Ancient Rome William E. Dunstan ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC. Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK ................. 17856$ $$FM 09-09-10 09:17:21 PS PAGE iii Published by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright ᭧ 2011 by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. All maps by Bill Nelson. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. The cover image shows a marble bust of the nymph Clytie; for more information, see figure 22.17 on p. 370. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dunstan, William E. Ancient Rome / William E. Dunstan. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7425-6832-7 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-7425-6833-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-7425-6834-1 (electronic) 1. Rome—Civilization. 2. Rome—History—Empire, 30 B.C.–476 A.D. 3. Rome—Politics and government—30 B.C.–476 A.D. I. Title. DG77.D86 2010 937Ј.06—dc22 2010016225 ⅜ϱ ீThe paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/ NISO Z39.48–1992. Printed in the United States of America ................. 17856$ $$FM 09-09-10 09:17:21 PS PAGE iv CHAPTER 15 Augustus and the Founding of the Roman Empire The ruthless success of Octavian—soon to be revered as Augustus Caesar—over the forces of Antony and Cleopatra brought a dismal century of revolution and civil war to a close and inaugurated two centuries of peace and prosperity in Rome and Italy. Poets sang eloquently of these blessings of tranquility but regarded the accomplishment of peace at home as inseparable from the extraordinary military success and imperial expansion of the victor. On his return from Egypt as sole ruler of the Roman world in 29 BCE, Octavian celebrated a three-day triumph honoring him for victories over peoples of Europe, Asia, and Africa, who had been subjugated either by him or by his commanders. At the age of thirty- three he had made good his claim to the political inheritance of Julius Caesar. Although Julius Caesar captured the romantic imagination of later ages, his great-nephew Octavian enjoyed the greater impact on Roman history. Physically small and delicate, with fine features and piercing eyes, Octavian suffered from poor health throughout his life but survived to the age of seventy-seven through disciplined living. His administrative and political skills often tempered his early pattern of unscrupulous ambition. Octavian realized the Roman world sorely needed a stable and efficient government after a century of political turmoil. During his long reign he reorganized the state governmental machinery, rehabilitated Italy and the provinces both politically and economically, strengthened the frontiers, encouraged lofty standards of morality, and restructured public religion. His supporters pressed art and literature into service not only to glorify Augustus but also to veil his unrelenting ambition from public scrutiny. He promoted the most remarkable artistic and literary flowering in Roman history, and the creations of this cultural outburst mirror his fundamental change of the political system from republican to monarchical. As a means of distinguishing the scarcely concealed monarchy emerging in the age of Augustus from the former republican structure, historians refer to the period beginning in 27 BCE as the Roman Empire. Sources for the Period 27 BCE to 14 CE The literary record for the long reign of Augustus proves disappointing. Many works that covered the period have perished. Four ancient sources provide the bulk of information about political developments: Suetonius’ fascinating but embellished early-second-century biography of Augustus in Lives of the Caesars, Cassius Dio’s ambitious but uneven early- third-century Roman history written in Greek, Velleius Paterculus’ brief and superficial early-first-century Roman history, and Augustus’ own account of his rule, the Res gestae Divi Augusti (Achievements of the Divine Augustus), completed shortly before his death and inscribed on two bronze pillars outside his mausoleum. Augustus did not intend the Res gestae to 220 ................. 17856$ CH15 09-09-10 09:26:51 PS PAGE 220 AUGUSTUS AND THE FOUNDING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 221 serve as a complete record of his reign but as a narrative of the chief events and deeds for which he wished to be remembered. He portrays himself as a wise political leader and military commander who brought prosperity to Rome, Italy, and the Empire. We also remain indebted to the great poets of the Augustan age—who must never be confused with historical writers—for filling in numerous gaps about social, economic, religious, and intellectual matters. Although the inadequacy of the surviving literary record represents a serious obstacle to our understanding of the period, we glean valuable information from rich archaeological remains, including works of architecture and art, symbols and likenesses on coins, Latin and Greek inscriptions from Italy and the provinces, and Greek papyri from Egypt. Archaeological findings supplement literary sources in demonstrating the themes and values encouraged by Augustus and his regime. The Augustan creation of vivid visual and literary imagery, partly based on mass manipulation in the service of political power, produced a singularly fresh and evolving culture that transcended its own time. Octavian Becomes the First Roman Emperor: Transformation of the Republic into the Principate FIRST SETTLEMENT OF THE PRINCIPATE (27 BCE) Although Octavian embarked on his tumultuous political career as a young revolutionary and merciless proscriber, he became a consummate politician following his great-uncle’s murder. For several years after the legal expiration of the triumvirate in 32 BCE, Octavian continued to rule by virtue of his consular office. Then, on January 13, 27 BCE, the thirty-five-year-old Octavian, now consul for the seventh time, made a speech in the Senate surrendering the sweeping powers granted to him in excess of those customarily associated with the consulship, explaining the purpose of his action as the restoration of the constitutional government of the Republic. Accordingly, he announced the formal return of the traditional republican government, or res publica, to the control of the Senate and people of Rome. The hallowed term res publica, suggesting far more than the old republican political structure, encompassed all public aspects of the traditional Roman state, culture, and society. Although Octavian had no intention of actually relinquishing his supremacy—resting chiefly on his control of the military—the announcement furthered his chosen public image of obedience to the laws and traditions of Rome. Octavian had not spent seventeen years acquiring power to abdicate his supremacy at a relatively youthful age, thereby jeopardizing the many projects he envisioned for the Roman world. Thus he aimed at restoring a Figure 15.1. This cast of an agate intaglio, dated about 30 BCE, likens the nude Octavian to the god Neptune. Exhibiting grandeur and prowess, the chari- oteer holds a trident and rides majestically in a chariot drawn by wildly spirited sea horses. He charges over an unfortunate enemy, perhaps Mark Antony, who sinks beneath the turbulent sea. The artist seems to hail the charioteer as the bringer of peace and stability to a churning society. Location: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Photograph ᭧ 2011 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. ................. 17856$ CH15 09-09-10 09:27:11 PS PAGE 221 222 CHAPTER 15 semblance of the old republican constitution without surrendering his own hard-won authority, a relinquishment that might have led to a revival of the anarchy that followed the retirement and death of Sulla. In the process he created a new edifice under pretense of restoring the old. Behind the facade, the power of Rome increasingly fell into the hands of Augustus, who emerged as the first Roman emperor. The Extended Province. Octavian’s gesture before the Senate served simply as the prelude to a senatorial showering of him with powers and titles, an arrangement often called the First Settlement of the Principate. The Senate, doubtless by prearrangement with his supporters, allowed Octavian to lay down his extraordinary authority and to place all his provinces at its disposal. Then the Senate authorized Octavian to administer for ten years a vast extended province: Spain, Gaul, and Syria (as well as Egypt, which he retained in his own right as successor to the Ptolemies). Graciously, Octavian agreed with seeming reluctance to undertake this great responsibility. The Consulship. While Octavian turned to the task of administering his designated multiple province and commanding its armies, the Senate continued to control the rest of the Roman provinces through proconsuls drawn from the ranks of former praetors and former consuls. Octavian’s military command endowed him with extraordinary power, for most legions were stationed in his extended province. Following the model of Pompey, Octavian administered his provinces through legates he personally chose for their ability and loyalty. He continued to serve also as consul in Rome. Technically, the ancient organs of republican government still functioned in the traditional pattern. Octavian acknowledged the Senate and Roman people—the latter through the popular assemblies—as the font of authority in the state, but the overwhelming political and military powers Octavian acquired through the First Settlement guaranteed his preeminent directive role. He governed the city of Rome through his consulships, being reelected every year until 23 BCE, and guarded the Empire through the troops stationed in his extended province.