd/ found /faʊnd/ found /faʊnd/ Fly /flaɪ/ flew /flu:/ flown /floun/ Forget /fər 'get/ forgot /fər 'gɒt/ forgotten /fər 'gɒtn/ Forgive /fər 'gɪv/ forgave /fər 'geɪv/ forgiven /fər 'gɪvən/ Freeze /fri:z/ froze /frouz/ frozen /'frouzən/ Get /get/ got /gɒt/ got /gɒt/ Get /get/ got /gɒt/ gotten /'gɒtn/ Give /gɪv/ gave /geɪv/ given /'gɪvən/ Go /gou/ went /went/ gone /gɒn/ Grow /grou/ grew /gru:/ grown /groun/ Hang /hæŋ/ hung /hʌŋ/ hung /hʌŋ/ Have /hæv/ had /hæd/ had /hæd/ Hear /hɪər/ heard /hɜ:rd/ heard /hɜ:rd/ Hide /haɪd/ hid /hɪd/ hidden /'hɪdn/ Hit /hɪt/ hit /hɪt/ hit /hɪt/ Hold /hould/ held /held/ held /held/ Hurt /hɜ:rt/ hurt /hɜ:rt/ hurt /hɜ:rt/ Keep /ki:p/ kept /kept/ kept /kept/ Know /nou/ knew /nu:/ known /noun/ Lay /leɪ/ laid /leɪd/ laid /leɪd/ Lead /li:d/ led /led/ led /led/ Learn /lɜ:rn/ learnt /lɜ:rnt/ learnt /lɜ:rnt/ Learn /lɜ:rn/ learned /lɜ:rnd/ learned /lɜ:rnd/ Leave /li:v/ left /left/ left /left/

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Lend /lend/ lent /lent/ lent /lent/ Let /let/ let /let/ let /let/ Lie /laɪ/ lay /leɪ/ lain /leɪn/ Lose /lu:z/ lost /lɒst/ lost /lɒst/ Make /meɪk/ made /meɪd/ made /meɪd/ Mean /mi:n/ meant /ment/ meant /ment/ Meet /mi:t/ met /met/ met /met/ Pay /peɪ/ paid /peɪd/ paid /peɪd/ Put /pʊt/ put /pʊt/ put /pʊt/ Read /ri:d/ read /red/ read /red/ Ride /raɪd/ rode /roud/ ridden /'rɪdn/ Ring /rɪŋ/ rang /ræŋ/ rung /rʌŋ/ Rise /raɪz/ rose /rouz/ risen /'rɪzən/ Run /rʌn/ ran /ræn/ run /rʌn/ Say /seɪ/ said /sed/ said /sed/ See /si:/ saw /sɔ:/ seen /si:n/ Sell /sel/ sold /sould/ sold /sould/ Send /send/ sent /sent/ sent /sent/ Set /set/ set /set/ set /set/ Shake /ʃeɪk/ shook /ʃʊk/ shaken /'ʃeɪkən/ Shine /ʃaɪn/ shone /ʃoun, ʃɒn/ shone /ʃoun, ʃɒn/ Shoot /ʃu:t/ shot /ʃɒt/ shot /ʃɒt/ Show /ʃou/ showed /ʃoud/ shown /ʃoun/ Shut /ʃʌt/ shut /ʃʌt/ shut /ʃʌt/ Sing /sɪŋ/ sang /sæŋ/ sung /sʌŋ/ Sink /sɪŋk/ sank /sæŋk/ sunk /sʌŋk/ Sit /sɪt/ sat /sæt/ sat /sæt/ Sleep /sli:p/ slept /slept/ slept /slept/

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Smell /smel/ smelt /smelt/ smelt /smelt/ Smell /smel/ smelled /smeld/ smelled /smeld/ Speak /spi:k/ spoke /spouk/ spoken /'spoukən/ Spell /spel/ spelt /spelt/ spelt /spelt/ Spell /spel/ spelled /speld/ spelled /speld/ Spend /spend/ spent /spent/ spent /spent/ Spill /spɪl/ spilt /spɪlt/ spilt /spɪlt/ Spill /spɪl/ spilled /spɪld/ spilled /spɪld/ Spit /spɪt/ spat /spæt/ spat /spæt/ Spit /spɪt/ spit /spɪt/ spit /spɪt/ Split /splɪt/ split /splɪt/ split /splɪt/ Spoil /spoɪl/ spoilt /spoɪlt/ spoilt /spoɪlt/ Spoil /spoɪl/ spoiled /spoɪld/ spoiled /spoɪld/ Stand /stænd/ stood /stʊd/ stood /stʊd/ Steal /sti:l/ stole /stoul/ stolen /'stoulən/ Strike /straɪk/ struck /strʌk/ struck /strʌk/ Swim /swɪm/ swam /swæm/ swum /swʌm/ Take /teɪk/ took /tʊk/ taken /'teɪkən/ Teach /ti:tʃ/ taught /tɔ:t/ taught /tɔ:t/ Tear /teər/ tore /tɔr/ torn /tɔrn/ Tell /tel/ told /tould/ told /tould/ Think /θɪŋk/ thought /θɔ:t/ thought /θɔ:t/ Throw /θrou/ threw /θru:/ thrown /θroun/ understand /ʌndər 'stænd/ understood /ʌndər 'stʊd/ understood /ʌndər 'stʊd/ Wake /weɪk/ woke /wouk/ woken /'woukən/ Wear /weər/ wore /wɔr/ worn /wɔrn/ Win /wɪn/ won /wʌn/ won /wʌn/ Write /raɪt/ wrote /rout/ written /'rɪtn/

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 ACCENTS OF ENGLISH

Accents of English is about the way English is pronounced by different

people in different places. Volume 1 provides a synthesizing introduction,

which shows how accents vary not only geographically, but also with social

class, formality, sex and age; and in volumes 2 and 3 the author examines in greater depth the various accents used by people who speak English as their

mother tongue: the accents of the regions of England, Wales

 English is spoken as a native language by over 377 million people around the world  Around 1400, the accent of the royal court emerged as the prestige accent of English.  This accent was essentially the speech of upper- class London.  It is the accent commonly used by announcers for the BBC. This known to linguists by the name Received Pronunciation(RP).  General American (GA) spoken in the central and western areas.  Like RP, GA is the accent usually used in teaching an American accent of English to foreigners.

 -CONSONANTS

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Describing consonants

What makes one consonant different from another?

Producing a consonant involves making the vocal tract narrower at some

location than it usually is. We call this narrowing a constriction. Which

consonant you're pronouncing depends on where in the vocal tract the

constriction is and how narrow it is. It also depends on a few other

things, such as whether the vocal folds are vibrating and whether air is

flowing through the nose.

We classify consonants along three major dimensions:

 place of articulation

 manner of articulation

 voicing

The place of articulation dimension specifies where in the vocal tract the

constriction is. The voicing parameter specifies whether the vocal folds are

vibrating. Themanner of articulation dimesion is essentially everything else: how

narrow the constriction is, whether air is flowing through the nose, and whether

the tongue is dropped down on one side.

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For example, for the sound [d]:

 Place of articulation = alveolar. (The narrowing of the vocal tract involves the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge.)

 Manner of articulation = oral stop. (The narrowing is complete -- the tongue is completely blocking off airflow through the mouth. There is also no airflow through the nose.)

 Voicing = voiced. (The vocal folds are vibrating.)

Voicing

The vocal folds may be held against each other at just the right tension so that the

air flowing past them from the lungs will cause them to vibrate against each other.

We call this process voicing. Sounds which are made with vocal fold vibration are

said to be voiced. Sounds made without vocal fold vibration are said to

be voiceless.

There are several pairs of sounds in English which differ only in voicing -- that is, the two sounds have identical places and manners of articulation, but one has vocal fold vibration and the other doesn't. The [θ] of thigh and the [ð] of thy are one such pair. The others are:

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voiceless voiced

[p] [b]

[t] [d]

[k] [ɡ]

[f] [v]

[θ] [ð]

[s] [z]

[ʃ] [ʒ]

[tʃ] [dʒ]

The other sounds of English do not come in voiced/voiceless pairs. [h] is

voicess, and has no voiced counterpart. The other English consonants are

all voiced: [ɹ], [l], [w], [j], [m],[n], and [ŋ]. This does not mean

that it is physically impossible to say a sound that is exactly like, for

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example, an [n] except without vocal fold vibration. It is simply that

English has chosen not to use such sounds in its set of distinctive sounds.

(It is possible even in English for one of these sounds to become voiceless

under the influence of its neighbors, but this will never change the meaning

of the word.)

MANNER OF ARTICULATIONS

 Stops

A stop consonant completely cuts off the airflow through the mouth. In the consonants [t], [d], and [n], the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and cuts off the airflow at that point. In [t] and [d], this means that there is no airflow at all for the duration of the stop. In [n], there is no airflow through the mouth, but there is still airflow through the nose. We distinguish between

 Nasal stops like [n], which involve airflow through the nose, and oral stops,

like [t] and [d], which do not.does not use such sounds.)

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In the stop [t], the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and cuts off the

airflow. In [s], the tongue tip approaches the alveolar ridge but doesn't

quite touch it. There is still enough of an opening for airflow to continue,

but the opening is narrow enough that it causes the escaping air to become

turbulent (hence the hissing sound of the [s]). In a consonant,

the articulators involved in the constriction approach get close enough to

each other to create a turbulent airstream. The fricatives of English

are [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s],[z], [ʃ], and [ʒ].

In an , the articulators involved in the constriction are further

apart still than they are for a fricative. The articulators are still closer to

each other than when the vocal tract is in its neutral position, but they are

not even close enough to cause the air passing between them to become

turbulent. The approximants of English are [w], [j], [ɹ], and [l].

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An is a single sound composed of a stop portion and a fricative

portion. In English [tʃ], the airflow is first interuppted by a stop which is

very similar to [t] (though made a bit further back). But instead of finishing

the articulation quickly and moving directly into the next sound, the tongue

pulls away from the stop slowly, so that there is a period of time

immediately after the stop where the constriction is narrow enough to cause a

turbulent airstream. In [tʃ], the period of turbulent airstream following the stop

portion is the same as the fricative [ʃ]. English [dʒ] is an affricate like [tʃ], but voiced.

 Laterals

Pay attention to what you are doing with your tongue when you say the first

consonant of [lif] leaf. Your tongue tip is touching your alveolar ridge (or perhaps

your upper teeth), but this doesn't make [l] a stop. Air is still flowing during

an [l] because the side of your tongue has dropped down and left an opening.

(Some people drop down the right side of their tongue during an [l]; others drop

down the left; a few drop down both sides.) Sounds which involve airflow around

the side of the tongue are called laterals. Sounds which are not lateral are

called central.

[l] is the only lateral in English. The other sounds of Englihs, like most of the

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sounds of the world's , are central.

More specifically, [l] is a lateral approximant. The opening left at the side of the

tongue is wide enough that the air flowing through does not become turbulent.

Places of articulation

The place of articulation (or POA) of a consonant specifies where in the vocal tract the narrowing occurs. From front to back, the POAs that English uses are:

 Bilabial

In a , the lower and upper lips approach or touch each other. English [p], [b], and [m] are bilabial stops.

The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during a typical [p] or [b]. (An [m] would look the same, but with the velum lowered to let out through the nasal passages.)

The sound [w] involves two constrictions of the vocal tract made simultaneously. One of them is lip rounding, which you can think of as a bilabial approximant.

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 Labiodental

In a , the lower lip approaches or touches the upper teeth. English [f] and [v] are bilabial fricatives.

The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during a typical [f] or [v].

 Dental

In a , the tip or blade of the tongue approaches or touches the upper teeth. English [θ] and [ð] are dental fricatives. There are actually a couple of different ways of forming these sounds:

 The tongue tip can approach the back of the upper teeth, but not press against them so hard that the airflow is completely blocked.  The blade of the tongue can touch the bottom of the upper teeth, with the tongue tip protruding between the teeth -- still leaving enough space for a turbulent airstream to escape. This kind of [θ] and [ð] is often called interdental.

The diagram to the right shows a typical interdental [θ] or [ð].

 Alveolar

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In an , the tongue tip (or less often the tongue blade) approaches or touches the alveolar ridge, the ridge immediately behind the upper teeth. The English stops [t], [d], and [n] are formed by completely blocking the airflow at this place of articulation. The fricatives [s] and [z] are also at this place of articulation, as is the lateral approximant [l].

The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during

[t] or [d].

Postalveolar

In a postalveolar consonant, the constriction is made immediately behind the alveolar ridge. The constriction can be made with either the tip or the blade of the

tongue. The English fricatives [ʃ] and [ʒ] are made at this POA, as are the corresponding affricates [tʃ] and [dʒ].

The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during the first half (the

stop half) of an affricate [tʃ] or [dʒ].

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Retroflex

In a retroflex consonant, the tongue tip is curled backward in the mouth. English [ɹ] is a retroflex approximant -- the tongue tip is curled up toward the postalveolar region (the area immediately behind the alveolar ridge).

The diagram to the right shows a typical English retroflex [ɹ].

Both the sounds we've called "postalveolar" and the sounds we've called "retroflex" involve the region behind the alveolar ridge. In fact, at least for English, you can think of retroflexes as being a sub-type of postalveolars, specifically, the type of postalveolars that you make by curling your tongue tip backward.

(In fact, the retroflexes and other postalveolars sound so similar that you can usually use either one in English without any noticeable effect on your accent. A

substantial minority North American English speakers don't use a retroflex [ɹ],

but rather a "bunched" R -- sort of like a tongue-blade [ʒ] with an even wider opening. Similarly, a few people use a curled-up tongue tip rather than their tongue

blades in making [ʃ] and [ʒ].)

 Palatal

In a , the body of the tongue approaches or touches the hard palate. English [j] is a palatal approximant -- the tongue body approaches the hard palate, but closely enough to create turbulence in the airstream.

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Velar

In a , the body of the tongue approaches or touches the soft palate,

or velum. English [k], [ɡ], and [ŋ] are stops made at this POA. The[x] sound made at the end of the German name Bach or the Scottish word loch is the voiceless fricative made at the velar POA.

The diagram to the right shows a typical [k] or [ɡ] -- though where exactly on the velum the tongue body hits will vary a lot depending on the surrounding vowels.

As we have seen, one of the two constrictions that form a [w] is a bilabial approximant. The other is a velar approximant: the tongue body approaches the soft palate, but does not get even as close as it does in an [x].

 Glottal

The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds. In an [h], this opening is narrow enough to create some turbulence in the airstream flowing past the vocal folds. For this reason,[h] is often classified as a glottal fricative.

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VOWELS

Vowels are very different from consonants, but our method of decomposing sounds into sets of features works equally well. Vowels can essentially be viewed as being combinations of three variables:

What You Need To Know For Vowels

During the production of vowels, there is no obstruction of the airflow. The air stream is modified by the positioning/configurations of the tongue, lips, and jaw

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resulting in different vowel qualities. With vowels, placement of tongue (from front to back and from bottom to roof of mouth ) and the amount of lip rounding are important in defining and classifying the sound

FRONT/CENTRAL/BACK: These three refer to the position of the tongue from front to back of the mouth during the production of the sound

HIGH/MID/LOW: These refer to the placement of the tongue from roof to floor (bottom) of the mouth when making the sound

LIP ROUNDING: This designation refers to whether the lips are rounded (O- shape) or spread (no

rounding) when the sound is being made. /u, , o, / are rounded (/a/ is not); front and central vowels

are not rounded in English.

TENSE VS LAX: Also important in describing vowel sounds are the designations TENSE & LAX,

which refer to the relative tenseness of the vocal muscles. /i, e, u, o, / are tense; all others are lax.

Most tense vowels (except for //) are actually diphthongal in most dialects of American English,

Height: This measured how close your tongue is to the roof of your mouth. For example, try pronouncing [æ] (as in "cat") and [i] (as in "feet"). Your mouth should

TRANSCRIPTION OF VOWELS

TABLEAUX

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RP VS GA

. GAm is rhotic while RP is non-rhotic; that is, the /r/, or what was historically a phoneme /r/, is only pronounced in RP when it is immediately followed by a vowel sound. Where GAm pronounces /r/ before a consonant and at the end of an utterance, RP either has nothing (if the preceding vowel is /ɔː/ or /ɑː/, as in bore and bar) or has a schwa instead (the resulting sequences are diphthongs or triphthongs). Similarly, where GAm has r- coloured vowels (/ɚ/ or /ɝ/, as in cupboard or bird), RP has plain vowels /ə/ or /ɜː/. However many British accents, especially in Scotland and the West Country, are rhotic, and there are a few non-rhotic accents in the United States, especially in urban working-class areas like New York, Boston, and a few conservative dialects of Southern American English (especially among older-speakers). Non-rhoticity is also very common among speakers ofAfrican-American Vernacular English, which is a dialect that influences a great portion of African-American speakers to varying degrees.

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STRESS

Deference in Vowel Pronunciation

Change of Vowel [6]

Word British English American English

Box [b6ks] [bA:ks]

Chocolate ["Ù6kl@t] ["ÙA:kl@t] or ["ÙO:kl@t]

Clock [kl6k] [klA:kl]

Cost [k6st] [kO:st]

Dog [d6g] [dO:g]

Gone [g6n] [gO:n]

Got [g6t] [gA:t]

Hot [h6t] [hA:t]

Job [Ã6b] [ÃA:b]

Lot [l6t] [lA:t]

Not [n6t] [nA:t]

Off [6f] [A:f] or [O:f]

Possible ["p6s@bl] ["pA:s@bl]

Sorry ["s6ri] ["sA:ri] or ["sO:ri]

Stop [st6p] [stA:p]

Want [w6nt] [wA:nt] or [wO:nt]

Wasn’t [w6znt] [w2znt]

What [w6t] [wA:t] or [w2t]

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Table 2: Change of vowel [6] to [A:] and [O:]

Changes of [i:] and [e]

Sometimes, swaps between vowels [i:] and [e] are also found. Here we have a few instances.

• Change of [i:] in RP to [e] in GA: aesthetic, devolution, epoch, evolution, febrile,

predecessor.

• Change of [e] in RP to [i:] in GA: cretin, depot, leisure, medieval, zebra.

Rules of Word Stress in English

There are two very simple rules about word stress:

1. One word has only one stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. If you hear two stresses, you hear two words. Two stresses cannot be one word. It is true that there can be a "secondary" stress in some words. But a secondary stress is much smaller than the main [primary] stress, and is only used in long words.)

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2. We can only stress vowels, not consonants.

Here are some more, rather complicated, rules that can help you understand where

to put the stress. But do not rely on them too much, because there are many

exceptions. It is better to try to "feel" the music of the language and to add the

stress naturally.

1 Stress on first syllable

Rule example

Most 2-syllable nouns PRESent, EXport, CHIna, TAble

Most 2-syllable adjectives PRESent, SLENder, CLEVer, HAPpy

2 Stress on last syllable

Rule example

Most 2-syllable verbs to preSENT, to exPORT, to deCIDE, to beGIN

There are many two-syllable words in English whose meaning and class change

with a change in stress. The word present, for example is a two-syllable word. If

we stress the first syllable, it is a noun (gift) or an adjective (opposite of absent).

But if we stress the second syllable, it becomes a verb (to offer). More examples:

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the words export, import, contract and object can all be nouns or verbs depending

on whether the stress is on the first or second syllable.

3 Stress on penultimate syllable (penultimate = second from end)

Rule example

Words ending in -ic GRAPHic, geoGRAPHic, geoLOGic

Words ending in -sion and -tion teleVIsion, reveLAtion

For a few words, native English speakers don't always "agree" on where to put the

stress. For example, some people say teleVIsion and others say TELevision. Another

example is:CONtroversy and conTROversy.

4 Stress on ante-penultimate syllable (ante-penultimate = third from end)

Rule example

Words ending in -cy, -ty, - deMOcracy, dependaBIlity, phoTOgraphy, phy and -gy geOLogy

Words ending in -al CRItical, geoLOGical

5 Compound words (words with two parts)

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Rule example

For compound nouns, the stress is on BLACKbird, the first part GREENhouse

For compound adjectives, the stress is bad-TEMpered, old- on the second part FASHioned

For compound verbs, the stress is on to underSTAND, to the second part overFLOW

 DIPHTHONGS

English Diphthongs

The lax and tense vowels we have looked at so far are monophthongs, sometimes

called pure vowels. This is because the tongue and lips are relatively stationary

while these vowels are being pronounced - the vowels do not move around in the

vowel chart. Diphthongs, on the other hand, move through the chart as they are

pronounced: they start at one vowel-position, and move towards another. The

word di-phthong is from Greek: it means "two vowels", and we write them as two

vowels.

Diphthongs are tense vowels; they can be unchecked, and are subject to clipping like the "pure"

tense vowels - they can be long or short.

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It's useful to distinguish between rising and centring diphthongs:

Rising to : PRICE , FACE , and CHOICE Rising to : GOAT and MOUTH Centring to : NEAR , SQUARE and CURE

CHART POSITIONS OF THE DIPHTHONGS:

RISING TO

CENTRING

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CHAPTER 3 ENGLISH CONSONANTS ALLOPHONES AND PHONEMES VOICLESS VS VOICED

Summary of English consonants

[p] Voiceless bilabial plosive

[b]

[t] voiceless alveolar plosive

[d] Voiced alveolar plosive

[k]

[ɡ]

[tʃ] voiceless postalveolar affricate

[dʒ] Voiced postalveolar affricate

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[m]

[n] Voiced alveolar nasal

[ŋ]

[f] voiceless labiodental fricative

[v] Voiced labiodental fricative

[θ] voiceless

[ð]

[s] voiceless alveolar fricative

[z] Voiced alveolar fricative

[ʃ] voiceless postalveolar fricative

[ʒ] Voiced postalveolar fricative

[ɹ] Voiced retroflex approximant

[j] Voiced palatal approximant

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[h] voiceless glottal fricative

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CHAPTER 4 ENGLISH VOWELS

Vowels

monophthongs of RP

diphthongs of RP.

Monophthongs

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Front Central Back

long short long short long short

Close iː ɪ uː ʊ

* Mid e ɜː ə ɔː

Open Æ ʌ ɑː ɒ

^* While most dictionary publishers use /e/, the actual realisation is [ɛ~e]. Examples of short vowels: /ɪ/ in kit, mirror and rabbit, /ʊ/ in put, /e/ in dress and merry, /ʌ/ in strut a nd curry, /æ/ in trap andmarry, /ɒ/ in lot and orange, /ə/ in ago and sofa. Examples of long vowels: /iː/ in fleece, /uː/ in goose, /ɜː/ in nurse and furry, /ɔː/ in north, force and thought, /ɑː/ in father, bathand start. RP's long vowels are slightly diphthongised. Especially the high vowels /iː/ and /uː/ which are often narrowly transcribed in phonetic literature as

diphthongs [ɪi] and [ʊu]. "Long" and "short" are relative to each other. Because of phonological process affecting , short vowels in one context can be longer than long universal.

Diphthong Example

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Closing

/eɪ/ /beɪ/ bay

/aɪ/ /baɪ/ buy

/ɔɪ/ /bɔɪ/ boy

/əʊ/ /bəʊ/ beau

/aʊ/ /baʊ/ bough

Centring

/ɪə/ /bɪə/ beer

/eə/ /beə/ bear

/ʊə/ /bʊə/ boor

(formerly /ɔə/) /bɔə/ boar

 Triphthongs

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As two syllables Triphthong Loss of mid-element Further simplified as

[aɪ.ə] [aɪə] [aːə] [aː]

[ɑʊ.ə] [ɑʊə] [ɑːə] [ɑː]

[əʊ.ə] [əʊə] [əːə] [ɜː]

[eɪ.ə] [eɪə] [ɛːə] [ɛː]

[ɔɪ.ə] [ɔɪə] [ɔːə] -

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. /æ/ as in trap is also written /a/.

. /e/ as in dress is also written /ɛ/.

. /ʌ/ as in cup is also written /ɐ/.

. /ʊ/ as in foot is also written /ɵ/.

. /ɜː/ as in nurse is also written /əː/.

. /aɪ/ as in price is also written /ʌɪ/.

. /aʊ/ as in mouse is also written /ɑʊ/

. /eə/ as in square is also written /ɛə/, and is also sometimes treated as a long monophthong /ɛː/.

. /eɪ/ as in face is also written /ɛɪ/.

. /ɪə/ as in near is also written /ɪː/.

. /əʊ/ before /l/ in a closed syllable as in goal is also written /ɔʊ/.

. /uː/ as in goose is also written /ʉː/.

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CHAPTER 5

ENGLISH SUPRASEGMENT

syllable Structure in English

 Syllables and their parts

Liquids and nasals as syllable nuclei –

Summary of the elements of a phonological system

 Syllables and their parts  Words can be cut up into units called syllables. Humans seem to need syllables as a way of segmenting the stream of speech and giving it a rhythm of strong and weak beats, as we hear in music. Syllables don't serve any meaning-signaling function in language; they exist only to make speech easier for the brain to process. A word contains at least one syllable.

 Most speakers of English have no trouble dividing a word up into its component syllables. Sometimes how a particular word is divided might vary from one individual to another, but a division is always easy and always possible. Here are some words divided into their component syllables (a period is used to mark the end of a syllable):

tomato = to.ma.to window = win.dow supercalifragilisticexpialidocious: su.per.ca.li.fra.gi.lis.ti.cex.pi.a.li.do.cious (some people might put some of the periods in different places in this word).

 Syllables have internal structure: they can be divided into parts. The parts are onset and rhyme; within the rhyme we find the nucleus and coda. Not

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all syllables have all parts; the smallest possible syllable contains a nucleus only. A syllable may or may not have an onset and a coda.

 Onset: the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the consonants [ r ], [ l ], [ m ], [ n ], and the velar nasal (the 'ng' sound) can also be the nucleus of a syllable. In the following words, the onset is in bold; the rest underlined. read flop strap

 If a word contains more than one syllable, each syllable will have the usual syllable parts:

win.dow to.ma.to pre.pos.te.rous fun.da.men.tal

 Rhyme (or rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset (the underlined portions of the words above). The rhyme can also be divided up:

Rhyme = nucleus + coda

 The nucleus, as the term suggests, is the core or essential part o f a syllable. A nucleus must be present in order for a syllable to be present. Syllable nuclei are most often highly '' or resonant sounds, that can be relatively loud and carry a clear pitch level. In English and most other languages, most syllable nuclei are vowels. In English, in certain cases, the liquids [ l r ] and nasals [ m n ] and the velar nasal usually spelled 'ng' can also be syllable nuclei.

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 The syllable structure analysis of the words 'read', 'flop', 'strap' and 'window' are as follows (IPA symbols are used to show the sounds in the word/syllable):

read = one syllable Onset = [ r ] Rhyme = [ id ] (within the rhyme:) Nucleus = [ i ] Coda = [ d ]

flop = one syllable Onset = [ f l ] Rhyme = [ a p ] Nucleus = [ a ] Coda = [ p ]

window = 2 syllables

First syllable: [wIn] Onset = [ w ] Rhyme = [ I n ] Nucleus = [ I ] Coda = [ n ]

Second syllable: [ d o ] Onset = [ d ] Rhyme = [ o ] Nucleus = [ o ]

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(This syllable has no coda)

Linguists often use tree diagrams to illustrate syllable structure. 'Flop', for example, would look like this (the word appears in IPA symbols, not English spelling). 's' = 'syllable'; 'O' = 'onset'; 'R' = 'rhyme'; 'N' = 'nucleus'; 'C' = 'coda'. (The tree may not come out well-aligned on your screen, because your computer may show this page in a different font). The syllable node at the top of the tree branches into Onset and Rhyme; the Onset node branches because it contains two consonants, [ f ] and [ l ]. The Rhyme node branches because this syllable has both a nucleus and a coda.

s / \

Fig. 1: Flat, onset-rime, and body-coda theories of syllable structure, illustrated with the word cap.

O R / \ / \ | | N C | | | | [ f l a p ]

 Liquids and nasals as syllable nuclei

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 The English liquids [ r l ] and the nasals [ m n ] can be the nuclei of syllables under certain conditions. [ r ] can be a nucleus as easily as a vowel, in any position: the words 'bird', 'word', 'her', 'fur', the first syllable of 'perceive' and 'surname' and the final syllables of 'mother', 'actor' (in casual pronunciation) all have [ r ] as the nucleus; in other words, there is no vowel in the pronunciation of these syllables, even though they have one in the spelling.

 [ l ] and the nasals [ m n ] become syllable nuclei when they follow an alveolar consonant in the last syllable of a word. This happens in the relaxed or casual rather than very formal articulation of the word. Compare casual vs. formal pronunciations of 'button', 'bottle', 'bottom'.

 When one of these sounds is a syllable nucleus, this is shown in transcription by putting a very short vertical line under the IPA symbol [ r l m n ]. ' ' ' '

(If the vertical lines don't line up under the symbols on your screen, it is due to webpage transfer complications.)

A word with a syllabic [ r ] as nucleus is 'bird':

 Summary of the elements of a phonological system

The phonological system of a language includes various units plus patterns which are used to combine theunits into larger units. The units of a phonological system are:

 features: aspects or characteristics of a speech sound that arise from the way the sound is articulated or the way it sounds to the ear. 'Voicing' is a feature that varies according to whether or not the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation of a sound; the sound [ s ] is voiceless, but the sound [ z ] is

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voiced, for example. Other features include 'manner', or what sort of gesture or position is used to make a consonant sound (a 'stop' involves blocking the airstream completely for a fraction of a second, as for [ p ], while a 'fricative' involves creating a narrow opening through which air escapes, as for [ f ]. There are also suprasegmental features, which are 'overlaid' on syllables or words. One such feature is stress, known outside linguistics as 'where the accent is in a word'. In 'potato', the stress falls on the second syllable; in 'promise' on the first.  segments: a is a speech sound such as [ m ] or [ i ]. Speech sounds are made by putting several features together. [ m ], for example, is created by vibrating the vocal cords (feature: voiced), closing the mouth at the lips (feature: bilabial), and lowering the soft palate so that air can escape through the nose (feature: nasal). These three gestures occur simultaneously. The result is a voiced bilabial nasal, [ m ]. Thus, segments are units that are built up from features; features are the building blocks for segments.  syllables: a syllable is a rhythmic unit of speech. Syllables exist to make the speech stream easier for the human mind to process. A syllable comprises one or more segments; segments are the building blocks for syllables. Details on the syllable are found below.  words: words are made of syllables.

The patterns or rule systems of a phonological system include:

 phonotactics, also known as sequence constraints. These are restrictions on the number and type of segments that can combine to form syllables and words; they vary greatly from one language to another. In English, for example, a word may begin with up to three consonants, but no more than three. If a word does begin with three consonants, the first will always be [ s ], the second must be chosen from among the voiceless stops [ p t k ] and the third from among the liquids [ l r ] or glides [ w ]. Thus we get words such as 'squeeze' [ s k w i z ] in English, but not words such as [ p s t a p ].  phonological processes, including processes, are modifications of the feature structure of a sound that occur for one of two reasons: to make sounds that are near each other more alike, thus make articulation easier (assimilation), or to make sounds more different from

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each other (for instance, aspiration makes voiceless stops such as [ p ] and [ k ] more different from voiced ones such as [ b ] and [ g ].

 WEAK /STRONG STRESS FORM Some common words in the have two forms, a strong form and a weak form.

The strong form is used when the word is stressed, the weak form is used when it is not.

Compare: -I've been /bin/ to Cyprus, Hong Kong and Hawaii, and next year we are going to Alaska. (weak form) -Where have you been /been/ ? (strong form)

Most words with two forms are articles, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and pronouns; therefore they are not normally stressed and usually take the weak form.

Compare:

 It was /wz/ very easy.  Yes it was.

 Guns 'n Roses  Fortnum and Mason

 I'm not very hungry, thank you.  I am very angry.

 There are about forty words that have strong and weak forms, but the difference is often very slight. Here are a few of the more common words with strong and weak forms:

 a - Ay, uh

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 at - At, ut  been - BEEn, bin  can - CAn, cn  have - HAv, hv u  to - TOO, t h

 PITCH AND INTONATION

Intonation Concepts

 Stress - Pitch - Duration - Intensity

 Stress and Pitch changes are used to create basic word level intonation patterns.

STRESS

 Stressed and Unstressed

In American English, the important parts of the word or sentence are given more prominence via higher pitch, longer duration, and increased volume. The speaker can automatically emphasize them bystressing certain syllables within a word and/or specific words in the sentence. Syllables and words that have less informational value in their message are unstressed by speaking at a lower pitch, a faster rate and with decreased volume.

 PITCH

 Rising and Falling

In American English, we usually use only one high note within a thought group. This rise in pitch is used on the word or word syllable that the speaker wishes to emphasize for its importance.

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Stressed syllables and words are those carrying the highest informational value. The speaker automatically emphasizes them by speaking in a higher pitch. Verbal pitch refers to the various levels of tone from high to low that we use when speaking. To better explain this constant fluctuation let us use emotion. When we are excited, our voice will move into a higher range. When we are dejected, our voice moves into the lower range. Pitch changes are accomplished via steps or slides.

 Steps and Slides

 In American English our pitch covers a range of about four tones. We use our voice within this range by using either steps or slides.  In step changes, each syllable of a word has its own separate tone. In the word “paper” the first syllable “pa” is on a higher level and then drops to a lower level for “per.”

Pronunciation Practice: 4 3 pa 2 per 1  In sliding pitch, the voice is either sliding up (Rising Pitch) or sliding down (Falling Pitch) on a particular vowel.  To contrast the difference, the rising pitch in the word “home” for example can be voiced sliding up on the vowel.  Pronunciation Practice: 4 e 3 m 2 o 1 H

The falling pitch in the word “home” can be voiced sliding down on the vowel.

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Pronunciation Practice: 4 H 3 o 2 m 1 e

 DURATION

 Prolong or Shorten the Vowel Sound

In conversational speech, the words or syllables which have the most informational value in the message are said more slowly. In essence, we are devoting the greatest amount of time in saying or stressing those important syllables and words of the sentence. Duration of the stressed words or syllables can be increased by prolonging the vowel sound. In contrast the duration of the unstressed word or syllable can be reduced by shortening the length of time in pronouncing the vowel by saying it quickly.

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Vowels • Place of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing are not useful when trying to describe vowels. • Vowels are all made in the mouth (place), with little or no air flow constriction (manner) and are always voiced in English • So the system that describes vowels does so in terms 4 characteristics: – tongue placement – tongue height – lip rounding – tenseness.

Vowel Chart

Front Center Back i u High ɪ ʊ

e o ə ʌ ɪ Mid ɛ

Low æ a ɪ

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Diphthongs

Major • /aɪ/ • /ɔɪ/ • /aʊ/ Minor (if at all) • /eɪ/ • /oʊ/

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vowels and glide

Tense and Lax Vowels in English

APPROXIMANTS

GLIDES

/ L/ LIQUIDS /W/ /J/

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CHAPTER 10 Place of Articulatio

The principal organs of articulation

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Phonetic symbols for consonants

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Phonetic symbols for vowels

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Place of Articulation

The term place of articulation, as discussed in the last section, classifies speech sounds in terms of where in the vocal tract the shape of the vocal tract is altered. In this section, we will present the major places of articulation.

Bilabial

Bilabial sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the lips against each other. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: [b], [p], [m].

Labiodental

Labiodental sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the upper teeth towards the lower lip. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: [f], [v].

Interdental

Interdental sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tongue between the teeth. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: , .

Dental

Dental sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tip of the tongue towards the back of the teeth. Such sounds are not present in Standard American English, but in some Chicano English dialects and certain Brooklyn dialects, the sounds [t] and [d] are pronounced with a dental articulation.

Alveolar

Alveolar sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tip of the tongue towards the alveolar ridge, the ridge of cartilage behind the teeth. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], .

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Alveopalatal

Alveopalatal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the front of the tongue towards the area between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: , , , .

Palatal

Palatal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the body of the tongue towards the hard palate. An example of such a sound in English is [j].

Velar

Velar sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the body of the tongue towards the velum. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: [k], [g], .

Uvular

Uvular sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the back of the tongue towards the uvula. Uvular sounds do not exist in English, but the French "r" is pronounced by the uvular sounds and .

Pharyngeal

Pharyngeal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tongue root towards the back of the pharynx. Pharyngeal sounds do not exist in Standard American English, but are found in languages such as Arabic and Hebrew.

Glottal

Glottal sounds are those sounds made at the glottis. Examples of glottal sounds in English are the following: , .

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72 للعام 5343هـ - 5341هـ Lane 332 chapter 11 manner of articulation

Manner of Articulation

Stop - Complete closure of the oral cavity. [p], [t], and [k] are examples of oral stops because the nasal cavity is closed as well (i.e. there is no airflow through the nose). [m] and [n] are examples of nasal stops because the nasal cavity remains open allowing airflow through the nose.

Fricative - Narrowing of the distance between two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and a turbulent airflow is produced, as in English [z] in "zoo." The turbulent airflow produced by a fricative sounds like a hissing noise.

Nasal - A sound in which the soft palate is lowered so that there is no velic closure and air may go through the nose, as in English [m] in "my."

Nasals resemble vowels on a spectrogram because they are both .

Lateral - An articulation in which the airstream flows over the sides of the tongue, as in English [l] in "leaf."

Laterals also resmemble nasals and vowels on a spectrogram.

Tap - A rapid movement of the tongue tip upwards to contact the roof of the mouth, then returning to the floor of the mouth along the same path. This sound occurs in English in the middle of words like "ladder" or "writer."

Approximant - An articulation in which one articulator is close to another but to a lesser degree than for a fricative., as in English [w] in "wet."

Diphthong - A vowel in which there is a change in quality during a single syllable, as in English [ai] in "high."

Affricate - A stop followed by a fricative at the same place of articulation.

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1)

ŋ

A- low central lax vowel C- voiced bilabial nasal

B- voiced velar nasal D- voiced

2)

ŋ

A- mid/low central lax vowel C- low central lax vowel

B- voiced velar nasal D- voiced bilabial nasal

3)

P

A- voiceless /plosive C- voiceless labiodental fricative

B- central alveolar liquid (voiced) D- low back unrounded tense vowel

4)

ʒ

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A- C- high back rounded lax vowel

B- voiced bilabial nasal D- voiceless palatal affricate

5)

ʌ

A- voiceless glottal fricative C- mid/low central lax vowel

B- voiced /plosive D- voiced palatal affricate

6)

N

A- the R is attached to the vowel, as in C- voiced, lingua-alveolar, nasal, Car. sonorant

D- voiceless, lingua-alveolar, stop, B- voiced, lingua-alveolar, stop, obstruent

7)

Sonorant

A- sounds made by rel. open vocal C- Means "above speech". Change tract w resonance. Mostly Vowels. intonation, pitch, pausing to make speech m,n,w,l,r,j,ng interesting.

B- Inspiration is ingressive sounds D- Alveolar Ridge, then bilabial, velar,

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Expiration is egressive sounds palatal, labiodental, linguidental, and glottal

All abstracts university's library Ibn Sina in Jeddah

8)

Θ

A- voiced alveolar stop/plosive C- voiceless interdental fricative

B- central alveolar liquid (voiced) D- voiceless bilabial/velar glide

9)

ɛ

A- voiceless alveolar fricative C- voiceless /plosive

B- front/central mid lax vowel D- voiceless palatal affricate

10)

Phonology of Articulation

A- Study and production of speech C- trills (pulmonic-egressive air stream) sounds. Disorder is inability to produce or clicks (nonpulmonic voiced plosive) or percieve speech sounds. are from other places.

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B- Sound energy is directed through oral D- sounds made by rel. open vocal tract cavity and can be held for sustained w resonance. Mostly Vowels. production. VP almost always closed. L,r m,n,w,l,r,j,ng

11)

W

A- K, G, NG(soft palate & tongue) C- voiced, bilabial, glide, sonorant

B- (ng) voiced, velar, nasal, sonorant D- voiceless, velar, stop, obstruent

12)

L

A- voiceless, lingua-alveolar, stop, C- voiced, lingua-alveolar, fricative, obstruent obstruent

B- (ch)voiceless, lingua-palatal, africate, D- voiced, lingua-alveolar, lateral obstruent liquid sonorant

13)

Nasals

A- Oral tract completely closed behind C- formalizes a community. Mutually lips or tongue. VP port is open, velum intelligible form of language. different lowered. Occasional oral leakage, still pronunciation or vocabulary. Not a

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can resonate. M, N, NG (no air though disorder. Idiolects-characteristic of person mouth- is through nose) speech "yadda, yadda, yadda"

B- Articulators make a gradual gliding D- Larynx (voice box) sits on top of wind motion from constrained to open pipe and the air vibrates the vocal folds. configuration. VP is closed, so sound goes Open at rest. Made of cartilage. Can break though mouth. W, Y (start in 1 way, end and doesn't heal well. another)

14)

Syllables

A- sounds made by rel. open vocal tract C- Alveolar Ridge, then bilabial, velar, w resonance. Mostly Vowels. palatal, labiodental, linguidental, and m,n,w,l,r,j,ng glottal

B- Vowels that remain mostly the same D- The union of vowels & consonants. throughout production. U, I, AE as in (we've practiced CVC excersises) Vowel cat. is nucleous.

15)

Θ

A- voiced, lingua-palatal, liquid-rhotic, C- voiced, lingua-alveolar, fricative, sonorant obstruent

B- (th) voiceless, linguadental, fricative, D- voiceless, lingua-alveolar, fricative, obstruent obstruent

16)

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Consonant placement on 3 parts of tongue.

A- (sh) voiceless, lingua-palatal, fricative, C- (ch)voiceless, lingua-palatal, africate, obstruent obstruent

B- Tip: T, D, L, N, S, Z D- (zh)voiced, lingua-plalatal, fricative, Blade: SH, CH, J, R obstruent Back: K, G, NG

17)

Grapheme

A- letter of alphabet. phoneme C- Alveolar Ridge, then bilabial, velar, grapheme relationships: Teacher: "b" palatal, labiodental, linguidental, and says "buh" glottal

B- The union of vowels & consonants. D- Smallest unit of sound that (we've practiced CVC excersises) Vowel distinguishes morphemes. is nucleous. 42-44 in English.

18)

Physical Articulators

A- Two way-right vs wrong C- The structures and muscles of the soft Five way: palate and sourrounding pharengeal walls. Correct- Open for M, N, NG. Closed for vowels. Deletion/omission-duck=uck

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Substitution-duck=guck Distortion-frog=furog Addition-frog=frog-uh

B- Mandible (jaw), Tongue (tip, blade, D- Larynx (voice box) sits on top of wind lateral martins, root), lips, teeth/molars, pipe and the air vibrates the vocal folds. velum-soft palate, hard palate Open at rest. Made of cartilage. Can break (ALVEOLAR RIDGE) and doesn't heal well.

All abstracts university's library Ibn Sina in Jeddah

19)

Liquids

C- Sound energy is directed through A- voiceless, glottal, fricative, obstruent oral cavity and can be held for (no sound, control air flow in mouth, high sustained production. VP almost always frequency) closed. L,r

B- Plosive, sound stops, oral cavity D- trills (pulmonic-egressive air stream) closed and air bursts, close / open or clicks (nonpulmonic voiced plosive) movement is fast. Velopharynx is closed are from other places. (velum raised) b,p,t,d,k,g

20)

K

A- voiceless velar stop/plosive C- voiced interdental fricative

B- high back rounded tense vowel D- voiced alveolar stop/plosive

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21)

O

A- front/central mid lax vowel C- mid back rounded tense vowel

B- voiceless palatal affricate D- voiced interdental fricative

22)

E

A- high front lax vowel C- voiced palatal affricate

B- mid front tense vowel D- voiced palatal fricative

23)

A

A- voiceless interdental fricative C- high back rounded tense vowel

B- low back unrounded tense vowel D- mid/low back rounded lax vowel

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24)

P

A- voiced labiodental fricative C- voiceless bilabial stop/plosive

B- low back unrounded tense vowel D- central alveolar liquid (voiced)

25)

A

A- voiced interdental fricative C- low back unrounded tense vowel

B- voiceless bilabial stop/plosive D- voiceless bilabial/velar glide

26)

ə

A- lateral alveolar liquid (voiced) C- voiceless alveolar fricative

B- voiced bilabial stop/plosive D- mid/low central lax vowel (unstressed vowel)

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27)

J

A- (zh)voiced, lingua-plalatal, fricative, C- voiced, labiodental, fricative, obstruent obstruent

B- (=y) voiced, lingua-palatal, glide, D- voiced, lingua-palatal, liquid-rhotic, sonorant sonorant

28)

Complimentary distribution

A- Larynx (voice box) sits on top of wind C- 2 allophones of phoneme that pipe and the air vibrates the vocal folds. cannot normally replace eachother- Open at rest. Made of cartilage. Can break mutually exlcusive contexts. (spin vs and doesn't heal well. p(h)in)/lip vs slip, the dark vs light L)

B- Two way-right vs wrong Five way: D- Changes in the production features of Correct- consonants and vowels as they are Deletion/omission-duck=uck influenced by surrounding sounds. Brain Substitution-duck=guck gets ready for sound before its said. Keep Distortion-frog=furog and Coop. Addition-frog=frog-uh

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29)

D

A- voiced bilabial stop/plosive C- high back rounded tense vowel

B- voiced alveolar stop/plosive D- voiceless palatal affricate

30)

ʤ

A- voiced alveolar nasal C- voiced palatal affricate

B- voiced palatal fricative D- low central lax vowel

31)

ʤ

A- voiced bilabial nasal C- voiced alveolar fricative

B- voiced alveolar nasal D- voiced palatal affricate

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32)

P

A- voiceless bilabial stop/plosive C- voiced labiodental fricative

B- voiceless alveolar fricative D- low back unrounded tense vowel

33)

Phonation

C- Plosive, sound stops, oral cavity A- International Phonetic Alphabet. It was closed and air bursts, close / open created for linguists, but SLP's borrowed movement is fast. Velopharynx is closed to describe speech sounds. Not perfect. (velum raised) b,p,t,d,k,g

B- Two way-right vs wrong Five way: D- Larynx (voice box) sits on top of Correct- wind pipe and the air vibrates the vocal Deletion/omission-duck=uck folds. Open at rest. Made of cartilage. Substitution-duck=guck Can break and doesn't heal well. Distortion-frog=furog Addition-frog=frog-uh

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34)

T

A- voiceless, labiodental, fricative, C- voiced, lingua-alveolar, stop, obstruent obstruent

B- (zh)voiced, lingua-plalatal, fricative, D- voiceless, lingua-alveolar, stop, obstruent obstruent

35)

Consonants

A- Some are voiced, some are not dependent on vowels. There is friction C- Articulators make a gradual gliding in the mouth. Sound is made with motion from constrained to open constriction/occlusion of oral cavity. (as configuration. VP is closed, so sound goes in "s" when you seal sides of mouth though mouth. W, Y (start in 1 way, end with tongue) acoustically less intense. another) Voice/less, Placement, Manner

B- prevocalic-before vowel intervocalic-between two vowels D- Always voiced & continuous. Sound postvocalic-after vowel without constriction/ occlusion in oral or Initial, Medial, Final (part of word) pharengeal (back of throat) cavity. AKA Open syllable-vowel open at end "o" Serves as syllable nucleous. Closed syllable-vowel closed at send. aka Acoustically more intense/ sonorant. law vs seep

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36)

A

A- mid back rounded tense vowel C- voiceless velar stop/plosive

B- voiced alveolar stop/plosive D- low back unrounded tense vowel

37)

T

A- voiceless alveolar stop/plosive C- voiced alveolar stop/plosive

B- central alveolar liquid (voiced) D- high back rounded tense vowel

38)

ə

A- voiceless alveolar stop/plosive C- mid/low back rounded lax vowel

D- mid/low central lax vowel (unstressed B- voiceless labiodental fricative vowel)

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