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Article ArticleArticle RevisitingRevisiting Epigraphic Epigraphic Evidence Evidence of of the the Oldest OldestOldest SynagogueSynagogue in in Morocco Morocco in in Volubilis Volubilis

1 2 3, SofiaSofiaSofia Andreeva AndreevaAndreeva 1 1, ,Artem Artem Fedorchuk Fedorchuk 2 2 and and Michael Michael Nosonovsky Nosonovsky 3, 3,** *

1 1 The TheThe Department Department Department of of ofGeneral General General History, History, History, Ben Ben Ben Gurion Gurion Gurion University University University of of of the the the Negev, Negev, Negev, P.O. P.O. P.O. Box Box 653, 653, Be Be Be’er’er’er Sheva Sheva 84105, 84105, Israel;Israel;Israel; [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] 2 2 International InternationalInternational Center Center Center for for for Jewish Jewish Jewish Education Education Education and and and Field Field Field Studies, Studies, Studies, Kfar Kfar Kfar Eldad Eldad Eldad 90916, 90916, 90916, Israel; Israel; Israel; [email protected]@gmail.com 3 [email protected] 3 College of Engineering & Applied Science, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3200 N Cramer St., 3 College College of of Engineering Engineering & & Applied Applied Science, Science, Univ Universityersity of of Wisconsin-Milw Wisconsin-Milwaukee,aukee, 3200 3200 N N Cramer Cramer St., St., Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA Milwaukee,Milwaukee, WI WI 53211, 53211, USA USA * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-414-229-2816 ** CCorrespondence:orrespondence: nosonovs@u [email protected];wm.edu; Tel.: Tel.: +1-414-229-2816 +1-414-229-2816


Received:Received: 17 17 August August 2019; 2019; Accepted: Accepted: 23 23 23 Se Se Septemberptemberptember 2019; 2019; Published: Published: 26 26 27 September September September 2019 2019 2019


Abstract:Abstract: Volubilis Volubilis was was a a Roman Roman city city located located at at the the so southwestsouthwestuthwest extremity extremity of of the the Roman Roman Empire Empire in in modern-daymodern-day Morocco. Morocco. Several Several Several Jewish Jewish Jewish gravestone gravestone gravestone inscriptions inscriptions inscriptions in in in Hebrew, Hebrew, Hebrew, Greek, Greek, and and Latin, Latin, likely likely fromfrom the the 3rd 3rd century century CE, CE, have have been been found found there. there. On On Oneee of of them them belongs belongs to to “Protopolites “Protopolites Kaikilianos, Kaikilianos, thethe head headhead ofof a aa Jewish JewishJewish congregation congregationcongregation (synagogue ((synagoguesynagogue)”,)”, and)”, andand it indicates itit indicatesindicates the presence thethe presencepresence of a relatively ofof aa relativelyrelatively big Jewish bigbig JewishcommunityJewish community community in the city.in in the the The city. city. Hebrew The The Hebrew Hebrew inscription inscription inscription of “Matrona, of of “Matrona, “Matrona, daughter daughter daughter of Rabbi of of Yehuda”Rabbi Rabbi Yehuda” Yehuda” is unique is is uniqueoccurrenceunique occurrenceoccurrence of using ofof the usingusing Hebrew thethe HebrewHebrew language languagelanguage in such in ain remote suchsuch aa region.remoteremote Theregion.region. Latin TheThe inscription LatinLatin inscriptioninscription belongs belongstobelongs “Antonii to to “Antonii “Antonii Sabbatrai”, Sabbatrai”, Sabbatrai”, likely alikely likely Jew. a Ina Jew. Jew. addition, In In addition, addition, two lamps two two lamps lamps decorated decorated decorated with menorahs,with with menorahs, menorahs, one fromone one frombronzefrom bronze bronze and oneand and fromone one from clay,from wereclay, clay, were foundwere found found in Volubilis. in in Volubilis. Volubilis. In nearby In In nearby nearby Chellah, Chellah, Chellah, a Jewish a a Jewish Jewish inscription inscription inscription in Greek in in GreekwasGreek also was was discovered. also also discovered. discovered. We revisit We We revisit revisit these these these inscriptions inscript inscript includingionsions including including their their their language, language, language, spelling spelling spelling mistakes, mistakes, mistakes, and andtheirand theirtheir interpretations. interpretations.interpretations. We relate WeWe relaterelate epigraphic epigraphicepigraphic sources sourcessources to archaeological toto archaeologicalarchaeological evidence evidenceevidence and discuss andand discuss adiscuss possible aa possiblelocationpossible location oflocation the synagogue of of the the synagogue synagogue in this remote in in this this city,remote remote which city, city, was which which the firstwas was synagoguethe the first first synagogue synagogue in Morocco. in in Morocco. Morocco.

Keywords:Keywords: Volubilis;Volubilis; ancient ancientancient synagogues; synagogues;synagogues; Morocco; Morocco;Morocco; Mauretania; Mauretania;Mauretania; Hebrew HebrewHebrew epigraphy; epigraphy;epigraphy; Greek epigraphy; GreekGreek epigraphy;Jewishepigraphy; gravestone Jewish Jewish gravestone inscriptions;gravestone inscriptions; inscriptions; epitaphs; Jewish epitaphs; epitaphs; cemeteries Jewish Jewish cemeteries cemeteries

1.1. Introduction Introduction ﻗﺼﺮ ﻓﺮﻋﻮﻥ ṣ ﻭﻟﻴﻠﻲ Qå”)¯) ) waswas anan ancient ancient ﻗﺼﺮ¯ àñ«Q ﻓﺮﻋﻮﻥ) ) JËð, , Berber: Berber:Berber: ⵡⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉ, , also alsoalso called calledcalled QQQṣs.ararar Pharaoun PharaounPharaoun úÎ ﻭﻟﻴﻠﻲ :VolubilisVolubilis (Arabic: (Arabic:(Arabic BerberBerber and and Roman Roman city, city, a a capital capitalcapital of ofof the thethe Kingdom KingdomKingdom of of Mauretania, Mauretania, located located next next to to the the modern modern city city of of MeknesMeknes in in Morocco. Morocco. AfterAfter After thethe the fallfall fall ofof CarthageCarthage inin 146146 BCE,BCE, MauritaniaMauritania becamebecame aa clientclient state state of of the the RomanRoman Empire, Empire, and and Volubilis Volubilis was was Romanised, Romanised, in in particular, particular, by by King King Juba Juba II II (52/50 (52(52/50/50 BCE–23 BCE–23 CE) CE) of of NumidiaNumidia andand Mauretania, Mauretania, whowho establishedestablished hishis royal royal capital capital in in the the city. city. In In 44 44 CE, CE, Mauritania Mauritania was was annexedannexed byby the thethe Roman RomanRoman Empire, Empire,Empire, and andand Volubilis VolubilisVolubilis became becamebecame the capital thethe capital ofcapital the new ofof the Romanthe newnew province RomanRoman Mauretania provinceprovince MauretaniaTingitanaMauretania. RomanTingitana Tingitana rule. .Roman Roman lasted rule untilrule lasted lasted 280 CE, until until although 280 280 CE, CE, Roman although although influence Roman Roman remained influence influence significant remained remained throughoutsignificant significant throughoutthethroughout fourth century the the fourth fourth despite century century the despite declinedespite the ofthe the decline decline city. Byof of the thethe city. timecity. By ofBy the the time Arab time of conquestof the the Arab Arab in conquest conquest 708 CE, thein in 708 city708 CE,centerCE, the the hadcity city beencenter center abandoned, had had been been abandoned, abandoned, and the population, and and the the population, population, mostly Awraba mostly mostly Berbers, Awraba Awraba moved Berbers, Berbers, to themoved moved southwest to to the the southwestofsouthwest the old of city,of the the where old old city, city, a newwhere where city a a new wallnew city city was wall wall constructed, was was constructed, constructed, while the while while old the citythe old old center city city center wascenter turned was was turned turned into a into a cemetery. After the capital of the region was moved to Feṣ by the rulers from the Idrisid dynasty intocemetery. a cemetery. After After the capital the capital of the of region the region was moved was moved to Fes. toby Fe theṣ by rulers the rulers from from the Idrisid the Idrisid dynasty dynasty in the inearlyin the the early800s, early Volubilis800s, 800s, Volubilis Volubilis was almost was was almost almost deserted deserted deserted (Panetier (Panetier (Panetier 2002, p.2002, 2002, 50; p.Risse p. 50; 50; 2001Risse Risse; Marion2001; 2001; Marion Marion 1960). 1960). 1960). SemiticSemitic population population was was present present in in Volubilis Volubilis th throughoutthroughoutroughout its its history. history.history. The The Phoenicians PhoeniciansPhoenicians appeared appeared herehere since since at at least least the the third third century century BCE. BCE. Jews Jews ha hadhadd contacts contacts with with Mauretania Mauretania on on several several occasions. occasions. MidrashMidrash Exodus Exodus Rabba Rabba 18:6 18:6 (35b) (35b) contains contains a a reference reference to to Mauretania Mauretania including including a a folk-etymology folk-etymology of of the the .barbur barburbarbur(appearing (appearing (appearing in in in 1 1 Kings1 Kings Kings 5:3) 5:3) 5:3) as as as “a “a “a fowl fowl fowl coming coming coming from from from Barbary” Barbary” Barbary”(Hirschberg (Hirschberg (Hirschberg 1974 1974, 1974,, p. 27).p. p ברבור ברבור wordword

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27).After After the death the death of King of JubaKing II’s Juba wife, II’s Cleopatra wife, Cleopatra Selene II Selene (40 BCE–before II (40 BCE–before 6 CE), who 6 wasCE), a daughterwho was ofa daughterMark Antony, of Mark Juba Antony, II married Juba Glaphyra II married (35 Glaphyra BCE–7 CE), (35 a widowBCE–7 CE), of Herod a widow the Great’s of Herod son the Alexander. Great’s sonAlexander Alexander. had beenAlexander executed had by been his executed father’s order by hi fors father’s a conspiracy order for against a conspiracy him. Glaphyra against was him. a GlaphyraCappadocian was princess; a Cappadocian however, princess; being a however, daughter-in-law being a ofdaughter-in-law the Judean king, of shethe hadJudean adopted king, Judaism,she had adoptedat least, toJudaism, some extent. at least, Her to marriagesome extent. to the Her king marriage of Numidia to the andking Mauretania of Numidia did and not Mauretania last for a long did nottime. last She for divorced a long time. Juba She II and divorced married Juba another II and son married of Herod another the Great,son of aHerod half-brother the Great, of her a half- first brotherhusband, of Herodher first Archelaus, husband, theHerodEthnarch Archelaus,of Judea, the Ethnarch Samaria, of and Judea, Idumea. Samaria, Despite and Idumea. Glaphyra’s Despite brief Glaphyra’stenure as a Queenbrief tenure of Mauretania, as a Queen the of story Mauretania, of her second the story marriage of her caused second interest marriage towards caused the interest African towardscountry amongthe African the Jews country (Hirschberg, among the ibid.) Jews (Hirschberg 1974, ibid.) While reports about the earliest presence of the Jews in northwestern northwestern Africa tend to be legendary, legendary, reliable data is based on epigraphic sources. In In particular, particular, it is often stated that a synagogue existed in Volubilis inin thethe 3rd3rd centurycentury CECE ((FrézoulsFrézouls 19711971,, pp.pp. 287–92). The claim is based entirely on Jewish inscription from from the the city, which mentions πατὴρ τῆς συναγωγὴς τῶν Ἰουδέων (pater synagoges ton Iudeon,, “head “head of of the the Synagogue of the Jews”); however, no attempt has been made to identify the location of the synagogue in the city. There are several sites in North Africa where ancient synagogues were found or where they could possibly have existed with their locations more or less successfully identified identified on the basis of archaeological evidence. This This included included Hammam Hammam Li Lif,f, with with the the archaeological evidence based on mosaics, Carthage,Carthage, Lepcis Lepcis Magna, Magna, and and Tipasa Tipasa (Stern (Stern 2008 2008,, p. 196). p. 196). Volubilis Volubilis would would be the mostbe the western most westernlocation location of a synagogue of a synagogue in North in Africa. North Africa. When history of the Ancient Jewish diaspora is studied, there is a significantsignificant gap between the rabbinical sources in the Hebrew and Aramaic lang languagesuages and Greek and Latin sources including the epigraphic texts, whichwhich ledled ShayeShaye CohenCohen to to his his concept concept of of “epigraphic “epigraphic Rabbis” Rabbis” di differentfferent from from Rabbis Rabbis as ascommunity community leaders. leaders.1 Furthermore,1 Furthermore, the the funerary funerary language language has has its ownits own peculiar peculiar features, features,2 due2 due to the to thesacral sacral nature nature of epitaphs of epitaphs which which express express certain certain attitudes attitudes towards towards life and life death. and3 death.In addition,3 In addition, there is thereoften ais gapoften between a gap between the literary the sources literary and sources archaeological and archaeological and artistic and evidence artistic with evidence the latter with often the latterbeing often borrowed being from borrowed non-Jewish from non-Jewish examples and examples sometimes and re-interpreted.sometimes re-interpreted.4 4 The meaning of the term συναγωγήσυναγωγη´ ((synagoge,synagoge, literally,literally, “a congregation”) and and the function of the synagogue in the the ancient ancient Roman Roman Jewish Jewish diaspora diaspora remains remains a a matter matter of of controversy, controversy, as well as the meaning and functionsfunctions ofof thethe titlestitles ofof community community leaders, leaders, such such as as “head” “head” or or “Rabbi” “Rabbi”5.5 Therefore,. Therefore, it isit isimportant important to to attempt attempt to to relate relate epigraphic epigraphic and and archeological archeological evidence. evidence. The objective of the present article is to revisit Jewish inscriptions from from Volubilis Volubilis and to discuss the possibility of the existence existence of an an ancient ancient synagogue synagogue in the the city. city. Our Our work work is is based based on on observations observations from a recent visit to the site and on an extensive analysis of published literature sources. The Jewish inscriptions from from Volubilis have beenbeen publishedpublished by variousvarious authors;authors; however, these epigraphic sources are found in didifferentfferent and rarerare publications,publications, often without translation and appropriate commentaries. No systematic attempt has been made to identify the site of the synagogue in Volubilis

1 Cohen( 1981(1981,, pp. pp. 1–17) 1–17) note noted that that Jewish Jewish inscriptions inscriptions from from North North Africa Africa are are less less known known than than from from other other region. region. There isis nono comprehensivecomprehensive corpus corpus of of such such inscriptions, inscriptions, except except for thefor articlethe article in French in French by Le by Bohec (Le (Bohec1981), which1981), provides a list of 81 inscriptions without their translations and without photographs. Hopefully, recent efforts in “Digital whichHumanities” provides will eventuallya list of 81 include inscriptions also cataloging without ancient their translations Jewish inscription; and without efforts in thisphotographs. direction are Hopefully, made, in particular, recent effortsby Saar (in2016 “Digital, 2017). Humanities” will eventually include also cataloging ancient Jewish inscription; efforts in 2 thisKaren direction Stern states: are “Northmade, Africanin particular, Jewish texts by Saar provide (2016, no evidence 2017). of the languages Jews spoke, although the preponderant 2 Karencombination Stern of states: Latinate “North onomastic African and linguisticJewish texts tendencies provid indicatese no evidence that the majorityof the languages of western Jews African spoke, Jews werealthough Latin dialect speakers. In all cases, commemorative language serves as a flexible implement to mark the identities of North theAfrican preponderant Jews after their combination deaths” (Stern of Latinate2008, p. 191). onomastic and linguistic tendencies indicates that the majority of 3 westernAbout the African sacral function Jews were of Hebrew Latin epitaphdialect seespeakers. (Nosonovsky In all 2017cases,). commemorative language serves as a flexible 4 implementFor example, to the mark reinterpretation the identities of the of story North of Odysseus African andJews Sirens after in their a mosaic deaths” of the (Stern Beit-Leontis 2008, synagogue p. 191). in Beit-She’an 3 About(Hasan-Rokem the sacral 2014 function, pp. 159–89). of He Kiperwasserbrew epitaph(2019 see) studied (Nosonovsky rabbinical 2017). sources on the migration of Babylonian Jews to the west and notes that “the relationship between the Diaspora Jew and the Land of Israel is expressed in the conflicted 4 Forself-perception” example, the (Kiperwasser reinterpretation 2019, p. 126). of the However, story much of Od lessysseus is known and about Sirens Jewish in migrationa mosaic to of such the extreme Beit-Leontis western synagogueregion as Mauretania in Beit-She’an Tingitana. (Hasan-Rokem 2014, pp. 159–89). Kiperwasser (2019) studied rabbinical sources on 5 theSee (migrationCohen 1981 of, pp. Babylonian 1–17), also Jews note 17.to the west and notes that “the relationship between the Diaspora Jew and the Land of Israel is expressed in the conflicted self-perception” (Kiperwasser 2019, p. 126). However, much less is known about Jewish migration to such extreme western region as Mauretania Tingitana. 5 See (Cohen 1981, pp. 1–17), also note 17.

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usingArtsusingArts archeological 20192019 archeological,,, 88,, x 127x FORFOR sources.PEERPEER sources. REVIEWREVIEW Our Ourgoal goal is to is re-read to re-read these these sources sources not onlynot only forArts the for 2019 sakethe, 8, xsake ofFOR corrections ofPEER corrections REVIEW3 of 13 3 of 13 3 of 13 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13 ofArts previous 2019of previous, 8, x FORmistakes, PEERmistakes, REVIEW but alsobut alsofor the for sakethe sake of gain of gaining newing new knowledge knowledge on the on synagoguethe synagogue in Volubilis. in 3Volubilis. of 13 Arts 2019, 8, x ArtsArtsFORArts 2019 20192019PEER,, , 8 88 ,REVIEW, , x xx FOR FORFOR PEER PEERPEER REVIEW REVIEWREVIEW using archeological3 of 13 sources.333 ofofof 131313 Our goal is to re-read these sources not only for the sake of corrections using archeological sources. Our goal is to re-read these sources not only for the sake of corrections using archeological sources.2. Our Epigraphiccommentaries. goal is to Evidence re-read No systematic these sources attempt not only has beenfor the made sake to of identify corrections the site of of previous the synagogue mistakes, in Volubilis but also for the sake of gaining new knowledge on the synagogue in Volubilis. using archeologicalusingofusing2.usingusing previousarcheologicalEpigraphic archeological archeologicalarcheological sources. mistakes, Evidence sources. Our sources. sources.sources. goal but Our isalso Our OurOurgoalto re-readfor goal goal goalis theto is is isre-read thesesake to toto re-read re-readre-read ofsources these gain these thesethese sources ingingnot sources sourcesnewsourcesnewonly not knowledgeforknowledge notonly notnot the only only onlyforsake the for for for ofonon sakethe thecorrectionsthe thethe sake sake sakeof synagoguesynagogue corrections of ofof correctionscorrectionscorrections inin Volubilis.Volubilis. of previous mistakes, but also forusing the sake archeological of gaining sources. new knowledge Our goal ison to the re-read synagogue thesesources in Volubilis. not only for the sake of corrections of of previousof previousofof ofThreemistakes, previous previousprevious Jewish mistakes, but mistakes, mistakes,mistakes, gravestonealso but for alsobut butbutthe also inscriptionsalsosakeforalso the for for forof sakethegain thethe sake sake sakefromingof gain new of of ofthe gain gaininggain knowledgepre-Islamic newinginging new new newknowledge knowledge knowledge onknowledgeperiod the synagogueon have the on onon been synagoguethe thethe synagogue synagogueinfoundsynagogue Volubilis. inin Volubilis.Volubilis. in inin Volubilis. Volubilis.Volubilis. previousThree mistakes, Jewish gravestone but also for inscriptions the sake of from gaining the newpre-Islamic knowledge period on thehave2. Epigraphic synagogue been found Evidence in in Volubilis. Volubilis. 2. Epigraphic Evidence 2. Epigraphic Evidence 2. Epigraphic Evidence 2. Epigraphic2.1. Inscription2.2.1.2.2. Epigraphic Epigraphic EpigraphicEvidence Inscription One Evidence Evidence EvidenceOne Three Jewish gravestone inscriptions from the pre-Islamic period have been found in Volubilis. Three Jewish gravestone inscriptionsThree fromJewish the gravestone pre-Islamic periodinscriptions have been from found the pre-Islamic in Volubilis. period have been found in Volubilis. InscriptionThree Jewish one gravestone (Le Bohec inscriptions1981, No 80, from limestone, the pre-Islamic current location period in have Volubilis) been found is in Hebrew, in Volubilis. and Three JewishThreeInscriptionThreeThree gravestone Jewish JewishJewish one gravestone gravestoneinscriptionsgravestone (Le Bohec inscriptions inscriptions1981, inscriptionsfrom Nothe 80, pre-Islamic from fromfromlimestone, the thethe pre-Islamic pre-Islamicpre-Islamicperiod current have location period periodperiod been infound havehavehave2.1. Volubilis) Inscription been beenbeenin Volubilis. found foundfound is in One Hebrew, in inin Volubilis. Volubilis.Volubilis. and it was published for the first time in 1892 by Ph. Berger (Berger 1892, pp. 64–66; Le Bohec 1981, No. 2.1. Inscription One 2.1.it was Inscription published One for the first time in 1892 by Ph. Berger (Berger 1892, pp. 64–66; Le Bohec 1981, No. 2.1. Inscription80;2.1. Besnier 2.1.Inscription2.1.2.1. One Inscription Inscription Inscription 1904, One No. OneOne One 2). (Figure 1a). His reading of the inscription is Inscription one (Le Bohec 1981, No 80, limestone, current location in Volubilis) is in Hebrew, and Inscription one (Le Bohec 1981,80; Besnier No 80, 1904,limestone, No. 2). current (Figure location 1a). His in reading Volubilis) of theis in inscription Hebrew, and is InscriptionInscription one (Le one Bohec (Le Bohec 1981, No 1981, 80, Nolimestone, 80, limestone, current location current in location Volubilis)it was in published Volubilis)is in Hebrew, for is theinand Hebrew, first time andin 1892 by Ph. Berger (Berger 1892, pp. 64–66; Le Bohec 1981, No. Le byMatrona Bohec Ph. Matrona one oneone Berger 1981, (Le (Le ((LeLe Bohec Bohec BohecNo(Berger 80, 1981, 1981,19811981, limestone, 1892,, No No NoNo pp. 80, 80, 80, current 64–66;limestone, limestone, limestone, Le location Bohec current current current in1981, Volubilis)location location location No. in in in is Volubilis) Volubilis)Volubilis) in Hebrew, is is isis in inand in Hebrew, Hebrew, Hebrew, and and and) מטרונאin Inscription InscriptiononeInscription1892 מטרונאit was published for the firstInscription time it wasitit waswas published publishedpublished for the forfor first thethe time firstfirst in timetime 1892 inin by 18921892 Ph. Bergerbyby Ph.Ph. (Berger Berger 1892,(Berger pp. 1892,64–66;80; Besnier pp. Le Bohec64–66; 1904, 1981, LeNo. Bohec 2).No. (Figure 1981, 1a). No. His reading of the inscription is ;the the first daughterthe forforof forfortime daughterthe the the thethe ininscription first first firstof first1892 Rabbi time oftime timetime by Rabbi in Ph.in inisin 1892 1892 1892 1892Berger by by byby Ph. Ph.(Berger Ph.Ph. Berger Berger BergerBerger 1892, (Berger (Berger (Berger(Berger pp. 189264–66; 1892, 1892,1892,, pp. Lepp. pp.pp. 64–66; Bohec 64–66; 64–66;64–66; Le 1981, Le Le BohecLe Bohec Bohec BohecNo. 1981 1981, 1981,1981,, No. No. No.No. 80בת for published publishedpublished reading רבי בתwas waswas His רבי .(Besnier 1904, No.it 2). was (Figure publishedit itit1a ;80 מטרונא Besnier Besnier 1904, 1904, No. 2).No. (Figure 2). (Figure 1a). His 1a). reading His reading of the inscription of the inscription is is;80 ;80 Yehuda,1904,1904, ,(Figure No. No. No.No. 2) [may (Figure1a). 2). 2).2). (Figure (Figure(FigureHis she]1 a).reading rest 1a). His1a).1a). [in His readingHisHis of peace] thereading readingreading inscription of the of ofof inscriptionthe thethe inscription inscriptionisinscription is is isis Matrona ,1904 .(2 יהודה1904 נח.No יהודהBesnier BesnierBesnier נח;Besnier 80;1904,80;Besnier80 ;80 [Matrona Yehuda, [may she] rest [in peace מטרונא the daughter of Rabbi בת רבי מטרונא this Matrona isMatronaMatronaMatrona the Matronaonly Hebrew inscription from the region. The use of Hebrew language in מטרונאthatמטרונאמטרונאמטרונא NoteMatrona מטרונא [Yehuda, language [may in she] rest [in peace יהודהHebrew נחthe daughter of RabbiNote that this is the only Hebrew inscription from the region. The use of בת רבי the daughter of Rabbiבתבת בת רבי רבי רבי רביבת רבי peace] inscriptions thethethe of daughter daughter daughterdaughterRabbiwasthe daughterwasvery of ofofvery oflimited Rabbi RabbiRabbi Rabbi oflimited Rabbi in the in Mediterraneanthe Mediterranean Jewish Jewish diaspora diaspora during during the firstthe first בתבת inscriptions[indaughter רבי רביshe]gravestone restthe בת gravestone רביYehuda, [may יהודה נח Yehuda, [may she] rest [in peace] Note that this is the only Hebrew inscription from the region. The use of Hebrew language in 6 יהודה נח It is 6[may evenYehuda,Yehuda,Yehuda, she] moreYehuda, rest [may [may[may [may surprising [in [may she] she] she]peace] she] rest she]restrest rest to [in [in rest[infind [inpeace] peace]peace] [in apeace] peace]Hebrew inscription in such a remote location as יהודהיהודה יהודה נח נח נח .CE נח ,Yehuda יהודה centuries נח Note that this is the only Hebrewcenturies inscription CE. It is evenfrom morethe region. surprising The use to findof Hebrew a Hebrew language inscription in in such a remote location as Volubilis. gravestone inscriptions was very limited in the Mediterranean Jewish diaspora during the first Volubilis.NoteNoteNoteNote that that that thatthis this thisis this the is isis onlythe thethe only only only onlyHebrew Hebrew HebrewHebrew Hebrew inscription inscription inscriptioninscription inscription from from fromfrom fromthe region.the thethe the region. region.region. region. The TheTheuseThe The use ofuseuse useHebrew of ofof ofHebrewHebrewHebrew Hebrew language language languagelanguage language in in inin gravestone inscriptions wasNote very that thislimitedNote is thatthe in only thethis MediterraneanHebrew is the only inscription Hebrew Jewish from inscriptiondiaspora the region. during from The the theuse first region.of Hebrew The language use of6 Hebrewin language in gravestoneBergerNote doesinscriptions that not this provide iswas the verydetails only limited Hebrewabout inthe theinscription provenan Mediterraneance fromof the the Jewishinscription; region. diasporacenturies Thehowever, useduring CE. of he ItHebrew believestheis even first morelanguage surprising in to find a Hebrew inscription in such a remote location as centuries CE.6 It is evengravestone more surprising gravestonegravestoneingravestoneinscriptions gravestoneBerger to inscriptionsdoesinscriptions inscriptionsfindwas inscriptions notavery Hebrew provide limited waswaswas was inscription veryverydetailsvery veryin limitedthelimitedlimited limitedabout Mediterranean in such ininthein in thethe the provenan thea remote MediterraneanMediterraneanMediterranean Mediterranean Jewish celocation of thediaspora Jewishasinscription;JewishJewish Jewish during diasporadiasporadiaspora diaspora however, the duringduring duringfirst he thebelievesthe the firstfirst firstfirst thatgravestone the epitaph6 isinscriptions dated the 3rd was century very CE. limited Frézouls in suggeststhe Mediterranean that the Roman Volubilis.Jewish name diaspora Matrona shows during the first centuriescenturiesthat6 the CE. epitaph CE. It is66 6 Iteven is is dated even more themore surprising 3rd surprising century to CE.find to findFrézouls a Hebrew a Hebrew suggests inscription inscription that thein such Romanin such a remote namea remote Matronalocation location showsas as Volubilis. centuries CE.centuriescenturies It is even CE. CE. 6more It It isis is evensurprisingeven even moremore more to surprisingsurprising surprising find a Hebrew toto to findfind find inscription aa aHebrewHebrew Hebrew inscriptionininscription inscription such a remote inin in suchsuch such location aa remoteremote a remote as locationlocation location asas theVolubilis. centuriestendency ofCE. using6 It It isisLatin eveneven and moremore not Greek surprisingsurprising names toto by findfind the Jewsaa HebrewHebrew of the regioninscriptioninscription (FrézoulsBerger inin suchsuch 1971, does a app. notremoteremote 287– provide locationlocation details asas about the provenance of the inscription; however, he believes Berger does notVolubilis. provide detailsVolubilis.theVolubilis.asVolubilis. Volubilis. tendency about the of usingprovenan Latince andof the not inscription; Greek names however, by the Jewshe believes of the region (Frézouls 1971, pp. 287– 92).Volubilis. SternBerger discusses does not the provide Jewish detailsnaming about trends the related provenan to thece names of the Matronainscription; andthat however,Yehuda the epitaph, and he suggestsisbelieves dated the 3rd century CE. Frézouls suggests that the Roman name Matrona shows that the epitaph is dated theBerger 3rd92). doescentury SternBergerBergerBerger not CE. discussesprovide doesdoesdoes Frézouls notnot notnot details the provide provideprovide providesuggests Jewish about details detailsdetailsnamingdetails that the abouttheprovenan about aboutabout trends Roman the the thethe related provenancece name provenanprovenan provenanof the to Matrona inscription;thecece ofce names ofof theof shows the thethe inscription; Matrona inscription; inscription;inscription;however, and however, he however,however,Yehudahowever, believes he, and believes hehehe suggests believesbelievesbelieves that thatthat “thethe epitaphBerger idiosyncratically isdoes dated not the namedprovide 3rd century Rabbi details YehudaCE. about Frézouls chose the suggests toprovenan accord that hisce the daughter of Roman thethe inscription; a tendencyname thoroughly Matrona of however, usingLatinate shows Latin he and believes not Greek names by the Jews of the region (Frézouls 1971, pp. 287– the tendency of usingthat Latin the andepitaphthatthatthethat not epitaph the“the thetheGreekis dated epitaph epitaph epitaphidiosyncratically names is the dated is is is3rd dated datedbydated thecentury the 3rdthe the theJews named 3rd century3rd 3rdCE. of century century century FrézoulstheRabbi CE.region YehudaCE. CE. FrCE. suggestsé zouls (FrézoulsFrézouls FrézoulsFrézouls chose suggests that suggests suggests1971, suggeststo the accordthat Romanpp. that that that the287– his the Romanthename thedaughter Roman RomanRoman Matrona name a name name namethoroughlyMatrona shows Matrona MatronaMatrona shows Latinate shows showsshows the name Matrona, which was a “personal name commonly allocated in North Africa.”92). Stern7 discusses the Jewish naming trends related to the names Matrona and Yehuda, and suggests the tendencythethat tendencythenamethetendencythe of tendency thetendencytendency using Matrona epitaph of of Latin using using of of,of which using using usingandis Latin Latindated not wasLatin LatinLatin and andGreek thea and “personalandnotand not 3rd names notGreek not Greeknot century Greek GreekGreek namebynames names the names namesCE.names commonly Jewsby by Frézouls the theby by byof Jews thethe Jewsthe allocated Jews JewsregionJews suggestsof of the the of ofof (Frézoulsregion the the regioninthe North that region regionregion (Frézouls ( theFr Africa.”1971, é(Frézouls (Frézouls(Frézoulszouls Roman pp. 1971, 71971 287– 1971, name1971,1971, ,pp. pp. 287–pp. pp. pp. 287–92).Matrona 287– 287–287– showsshows 92). Stern discusses the Jewish naming trends related to the names Matrona and Yehuda, and suggests that “the idiosyncratically named Rabbi Yehuda chose to accord his daughter a thoroughly Latinate 92).the SternRegarding tendencyRegarding discusses the of titlethe using Jewishtitle“Rabbi”, Latin“Rabbi”, naming Cohen and Cohen trendsnot (1981, Greek (1981, related p. 16) p.names argu 16)to the argues by thatnameses the thatin JewstheMatrona in pre-Islamic the of pre-Islamic theand regionYehuda period period ,(Frézouls and it remained suggests it remained 1971, pp. 287– that “the idiosyncratically92). Stern named discussesthe92).92).Stern92). Rabbitendency Stern SternStern discusses the Yehuda discusses discussesdiscusses Jewish of the usingchose naming Jewishthe thethe Jewish JewishLatintoJewish accord naming trends and naming namingnaming his related trendsnot daughter trends trendstrendsGreek relatedto the related related related namesa namesthoroughly to the to toto by Matrona namesthe thethe the names namesnames Latinate JewsMatrona and Matrona MatronaMatrona ofYehuda theand and, regionandYehudaand and Yehuda YehudaYehuda suggests, (Frézouls and,, , and and suggestsand suggests suggestssuggests 1971, that pp. 287– 7 “athat popular “the idiosyncratically title, which could named desc ribeRabbi individuals Yehuda chose who to were accord not hispart daughter of thatname Hebrew a thoroughly Matrona and, whichAramaic- Latinate was a “personal name commonly allocated in North Africa.” name Matrona, whichthat was “the a “personal idiosyncratically92).that“the“athatthat popular Stern “the “theidiosyncratically“the name idiosyncraticallyidiosyncraticallydiscussesidiosyncratically title, commonly named which the named Rabbicould allocatedJewish named namednamed RabbiYehudadesc naming Rabbi inribeRabbiRabbi Yehuda North chose individuals Yehuda Yehuda Yehudatrends Africa.” choseto accord chosechoserelatedchose to who7 accord his to totowere daughtertoaccord accordaccord histhe not daughter names his hisparthis a daughter daughterthoroughlydaughter of Matrona athat thoroughly Hebrew a aa thoroughly thoroughlythoroughly Latinate andand Yehuda Latinateand Aramaic- Latinate LatinateLatinate,, nameandand suggestssuggests Regarding7 the title “Rabbi”, Cohen (1981, p. 16) argues that in the pre-Islamic period it remained speakingname Matrona society, which which was produced a “personal the Talmud; name commonly synagogues allocated in both in Israel North and Africa.” the7 diaspora 777 were not Regarding the titlename “Rabbi”, MatronathatnamespeakingnameMatronaname Cohen, “thewhich Matrona MatronaMatrona ,(1981, idiosyncratically whichsociety was,, , p. which awhichwhich was “personalwhich16) aargu was was “personalwas producedes a a aname that“personalnamed “personal“personal in name commonly thethe Rabbi Talmud; pre-Islamicname commonlynamename Yehuda commonly allocatedcommonlycommonly synagogues allocatedperiod chose in allocated allocated allocated Northit remained intoin Northbothaccord Africa.” in inin Israel North North Africa.”North his7 and daughterAfrica.” Africa.”Africa.” the diaspora7 a thoroughly were not Latinate led byRegarding men titled the ‘rabbis’” title “Rabbi”, Cohen (1981, p. 16) argues that in the pre-Islamic“a popular period title, it remained which could describe individuals who were not part of that Hebrew and Aramaic- “a popular title, which couldRegarding descnameledribe by theRegardingRegarding RegardingMatrona menindividuals title titled “Rabbi”,,, thewhich whichthethe ‘rabbis’” titlewho titletitle Cohen waswas “Rabbi”,“Rabbi”, “Rabbi”,“Rabbi”,were a a(1981, “personalnot“personal Cohen Cohen Cohen Cohenpart p. 16) (of 1981 (1981, (1981, (1981, argu namethatname, p. es Hebrewp. p.p. 16) thatcommonlycommonly 16) 16)16) argues argu arguinargu andtheeseses that pre-Islamic thatAramaic- thatthat allocatedallocated in in inin the the thethe pre-Islamic pre-Islamic pre-Islamicperiodpre-Islamic inin NorthNorth it periodremained Africa.” Africa.”period periodperiod it remained it itit7 7 remained remained remained “a society and[ta] nuahAramaic- which “she produced the Talmud; synagogues in both Israel and the diaspora were not תנוח it is interpreted who were as nota shortened part of that formspeaking Hebrew of ,נח a popularAs far astitle, the which final blessing could desc formularibe individuals“ Aramaic-speaking and andand[ta] nuahAramaic- Aramaic-Aramaic- “she תנוח -and it wereis who the interpreted werediasporanot who whowho part notwere werewere partasofwere not athatnotnot shortened of notpart partthatpartHebrew Hebrewof ofof that that thatform and Hebrew HebrewHebrew and ofAramaic, נחspeaking society which“a popular produced “a“apopulartitle,“a popular thepopularpopularAs which Talmud; far title, astitle, title,title,could which the synagogues which which whichfinal desc could blessing ribecould couldcould describe individuals in desc desc desc bothformula individualsriberiberibe Israel individuals individuals individuals who may the title [her] “Rabbi”, soul rest”. Cohen8 The latter(1981, interpretation p. 16) argues is that likely in ledgiven the by pre-Islamic themen possibility titled ‘rabbis’”period that it remained“ נח נפש will rest”Regarding or which whichwhich “mayproduced the produced produced theproduced [her] Talmud; Talmud; thesoul Talmud;the thethe rest”.synagogues synagogues Talmud; Talmud;Talmud;8 Thesynagogues lattersynagogues synagoguessynagogues in in both both interpretation inIsrael Israel both in inin both andboth andbothIsrael the theisIsrael IsraelIsrael likelyand diaspora andandtheand given diasporathe thethe were thediaspora diasporadiaspora possibility not were led were werewere not by menthat not notnot נח producedwhich producedנפש speakingspeaking societyspeakingwillspeakingsocietyspeaking rest” societywhich which society orsocietysociety ta]nuah “she] תנוח it is interpreted as a shortened form of ,נח led by men titled ‘rabbis’” “a popular title, which could describe individuals who were not part Asof farthat as Hebrew the final blessingand Aramaic- formula the is name the nameנח of is נח soul). An alternative An alternative interpretation interpretation of) נפש.(soul) נפש anotherled byanother men line titled linecould could ‘rabbis’” be present be present with with the word the word ta]nuah “she 8] תנוח titled ittitledtitled is interpreted ‘rabbis’” ‘rabbis’”‘rabbis’” as a shortened form of ,נח As far as the finalled blessing by men led formulaledtitledtitledled by byby ‘rabbis’” ‘rabbis’”men menmen diaspora “may “she [her] were soul not rest”. The latter interpretation is likely given the possibility that 324–314נח the] anuah נפשand or [ inta תנוח ”the, Noahit Talmud;is interpreted. The Hebrew synagogues as aname shortened Noahin both formiswill mentioned Israel ofrestנח NoahspeakingAs thus far implyingas societythe final the which blessing dual nameproduced formula Yehuda she [[ [taintata ]] ]nuahanuahnuah 314–324 “she “she“she“ תנוחתנוחתנוח form formisform form[ mentionedta] nuahof ofof of תנוח Noahit it itgiven it is isis is interpreted interpretedasinterpreted. interpreted The thea shortened Hebrewpossibility as asas as a aname a a form shortened shortenedshortened shortenedthat Noahof , ,,נחנחנח name , formula formula formulait is Yehudaisinterpreted likelyנח may As[her] far soul Noahas the rest”.AsAsAs thusfinal far far far8 implying Theasasblessing as the the the latter final final finalfinal formulathe interpretation blessing blessing blessing dual“ נח נפש will rest” or is the name נח soul). An alternative interpretation of) נפש another line could be present with the word 8 may Rome ‘rabbis’”‘rabbis’” [her] (Ilan soul 2008, rest”. vol. 3, The p.888 140).latter interpretation is likely given the possibility that“ נחfrom titledtitled נפש CEwill ledledinscription rest” byby or menmen is is likely the name given is isis likely likely likelythe possibility given givengiven the thethe thatpossibility possibilitypossibility that thatthat נח may “may “maysoul “mayRome An rest”. [her][her] [her][her] alternative(Ilan8 soul soul soulThe2008, rest”. rest”.latterrest”. vol.interpretation 8 interpretation 3, The The The p. 140).latter latterlatter of interpretation interpretationinterpretation“ נחנחנח .(her] from (soul] נפשנפשנפש word “may or oror נח”the inscription rest”rest” rest נפש another line could bewill present rest” with orwillCEwillwill name the [[ dualta ]nuah name “she“she Yehuda Noah. The Hebrew name Noah is mentioned in a 314–324 תנוח is of offracturedthe נחsoul).,, itit2018, isis An interpretedinterpreted we alternative found asasonly interpretation aa shortenedshortened aNoah piece thus of of formform implyingthe)נח נפש anotherDuring lineAs far couldour as visit thebe present finalto Volubilis blessing with the in formulaword December is isis thefractured thethe name name name נחנחthe נח piece is the ofname of of ofof נחmentioned alternative (soul). (soul).(soul). 2018, An An AnAn inwe alternativeinterpretation alternative alternativealternativea 314–324found only interpretation interpretation interpretationinterpretation of aנפש נפש נפש the the the (soul).inNoah word word word December is An נפש Noah thus implyinganother the dual line nameanotheranotheranother could YehudaDuring be line lineline present Noah could couldcouldour. Thevisit with be be be present present presentHebrew theto Volubilisword with with with name .(given. inThe froma 314–324piecethe Rome possibility is (Ilan 2008, that vol. 3, p. 140 בת is inscription likelyandמטmaydual right name [her] part Yehuda soulof the rest”. Noah inscription.88 The The Hebrew latter including interpretation name the Noah letters isCE mentioned“ נחupperthe נפשgravestoneNoahwill thus rest” implyingwith or the in in Theinthe a a a 314–324 314–324 piece314–324possibility is that .בת mentioned aand 314–324 given מטCE inscription from NoahRome thus(Ilanwill Noahimplyinggravestone Noah2008,Noah rest” thus vol.thusthus theor 3, implying implying withimplying p.dual 140). the name “mayupperthe thethe dualYehuda dualdual [her]right name namename Noah partsoul Yehuda YehudaYehuda. ofTherest”. the Hebrew Noah Noah Noahinscription The... . The The The lattername Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew including interpretationNoah name name nameis mentionedthe Noah Noah Noah letters is is is islikely mentioned mentionedin to Volubilis in December 2018, we found only a piece of the fracturedנח .marked “Hebrew inscription.During Unknown our visit date נפש .(onCE displayinscription in the from lapidarium Rome (Ilan of 2008, the local vol. 3,exhibition p. 140 date. isis thethe namename נח soul).(soul).of marked the AnAnfractured “Hebrew alternativealternative inscription. interpretationinterpretation Unknown ofof) נפש.(During our visitCE toinscription VolubilisanotherCEonCECE displayinscription inscriptionfrominscription in lineDecember Rome in could the from fromfrom(Ilan lapidarium be 2018, Rome Rome2008,Rome present we vol.(Ilan ((Ilan(IlanIlan offound 3,with 2008, 20082008, 2008,p.the 140). ,the local only vol.vol. word 3,3, 3,exhibitiona p. p. p.piece 140). 140). 140 The piece is .בת and מט Limestone”During (Figure our visit 1b). to Volubilis in December 2018, we found only agravestone piece of thewith fractured the upper right part of the inscription including the letters found. The weweonlyHebrewHebrewwe piece onlyfoundfound founda piece a isnamename piece onlyonlyonly of ofNoah Noahaaathe thepiecepiecepiece fracturedfractured isis mentionedofmentionedofof thethethe gravestone fracturedfracturedfractured inin aa 314–324314–324 בתweNoah and found 2018,2018, we.2018,. TheThe,2018 מט gravestone with the upperDuring rightNoahLimestone” partourDuringDuring During thusofvisit the implying (Figureto inscriptionourourourour Volubilis visit visitvisitvisit 1b). tothe to to Volubilistoincluding indual VolubilisVolubilisVolubilis December name in the December ininin lettersYehuda DecemberDecember2018,December .in. The the piecelapidarium is of the local exhibition marked “Hebrew inscription. Unknown date בת display and מט gravestone with the upper right part of the inscription including the letterson is . The TheThe on piece piece displaypiece is isis.. בתבתבת andandand piece מטTheמטמט . בת the thethe and letters letterslettersמט .on display in the lapidariumgravestone ofCE gravestonewithgravestonewithgravestone the inscription thelocalthe upperupper exhibitionwith withwith from right the thethe upper upper upper Rome partmarked of right right right(Ilan the “Hebrew part inscriptionpartpart 2008, of ofof the vol.theinscription.the inscription inscriptionincluding inscription3, p. 140). Unknown the including includingincluding letters date on display in the lapidarium of the local exhibition marked “Hebrew inscription.Limestone” Unknown (Figure 1b).date. Limestone” (Figure 1b).on display ononinon the thedisplaydisplaydisplayDuring lapidariumlapidarium ininin our thethethe lapidarium lapidarium ofvisitlapidariumof thethe to locallocal Volubilis of exhibitionofofexhibition thethethe locallocallocal in marked marked exhibitionexhibitionDecemberexhibition “Hebrew “Hebrew markedmarkedmarked 2018, inscription. inscription. “Hebrew“Hebrewwe“Hebrew found inscription. Unknowninscription.inscription.Unknown only a date. piecedate. UnknownUnknownUnknown Limestone” of the date.date.date. fractured 6Limestone” (Figure 1b). sages”),.. TheThe piecepiece isis בת the and andof sages”), the מטthe (“the language letters language of לשוןthe“) לשון חכמים חכמים Limestone” gravestone DueLimestone”6Limestone”(FigureLimestone” (Figure Dueto extremely 1to b).1b). extremely with(Figure (Figure (Figure poor the poor knowledge 1b). 1b).1b). upper knowledge right of Hebrew, of part Hebrew, ofwhich the which was inscription consideredwas considered including onJewish displayJewish epitaphs epitaphs in from the from firstlapidarium centuriesfirst centuries CE of from theCE from Italylocal Italyra exhibitionrely ra usedrely used Hebrew marked Hebrew besides besides“Hebrew single single words inscription. words (Olman (Olman 2015, Unknown 2015, p. p. date. on display in the lapidarium of the local exhibition marked “Hebrew6 inscription. Unknown date. ,(”the language of the sages“) לשון חכמים Moreover, Moreover, numerous numerous mistakes mistakes were were typical typical for Hebr for Hebrew epitaphsew epitaphs from from the firstthe Due firstcenturies to extremelycenturies from poorfrom Italy, knowledgeItaly, of Hebrew, which was considered .(136.(136 .Noy 1993, Nos 120, pp) משכבהו of instead the sages”), of משכהבו the 167), language“),164 לשון Nos חכמים ,Figure for which the femininewas 1b). considered (Noy 1993) ינוח ,Due to extremely poor knowledgeLimestone”including of Hebrew 6 .Jewish epitaphs from first centuries CE from Italy rarely used Hebrew besides single words (Olman 2015, pמשכבהו משכהבו ינוח 6 6 .of (“the languagelanguage (Noy of of1993, the the sages”), Nossages”), 120, Jewish pp לשון insteadחכמים Due666 includingtoDue extremely to extremely poor for poor knowledgethe knowledgefeminine of (Noy ofHebrew, Hebrew, 1993, which Nos which 164, was was 167),considered considered 6 ,the334–39; (“the136).(“the of thelanguage languageMoreover,language 232). sages”), Simonsohn of ofof numerous the thethe sages”), sages”),sages”), mistakes were typical for Hebrew epitaphs from the first centuries from Italy“) לשוןלשון לשון p. language,11–310 חכמיםחכמים חכמים .thepp“) ,2015 לשון ,Olmanconsideredconsidered considered 1993) חכמים Jewish epitaphs from first Due centuries to extremely138, Due143) Due DueCE tofrom and topoorto extremely extremelyextremely even Italyknowledge anra rely poor poorinscriptionpoor usedof knowledge knowledgeknowledge Hebrew, Hebrew written which of ofof besides Hebrew, Hebrew,fromHebrew, was left single considered which whichwhichto right words was waswas (Noy Jewish138,epitaphs epitaphs 143) fromand from firsteven first centuries an centuriesinscription CE from CE written Italyfrom rarely Italy from ra used leftrely Hebrewto used right Hebrew besides (Noy 1993, singlebesides pp. words single 310–11, (Olman words 334–39; 2015 (Olman, p.232). 136). 2015, Simonsohn Moreover, p. .Noy 1993, Nos 120, pp) משכבהו instead of משכהבו ,(Olman (Olman(Olman p.for for the the the 5th feminine2015, 2015, 2015,feminine p. p.p. (Noy 1993, Nos 164, 167) ינוחMoreover, numerousJewish mistakes epitaphs(1974,JewishJewishnumerousJewish p.were from847) epitaphs epitaphsepitaphstypical firstasserts mistakes centuries for from fromthatfrom wereHebr “thefirst firstfirst typicalCEew centuries centuriesknowledgecenturiesfrom epitaphs for Italy Hebrew CE CECE rafrom of from relyfromfrom epitaphsHebrew the used Italy ItalyItaly first fromHebrew raamong rara relycenturiesrelyrely the used used used firstEuropeanbesides Hebrewcenturiesfrom HebrewHebrew single Italy,Jewry besides frombesidesbesides words of Italy, that single single includingsingle(Olman including period words wordswords 2015, [until .(136 136).(1974, Moreover, p. 847) numerous asserts that mistakes “the knowledge were typical of Hebrewfor Hebr amongew epitaphs European from Jewry the first of thatcenturies period from [until Italy, the 5th Hebr typicaltypicalexpressedtypicalew ( (NoyNoy forepitaphsforfor 1993 HebrHebr1993,itselfHebr, Nosew ewewfromNosin 120,epitaphsepitaphsepitaphsa 120, thefew pp. pp.first 138,standard from fromfrom centuries 143) thethethe138, and words firstfirstfirst even 143)from centuriescenturies centuries anandin Italy, inscriptionthe even tombs’ fromfromfrom an writteninscription Italy, Italy, Italy, written from left to right (Noy 1993, pp. 310–11, 334–39; 232). Simonsohnמשכבהו were mistakesrestrictedmistakesmistakes insteadtypical were were wereforofand משכהבוfor the feminine136). Moreover,century] (Noy136).136).(136).Noy 1993, numerous was 1993 Moreover,Moreover,Moreover, Nos ,apparently Nos 164, 164,mistakes numerous numerousnumerous167), 167) , very ינוח including ’standard (Noy 1993,words Nos in 120,the pp.tombs משכבהוitself instead in aof few משכהבו was for theapparently feminine very(Noy restricted1993, Nos and164, 167),expressed ינוח [6includingcentury Nos “the (Noy (Noy (Noy (“thep.(“the knowledge120, 847) 1993, 1993,1993, languagelanguagepp. asserts Nos NosNos of 120, 120, Hebrew120,that ofof pp. pp. pp.thethe“the sages”),sages”), knowledge of Hebrew among European Jewry of that period [until the 5th לשון ,that(1974 משכבהו,1993משכבהו משכבהו חכמים instead p.insteadinstead 847) (Noy asserts of ofof , משכבהו ofSimonsohn considered 1974)משכהבומשכהבומשכהבו Simonsohnwhich 167), 167),167),instead 232). was ,164;39–164,334 ,164 משכהבו .(left for for for (toNoy the thepoorpoortheright(Noy 1993 feminine femininefeminine knowledge knowledge(Noy1993,, pp. 310–11,1993,Nos (Noy (Noy(Noy 164, pp. of 334–39;1993, 1993,1993, Hebrew,167),310–11, Nos NosNos 232 ינוחright ינוח ינוח written Due Dueincludingincludingfromincluding for toto left the fromextremelyextremely to feminine ינוח and even an includinginscriptioninscriptions”.6 (143 ,138 138, inscriptions”.143)among and European even an Jewry inscription of that period written [until from the left 5th century]to right was(Noy apparently 1993, pp. very 310–11, restricted 334–39; and 232). expressed Simonsohn itself in a few 138, 7143) and138,138,138, even 143) 143)143) an and andinscriptionand even eveneven an anan written inscription inscriptioninscription from written written writtenleft to rightfrom fromfrom (Noyleft leftleft to toto 1993, right rightright pp. (Noy (Noy(Noy 310–11, 1993, 1993,1993, 334–39;pp. pp.pp. 310–11, 310–11,310–11, 232). 334–39; 334–39; 334–39;Simonsohn 232). 232).232). Simonsohn SimonsohnSimonsohn (1974, p. 847) asserts that “the (Stern knowledge7 JewishJewish 2008, epitaphsepitaphs pp.of Hebrew 140–41). fromfrom among The firstfirst name European centuriescenturies Matrona Jewry CECE was fromfrom ofspread that ItalyItaly periodin ra ra3th–4threly [until used CE the amonHebrew 5thg Jewish besidescentury] population single was words ofapparently Egypt, (Olman very 2015, restricted p. and expressed itself in a few standard words in the tombs’ (1974, (Sternstandard p. 847) 2008, words asserts pp. in 140–41). thethat tombs’ “the The knowledge inscriptions”. name Matrona of Hebrew was spread among in European 3th–4th CEJewry amon of gthat Jewish period population [until the of 5th Egypt, century] was apparently(1974, very p.Rome, 7847)restricted136).(1974,(1974,Stern(1974, asserts Gaul, (Moreover,2008 p. p. p. and 847) that,847)847) pp. Asia expressed “the 140–41).assertsassertsasserts (Ilannumerous knowledge that Thethat that2008, itself name “the “the“the vol. mistakes in ofknowledge Matronaknowledgeknowledge 3, Hebrewa p.few 599).was werestandard amongFinal spreadof ofof HebrewHebrewHebrewtypical aleph in Europeanwords 3th–4th (and among foramongamong in CEHebrnot Jewry theamong European Europeanhey)Europeanew tombs’ of shows Jewishepitaphs that JewryJewryJewry period populationGreek inscriptions”. fromof ofof long [untilthat thatthat ofthe e period Egypt,period period(theΜατρώνη first 5th Rome, [until [untilcenturies[until , Gaul, lat. the thethe 5th and5th 5thfrom Italy, century]136).Rome, wasMoreover, Gaul, apparently and Asianumerous (Ilanvery 2008,restricted mistakes vol. 3, and p. were 599). expressed typicalFinal aleph itselffor (andHebr in notaew few hey) epitaphs standard shows fromGreek words the long infirst e the(Ματρώνη centuries tombs’ , lat. from Italy, ,partstheMatrona words2008,wordswords tombs’ of )(pp. the inIlaninin 140–41). Jewishthethe the2008 tombs’tombs’,tombs’ vol. The 1, name Matrona was spread in 3th–4th CE among Jewish population of Egyptמשכבהו standard long ininin eaaa (M fewfewfew ατρinwords various7standardωstandard standard´ νη (Stern, lat.inמשכהבוvery vol.apparentlyapparentlyapparently vol. 3, restricted1, p. pp. 599). veryvery25–26).very Final and restrictedrestrictedrestricted aleph Noteexpressed (and also, andand notand thatitself hey) expressedexpressedexpressed it shows inwas a very Greek few itselfitselfitself common , ינוח,inscriptions”. century]Matrona wascentury]Asiacentury]century] apparently) ((IlanIlan was2008 waswas2008 .parts (Noy (Noy of the 1993,1993, Jewish NosNos 120,120, pp.pp משכבהו common insteadinstead in ofofvarious משכהבוfor for thethe vol. femininefeminine 1, pp. 25–26). (Noy(Noy Note 1993,1993, also, NosNos that 164,164, it 167), 167),was very ,2008 ינוח inscriptions”.includingincludingMatrona) (Ilan 7 (Stern 2008, pp. 140–41).inscriptions”. The nameinscriptions”.inscriptions”.pp. inscriptions”. Matrona 25–26). was Note spread also, that in it3th–4th was very CE common among in Jewish various population parts of the Jewishof Egypt, diaspora that female names were borrowed 7 diaspora that female names were borrowed from local non-Jewish languages. Rome, Gaul, and Asia (Ilan 2008, vol. 3, p. 599). Final aleph (and not hey) shows Greek long e (Ματρώνη, lat. (Stern777 138,diasporafrom 2008, 143) local pp. thatand non-Jewish 140–41). female even languages. anThenames inscription name were Matrona borrowed written was from spreadfrom local left in non-Jewish 3th–4thto right CE (Noy languages.amon 1993,1993,g Jewish pp.pp. 310–11,310–11,population 334–39;334–39; of Egypt, 232).232). SimonsohnSimonsohn 7 8 7 (Stern (Stern (Stern 2008, 2008,2008, pp. pp.pp. 140–41). 140–41).140–41). The TheThe name namename Matrona MatronaMatrona was waswas spread spreadspread in inin 3th–4th 3th–4th3th–4th CE CECE amon amonamonggg Jewish JewishJewish population populationpopulation of ofof Egypt, Egypt,Egypt, spread shows(‘In this Greekin grave 3th–4th long Miriam CE e (Ματρώνη amon will rest’)g Jewish, lat. from population PhanagoriaMatrona of) in (IlanEgypt, South 2008, Russia vol. 1, pp. 25–26). Note also, that it was very common in various parts of the Jewish בזה (washey הקבר not תנח Matrona(and מרים Rome, Gaul, and Asia (Ilan (Stern 2008, 2008, Compare88 vol. pp. 3, 140–41).p. with 599). the FinalThe epitaph namealeph Final(‘In(‘In ofthisof thisaleph HebrewHebrew grave grave (and Miriam Miriam notamong hey) will will Europeanshows rest’) rest’) Greekfrom from Jewry Phanagoria Phanagorialong eof (Ματρώνη that in in Southperiod South, lat. Russia Russia [until the 5th בזה .(p. 599הקבר knowledgeknowledge ,3 תנח .the“thevol“ מרים Rome, (1974,(1974, CompareCompare Gaul, p.p. and 847)847) with Asia assertsthe asserts (Ilan epitaph epitaph 2008,thatthat .p. p.,p.aleph, e.g., e.g.,599). 599).in599). various inin(and Final Final Final Faustina’sFaustina’s not aleph alephalephparts hey) epitaph (and (andepitaph(andof shows the not notnot in Jewish VenosaGreekin hey) hey)hey) Venosa shows shows showslong (Simonsohn (Simonsohn e diaspora Greek GreekGreek(Ματρώνη 1974 long longlong that, p.1974, e, ee lat. 849).( (femaleΜατρώνη(ΜατρώνηΜατρώνη p. 849). names ,, , lat. lat.lat. were borrowed from local non-Jewish languages נח,Final 3, 3,3נפש .Matrona) (Ilan 2008, vol.Rome, 1, pp. Gaul,(Nosonovsky 25–26).Rome, Rome,(andRome,Nosonovsky AsiaNote Gaul, Gaul,Gaul, 2002); (Ilanalso, 2002 and andand 2008, standardthat); Asia AsiaAsia standard vol.it (Ilan (Ilanwas(Ilan 3,formula formula p. 2008, very2008,2008, 599). vol.common vol.vol ’e.g.,thatand in itexpressed Faustina’swas very common epitaphitself in in in Venosaa various few (Simonsohnstandard parts of thewords 1974, Jewish p. in 849). the tombs , נח ,also נפש Matronacentury](Nosonovsky) (Ilan was2008, 2002); apparently vol. standard1, pp. 25–26). very formula restrictedNote In this grave Miriam will rest’) from Phanagoria in South Russia‘) בזה הקבר תנח מרים diaspora that female namesMatrona were) (Ilan borrowedMatronaMatronaMatrona 2008, ))vol. ) from (Ilan(Ilan(Ilan 1, local2008, 2008,pp.2008, 25–26).non-Jewish vol. vol.vol. 1,1,1, Note pp.pp.pp. languages. 25–26).25–26). 25–26).also, that NoteNoteNote it was also,also,also, very thatthatthat common ititit waswaswas very veryvery in commonvariouscommoncommon 8parts ininin Compare variousvariousvarious of the parts Jewishpartswithparts the ofofof the theepitaphthe JewishJewishJewish diaspora that female names were borrowed from local non-Jewish languages. .In names that thatthat this femalefemale female weregrave names borrowednames namesMiriam were werewere will from borrowed borrowed borrowedrest’) local from non-Jewish from fromfrom Phanagoria local locallocal languages. non-Jewish non-Jewishnon-Jewish in South Russia languages. languages. languages‘) בזה diasporadiasporadiaspora femaleהקבר.”that inscriptions”.inscriptionsתנח מרים Compare with the epitaphdiaspora 8 .(e.g., in Faustina’s epitaph in Venosa (Simonsohn 1974, p. 849 , נח נפש Nosonovsky 2002); standard formula) 8 In this grave Miriam will rest’) from Phanagoria in South Russia‘) בזה הקבר תנח מרים Compare888 with the epitaph 77 ,In (‘In(‘In Miriam this this(Simonsohnthis waswas grave gravegrave will spreadspread Miriamrest’) MiriamMiriam 1974, in infrom 3th–4thwill3th–4th willp.will Phanagoria849). rest’) rest’)rest’) CECE from from from amonamon in Phanagoria PhanagoriaPhanagoria Southg Jewish Russia in inin populationSouth South South Russia RussiaRussia of Egypt‘) בזהבזה Venosaבזה in graveMatrona הקברהקבר הקברnamename thisתנחתנח תנח epitaph (‘In מריםThe Theמריםבזה מרים הקבר epitaphתנחthe theinthe 140–41). 140–41). Faustina’s epitaph epitaph מרים .with, with withe.g., pp.pp נח ,epitaph2008,2008 נפש Nosonovsky 2002);8 standard Compare formula 8 with (Stern (Stern Compare Compare Compare the) נח נפש .e.g.,in e.g.,e.g., Faustina’s inin Finalinepitaph Faustina’s Faustina’sFaustina’s aleph epitaphin Venosa epitaph (andepitaphepitaph in not(SimonsohnVenosa in inin hey) Venosa VenosaVenosa (Simonsohn shows (Simonsohn1974, (Simonsohn(Simonsohn Greek p. 1974,849). long 1974, 1974, 1974,p. 849). e p. p.(p.Ματρώνη 849). 849).849). ,, lat.lat ,.(599 , , נח נח נח.Faustina’s e.g., p,,3 נפשנפשנפש e.g., vol. in , נחformula formulaformula ,2008 נפש Nosonovsky(NosonovskyRome,(Nosonovsky(Nosonovsky(Nosonovsky 2002); Gaul, standard 2002); and 2002); 2002);2002); standard formula Asia standard standardstandard (Ilan formula)

Matrona)) (Ilan(Ilan 2008,2008, vol.vol. 1,1, pp.pp. 25–26).25–26). NoteNote also,also, thatthat itit was very common in various parts of the Jewish diaspora that female names were borrowed from local non-Jewish languages. In(‘In thisthis gravegrave MiriamMiriam willwill rest’)rest’) fromfrom PhanagoriaPhanagoria inin SouthSouth RussiaRussia‘) בזה הקבר תנח מרים Compare Compare withwith thethe epitaphepitaph 88 .(e.g.,e.g., inin Faustina’sFaustina’s epitaphepitaph inin Venosa (Simonsohn 1974, p. 849 ,, נח נפש Nosonovsky(Nosonovsky 2002);2002); standardstandard formulaformula)

Arts 2019, 8, 127 4 of 13 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 1. 1. TheThe Hebrew Hebrew inscription inscription from from Volubilis: Volubilis: ( (aa)) as as presented presented by by Ph. Ph. Berger Berger ( (bb)) as as found found during during thethe 2018 2018 visit visit on on the the site. site.

2.2.2.2. Inscription Inscription Two Two Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 The second inscription (Le Bohec 1981, No 79, limestone 0.95 m 0.32 m 0.56 m, inscription field The second inscription (Le Bohec 1981, No 79, limestone 0.95 ×m × 0.32× m × 0.56 m, inscription 0.38 m 0.28 m, current location in Volubilis) is in Greek (Figure2) is also on display in the lapidarium fieldis not 0.38 the× m most × 0.28 common m, current one locationeven in thein Volubilis) Jewish epitaphs. is in Greek More (Figure popular 2) isvariants also on were display ἐν εἰρήνῃin the lapidariumofκοίμησις the local (en exhibitionof eirene the local koimesis in exhibition Volubilis., “peaceful Itin is Volubilis.sleep marked: of death” “EpitaphIt is 10marked:) and in Greekἐν “Epitaphεἰρήνῃ of the κοιμάσθω in synagogue Greek (enof rabbin. eirenethe synagogue koimastho Volubilis., rabbin.Third“may century.you Volubilis. rest in Limestone”. peace”Third century.11). The literal Limestone”. translation of our inscription would be “so may he rest”. The inscription was discussed in detail by Frézouls 9 . His reading of the inscription is the following: ὧδε κοιμᾶτε Rest in peace here, Καικιλιανὸς ὁ Caecilianus προτοπολίτης a Protopolites, πατὴρ τες συνα the head of the cong- γογὴς τῶν Ἰου regation of the Je- δέων ἠτῶν με` ws, 45 years μενας η` ἑμέρας γ` 8 months and 3 days It is difficult to date the inscription merely on the basis of its script, because it can belong to any time during the period from the first century BCE to the fourth century CE, or even later. The inscription has several mistakes in Greek words, which is not unusual for Jewish inscriptions in the koine especially in the margin of the oikumene (van der Horst 1991, pp. 24–34). Thus, the word κοιμᾶτε (koimate) is used instead of the traditional κοιμάσθω (koimastho) in middle voice. Apparently, the carver intended to carve κοιμᾶτο (koimato) in active voice; however, he used the letter epsilon instead of omicron, possibly under the influence of the previous word ὧδε (hode), which is terminated by epsilon. The word πρωτοπολίτης (prōtopolites) is misspelled as προτοπολίτης (protopolites), the article τῆς (tēs) is misspelled as τες (tes), συναγωγῆς (synagōges) as συναγογῆς (synagoges ), μῆνας (mēnas) as μενας (menas). These mistakes can indicate that the carver did not distinguish between the Figure 2. TheThe Greek Greek inscription from Volubilis (December 2018). long and short vowels, although he possessed some knowledge of grammar, because he correctly used Caecilianusthe letter omega was ain popular the words local τῶν cognomen (tōn), Ἰουδέων in the region(Iudeōn of), andVolubilis ἐτῶν during(etōn). the second and third centuriesThe introductory CE, which was blessing often formula given to of slaves the inscription freed by ὧδεthe Caecilianiκοιμᾶτε (clan,hode koimate,so Stern “Rest (2008, in p. peace 114) here”)suggests is thatmore the characteristic person could for have Jewish been epitapa freedhs. sl ave.Non-Jewish Note that Greek the third epit centuryaphs typically CE was used the peak the formulaof the popularity personal nameof the andproper χαῖρε name/χαίρετε Kaikilianos (khaire/khairete (Caecilianus), while) in the Roman Roman epitaphs world, andemployed the Greek the abbreviatedvariant is mentioned formula in“D.M.(S.)” dozens of (=“ inscriptionsDis Manibus from [Sacrum the second]”), “For and the third ghost century gods” CE meaning from Asia “to Minor the memoryand other of”) regions, as an includingintroductory many bles cognates.sing formula.12 However, the variant ὧδε κοιμᾶτε (hode koimate) As far as the term πρωτοπολίτης (protopolites, literally, “first citizen”), it has been quite common 9in funeral (Frézouls epigraphy 1971, pp. 287–92). among See both also Jews (Le Bohec and non-Jews 1981, No. .79; Rahmani Thouvenot (1994) 1969, interprets pp. 357–59, it pl. as IV). a Greek term for a member of the honestiores under the Constitutia Antoniniana of 212 CE. Albrecht (2015) notes that the title could be used either in a Jewish context, or in a non-Jewish context, particularly, such as Coptic. The exact meaning of the title is still controversial. It could likely be an honorific state (secular) title that appeared in the Jewish world after the decree of Septimius Severus and Caracalla (Schrüer 1973, p. 131). An additional argument for dating the inscription to the 3rd century CE is the synchronous inscription from Ziph near Hebron13 with the rare word πρωτοπολίτης (protopolites). If we accept it as an honorific state title, it cannot appear before the 212 decrees of Septimius Severus and Caracalla which granted Roman citizenship to all free residents of Roman Empire. Therefore, our inscription is dated to the third century CE or even later (Schrüer 1973, p. 131). The most intriguing part of the inscription is the title πατὴρ τῆς συναγωγής (pater tes synagoges, “head of the congregation”). According to Frézouls (1971), this is an honorific communal religious title and it constitutes undisputable evidence for the existence of the synagogue in Volubilis. The

10 CIJ passim, various spelling. 11 (JIWE 2005, pp. 2, 166), also (CIJ 1975, p. 365). 12 Such as Kaikilios, Kaikilis, or female Kaikiliane, Kaikilia of the same period, and very few in other periods. For Greek variants see (Fraser and Matthews 1987). The Latin name Caecilianus was also very popular during the same period in the region of North Africa, see (Frézouls 1956, p. 98; Ilan 2008, vol. 3, p. 475). For Latin inscriptions from Volubilis see (Besnier 1904, Nos. 37–39, 57, 61–63). 13 CIIP 3847.

Arts 2019, 8, x FORArts PEER 2019 REVIEW, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13 4 of 13 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

(a) (a(a) ) (b) (b()b )

Figure 1. The HebrewFigureFigure 1. 1.inscription The The Hebrew Hebrew from inscription inscription Volubilis: from from (a) asVolubilis: Volubilis: presented ( a()a by)as as Ph.presented presented Berger by( bby )Ph. asPh. foundBerger Berger during(b ()b as) as found found during during the 2018 visit onthethe the 2018 2018 site. visit visit on on the the site. site.

2.2. Inscription2.2.2.2. Two Inscription Inscription Two Two The second inscriptionTheThe second second (Le inscription inscription Bohec 1981, (Le (Le NoBohec Bohec 79, 1981, limestone1981, No No 79, 79,0.95 limestone limestone m × 0.32 0.95 0.95m ×m m0.56 × ×0.32 0.32m, minscription m × ×0.56 0.56 m, m, inscription inscription field 0.38 m ×fieldfield 0.28 0.38 0.38m, current mm × × 0.28 0.28 location m, m, current current in Volubilis) location location in isin Volubilis) inVolubilis) Greek (Figureis is in in Greek Greek 2) is (Figure also(Figure on 2) display2) is is also also inon onthe display display in in the the lapidarium of the local exhibition in Volubilis. It is marked: “Epitaph in Greek of the synagogue lapidarium oflapidariumArts the2019 local, 8, 127 exhibitionof the local in exhibition Volubilis. inIt Volubilis.is marked: It “Epitaphis marked: in “EpitaphGreek of inthe Greek synagogue of the synagogue5 of 13 rabbin. Volubilis.rabbin.rabbin. Third Volubilis. Volubilis. century. Third Third Limestone”. century. century. Limestone”. Limestone”. The inscriptionTheThe was inscriptioninscription discussed waswas in discusseddiscusseddetail by inFrézoulsin detail detail 9by .by His Frézouls Frézouls reading9 .9 . His ofHis thereading reading inscription of of the the isinscription inscriptionthe is is the the 9 following: following:following:The inscription was discussed in detail by Frézouls . His reading of the inscription is the following: ὧδε κοιμᾶτε ὧδεὧδε κοιμᾶτε κοιμᾶτε Rest in peace Rest Resthere, in in peace peace here, here, Καικιλιανὸς ΚαικιλιανὸςὁΚαικιλιανὸς Caecilianus ὁ ὁ Caecilianus Caecilianus προτοπολίτηςπροτοπολίτηςπροτοπολίτης a Protopolites ,a a Protopolites Protopolites, , πατὴρ τες συναπατὴρπατὴρ τες τες the συνα συνα head of the the the cong- head head of of the the cong- cong- γογὴς τῶν Ἰουγογὴςγογὴς τῶν τῶν regation Ἰου Ἰου of the regation regation Je- of of the the Je- Je- δέων ἠτῶν μεδέωνδέων` ἠτῶν ἠτῶνws, με με 45` ` years ws,ws, 45 45 years years μενας η` ἑμέραςμεναςμενας γ` η η` ` 8ἑμέρας ἑμέρας months γ γ `and ` 8 8 3months months days and and 3 3 days days It is difficult toItItIt is dateis is difficult difficult di ffithecult inscription to to date date the the the merely inscription inscription inscription on the merely merely merelybasis ofon on its the the the script, basis basis basis becauseof of of its its its script, script, script, it can because because becausebelong it to it itcan can canany belong belong belong to to toany any any time during timethetimetime period during duringduring from the thethe period periodtheperiod first from fromfrom century the thethe first first firstBCE century century centuryto the BCE fourthBCE toBCE the to to fourthcentury the the fourth centuryfourth CE, century orcentury CE, even or evenCE, later.CE, or later. or Theeven even The later. inscriptionlater. The The inscription hasinscriptioninscriptionhas several several mistakes has has mistakes several several in in Greek mistakes Greekmistakes words, words, in in Greek Greek which which words, words, is is not not whichunusual which is is not forfor not JewishJewishunusual unusual inscriptionsinscriptions for for Jewish Jewish in inscriptionsin inscriptions the thekoine especially in in the the koine especiallykoinekoinein in the theespecially especially margin margin ofin inof thethe thethe oikumenemargin marginoikumene of of( vanthe(van the oikumene der oikumene der Horst Horst (van (van1991 1991, der ,der pp. pp. Horst Horst 24–34). 24–34). 1991, 1991, Thus,Thus, pp. pp. 24–34). thethe24–34). wordword Thus, Thus, κοιμᾶτε the the word word κοιμᾶτε κοιμᾶτε (koimate) is used((koimatekoimate instead)) isis usedusedof the insteadinstead traditional of of the the κοιμάσθω traditional traditional ( koimasthoκοιμάσθω κοιμάσθω) in ( koimastho (middlekoimastho )voice. )in in middle middle Apparently, voice. voice. Apparently, theApparently, the the carver intendedcarvercarver to carve intended intended κοιμᾶτο to to carve carve (koimato κοιμᾶτο κοιμᾶτο) in active ( koimato(koimato voice;) )in in activehowever, active voice; voice; he however,used however, the letterhe he used used epsilon the the letter instead letter epsilon epsilon instead instead of omicron, possiblyofof omicronomicron under, , possiblypossibly the influence under under the theof influence theinfluence previous of of the theword previous previous ὧδε ( hodeword word), whichὧδε ὧδε ( hode (ishode terminated), ),which which is is byterminated terminated by by epsilon. The epsilon.epsilon.word πρωτοπολίτης TheThe wordword πρωτοπολίτηςπρωτοπολίτης (prōtopolites) (ispr(pr ōmisspelledtopolitesōtopolites) )is is asmisspelled misspelled προτοπολίτης as as προτοπολίτης προτοπολίτης (protopolites ),( protopolites(theprotopolites ), ),the the article τῆς (tēarticlesarticle) is misspelled τῆςτῆς ( (tētēss) )is isas misspelled misspelled τες (tes), συναγωγῆςas as τες τες ( tes(tes),), συναγωγῆς (συναγωγῆςsynagōges) as ( synag( συναγογῆςsynagōgesōges) )as as συναγογῆς( synagogesσυναγογῆς), μῆνας( synagoges(synagoges ), ),μῆνας μῆνας (mēnas) as μενας((mmēēnas nas(menas)) as as μενας ).μενας These ( menas( menasmistakes).). These These can mistakes indicatemistakes thatcan can indicateth indicatee carver that that did th th note ecarver carver distinguish did did not not betweendistinguish distinguish the between between the the long and shortlonglong vowels, andand shortshort although vowels, vowels, he although possessedalthough he hesome possessed possessed knowledge some some ofknowledge knowledge grammar, of becauseof grammar, grammar, he correctlybecause because he he correctly correctly used the letterusedused omega the the in letter letter the wordsomega omega in τῶνin the the ( twords ōwordsn), Ἰουδέων τῶν τῶν ( t(ōt (nōIuden),), Ἰουδέων Ἰουδέωνōn), and ( Iudeἐτῶν(Iudeōnō (n),et), andō nand). ἐτῶν ἐτῶν (et (etōnō).n ). The introductoryTheThe introductory blessingintroductory formula blessing blessing of the formula formula inscription of of the the ὧδε inscription inscription κοιμᾶτε ὧδε ὧδε(hode κοιμᾶτε κοιμᾶτε koimate, ( hode (“Resthode koimate, koimate, in peace “Rest “Rest in in peace peace here”) is morehere”)here”) characteristic isis moremore characteristic characteristicfor Jewish epitap forfor Jewish Jewishhs. Non-Jewish epitap epitaphs.hs. Non-Jewish GreekNon-Jewish epitaphs Greek Greek typically epit epitaphsaphs used typically typically the used used the the formula personalformulaformula name personalpersonal and χαῖρε namename/χαίρετε andand χαῖρεχαῖρε (khaire/khairete/χαίρετε/χαίρετε ( khaire/khairete(),khaire/khairete while Roman),), while while epitaphs Roman Roman employed epitaphs epitaphs the employed employed the the abbreviated formulaabbreviatedabbreviated “D.M.(S.)” formulaformula (=“ “D.M.(S.)” “D.M.(S.)”Dis Manibus (=“ (=“ Dis[DisSacrum Manibus Manibus]”), “For[ Sacrum[Sacrum the]”), ghost]”), “For “For gods” the the ghost meaningghost gods” gods” “to meaning themeaning “to “to the the Arts 2019,, 8,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 5 of 13 memory of”)memory memoryas an introductory of”) of”) as as an an introductory blesintroductorysing formula. bles blessing singHowever, formula. formula. the However, However, variant ὧδε the the variantκοιμᾶτε variant ὧδε (ὧδεhode κοιμᾶτε κοιμᾶτε koimate ()hode (hode koimate koimate) ) isis notnot thethethe mostmostmost commoncommoncommon oneoneone eveneveneven ininin thethethe JewishJewiJewish epitaphs.epitaphs. More popular variants were ἐν εἰρήνῃ 9 (Frézouls 1971,9 9κκοίμησις o (Frézoulsι´ (Frézouls µησιpp. 287–92).ς ((enen 1971, 1971, eireneeirene See pp. pp. also koimesis koimesis287–92). 287–92). (Le Bohec,,, See “peaceful “peacefulSee also 1981,also (Le (Le No. sleep sleepBohec Bohec 79; ofofThouvenot 1981, 1981, death”death” No. No.10 101079; 1969,)79;) and andThouvenot Thouvenot pp. ἐν εἰρήνῃ357–59, 1969, 1969, pl.κοιμάσθω pp. IV).pp. 357–59, 357–59, (( (enpl.enen pl. eireneIV).eirene eirene IV). koimasthokoimastho koimastho,, “may “may youyou restrest inin peace”peace”111111).). TheThe literal literal translation translation of of our our inscription inscription would would be be “so“so maymay hehe rest”.rest”. Caecilianus was a popular local cognomen in the region of Volubilis during the second and third centuries CE, which was often given to slaves freed by the Caeciliani clan, so Stern(2008, p. 114) suggests that the person could have been a freed slave. Note that the third century CE was the peak of the popularity of the proper name Kaikilianos (Caecilianus) in the Roman world, and the Greek variant is mentioned in dozens of inscriptions from the second and third century CE from Asia Minor and other regions, including many cognates.12 As far as the term πρωτoπoλι´της (protopolites, literally, “first citizen”), it has been quite common in funeral epigraphy among both Jews and non-Jews. Rahmani(1994) interprets it as a Greek term for a member of the honestiores under the Constitutia Antoniniana of 212 CE. Albrecht(2015) notes that the title could be used either in a Jewish context, or in a non-Jewish context, particularly, such as Coptic. The exact meaning of the title is still controversial. It could likely be an honorific state (secular) title that appeared in the Jewish world after the decree of Septimius Severus and Caracalla (Schrüer 1973, p. 131).

9 Frézouls(1971, pp. 287–92). See also (Le Bohec 1981, No. 79; Thouvenot 1969, pp. 357–59, pl. IV). 10 CIJ passim, various spelling. 11 JIWE(2005, pp. 2, 166), also (CIJ 1975, p. 365). 12 Such as Kaikilios, Kaikilis, or female Kaikiliane, Kaikilia of the same period, and very few in other periods. For Greek variants see (Fraser and Matthews 1987). The Latin name Caecilianus was also very popular during the same period in the region of North Africa, see (Frézouls 1956, p. 98; Ilan 2008, vol. 3, p. 475). For Latin inscriptions from Volubilis see (Besnier 1904, Nos. 37–39, 57, 61–63). Figure 2. The Greek inscription from VolubilisVolubilis (December(December 2018).2018).

Caecilianus waswas aa popularpopular locallocal cognomencognomen inin thethe regionregion ofof VolubilisVolubilis duringduring thethe secondsecond andand thirdthird centuries CE, which was often given to slaves freed by the Caeciliani clan,clan, soso SternStern (2008,(2008, p.p. 114)114) suggests that the person could have been a freed slave. Note that the third century CE was the peak of the popularity of the proper name Kaikilianos ((Caecilianus)) inin thethe RomanRoman world,world, andand thethe GreekGreek variant is mentioned in dozens of inscriptions from the second and third century CE from Asia Minor and other regions, including many cognates.1212 As far as the term πρωτοπολίτης ((protopolites,, literally,literally, “first“first citizen”),citizen”), itit hashas beenbeen quitequite commoncommon inin funeralfuneral epigraphyepigraphy amongamong bothboth JewsJews andand non-Jewsnon-Jews.. RahmaniRahmani (1994)(1994) interpretsinterprets itit asas aa GreekGreek termterm forfor aa membermember ofof thethe honestioreshonestiores underunder thethe ConstituConstitutiatia AntoninianaAntoniniana ofof 212212 CE.CE. AlbrechtAlbrecht (2015)(2015) notesnotes thatthat thethe titletitle couldcould bebe usedused eithereither inin aa JewishJewish contexcontext,t, oror inin aa non-Jewishnon-Jewish context,context, particularly,particularly, suchsuch asas Coptic. The exact meaning of the title is still controversial. It could likely be an honorific state (secular) titletitle thatthat appearedappeared inin thethe JewishJewish worldworld afterafter thethe decreedecree ofof SeptimiusSeptimius SeverusSeverus andand CaracallaCaracalla (Schrüer(Schrüer 1973, p. 131). An additional argument for dating the inscription to the 3rd century CE is the synchronous inscriptioninscription fromfrom ZiphZiph nearnear HebronHebron1313 with with thethe rarerare wordword πρωτοπολίτης ((protopolites).). IfIf wewe acceptaccept itit as an honorific state title, it cannot appear before the 212 decrees of Septimius Severus and Caracalla which granted Roman citizenship to all free residents of Roman Empire. Therefore, our inscription is dated to the third century CE or even later (Schrüer 1973, p. 131). The most intriguing part of the inscription is the title πατὴρ τῆς συναγωγής ((pater tes synagoges,, “head of the congregation”). According to Frézouls (1971), this is an honorific communal religious titletitle andand itit constitutesconstitutes undisputableundisputable evidenceevidence forfor thethe existenceexistence ofof thethe synagoguesynagogue inin Volubilis.Volubilis. TheThe

1010 CIJ CIJ passim,passim, variousvarious spelling.spelling. 1111 (JIWE (JIWE 2005,2005, pp.pp. 2,2, 166),166), alsoalso (CIJ(CIJ 1975,1975, p.p. 365).365). 1212 SuchSuch asas Kaikilios,, Kaikilis,, oror femalefemale Kaikiliane,, Kaikilia ofof thethe samesame period,period, andand veryvery fewfew inin otherother periods.periods. ForFor Greek variants see (Fraser and Matthews 1987). The Latin name Caecilianus waswas alsoalso veryvery popopular during the samesame periodperiod inin thethe regionregion ofof NorthNorth Africa,Africa, seesee (Fré(Frézouls 1956, p. 98; Ilan 2008, vol. 3, p. 475). For Latin inscriptionsinscriptions fromfrom VolubilisVolubilis seesee (Besnier(Besnier 1904,1904, Nos.Nos. 37–39,37–39, 57,57, 61–63).61–63). 1313 CIIPCIIP 3847.3847.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13

is not the most common one even in the Jewish epitaphs. More popular variants were ἐν εἰρήνῃ κοίμησις (en eirene koimesis, “peaceful sleep of death”10) and ἐν εἰρήνῃ κοιμάσθω (en eirene koimastho, “may you rest in peace”11). The literal translation of our inscription would be “so may he rest”.

Figure 2. The Greek inscription from Volubilis (December 2018).

Caecilianus was a popular local cognomen in the region of Volubilis during the second and third centuries CE, which was often given to slaves freed by the Caeciliani clan, so Stern (2008, p. 114) suggests that the person could have been a freed slave. Note that the third century CE was the peak of the popularity of the proper name Kaikilianos (Caecilianus) in the Roman world, and the Greek variant is mentioned in dozens of inscriptions from the second and third century CE from Asia Minor and other regions, including many cognates.12 As far as the term πρωτοπολίτης (protopolites, literally, “first citizen”), it has been quite common in funeral epigraphy among both Jews and non-Jews. Rahmani (1994) interprets it as a Greek term Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW for a member of the honestiores6 of 13 under the Constitutia Antoniniana of 212 CE. Albrecht (2015) notes that the title could be used either in a Jewish context, or in a non-Jewish context, particularly, such as word πατήρ (pater) means “the leader”, and it was a very common title in Greek inscriptions from word πατήρ (pater) means “the leader”, and it was a very common title in Greek inscriptions from Coptic. The exact meaning of the title is still controversial. It could likely be an honorific state (secular) different parts of the Jewish world.14 However, the term “synagogue”Arts 2019 (Greek, 8, 127 συναγωγή, Latin different parts of the Jewish world.6 of14 13 However, the term “synagogue” (Greek συναγωγή, Latin title that appeared in the Jewish world after the decree of Septimius Severus and Caracalla (Schrüer synagoga) was used for the congregation itself, while the place of worship was generally known as a synagoga) was used for the congregation itself, while the place of worship was generally known as a 1973, p. 131). προσευχή (proseuche)”15. The discussion about the use of the two terms has been ongoing for a long προσευχή (proseuche)”15. The discussion about the use of the two terms has been ongoing for a long An additionaladditional argument for dating the inscription to the 3rd centurycentury CE isis thethe synchronoussynchronous time, until new evidence appeared with the publication of the inscription from Bosphorus,16 where time, until new evidence appeared with the publication of the inscription from Bosphorus,16 where inscriptioninscription fromfrom ZiphZiph nearnear HebronHebron1313 with the rare wordword πρωτπρωτοπολίτηςoπoλι´της ((protopolitesprotopolites).). IfIf wewe acceptaccept itit both words, συναγωγή (synagoge) and προσευχή (proseuche), were found. In the inscription from both words, συναγωγή (synagoge) and προσευχή (proseuche), were found. In the inscription from as an honorifichonorific statestate title,title, it cannot appear before the 212 decrees ofof SeptimiusSeptimius SeverusSeverus and CaracallaCaracalla Bosphorus, it is obvious that the former word means “congregation”, while the latter word is used Bosphorus, it is obvious that the former word means “congregation”, while the latter word is used whichwhich grantedgranted RomanRoman citizenshipcitizenship toto allall freefree residentsresidents ofof RomanRoman Empire.Empire. Therefore, our inscription is for the place of gathering for prayer or worship. This strongly suggests that the expression pater tes for the place of gathering for prayer or worship. This strongly suggests that the expression pater tes dated to thethe thirdthird centurycentury CECE oror eveneven laterlater ((SchrüerSchrüer 19731973,, p.p. 131).131). synagoges might mean simply “the leader of the community”. synagoges might mean simply “the leader of the community”. The most intriguing part of the inscription is the title πατὴρ τῆς συναγωγής (pater tes synagoges , Despite these arguments, there are also examples when the word synagogue is likely to mean a Despite these arguments, there are also examples when the word synagogue is likely to mean a “head“head ofof the the congregation”). congregation”). According According to toFr éFrézoulszouls(1971 (1971),), this this is an is honorifican honorific communal communal religious religious title place of gathering or a building, rather than a community. An illuminativeArts 2019, 8, x example FOR PEER is REVIEW the inscription place of gathering or a building,6 of 13rather than a community. An illuminative example is the inscription andtitle itand constitutes it constitutes undisputable undisputable evidence evidence for the for existence the existence of the of synagogue the synagogue in Volubilis. in Volubilis. The word The 17 in honor of Polycharmus from Stobi, Macedonia, which also contains the term pater tes synagoges.17 in honor of Polycharmus from Stobi, Macedonia, which also contains the term pater tes synagoges. word πατήρπατη´ρ ((paterpater)) meansmeans “the“the leader”, leader”, and and it it was was a a very very common common title title in in Greek Greek inscriptions inscriptions from from diff erent After having studied all possible interpretations—an honorific title, a title equal to the Roman After having studied all possible interpretations—an honorific title, a title equal to the Roman differentparts10 parts of theof the Jewish Jewish world. world.14 However,14 However, the the term term “synagogue” “synagogue” (Greek (Greekσυναγωγ συναγωγήη´, Latin, Latinsynagoga ) patronus, a title implying certain administrative duties in the synagogue, and CIJ passim,a title of various a benefactor spelling. of patronus, a title implying certain administrative duties in the synagogue, and a title of a benefactor of synagogawas11 ) (JIWEwas used used 2005, for thefor pp. congregationthe 2, 166), congregation also (CIJ itself, 1975, itself, while p. 365). while the placethe place of worship of worship was was generally generally known known as a πρas oaσευχ η´ the Jewish community—the editors concluded that Polycharmus had been a benefactor or a donor of the Jewish community—the editors concluded that Polycharmus had been a benefactor or a donor of προσευχή(12proseuche Such (proseuche as)” Kaikilios15.)” The15., KaikilisThe discussion discussion, or female about about Kaikiliane the usethe, ofKaikiliause the of two theof the termstwo same terms has period, beenhas and been ongoing very ongoing few for in a otherfor long a periods.long time, until For the community before the inscription was carved. Moreover, they suggested that “he may received a the community before the inscription was carved. Moreover, they suggested that “he may received a time, untilnewGreek evidencenew variantsevidence appeared see appeared (Fraser with and thewith Matthews publication the publication 1987). of The the Latinof inscription the name inscription Caecilianus from Bosphorus,from was Bosphorus, also very16 where po16pular where both during words, the title following his donation of the building which became a synagogue, as the inscription was ordered title following his donation of the building which became a synagogue, as the inscription was ordered both words,συναγωγsame συναγωγή periodη´ (synagoge in the(synagoge )region and πρ )of oand σευχNorth προσευχήη´ Africa,(proseuche see (proseuche ),(Fré werezouls found.), 1956,were Inp. found. the98; inscriptionIlan In 2008, the inscriptionvol. from 3, p. Bosphorus, 475). from For Latin it is by him to clarify the legal position of his donation … the term συναγωγήinscriptions indicates fromthe local Volubilis Jewish see (Besnier 1904, Nos. 37–39, 57, 61–63).by him to clarify the legal position of his donation … the term συναγωγή indicates the local Jewish Bosphorus,obvious it is that obvious the former that the word former means word “congregation”, means “congregation”, while the while latter wordthe18 latter is used word for is theused place of community”.18 Therefore, it is likely that the word synagoge in this inscription13 CIIP 3847. may be interpreted as community”. Therefore, it is likely that the word synagoge in this inscription may be interpreted as for thegathering place of gathering for prayer for or prayer worship. or Thisworship. strongly This suggests stronglythat suggests the expression that the expressionpater tes synagoges pater tes might the donated object, i.e., a building, and not as a community. the donated object, i.e., a building, and not as a community. synagogesmean might simply mean “the simply leader “the of the leader community”. of the community”. There is another inscription dated to the first century BCE or first century CE from Jerusalem There is another inscription dated to the first century BCE or first century CE from Jerusalem DespiteDespite these arguments, these arguments, there are there also are examples also examples when whenthe word the synagogue word synagogue is likelyis likelyto mean to meana a (CIJP 2010, No. 9), where the word synagogue definitely means the building because it is used as a (CIJP 2010, No. 9), where the word synagogue definitely means the building because it is used as a place ofplace gathering of gathering or a building, or a building, rather ratherthan a thancommunity. a community. An illuminative An illuminative example example is the inscription is the inscription part of the expression ᾠκοδόμησε τὴν συναγωγήν (okodomese ten synagogen), which has the only part of the expression ᾠκοδόμησε τὴν συναγωγήν (okodomese ten synagogen), which has the only in honorin honorof Polycharmus of Polycharmus from Stobi, from Stobi,Macedonia, Macedonia, which which also contains also contains the term the pater term tespater synagoges. tes synagoges.17 17 meaning “(he) built a house of the synagogue”. This inscription is also remarkable because it was meaning “(he) built a house of the synagogue”. This inscription is also remarkable because it was After Afterhaving having studied studied all possible all possible interpretations—an interpretations—an honorific honorific title, title, a a title equalequal to to the the Roman Romanpatronus , carved in the time before the destruction of the Second Temple. carved in the time before the destruction of the Second Temple. patronusa title, a title implying implying certain certain administrative administrative duties duties in in thethe synagogue,synagogue, and a a title title of of a abenefactor benefactor of of the Based on these arguments, the interpretation of the expression pater tes synagogues in our Based on these arguments, the interpretation of the expression pater tes synagogues in our the JewishJewish community—the community—the editors editors concluded concluded that that Po Polycharmuslycharmus had had been been a benefactor a benefactor or ora donor a donor of of the inscription as “the person who organized and built a synagogue”, rather than just the head of the inscription as “the person who organized and built a synagogue”, rather than just the head of the the communitycommunity before before the the inscription inscription was was carved. carved. Moreover, Moreover, they they suggested suggested that that “he “he may may received received a a title community, is possible. community, is possible. title followingfollowing his his donation donation of the of thebuilding building which which became became a synagogue, a synagogue, as the as inscription the inscription was ordered was ordered As far as the expression τῶν Ἰουδέων (ton Iudeon), among all the possible interpretations of the As far as the expression τῶν Ἰουδέων (ton Iudeon), among all the possible interpretations of the by himby to him clarify to clarify the legal the position legal position of his ofdonation his donation … the... termthe συναγωγή term συναγωγ indicatesη´ indicates the local the 19Jewish local Jewish word Judeus in inscriptions19, the only appropriate meaning for our inscription is “the Jews”. This is word Judeus in inscriptions , the only appropriate meaning for our inscription is “the Jews”. This is community”.community”.18 Therefore,18 Therefore, it is likely it is that likely the that word the synagoge word synagoge in thisin inscription this inscription may be may interpreted be interpreted as as different from the inscription in the neighboring Chellah, which will be discussed below. different from the inscription in the neighboring Chellah, which will be discussed below. the donatedthe donated object, object, i.e., a buil i.e.,ding, a building, and not and as nota community. as a community. 2.3. Inscription Three There Thereis another is another inscription inscription dated datedto the tofirst the century first century BCE or BCE2.3. first Inscription or century first century ThreeCE from CE Jerusalem from Jerusalem (CIJP 2010,(CIJP 2010No. ,9), No. where 9), where the word the word synagoguesynagogue definitelydefinitely means means the thebuilding building because because it is it isused used as as a a part The third inscription (Le Bohec 1981, No. 81, stone 0.79 m × 0.51 m × 0.33 m, inscription field 0.25 m The third inscription (Le Bohec 1981, No. 81, stone 0.79 m × 0.51part m of×of 0.33the the m,expression expression inscription ᾠκοδόμησε field 0.25 m τὴν συναγωγήν ((okodomeseokodomese tenten synagogen synagogen),), which which has has the the only only meaning × 0.22 m, current location unknown) is in Latin (Le Bohec 1981, No. 81). × 0.22 m, current location unknown) is in Latin (Le Bohec 1981, No.meaning 81). “(he) “(he) built built a house a house of the of synagogue”. the synagogue”. This inscriptionThis inscription is also is remarkable also remarkable because because it was carvedit was in the DM S For thecarved ghosttime godsin the before time thebefore destruction the destruction of the Second of the Second Temple. Temple. DM S For the ghost gods Ant(onii) Sabba Antonii Sabba-Based Basedon these on these arguments, arguments, the the interpretation interpretation of of the expressionexpressionpater Ant(onii)pater tes tes synagogues synagoguesSabba in our in inscriptionour Antonii Sabba- tr[a]i; uix(it) annis (tribus), menses (quinque) et die trai. Heinscription livedas (three) “the as years person“the (five)person who months organizedwho organized and built and abuilt synagogue”, a synagogue”, rather rather thantr[a]i; justthan uix(it) the just head annisthe ofhead (tribus), the of community, the menses (quinque) et die trai. He lived (three) years (five) months community,is possible. is possible. As far as the expression τῶν Ἰουδέων (ton Iudeon), among all the possible interpretations of the 14 See, for example, (CIJ 1975, pp. 319, 494; IJO 2004, Mac 1) etc. word Judeus in inscriptions19, the only appropriate meaning for our14 inscription See, for example, is “the (CIJ Jews”. 1975, This pp. 319, is 494; IJO 2004, Mac 1) etc. 15 15 See (Leon 1960, p. 139; cf. Levinskaya 1992, p. 199, n. 7; LSJ 1996, s.v.).different 13 fromCIIP 3847. the inscription in the neighboring Chellah, which will be See discussed (Leon 1960, below. p. 139; cf. Levinskaya 1992, p. 199, n. 7; LSJ 1996, s.v.). 14 16 IJO BS5 = (CIRB 1965). See, for example, (CIJ 1975, pp. 319, 494; IJO 2004, Mac 1) etc. 16 IJO BS5 = (CIRB 1965). 15 See (Leon 1960, p. 139; cf. Levinskaya 1992, p. 199, n. 7; LSJ 1996, s.v.). 17 17 IJO Mac 1. Cf. meter tes synagoges (“mother of synagogue” in (Brooten2.3. 1982, Inscription p. 57ff)), Three also the common term IJO Mac 1. Cf. meter tes synagoges (“mother of synagogue” in (Brooten 1982, p. 57ff)), also the common term 16 IJO BS5 = (CIRB 1965). archisynagogos or archon tes synagoges discussed in (Brooten 1982, pp. 15–30).17 The meaning of the word archisynagogos or archon tes synagoges discussed in (Brooten 1982, pp. 15–30). The meaning of the word The thirdIJO Mac inscription 1. Cf. meter (Le tes synagoges Bohec 1981,(“mother No. of 81, synagogue” stone 0.79 in (Brooten m × 0.51 1982 m, p.× 570.33ff)), m, also inscription the common field term archisynagogos0.25 m or “synagogue” as a house of worship and as a congregation is a complicated issue.archon Thus, tes synagoges in the Septuagintdiscussed inthe (Brooten 1982, pp. 15–30). The meaning of“synagogue” the word “synagogue” as a house as aof house worship of worship and as a congregation is a complicated issue. Thus, in the Septuagint the congregation) was was translated translated as as “synagogue,” while Josephus uses the word “synagogue” for a) ﬠדה congregation) was translated as “synagogue,” while Josephus× 0.22 m, uses currentand the as word a location congregation “synagogue” unknown) is a complicated for isa in Latin issue. (Le Thus, Bohec in the1981, Septuagint No. 81). the word word) ﬠדה word “synagogue,” while Josephus uses the word “synagogue” for a building in his Bellum Judaicum 2, chapters 285–292. For building in his Bellum Judaicum 2, chapters 285–292. For a discussion on the Greek and Jewish terms in Greek building in his Bellum Judaicum 2, chapters 285–292. For a discussion on the Greek and Jewish terms in Greek DMa S discussion on the Greek and Jewish terms in Greek literary For sources the ghost and epigraphy gods see (Hengel 1975, pp. 27–54). The literary sources and epigraphy see (Hengel 1975, pp. 27–54). The collection of literary and epigraphic literary sources and epigraphy see (Hengel 1975, pp. 27–54). The collectionAnt(onii)collection of literary Sabba of literary and and epigraphic epigraphic resources is found in (Anders Antonii Runesson Sabba- and Olsson 2010). Note that the Hebrew term -bet) בית כנסת ,bet-keneset(bet- ), literary means “house of congregation”.resources is found in (Runesson et al. 2010). Note that the Hebrew term for the synagogue) בית כנסת ,resources is found in (Runesson et al. 2010). Note that the Hebrew term for forthe the synagogue, synagogue tr[a]i;18 uix(it) annis (tribus), menses (quinque) et die trai. He lived (three) years (five) months keneset), literary means “house of congregation”. IJO(2004) Mac 1 lemma, p. 66, with literature. keneset), literary means “house of congregation”. 18 IJO (2004) Mac 1 lemma, p. 66, with literature. 18 IJO (2004) Mac 1 lemma, p. 66, with literature. 19 19 See (van der Horst 1991, p. 68), with literature. See (van der Horst 1991, p. 68), with literature. 14 See, for example, (CIJ 1975, pp. 319, 494; IJO 2004, Mac 1) etc. 15 See (Leon 1960, p. 139; cf. Levinskaya 1992, p. 199, n. 7; LSJ 1996, s.v.). 16 IJO BS5 = (CIRB 1965). 17 IJO Mac 1. Cf. meter tes synagoges (“mother of synagogue” in (Brooten 1982, p. 57ff)), also the common term archisynagogos or archon tes synagoges discussed in (Brooten 1982, pp. 15–30). The meaning of the word “synagogue” as a house of worship and as a congregation is a complicated issue. Thus, in the Septuagint the congregation) was translated as “synagogue,” while Josephus uses the word “synagogue” for a) ﬠדה word building in his Bellum Judaicum 2, chapters 285–292. For a discussion on the Greek and Jewish terms in Greek literary sources and epigraphy see (Hengel 1975, pp. 27–54). The collection of literary and epigraphic -bet) בית כנסת ,resources is found in (Runesson et al. 2010). Note that the Hebrew term for the synagogue keneset), literary means “house of congregation”. 18 IJO (2004) Mac 1 lemma, p. 66, with literature. 19 See (van der Horst 1991, p. 68), with literature.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

word πατήρ (pater) means “the leader”, and it was a very common title in Greek inscriptions from different parts of the Jewish world.14 However, the term “synagogue” (Greek συναγωγή, Latin synagoga) was used for the congregation itself, while the place of worship was generally known as a προσευχή (proseuche)”15. The discussion about the use of the two terms has been ongoing for a long time, until new evidence appeared with the publication of the inscription from Bosphorus,16 where both words, συναγωγή (synagoge) and προσευχή (proseuche), were found. In the inscription from Bosphorus, it is obvious that the former word means “congregation”, while the latter word is used for the place of gathering for prayer or worship. This strongly suggests that the expression pater tes synagoges might mean simply “the leader of the community”. Despite these arguments, there are also examples when the word synagogue is likely to mean a place of gathering or a building, rather than a community. An illuminative example is the inscription in honor of Polycharmus from Stobi, Macedonia, which also contains the term pater tes synagoges.17 After having studied all possible interpretations—an honorific title, a title equal to the Roman patronus, a title implying certain administrative duties in the synagogue, and a title of a benefactor of the Jewish community—the editors concluded that Polycharmus had been a benefactor or a donor of the community before the inscription was carved. Moreover, they suggested that “he may received a title following his donation of the building which became a synagogue, as the inscription was ordered by him to clarify the legal position of his donation … the term συναγωγή indicates the local Jewish community”.18 Therefore, it is likely that the word synagoge in this inscription may be interpreted as the donated object, i.e., a building, and not as a community. There is another inscription dated to the first century BCE or first century CE from Jerusalem (CIJP 2010, No. 9), where the word synagogue definitely means the building because it is used as a part of the expression ᾠκοδόμησε τὴν συναγωγήν (okodomese ten synagogen), which has the only meaning “(he) built a house of the synagogue”. This inscription is also remarkable because it was carved in the time before the destruction of the Second Temple. Based on these arguments, the interpretation of the expression pater tes synagogues in our Arts 2019, 8, 127 7 of 13 inscription as “the person who organized and built a synagogue”, rather than just the head of the community, is possible. As far as the expression τῶν Ἰουδέων (ton Iudeon), among all the possible interpretations of the word Judeus inin inscriptionsinscriptions1919,, the the only only appropriate appropriate meaning for our inscription is “the Jews”.Jews”. This is differentdifferent from the inscriptioninscription inin thethe neighboringneighboring Chellah,Chellah, whichwhich willwill bebe discusseddiscussed below.below.

2.3. Inscription Inscription Three The third inscription (Le Bohec 1981, No. 81, stone 0.79 m 0.51 m 0.33 m, inscription field The third inscription (Le Bohec 1981, No. 81, stone 0.79 m × 0.51× m × 0.33× m, inscription field 0.25 m 0.25 m 0.22 m, current location unknown) is in Latin (Le Bohec 1981, No. 81). × 0.22 m,× current location unknown) is in Latin (Le Bohec 1981, No. 81). Arts 2019DMDM,, 8,, SxxS FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW For For the theghost ghost gods gods 7 of 13 Ant(onii)Ant(onii) SabbaSabba Antonii Antonii Sabba- Sabba- tr[a]i;bus (quattuor); uix(it) annis pater (tribus), pi(i)ssimus menses (quinque) fe et die trai. and He(four) lived days; (three) by years loving (five) father months Arts 2019, 8bustr[a]i;, x FOR (quattuor); uix(it) PEER REVIEWannis pater (tribus), pi(i)ssimus menses (quinque) fe et die trai. and He lived(four) (three) days; years by loving (five) months father7 of 13 c(i)t.bus (quattuor); pater pi(i)ssimus fe andmade. (four) days; by loving father busc(i)t. (quattuor); pater pi(i)ssimus fe and (four) made. days; by loving father 14 This Latin inscription is treated within the group of the Jewish inscriptions because of the c(i)t. See, for example, (CIJ 1975, pp. 319, 494; IJO 2004, Mac 1)made. etc. patronymic Sabbatrai(s). Le Bohec (1981, p. 195) cautiously calls him “judaïsant” (a Judaizer). The patronymic15 SeeThis (Leon Latin Sabbatrai(s).1960, inscription p. 139; cf. LevinskayaLe is Bohec treated 1992,(1981, within p. p.199, the 195) n. group7; cautiouslyLSJ 1996, of the s.v.). Jewishcalls him inscriptions “judaïsant” because (a Judaizer). of the The formulaThis Latin of the inscription inscription: is DMS,treated name within with the patronym group of icthe and Jewish age of inscriptions the dead was because typical of forthe all people formulapatronymic16 IJO BS5 of =the (CIRB Sabbatrai(s). inscription: 1965). LeDMS, Bohec name(1981 with, p. patronym 195) cautiouslyicic andand ageage calls ofof him thethe “judaïsant”deaddead waswas typicaltypical (a Judaizer). forfor allall peoplepeople patronymic Sabbatrai(s). Le Bohec (1981, p. 195) cautiously calls him “judaïsant” (a Judaizer). The ofThe17 the IJO formula Roman Mac 1. ofCf. oikoumene the meter inscription: tes ,,synagoges regardlessregardless DMS, (“mother thethe name religiousreligious of withsynagogue” patronymic identity.identity. in (Brooten However,However, and age1982, of thethep. the 57ff)), namename dead also Sabbatrai(s)Sabbatrai(s) was thetypical common for isis term nono all doubtdoubt formula of the inscription: DMS, name with patronymic and age of the dead 20was typical for all people frompeoplearchisynagogos the of Hebrew the Roman or root archonoikoumene shabbath, tes synagoges, and regardlessand itit discussed waswas the popularpopular religiousin (Brooten onlyonly identity. amongamong 1982, pp. However, Jews.Jews. 15–30).20 In In The the suchsuch namemeaning aa formform Sabbatrai(s) of thethe the namename word is seemsseems of the Roman oikoumene, regardless the religious identity. However, the name Sabbatrai(s)20 is no doubt tono be doubt“synagogue” hapax, from but theas maybe a Hebrewhouse the of worship root lettershabbath, rand waswas as aaand congregationmistakemistake it was ofof popular thetheis a complicatedengraverengraver only among andand issue. Jews.wewe Thus, cancan in Inreadread the such Septuagint herehere a form Sabbat(h)is.Sabbat(h)is. thethe to (congregation) root be hapax, shabbath, but was and maybe translated it was the popular letteras “synagogue,”r onlywas among a mistake while Jews. Josephus of20 the In engraversuch uses athe form word and the we“synagogue” name can readseems herefor a ﬠדה fromname theword Hebrew seems to be hapax,building but in hismaybe Bellum the Judaicum letter r 2was, chapters a mistake 285–292. of the For engravera discussion and on we the canGreek read and here Jewish Sabbat(h)is. terms in Greek 2.4.Sabbat(h)is. Additional Findings 2.4. literaryAdditional sources Findings and epigraphy see (Hengel 1975, pp. 27–54). The collection of literary and epigraphic bet- thethe namename) בית withwith כנסת AdditionalresourcesAn Additional additional Findings is Findingsfound evidence in (Runesson of theet al. Jewish 2010). Nopresencete that the in HebrewVolubilisVolubilis term isis foraa GreekGreek the synagogue, inscriptioninscription .2.4.2.4 keneset), literary means “house of congregation”. Shalom.Shalom.21 Moreover,Moreover, BrahmiBrahmi22 claimsclaims שלום Σαλεμον ((Salemon), which is believed to correspond to 18 An IJOAn additional (2004) additional Mac evidence 1 lemma, evidence p.of 66,the of with theJewish Jewishliterature. presence presence in Volubilis in Volubilis is a is Greek a Greek inscription inscription with with thethe name name that there are total of six inscriptions from Volubilis, which may2121 be considered Jewish.2222 which Shalom.Shalom. may be Moreover,Moreover, considered Brahmi Brahmi Jewish.claims claims that שלום Σαλεμονthat19Σ αλεµ Seethere (vano(Salemonν (areSalemon der total Horst), which), of which1991, six is p.inscriptions isbelieved 68), believed with literature.to to fromcorrespond correspond Volubilis, to to that there thereBesides are are total total the of of epitaphs, six six inscriptions inscriptions two lamps from from Volubilis, decoratedVolubilis, which which with may memaynorahs be be considered considered were discovered Jewish. Jewish. during excavations. OneBesides isBesides a remarkable the theepitaphs, epitaphs, bronze two two lamps lamp lamps decorated with decorated a candelabrum with with menorahs menorahs menorah-shaped were were discovered discovered stamp,during during excavations.which excavations. was found in OneVolubilisOne is a is remarkable a remarkable(Thouvenot bronze bronze 1969, lamp lamppl. with IV) with aand candelabrum a candelabrumis now kept menorah-shaped inin menorah-shaped thethe RabatRabat ArcheologicalArcheological stamp, stamp, which which wasMuseumMuseum was found found (Figure(Figurein in 3a).3a). VolubilisTheVolubilis bronze (Thouvenot (Thouvenot lamp with 1969, 1969 a pl.seven-branched, pl.IV) IV)and and is now is now candelabrum kept kept in the in theRabat above Rabat Archeological the Archeological handle Museumbelonged Museum (Figure to (Figure a member 3a).3 a). of the TheJewishThe bronze bronze community, lamp lamp with with a likewiseseven-branched a seven-branched another candelabrum terracotta candelabrum lamp above above with the the handle the handle menorah belonged belonged on to the a to member areservoir member of the of(Figure the 3b) Jewish(ThouvenotJewish community, community, 1969, likewise pl. likewise VIII; another PonsichPonsich another terracotta 1961,1961, terracotta p.p. lamp27).27). lamp with with the themenorah menorah on onthe thereservoir reservoir (Figure (Figure 3b)3 b) (Thouvenot 1969, pl. VIII; Ponsich 1961, p. 27). (ThouvenotNote that 1969 Volubilis, pl. VIII; Ponsichwas among 1961 ,the p. 27). most remote south-western cities of the Roman Empire. NoteNote that that Volubilis Volubilis was was among among the themost most remote remote south-western south-western cities cities of the of theRoman Roman Empire. Empire. However, even to the west of Volubilislubilis waswas thethe RomanRoman settlementsettlement ofof ChellahChellah (near(near modernmodern Rabat),Rabat), However,However, even even to the to thewest west of Vo oflubilis Volubilis was was the the Roman Roman settlement settlement of Chellah of Chellah (near (near modern modern Rabat), Rabat), where a Greek tombstone inscription on a marble plaque (Le Bohec 1981, No. 78). was found by H. wherewhere a Greek a Greek tombstone tombstone inscription inscription on a on marble a marble plaque plaque (Le Bohec (Le Bohec 1981, 1981 No., 78). No. was 78). found was foundby H. by Basset: Basset:Basset:H. Basset: 23 23 ΜαρεῖνοςΜαρεῖνος Marinus MarinusMarinusMarinus23 23 ΠτολεμαῖΠτολεμαῖ Ptolemaeus PtolemaeusPtolemaeusPtolemaeus ος οςἸου Ἰου fromfromfrom Ju-from Ju-Ju- Ju- δέοςδέος DeaDeaDea Dea 24 In InthisIn this this inscription, inscription, the the wordthe word word JudeusJudeus Judeus is betteris betterisis betterbetter understood understood understoodunderstood as a as local a asas local aethnicon,a locallocal ethnicon, ethnicon,ethnicon, “from “from Judea”. “from“from Judea”.24 Judea”.Judea”.24

19 See (van der Horst 1991, p. 68), with literature. 20 For parallels see (Ilan 2008, vol. 3, pp. 186–92). 21 CIL 21900, 21901. For different variants of the Greek tranliteration (Σα´λµων, Σελε´µων, Σαλα´µων, Σoλoµω´ ν, etc.), see: (Ilan 2008, vol. 3, pp. 161, 191–92). 22 Brahmi(2014, p. 549). He mentions the epitaph of “DMS /Anniae bene m(erentis)/Vixit/ann(is)”; however, it is unclear why this epitaph is Jewish, since the name Anna could be both Jewish or Christian. 23 Ilan(2008, vol. 3, pp. 521–22), lists examples from Rome, Egypt, and Carthago. 24 Hirschberg notes in his chapter that having Greek names and using the Greek language was common among the North African Jews of the period: “Most probably, that man obtained Roman citizenship under the law of Antoninus (Caracalla) in 20 For parallels see (Ilan 2008, vol. 3, pp. 186–92). 21 2020 CIL For For 21900, parallelsparallels 21901. seesee For (Ilan(Ilan different 2008,2008, varian vol.vol. ts3,3, ofpp.pp. the 186–92).186–92). Greek tranliteration (Σάλμων, Σελέμων, Σαλάμων, Σολομών, 2121 etc.), CIL CIL see: 21900,21900, (Ilan 21901. 21901.2008, vol. ForFor 3, differentdifferent pp. 161, varianvarian191–92).tsts ofof thethe GreekGreek tranliterationtranliteration ((Σάλμων,, Σελέμων,, Σαλάμων,, Σολομών,, 22 (Brahmietc.), see: 2014, (Ilan p. 549). 2008, He vol. mentions 3, pp. 161,the epitaph 191–92). of “DMS /Anniae bene m(erentis)/Vixit/ann(is)”; however, it 2222 is unclear (Brahmi (Brahmi why 2014,2014, this p.p. epitaph 549).549). HeHe is Jewish,mentionsmentions since thethe the epitaphepitaph name Anna ofof “DMS“DMS could/Anniae/Anniae be both bene beneJewish m(erentis)/Vixm(erentis)/Vix or Christian. it/ann(is)”;it/ann(is)”; however,however, itit 23 (Ilanisis unclearunclear2008, vol. whywhy 3, pp. thisthis 521–22), epitaphepitaph lists isis examJewish,Jewish,ples sincesince from thethe Rome, naname Egypt, Anna and could Carthago. be both Jewish or Christian. 24 23 Hirschberg notes in his chapter that having Greek names and using the Greek language was common among 2323 (Ilan (Ilan 2008,2008, vol.vol. 3,3, pp.pp. 521–22),521–22), listslists examexamples from Rome, Egypt, and Carthago. the North African Jews of the period: “Most probably, that man obtained Roman citizenship under the law 2424 Hirschberg Hirschberg notesnotes inin hishis chapterchapter thatthat havinghaving GreekGreek namesnames andand usingusing thethe GreekGreek languagelanguage waswas commoncommon amongamong of Antoninus (Caracalla) in 212 and, like many others, added to his Greek name the personal name of that thethe NorthNorth AfricanAfrican JewsJews ofof thethe period:period: “Most“Most probablyprobably,, thatthat manman obtainedobtained RomanRoman citizenshipcitizenship underunder thethe lawlaw emperor: Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus). His Hellenistic name and the Greek scripts suggest that he or his of Antoninus (Caracalla) in 212 and, like many others, added to his Greek name the personal name of that forebearsof Antoninus came from (Caracalla) the eastern in 212region, and, perhaps likelike manymany from others,others, Cyrenaica, addedadded or toevento hishis from GreeGree Egypt.k name The the name personal Salimos, name of that emperor: Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus). His Hellenistic name and the Greek scripts suggest that he or his foundemperor: in Volubilis Marcus in Greek Aurelius script, (Antoninus). is general Semitic; His Hellenistic it was used alsoname by and the Arabs, the Greek and occurs scripts already suggest among that he or his theforebears Jews of Elephantine” came from (Hirschbergthe eastern 1974,region, p. 68). perhaps Stern statesfrom thatCyrenaica, “The pe rcentageor even offrom Jewish Egypt. inscriptions The name in Salimos, thefound Greek in language Volubilis andin Greek Greek script, scripts is generalfrom Africa Semitic; Proconsularis, it waswas usedused Mauretanian alsoalso byby thethe Arabs,Arabs, Caesaria, andand Mauretanianoccursoccurs alreadyalready amongamong Tingitania,thethe JewsJews and ofof Elephantine”Elephantine” Mauretanian Sitifis (Hirschberg(Hirschberg exceeds 1974,the general p. 68). pe Sternrcentage states of Greek that “The to Lati pen rcentageinscriptions of withinJewish those inscriptions in areas”thethe (SternGreekGreek 2008, languagelanguage p. 191). andand GreekGreek scriptsscripts fromfrom AfricaAfrica Proconsularis, Mauretanian Caesaria, Mauretanian Tingitania, and Mauretanian Sitifis exceeds the general percentage of Greek to Latin inscriptions within those areas” (Stern 2008, p. 191).

Arts 2019, 8, 127 8 of 13 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

(a) (b)

Figure 3.3. (a(a)) The The menorah menorah shaped shaped bronze bronze lamp lamp from Volubilis,from Volubilis, 4th–5th 4th–5th century. century. Archeological Archeological Museum Museumin Rabat. in (b )Rabat. A fragment (b) A of fragment a lamp with of a thelamp menorah with the on themeno reservoirrah on (redrawnthe reservoir from (redrawn (Ponsich from1961, (Ponsichp. 27). 1961, p. 27)).

3. Archeological Archeological Evidence Evidence Ancient synagogues from both the Land of Israel and in the Jewish diaspora made a significant significant 25 impact upon the formation of thethe modernmodern JewishJewish identityidentity andand artisticartistic style.style.25 The identification identification of excavated Ancient Ancient synagogues synagogues remain remainss controversial, controversial, because because it itis is difficult difficult to to determine determine whether whether a particulara particular public public building building served served as a assynagogue. a synagogue. In many In cases, many only cases, Jewish only inscriptions Jewish inscriptions or mosaics or withmosaics distinctively with distinctively Jewish motifs Jewish can motifs serve canas a servedecisive as aargument decisive argumentto attribute to a attributeparticular a excavated particular structureexcavated as structure a synagogue. as a synagogue. Besides that, Besides typical that, features typical of featuresthe synagogues of the synagogues include the include west–east the orientationwest–east orientation towards Jerusalem, towards Jerusalem, and a source and aof source water offor water purity for considerations purity considerations (Levine( Levine2000; Weiss 2000; Weiss2014). 2014Stern). Sternhas examined has examined specific specific architectural architectural features features of ofJewish Jewish devotional devotional buildings buildings in in North North Africa usingusing NaroNaro as as a a case case study, study, and and she she concluded concluded that that Jewish Jewish practices practices did did not dinotffer differ much much from from their theirneighbors: neighbors: “The Jewish“The Jewish population population of Naro of drew Naro from drew North from African North devotionalAfrican devotional practices topractices define the to definespace ofthe the space synagogue, of the itssynagogue, related organizational its related hierarchiesorganizational and hierarchies the activities and that the occurred activities within that it occurred... Signs within of cultural it … diSignsfference of cultural occasionally difference mark occasionally the otherwise mark locally the otherwise conventional locally architecture conventional and architecturedecoration” (andStern decoration” 2008, p. 252). (Stern 2008, p. 252). In North Africa, there are several excavated buildings, which were identified, with a certain degree of confidence, as ancient synagogues. The synagogue of ancient Naro (present-day Hammam Lif 212in Tunisia) and, like manyfrom others, the third added to to the his Greekfifth namecenturies the personal CE constitutes name of that the emperor: most complete Marcus Aurelius archaeological (Antoninus). His Hellenistic name and the Greek scripts suggest that he or his forebears came from the eastern region, perhaps from evidenceCyrenaica, for or Jewish even from religious Egypt. The practices name Salimos, in Roma foundn in North Volubilis Africa. in Greek The script, synagogue is general Semitic; was itdiscovered was used also in by 1883the by Arabs, the French and occurs captain already Ernest among the De Jews Prudhomme of Elephantine” and (Hirschberg identified 1974 by, p. its 68). mosaics Stern states including that “The menorahs, percentage of Jewish inscriptions in the Greek language and Greek scripts from Africa Proconsularis, Mauretanian Caesaria, Mauretanian biblicalTingitania, motifs, and and Mauretanian devotional Sitifis exceedsinscriptions the general (Stern percentage 2008, ofp. Greek193). to The Latin synagogue inscriptions withinwas situated those areas” by (Stern the sea 2008near, p. the 191). hot springs. As for the synagogue’s orientation, Goodenough (1953) and Levine (2000) 25 suggestedRodov(2013 that) states it was that theoriented relationship towards of the Jewishthe east; culture however, in Renaissance Stern Poland (2008, with pp. the earlier207–9) adaptations made strong of the Christian revival of classical antiquity by Italian Jews made a significant impact upon the formation of East European synagogue art. The remains of ancient synagogues became a new source of inspiration for synagogue architecture during the second half of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century in both Europe and America (Kravtsov 2019). 25 Rodov (2013) states that the relationship of the Jewish culture in Renaissance Poland with the earlier adaptations of the Christian revival of classical antiquity by Italian Jews made a significant impact upon the formation of East European synagogue art. The remains of ancient synagogues became a new source of inspiration for synagogue architecture during the second half of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century in both Europe and America (Kravtsov 2019).

Arts 2019, 8, 127 9 of 13

In North Africa, there are several excavated buildings, which were identified, with a certain degree of confidence, as ancient synagogues. The synagogue of ancient Naro (present-day Hammam Lif in Tunisia) from the third to the fifth centuries CE constitutes the most complete archaeological evidence for Jewish religious practices in Roman North Africa. The synagogue was discovered in 1883 by the French captain Ernest De Prudhomme and identified by its mosaics including menorahs, biblical motifs, and devotional inscriptions (Stern 2008, p. 193). The synagogue was situated by the sea near the hot springs. As for the synagogue’s orientation, Goodenough(1953) and Levine(2000) suggested that it was oriented towards the east; however, Stern(2008, pp. 207–9) made strong arguments that this assertion is incorrect and suggested that architectural features of the Hammam Lif synagogue did not differ significantly from those of other places of worship in the region, such as Christian churches and pagan shrines. It has been suggested in the literature that ancient synagogues could have existed in several other North African cities including Leptis Magna, Carthage, and Tipassa. Ward Perkins(1952) hypothesized that a structure with a niche facing eastward in the forum of Lepis Magna (Libya) could serve a synagogue until it was converted into a church in the sixth century. In Carthage (Tunisia), deposit patterns of Jewish lamps could mark a site of a synagogue, while in Tipasa (Algeria) a column capitol decorated with a menorah was interpreted as a possible location of an ancient synagogue. In addition, Procopius asserted that Jews from Boreium (Libya) possessed a synagogue, which was later converted to a church by Justinian. As far as Volubilis, Frézouls(1971) suggested the existence of a synagogue at Volubilis, which he asserts was converted into a basilica, however, his claim is purely speculative. The center of the Roman city consisted of the forum with adjoining temples, a basilica, a capitol complex dedicated to Jupiter and several bathes (thermes), Figure4a,b. So far, a number of temples have been excavated and identified in Volubilis; however, no attempt has been made to interpret any of these structures as a synagogue. These temples are traditionally marked by letters from A to H and they have been identified as either pre-Roman or Roman. Therefore, it is desirable to review excavated houses of worship in order to decide whether any of these buildings can serve as candidates for a synagogue. Temple A having the north-south orientation is located to the east from the city center. This temple was the oldest religious structure in Volubilis, and it is identified as a Punic temple. The temple was destroyed and profaned by construction of an oven and other structures in the middle of the 1st century CE. Temple B also having the north–south orientation is located on the left bank of the Fertassa river. At this location, more than 800 stelae were found representing figures in different attitudes: salutating, offering, listening and praying. Such figures are typical of sanctuaries dedicated to the god Saturn, whose worship replaced that of the Punic god Baal Hammon. Pre-Roman Temple D having the north–south orientation located to the west of the Forum was the Forum Temple; however, it was modified many times during its history. Temples G and H (east-west orientation) were twin temples situated on the western edge of the Mauretanian city. Temples from the Roman period are also present in Volubilis. Roman shrines include the Capitol devoted to the Capitoline Triad, Jupiter, Junon, and Minerve, which was erected in 217 CE during the rule of the Emperor Macrin. The basilica was built at around the same time. Temple C having the east–west orientation was built over the pre-Roman city wall and it is a little temple with its cella built onto a raised podium on the west side. An independent water supply was assured by a well to the southeast, just outside the temple (Figure4c). The temple seems to have been destroyed after the Roman withdrawal of the third century (Spagnoli 2006, p. 177). The epigraphic and archaeological evidence discussed in the previous section suggests that a significant Jewish community existed in Volubilis in the third century CE, and it is likely that the community had a permanent place of worship and prayer. However, it is not easy to identify any particular building of the Roman period with the synagogue. Temple C has the east–west orientation, and a nearby water source was found, however, the altar or the cella was located on the western and Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13 arguments that this assertion is incorrect and suggested that architectural features of the Hammam Lif synagogue did not differ significantly from those of other places of worship in the region, such as Christian churches and pagan shrines. It has been suggested in the literature that ancient synagogues could have existed in several other North African cities including Leptis Magna, Carthage, and Tipassa. Ward Perkins (1952) hypothesized that a structure with a niche facing eastward in the forum of Lepis Magna (Libya) could serve a synagogue until it was converted into a church in the sixth century. In Carthage (Tunisia), deposit patterns of Jewish lamps could mark a site of a synagogue, while in Tipasa (Algeria) a column capitol decorated with a menorah was interpreted as a possible location of an ancient synagogue. In addition, Procopius asserted that Jews from Boreium (Libya) possessed a synagogue, which was later converted to a church by Justinian. As far as Volubilis, Frézouls (1971) suggested the existence of a synagogue at Volubilis, which he asserts was converted into a basilica, however, his claim is purely speculative. The center of the Roman city consisted of the forum with adjoining temples, a basilica, a capitol complex dedicated to Jupiter and several bathes (thermes), Figure 4a,b. So far, a number of temples have been excavated and identified in Volubilis; however, no attempt has been made to interpret any of these structures as a synagogue. These temples are traditionally marked by letters from A to H and they have been identified as either pre-Roman or Roman. Therefore, it is desirable to review excavated houses of worship in order to decide whether any of these buildings can serve as candidates for a synagogue. Temple A having the north-south orientation is located to the east from the city center. This temple was the oldest religious structure in Volubilis, and it is identified as a Punic temple. The temple was destroyed and profaned by construction of an oven and other structures in the middle of Arts 2019, 8, 127 10 of 13 the 1st century CE. Temple B also having the north–south orientation is located on the left bank of the Fertassa river. notAt onthis the location, eastern side.more Onthan the 800 other stelae hand, were as indicated found byrepresenting Stern, even infigures the Hammam in different Lif synagogueattitudes: thesalutating, orientation offering, towards listening the east and is praying. quite questionable. Such figures Therefore, are typical further of sanctuaries analysis ofdedicated archaeological to the evidencegod Saturn, on whose this matter worship is desirable. replaced that of the Punic god Baal Hammon.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13 (a)

(b) (c)

FigureFigure 4. 4.( a()a) Basilica Basilica and and forum forum in Volubilis,in Volubilis, view view from from the norththe north (photo (photo credit: credit: G. Minkovsky). G. Minkovsky). (b) Plan (b) ofPlan the of forum the forum area of area Volubilis. of Volubilis. (c) Plan (c of) Plan Temple of Temple C with theC with east–west the east–west orientation orientation and a water and supply.a water supply. 4. Conclusions ThreePre-Roman Jewish Temple funeral D inscriptions having the north–south in Hebrew, Greek,orientation and located Latin were to the discovered west of the in Forum Volubilis. was Inthe addition, Forum Temple; there is ahowever, Greek inscription it was modified with the many Jewish times name duringΣαλεµ its history.oν was Temples found, and G and two H lamps (east- decoratedwest orientation) with menorahs. were twin All temples these artefacts situated are on likely the western to have edge dated of to the the Mauretanian third century city. CE, and they indicateTemples that a from significant the Roman Jewish period community are also existed present in in the Volubilis. city at thatRoman period. shrines The include naming the patterns Capitol anddevoted the language to the Capitoline of the inscriptions Triad, Jupiter, suggest Junon, that theand Greek Minerve, language which played was erected a significant in 217 role CE forduring the Jewsthe rule of the of region,the Emperor probably Macrin. due toThe their basili originca was from built eastern at around parts ofthe the same Roman time. Empire. Despite that, there areTemple several C having mistakes the in east–west the Greek inscriptionorientation mostly was built related over to the the pre-Roman confusion of city the wall long and shortit is a vowelslittle templeomega withand omicronits cella, builteta and ontoepsilon a raised. podium on the west side. An independent water supply was assured by a well to the southeast, just outside the temple (Figure 4c). The temple seems to have been destroyed after the Roman withdrawal of the third century (Spagnoli 2006, p. 177). The epigraphic and archaeological evidence discussed in the previous section suggests that a significant Jewish community existed in Volubilis in the third century CE, and it is likely that the community had a permanent place of worship and prayer. However, it is not easy to identify any particular building of the Roman period with the synagogue. Temple C has the east–west orientation, and a nearby water source was found, however, the altar or the cella was located on the western and not on the eastern side. On the other hand, as indicated by Stern, even in the Hammam Lif synagogue the orientation towards the east is quite questionable. Therefore, further analysis of archaeological evidence on this matter is desirable.

4. Conclusions Three Jewish funeral inscriptions in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin were discovered in Volubilis. In addition, there is a Greek inscription with the Jewish name Σαλεμον was found, and two lamps decorated with menorahs. All these artefacts are likely to have dated to the third century CE, and they indicate that a significant Jewish community existed in the city at that period. The naming patterns and the language of the inscriptions suggest that the Greek language played a significant role for the Jews of the region, probably due to their origin from eastern parts of the Roman Empire. Despite that, there are several mistakes in the Greek inscription mostly related to the confusion of the long and short vowels omega and omicron, eta and epsilon. A Jewish community existed in Volubilis, and specific titles are used in the inscriptions including Hebrew “rabbi” and Greek “protopolites” (“first citizen”) and “Pater tes synagoges ton Iudeon” (“head of the synagogue of the Jews”). The term synagogue, which literary means “a congregation”, can also be interpreted as a house of worship/prayer, since it was used in this meaning in some epigraphic sources.

Arts 2019, 8, 127 11 of 13

A Jewish community existed in Volubilis, and specific titles are used in the inscriptions including Hebrew “rabbi” and Greek “protopolites” (“first citizen”) and “Pater tes synagoges ton Iudeon” (“head of the synagogue of the Jews”). The term synagogue, which literary means “a congregation”, can also be interpreted as a house of worship/prayer, since it was used in this meaning in some epigraphic sources. It is difficult to identify a particular communal building of the third century CE which could serve as a synagogue, because North African synagogues of the period lacked distinct architectural features which could distinguish them from non-Jewish objects, apart from Jewish inscription and mosaics with biblical scenes, which have not been identified in Volubilis. It has been suggested that a synagogue was converted into the Basilica, however, there is no evidence for that hypothesis. More close attention to the excavated structures of the Roman period, such as Temple C, should be paid. We visited Volubilis in December 2018. Two Jewish inscriptions are exhibited at the local archeological center; however, they are hardly interpreted in detail, moreover, the Hebrew inscription is broken and only a small piece has survived. In the study of the Judaism in Roman diaspora, there is a gap between three types of sources: (a) literary texts in the Hebrew and Aramaic languages, (b) epigraphic sources with mostly funeral inscriptions in the Greek and Latin, sometimes with some Hebrew, and (c) archeological evidence including the architecture of synagogue buildings and artistic interpretations of biblical stories and motifs. Studying epigraphic, literary, and archeological evidence in combination could help to close this gap, so more detailed attention of epigraphists to the North African Jewish inscriptions including creating a comprehensive corpus with texts, images and translations would be highly desirable. Hopefully, current efforts in digital humanities related to Jewish epigraphy would eventually fulfill this task. Our analysis of Volubilis Jewish inscriptions and archeological evidence suggests that there was a significant Jewish community in Volubilis in the 3rd century CE. The Hebrew inscription is short and standard in terms of the words used. However, it is unique due to its geographic location, because it is the most western such inscription. The inscription constitutes evidence of using the Hebrew language in a place extremely remote from the contemporary centers of Judaism in Babylonia and Palestine. Moreover, the titles in the Greek inscription indicate that a significant Jewish community existed in Volubilis and that a synagogue likely existed there. There are still open questions regarding the Volubilis Jewish community, such as where the Jewish cemetery and synagogue were located, were there any other tombstones, and is there any evidence about this community in any other sources. While we cannot locate the synagogue precisely from the archeological data (several candidate buildings could be suggested including basilica and Temple C), the mere fact of its existence is important. We conclude that a Jewish community existed in this south-western extremity of the Jewish diaspora, and that the community had a distinct linguistic identity using the Hebrew and Greek languages, as opposed to the Latin and Berber languages of the non-Jewish population.

Author Contributions: S.A. studied epigraphic sources and provided translations from the Greek and Latin languages, A.F. and M.N. participated in the fieldwork, M.N. wrote the text. All authors read the article. Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: The field trip to Morocco in December 2018–January 2019 was organized by A. Fedorchuk, N. Nabil, and P. Polonsky. Figures 1b, 2, 4 were created by the authors, Figures 1a and 3 are in public domain. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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