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• Dossier: Romanian-Turkish Military Relations during Modern and Contemporary Period – Major General (ret.) Dr. MIHAIL E. IONESCU – Foreword ...... 1 – TOGAY SEÇKIN BİRBUDAK – The Question of Romanian Union and REVISTA DE ISTORIE Alexandru Ioan Cuza’s Visit to Istanbul ...... 3 MILITARĂ – ÖZLEM DEMİREĞEN – 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War, Pleven (Plevna) Defence and Process Leading to Romania’s Independence ...... 12 Publicaţia este editată de – F. REZZAN ÜNALP – A Delegate of the Turkish-Romanian Friendship Ministerul Apărării Naţionale, Relations: Ambassador Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver ...... 28 prin Institutul pentru Studii – SERGIU IOSIPESCU – The Romanian Principalities, the Ottoman Empire Politice de Apărare şi Istorie and the Crimean War. Political and Military Considerations ...... 39 Militară, membru al Consorţiului – PETRE OTU – Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Romanian Historiography ...... 60 Academiilor de Apărare şi In – CERASELA MOLDOVEANU – „The Turkish Channel” in Romania’s stitutelor pentru Studii de Se Negotiations for Exit from the Axis ...... 80 curitate din cadrul Partene riatului pentru Pace, coordo • Centenar Primul Război Mondial nator naţional al Proiectului de – ŞERBAN CIOCULESCU, SILVIU PETRE – Dimensiunea psiho-cognitivă Istorie Paralelă: NATO – Tratatul a leadershipului german şi tentaţia expansiunii extra-europene la începutul de la Varşovia secolului al XX-lea ...... 93

COLEGIUL DE REDACŢIE • Istorie medievală – ALEXANDRU MADGEARU – Dimitrie Cantemir despre statul româno- • General-maior (r) dr. MIHAIL bulgar al dinastiei Asan...... 114 E. IONESCU, direc torul Institu tului pentru Studii Politice de • Istorie universală Apărare şi Istorie Militară – DRAGOŞ ILINCA – De la Mesopotamia la Irak. Secvenţe uitate?...... 118 • Academician DINU C. – ELIEZER PALMOR – Războiul Falklands-Malvinas...... 130 G I U R E S C U , A c a d e m i a Română • Opinii • D r. J A N H O F F E N A A R , –ALEXANDRU VOICU – Rebeliunea islamistă din Siria ...... 142 Preşedintele Comisiei Olandeze de Istorie Militară • Recenzii, prezentări de cărţi • Prof. univ. dr. DENNIS – Cristian Barna, România între prieteni şi duşmani, Editura Militară, DELETANT, London Univer Bucureşti, 2014 – ŞERBAN CIOCULESCU...... 154 sity • Colonel (r) dr. PETRE OTU, directorul ştiinţific al Institutului • Am primit la redacţie pentru Studii Politice de Apărare – „Infosfera”, „Historia”, „Impact strategic”, „Balcanii şi Europa”, şi Istorie Militară „Cer senin”, „Periscop” ...... 157 • Prof. univ. dr. MIHAI RETEGAN, Universitatea • Viaţa ştiinţifică Bucureşti – CERASELA MOLDOVEANU – Masa rotundă: Românii la începutul • IULIAN FOTA, consilier „Marelui Război”, 25 septembrie 2014, Cercul Militar Naţional, sala Ştefan prezidenţial cel Mare...... 159 • Dr. SERGIU IOSIPESCU, cc. şt., Institutul pentru Studii – ALEXANDRU MADGEARU – Al doilea simpozion ştiinţific internaţional Politice de Apărare şi Istorie „Zilele lui Iustinian I”, Skopje, 17-18 octombrie 2014 ...... 161 Militară – ALEXANDRU VOICU – Din activitatea Institutului pentru Studii Politice • Prof. univ. dr. ALESANDRU de Apărare şi Istorie Militară în anul 2014...... 163 DUŢU, Universitatea „Spiru Haret” • Prof. univ. dr. MARIA GEORGESCU, Universitatea Piteşti • Revista este inclusă în baza de date a Consiliului Naţional al Cercetării Ştiinţifice • Comandor (r) GHEORGHE în Învăţământul Superior, fiind evaluată la categoria „C”. VARTIC • Poziţia revistei în lista-catalog a publicaţiilor este la numărul 5017 ISSN 1220-5710 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor CONTENTS

• First World War Centenary – ŞERBAN CIOCULESCU, SILVIU PETRE – The Psycho-Cognitive Dimension of the German Leadership and the Temptation of Extra-European Expansion at the Beginning of the 20th Century...... 93

• Medieval History – ALEXANDRU MADGEARU – Dimitrie Cantemir on the Romanian-Bulgarian State of the Asen Dynasty ...... 114

• Universal History – DRAGOŞ ILINCA – From Mesopotamia to Iraq. Forgotten Episodes ...... 118 – ELIEZER PALMOR – The Falklands War...... 130

• Opinions – ALEXANDRU VOICU – The Islamist Rebellion in Syria ...... 142

• Book Reviews – Cristian Barna, România între prieteni şi duşmani, Editura Militară, Bucureşti, 2014 – ŞERBAN CIOCULESCU...... 154

• Editorial News – “Infosfera”, “Historia”, “Impact strategic”, “Balcanii şi Europa”, “Cer senin”, “Periscop”...... 157

• Scientific Life – CERASELA MOLDOVEANU – Round Table: Romanians at the Beginning of the “Great War”, September 25, 2014, National Military Club, “Ştefan cel Mare” Hall...... 159 – ALEXANDRU MADGEARU – Second International Scientific Symposium “Days of Justinian I”, Skopje, 17-18 October, 2014 ...... 161 – ALEXANDRU VOICU – From the Activity of the Institute for Political Studies of Defence and Military History in 2014...... 163

• Responsabil de număr: PETRE OTU • ALEXANDRU VOICU – redactor • ADRIAN PANDEA – coperta • ELENA LEMNARU – tehnoredactare computerizată

Adresa redacţiei: strada Constantin Mille nr. 6, cod 010142, Bucureşti, sector 1, telefon: 0213157827, telefax: 004021-3137955, www.mapn.ro/diepa/ispaim

B 00136/27.04.2015 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Dossier: Romanian-Turkish Military Relations during Modern and Contemporary Period

Foreword

The dossier we are presenting to our readers in this issue of the “Review of Military His- tory” represents the result of the collaboration between Turkish and Romanian historians. In April 2012, a delegation of the Turkish General Staff Military History and Strategic Studies Directorate visited the Institute for Political Studies of Defence and Military History. On this occasion, a program of cooperation between the specialists of the two Institutes was established, one of its points being the publishing of a “dossier” on the relations between Turkish and Romania through time. We now have the honour to offer the readers of the “Review of Military History” a viewpoint on the rapports between the two countries during the 19th and 20th centuries through six valuable studies, half signed by Turkish historians and the other half by Romanian historians. The Turkish researchers tackle three essential moments in the history of Romanians, which represented just as many stages in the Romanian state building. In his study, Togay Seçkin Birbudak addresses the unification of the two Romanian Principalities – Wallachia and Moldavia – in 1859, an issue that drew the attention of the European powers in the context of the Crimean War (1853-1856). In this process, the role of the Ottoman Empire, as suzerain of the two principalities, was of utmost importance, the visit of Alexandru Ioan Cuza to Istanbul having a special significance, as he managed to obtain from the sultan the full recognition of the unification. Özlem Demireğen analyzes another important moment – the Russian-Romanian-Ottoman war of 1877-1878 and the process by which Romania gained its independence. It must be said that, following this military conflict, the relations between the two countries steadily improved, Romania and Turkey working closely in ensuring security in the Balkans in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Next, F. Rezzan Ünalp focuses on the activity of an emblematic personality for the Turkish- Romanian rapports in the interwar period, namely Ambassador Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver. The latter worked as a diplomat in Bucharest for 13 years (1931-1944), developing relations of cooperation with the entire Romanian political spectrum. Thus, he helped maintain the relations between Turkey and Romania at a very high level, including in the Balkan Entente, an alliance which functioned between 1934 and 1940 and which included, beside the two aforementioned countries, both Yugoslavia and Greece. On behalf of the Institute for Political Studies of Defence and Military History, the dossier includes three more studies signed by Romanian researchers that complement the topics ap- proached by their Turkish counterparts. Sergiu Iosipescu analyzes the rapports between the two Romanian Principalities, Wallachia and Moldavia, on one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, on the other hand, during the Crimean War. While initially the two Romanian Principalities were occupied by Russia, a number of Romanian leaders that played an important role in the Revolution of 1848, such as Gheorghe Magheru, initiated projects aiming at organizing military detachments to fight alongside the Ottoman army and its allies against the Russian troops.  Revista de istorie militară  1 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Next, Petre Otu investigates the manner in which the Romanian historiography perceived the personality and activity of Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the modern Turkish state. The author distinguishes several stages in this historiographical demarche, concluding that Atatürk’s legendary figure represented a topic intensely scrutinized by Romanian historians. Finally, Cerasela Moldoveanu focuses on the role played during World War 2 by neutral Turkey in assisting the efforts of the authorities in Bucharest, made between 1942-1944, to exit the alliance with Germany and to join the Coalition of the United Nations. The negotiations were held on several channels (Stockholm, Bern, Lisbon, Cairo, Italy, etc.), but “the Turkish channel” had a special importance, being based on the very good relations between the two countries. Overall, the “dossier” manages to review – with professionalism and rigorousness – some of the most important moments in the history of the rapports between Romania and Turkey, two countries with long-lasting ties that played a major role in the Balkans and on the entire Euro- pean continent. This long and fruitful tradition is being continued today, when Romania and Turkey, both members of NATO, are called to significantly contribute to the consolidation of the alliance they belong to and to strengthen stability and cooperation in the Greater Black Sea Area and in the Middle East. We express our conviction that the studies included in this “dossier” will draw the attention of both specialists and the larger public interested in the Romanian military history, in general, and in the rapports between Romania and Turkey, in particular. Also, I would like to express my gratitude to the Turkish General Staff Military History and Strategic Studies Directorate for the fruitful cooperation until now and I would like to congratu- late the authors of the respective studies.

Major General (ret.) Dr. Mihail E. Ionescu Director of the Institute for Political Studies of Defence and Military History

2  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Dossier: Romanian-Turkish Military Relations during Modern and Contemporary Period

The Question of Romanian Union and Alexandru Ioan Cuza’s Visit to Istanbul

TOGAY SEÇKIN BİRBUDAK *

Abstract

This study examining the process of Wallachian and Moldavian unification under one single ruler, which had previously remained under the authority of the Ottoman State for many years, the developments starting from the Crimean War and lasting between 1853-1856 are analyzed. The 1856 Paris Peace Treaty, the subsequent diplomatic relations and the elections in parallel with these relations led to the unification of Wallachia and Moldavia. The enthronement of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, the first voivode of the united principalities, his visit to the Ottoman capital afterwards in 1860 and the short-term outcomes of this visit represent the theme of this study.

Keywords: Ottoman State, Wallachia, Moldavia, Romania, Alexandru Ioan Cuza

Introduction rulers of the region did not follow a pro-inde- Wallachia and Moldavia, which had been pendence policy; because various movements under the rule of the Ottoman State for cen- and groups aiming at independence were active turies, gained their independence through an in the period until 1878 in Romania, especially almost rapid process after the second half of in Bucharest and Iaşi. the XIX century. Following the Crimean War As mentioned above, the first step in the between 1853-1856 and Paris Treaty, which independence process of the Wallachian and was subsequently signed on 30 March 1856, Moldavian beylicates, which were affiliated Wallachia and Moldavia united under a single to the Ottoman State with a special status, governance for the first time and gained its started with the unification of two beylicates independence with the Ottoman-Russian war and their governance under one single admin- between 1877-1878. Considering from that as- istration. This could only be possible within pect, as a result of the political developments in the process after the Paris Treaty. Although Europe and the Ottoman-Russian conflict, the many governments were established within the independent Romania could be established with process lasting from the unification until the the Berlin Treaty on 13 July 1878. However, this independence, the country was ruled by two comment should not suggest that people and figures, namely Alexandru Ioan Cuza and Karl

* Research Assistant. Gazi University, Gazi Faculty of Education, Department of History Education.  Revista de istorie militară  3 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Friedrich Hohenzollern – Sigmaringen. These in the face of Russia, gained two important al- two figures probably had a special place in the lies such as Britain and France, and took the Romanian history. Cuza can be defined as the indirect support of Austria. However, this war leader unifying Wallachia and Moldavia, and came to a more significant place in the whole Prince Carol as the leader enabling Romania to of Europe as of 1854. gain its independence. Eventually, Russia, in the aftermath of mili- This study will examine the election of tary struggles, could not obtain a success in the Alexandru Ioan Cuza as the voivode and the face of this alliance, and the peace initiatives following developments, together with Cuza’s as of the end of 1855 ended with the Congress visit to Istanbul in the autumn of 1860. of Paris. Congress of Paris started its studies officially in the building of French Ministry of 1. 1853 – 1856 Crimean War and the Foreign Affairs with the participation of the Ot- Question of Unification of Wallachia and toman State, England, France, Russia, Austria, Moldavia Prussia and Piedmont on 25 February 185610. During these negotiations, France insisted on Although the Crimean War, which started the unification of Wallachia and Moldavia. The between the Ottoman State and Russia in 1853 Ottoman State objected this idea, stating that and ended in 1856, seemed to arise apparently Wallachia and Moldavia were separately gov- from a conflict called The Question of Holy erned for a long period and they had different Places1, it turned into a war in which the great cultures and traditions, and that Russia raised a powers of Europe intervened. serious threat11. At the end of the negotiations, With the outbreak of war, Wallachia and although France, Piedmont and Russia voted for Moldavia went under Russian occupation. the unification of Wallachia and Moldavia, this The Russian army, which started action under decision could not be made due to the opposi- the command of Prince Gorçakov on 3 July tion of the Ottoman State and Austria12. 1853, passed over the Prut River and occupied Thanks to the Paris Treaty signed on 30 Moldavia2, and positioned a Russian force of March 1856, the Russian threat in Wallachia and 50.000 strength in Wallachia and Moldavia Moldavia ended for that time being. Through within a short period3. The voivodes in charge this treaty (Articles 20-27), European states be- in both beylicates had to leave their country4. came the guarantors of these two beylicates that On 4 October 1853, the Ottoman State declared were subject territories of the Ottoman State, war on Russia officially and military struggles and the continuation and revision of the autono- started soon5. mous structures and privileges of Wallachia and This time, the Ottoman State was not alone Moldavia were determined. Accordingly, it was in its fight against Russia. Britain and France, decided that one council should be established which were against Russia from the very begin- for each beylicate13. ning of war, decided to make an alliance with The Austrian military units replacing the the Ottoman State on 12 March 18546. These Russian soldiers who had withdrawn from two states declared war on Russia on 28 March Wallachia and Moldavia following the treaty 18547. On 14 June 1854, a treaty was signed be- signed approximately 10 months after the tween Austria and the Ottoman State. Through onset of the Crimean War started to evacuate this treaty, it was decided that the Russian the region subsequent to the signing of Paris soldiers in Wallachia and Moldavia would be Treaty; however, the cleaning of Wallachia and taken out of those territories and Austria would Moldavia from foreign soldiers could only be later establish a transitional administration in possible in March 185714. the region until the end of the war8. The last In September 1856, the representatives of state to participate in this alliance in Europe European states came to Istanbul for the ques- against Russia was Piedmont. Another alliance tion of Wallachia and Moldavia. The participants was also established between the Ottoman State in these negotiations were Talleyrand Prigor for and Piedmont on 15th March 18559. With these France, Henry Bulwer for Britain, M. Basili treaties, the Ottoman State escaped being alone for Russia, Baron Richthofen for Prussia and 4  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor M. Benzi for Piedmont15. In this commission, kaimakam on 24 August 1857, stating that the the report on Memleketeyn [Twin Domains of Sublime Porte agreed with the signatory states Wallachia and Moldavia] was discussed, which of Paris Treaty on the renewal of the Moldavian was prepared by Thouvenel, French ambas- elections and ordered that necessary measures sador to Istanbul, and it was decided that laws be completed for it21. in both beylicates should be rearranged. This In the end, elections were re-held in Molda- decision, which was approved by the Ottoman via on 19 September 1857 and Wallachia on 26 padishah in January 1857, was communicated September 1857. As a result of these elections, to Bucharest and Iaşi through a firman16. The a great majority of the council membership was commission, which ended its studies in Istanbul, won by the unionists22. moved to Bucharest, and it continued studying Through a motion proposed by Mihail until the spring of 185817. Kogalniceanu on 7 October 1857 in the Molda- In addition to the developments in Istanbul, vian council, which convened after the elections, this issue was also discussed among the states it was decided that Wallachia and Moldavia be in Paris and a protocol of 30 articles on Memle- united under the name of “Romania”, a member keteyn was signed between the Ottoman State of the European dynasty be appointed as its and the European states on 11 February 185718. ruler and the sultanic rule be established. The Although this protocol confirmed the rights of same motion was proposed in the Wallachian the Ottoman State on Wallachia and Moldavia council on 8 October 1857 and adopted after and the special status of these two beylicates, voting23. it adopted their separate governance. This The Ottoman State reacted very strongly protocol, which determined the principles for to this decision of Wallachian and Moldavian the voivode election, also included judicial and councils. Upon this initiative, which was evalu- financial issues19. ated as contrary to the resolutions of the Paris Treaty and the convening aim of the council, 2. The Invalidated Elections of 1857 and the Sublime Porte decided for the closure of the Agreement of 19 August 1858 the Wallachian and Moldavian councils. Based on Articles 23 and 24 of the Paris Treaty, the Within a one-year period after the signing of written order given to the Moldavian and Paris Treaty ending the Crimean War, the issue Wallachian kaimakams on the mentioned date of Wallachia and Moldavia constituted one of stated that there was no more need for the the significant items of the diplomatic agenda. Moldavian and Wallachian councils, which As a result of the negotiations, elections could had been set up in order to represent the de- be made in June 1857. Those opposing the unifi- mands of people in Memleketeyn and help the cation won the elections in Moldavia. However, European Commission. The written order also this result led to many discussions. required that those councils should be closed France, Russia, Prussia and Piedmont and the kaimakams follow the necessary proce- objected this decision, claiming that those dures for it24. The firman ordering the closure agreeing for unification were not included in of the councils reached to Bucharest and Iaşi the elections through the false lists prepared at the end of January 1858. Being translated, by the kaimakam of Moldavia, and thus, the the firman was reported to the metropolitan Ottoman State, together with Austria, worked bishops, monasteries and assemblies through for such an outcome. The Sublime Porte, in the Wallachian and Moldavian kaimakams. return, defended that the elections were held After the declaration of the decision, neither properly20. in Wallachia nor in Moldavia was experienced Especially as a result of the pressure of a negative incident25. France, the Ottoman State had to decide for the In this period, the commission that consisted renewal of the elections. Despite all its objec- of European official representatives in Bucharest tions, the Ottoman State could not resist the also completed its studies and prepared its final pressure of the mentioned states any longer and report on 3 April 185826. Thereupon, the represent a telegraph to the office of the Moldavian sentatives of European states came together in  Revista de istorie militară  5 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Paris and agreed upon a written agreement on election made in the Moldavian Assembly on 17 19 August 1858 as a result of the negotiations. January 1859, Alexandru Ioan Cuza was elected In this text composed of 50 articles, the name as voivode. On 5 February 1859, the Wallachian of Wallachia and Moldavia was defined as “Eflak Assembly signed the same resolution29. This ve Boğdan Emâreteyn-i Müctemiası” [United development was quite an unexpected one for Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia]; their the Ottoman State. The news that the election previous status and rights together with their was first made in Moldavia and that Cuza was liabilities to the Ottoman State were reiterated, elected as the voivode came to the Sublime and detailed decisions were taken on issues such Porte. Thereupon, it was decided that the eligi- as the position of a voivode, and the duties and bility of Cuza as a voivode should be examined30. authority of the assemblies to be formed27. However, before the completion of this process, With this written agreement of 50 articles, the news of the resolution by the Wallachian Memleketeyn territories continued to be ruled Assembly reached Istanbul. Ahmed Cevdet under the Ottoman State; however, these two Pasha, one of the important statesmen of that beylicates were almost restructured. This period, expressed that the Ottoman government historical document, in which the names of expected totally different figures to be elected as the beylicates were even changed, established voivode and the election of Cuza as the voivode a new structure in Wallachia and Moldavia, was quite a surprise. However, Ahmed Cevdet consisting of voivode, assembly and the central Pasha further stated, while the astonishment commission. Although the concessions and caused by the news still persisted, the informa- exemptions, which were previously granted to tion that the same person was also elected as the Wallachia and Moldavia by the Ottoman pad- Wallachian voivode reached Istanbul31. ishahs centuries ago, were accepted once again, Although the Ottoman State opposed those this written agreement can be said to have given voivode elections and asserted that they were the mentioned beylicates the chance to move in violation of the treaties, France recognized more freely. Cuza as the common voivode of Wallachia and As of the mentioned date, it is hard to Moldavia on 10 February 185932. Britain claimed say that there was left a clear and continu- that those elections were against the existing ous relation between the Ottoman State and treaties and took the side of the Ottoman State. beylicates, except for the article stipulating for Still, it would not persist much in its decision33. the payment of annual taxes. Although it was When the calendar showed April 1859, Cuza decided that beylicates should be governed by was recognized as the prince of Wallachia and separate voivodes and assemblies, a process Moldavia by all states except for the Ottoman of institutional unification was started. In any State and Austria34. In the end, the Ottoman case, the developments in 1859 would lead to State, which could not resist the policies of the ruling of Wallachia and Moldavia by a single great powers any longer, had to recognize Cuza ruler; because the decisions made and the order as the voivode through a firman it issued on envisioned on 19 August 1858 would be soon 24 September 185935. The firman pertaining violated and a significant step would be taken to the appointment of Cuza as the voivode for an independent Romania. was sent to Bucharest and Iaşi respectively36. The decree sent to Cuza stated that, being an 3. The Election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza exceptional case peculiar to his term, he was as Voivode appointed as the voivode of the two beylicates upon the recommendations of European states. The padishah’s firman necessitating the ful- The decree also required that he should comply fillment of required procedures after the signing with the articles of the written agreement dated of the written agreement dated 19 August 1858 19 August 1858, cooperate with the Ottoman was sent to Bucharest and Iaşi, and thus started government and adopt different governance the process for the election of a voivode28. attitudes in two beylicates37. The first initiative in the voivode election Following a critical struggle, Wallachia and process came from Moldavia. As a result of the Moldavia were united under a single ruler in 6  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor 1859. Alexandru Ioan Cuza succeeded in mak- tourage drew near Galaţi, Kamil Bey, master ing history as the first ruler of the united prin- of ceremonies in the Foreign Ministry, and his cipalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. Cuza, who team were ordered to set out by the steamboat would continue his term until 1866, would make Beirut on 26 September 198043. a visit to Istanbul one year after the Ottoman Having been received at the Port of Galaţi State accepted his appointment to that position and brought to Istanbul with his 84-men en- and, bearing the title of prince of the united tourage, Cuza Bey was put up at the Mirgün territory of Wallachia and Moldavia, he would Palace; and Ali Effendi, one of the clerks of Im- meet with the Ottoman padishah. perial Treasury, escorted him44. Following his arrival in Istanbul, Prince Cuza was taken to 4. Istanbul Visit of Alexandru Ioan Cuza the palace on 09 October 1860 and visited the and the Romanian Union Ottoman Sultan Abdulmedjid45. Sultan gave Prince Cuza a Medjidi Order and a golden- On the way of his journey towards Istanbul, hafted sword as a gift. Following his visit to Alexandru Ioan Cuza, bey of Wallachia and Sultan, Prince Cuza attended a banquet ar- Moldavia, reached Galaţi along with his entou- ranged in his honor at the residence of Grand rage, and was received there by an Ottoman Vizier Ali Pasha. On October 10th, Cuza made delegation. The Sublime Port had certainly interviews at the residences of Naval Com- made necessary preparations for the visit of mander-in-Chief (Captain Pasha) and Minis- Cuza. Above all, preparations had been made ter of War. On October 12th, he attended the for the ceremonies to be performed on Cuza’s ceremony organized in his honor at the British arrival in Istanbul38. According to the ceremo- Embassy. Having been invited to the Impe- nial program, Cuza would be met by a boat; he rial Theater at Dolmabahçe Palace on October would be assigned an aide; he would be put up 13th, Prince Cuza attended the ceremonies or- at the Mirgün Palace; an official from the pal- ganized at the French and Russian Embassies, ace along with the Minister of Foreign Affairs respectively on October 15th and 16th. He vis- would pay a welcoming visit to Cuza; and the ited the Sultan one more time on October 16th grand vizier’s office and the Ministry ofForeign for an official good-bye and left Istanbul the Affairs would arrange a banquet in his honor. It following morning46. was decided that Cuza would appear before the During this visit, Prince Cuza and his en- Sultan the day following his arrival in Istanbul. tourage of 35 men were presented the Medjidi After the palace visit, Cuza would be taken to Order of various grades47. It was decided that the Sublime Port; he would there be met with the expenses of Prince Cuza during this visit a military ceremony and visit the deputies; and would be covered by the Treasury48. The ex- as a last activity of the ceremonial program, he penses of the bey of Wallachia and Moldavia would be given another banquet39. during his Istanbul visit were registered in a After the ceremonial program was decided book; 279.030 kurush were spent in total49. upon, what remained to be done was to as- Concerning Cuza’s visit to Istanbul and sign an escort and a boat for Cuza’s arrival in the Sultan, the renowned Romanian historian Istanbul40. First, it was decided that the steam- Nicolae Iorga emphasizes the high ranks of boat “Beirut” would be sent to meet Cuza and the authorities. According to Nicolae Iorga, his entourage in Galaţi. However, due to the although Prince Cuza regarded and treated few number of beds in “Beirut”, a second al- the Turks in his country as foreigners, and ternative – the steamboat “Khaireddin” – was he rejected to visit the Ottoman grand vizier proposed41. But later, as a result of the corre- traveling along the borders, he was met just spondence with the Wallachian kapi kethudasi like an independent prince in Istanbul50. [army chamberlain], it was decided that Cuza The first important development in the af- and some of his entourage would be hosted in termath of Cuza’s Istanbul visit was about the the Beirut steamboat, and other passengers assemblies. In the diplomatic note he sent to would be transported by mail steamer42. After the Ottoman State and other great states on Istanbul was informed that Cuza and his en- May 01, 1861, the Romanian prince underlined  Revista de istorie militară  7 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor the difficulty of working with two different as- sion of the Ottoman State on the unification semblies and demanded the execution of a of Wallachian and Moldavian assemblies in the single assembly system51. This request of Cuza late 1861 became the official foundation date was approved by the Sublime Port after nearly of Romanian unity. For Romania, which grad- 7 months. In accordance with the official report ually loosened its ties with the Ottoman State of the Meclisi Vükelâ [Council of Ministers] and accomplished the unification in the end, issued on December 02, 1861, the assemblies the full independence would only be possible of Wallachia and Moldavia were united tem- during the 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War. porarily52. On the same date, the central commission in Focşani was decided to be dissolved during Cuza’s term of office as a voivode53. REFERENCES On December 23, 1861, Prince Cuza issued a decree and officially declared that the unity A. Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives (BOA) was ensured and Romanian nation was estab- Documents lished54. Following the decision on the merger Sadâret Âmedî Kalemi Evrakı (A.} AMD): of the assemblies, a joint assembly was opened 72/94; 74/87; 90/62. and started its activities on February 05, 1862 Sadâret Âsâfî Mühimme Kalemi Belgeleri in Bucharest. Barbu Catargiu was assigned as (A.} DVN. MHM): 31/34. the head of the first government established. Sadâret Mektubî Kalemi Nezâret ve De- Thenceforth, the term “United Principalities” vâir Yazışmalarına Ait Belgeler (A.} AMD): was replaced with the term “Romania” in the 324/52. domestic correspondence55. Bucharest was de- İradeler Dahiliye (İ.DH.): 274/17189. clared as the capital of this union56. İradeler Hariciye (İ.HR.): 134/6913; 135/6951; 135/6954; 139/7288-1; 151/8004; Conclusion 152/8035; 161/8588; 161/8598; 161/8610; As a result of 1853-1856 Crimean War and 164/8778; 164/8786; 164/8809; 165/8848; the subsequent developments, the Wallachian 168/9031; 178/9805; 178/9830; 179/9848; and Moldavian beylicates made important 179/9857; 179/9867; 183/10195; 184/10234; progress on the way to unification, despite 333/21409. their dependency and tax liability towards the Hâriciye Nezâreti Mektubî Kalemi Belgeleri Ottoman State. After the contentious elections (HR.MKT.): 182/39; 261/74; 262/61; 262/83; in 1857, Wallachia and Moldavia were united 274/63; 279/70; 291/75; 305/74; 306/48; 311/6; on paper with the agreement signed on August 348/24; 349/84; 352/76; 375/10. 19, 1858. However, this unification was official- ized during the term of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, B. Journals the first voivode of the united principalities. Cerîde-i Havâdis: No 1009; 1011. Elected as the voivode of Moldavia in 1859 and Takvîm-i Vekâyi (T.V.): No 493; 506; 507; then of Wallachia, Colonel Cuza had his new 552; 597; 600. status approved first by the Ottoman State in 1859. His visit to Istanbul in 1860 made an im- C. Resources Studied portant contribution to the accomplishment of Ahmed Lûtfî Efendi; Vak’anüvîs Ahmed this unification process. Received and treated Lûtfî Efendi Tarihi, Vol.IX, Publisher Münir in a high-level manner by the state authori- AKTEPE, Publications of Istanbul University ties, Cuza continued an old tradition adopted Faculty of Letters, Faculty of Letters Printing by the voivodes for a long time and showed House, Istanbul, 1984. his loyalty to the Ottoman State through his ANDERSON, M.Smith; Doğu Sorunu, Istanbul visit, and he managed to achieve the translated by İdil ESER, Yapi Kredi Publicati- unification of Romania by the decision of the ons, Istanbul, 2001. Sublime Port the following year. ANDIÇ, Fuat – ANDIÇ, Süphan; Kırım The opening of the joint assembly on Feb- Savaşı, Eren Publishing, Istanbul, 2002. ruary 05, 1862 in accordance with the deci- BAYKAL, Bekir Sıtkı; “Makamat-ı Müba- 8  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor APPENDIX 1. Election of Alexander Ioan Cuza APPENDIX 2. Assigning the steamboat Beirut as the Voivode of Moldavia (İ.HR.164/8778) for Cuza, the Voivode of Moldavia and Wallachia (İ.HR.179/9848)

reke Meselesi ve Babıâli”, Belleten, Vol. XXIII, Issue 90, April, 1959. Cevdet (Ahmet) Paşa; Tezâkir, Vol. 13-20, publisher Cavid BAYSUN, TTK Printing Hou- se, Ankara, 1960. DANİŞMEND, İsmail Hami; İzahlı Osmanlı Tarihi Kronolojisi, Vol. 4, Türkiye Publishing House, Istanbul, 1947. DECEI, Aurel; “Boğdan”, M.E.B.İ.A., Vol. 2, ETAM Printing House, Eskişehir, 2001. ERİM, Nihat; Devletlerarası Hukuku ve Siyasi Tarih Metinleri, Vol. I, Publications of Ankara University Law School, TTK Printing House, Ankara, 1953. GIURESCU, C. Constantin (Ed.); Chrono- logical History of Romania, Editura Enciclope- dica Romana, Bucharest, 1974. GIURESCU, C.C. – OTETEA, A. – PASCU, S. – BRATIEANU, I.G.; Yüzyıllık Bağımsızlık (1877-1977), translated by Ayla UZGÖREN, Habora Bookstore, Istanbul, 1977. IORGA, Nicolae; Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Tarihi, Vol.5, translated by Nilüfer EPÇELİ, Yeditepe Publications, Istanbul, 2009. KARAL, Enver Ziya; Osmanlı Tarihi, Vol. II, TTK publications, no date. KARASU, Cezmi; “Uluslararası Diploma- si ile Osmanlı Devletinden Ayrılma Modeli Olarak Romanya’nın Bağımsızlığı”, Proceedings of the Ninth Seminar of Military History, Vol. APPENDIX 3. Awarding the Voivode of II, Turkish General Staff ATASE Publications, Moldavia and Wallachia Alexander Ioan Cuza TGS Printing House, Ankara, 2006. the Medjidi Order (A.}DVN.MHM. 31/34)  Revista de istorie militară  9 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor KARASU, Cezmi; “XIX. Yüzyılda Eflak ve 8 T.V., No 507, The last day of Shawwal 1270/ 25 Boğdan’daki Rus İşgalleri”, Türkler, Vol.12, Yeni July, 1854, p. 1-2. Mecmûa-i Muâhedât, Vol. III, Türkiye Publications, Ankara, 2002. p. 172-174. 9 Mecmûa-i Muâhedât; Vol.III-V, Ceride-i Danişmend, op.cit., Vol. 4, p. 164. 10 Askeriyye Printing House, Istanbul, 1297- Fuat Andıç – Süphan Andıç, Kırım Savaşı, p. 66. 1298. 11 Osmanlı Belgelerinde Kırım Savaşı (1853- Cezmi Karasu, “Uluslararası Diplomasi ile Osmanlı Devleti’nden Ayrılma Modeli Olarak 1856); Publications of Turkish Prime Ministry Romanya’nın Bağımsızlığı”, Dokuzuncu Askeri Ta- State Archives General Directorate, Ankara, rih Semineri Bildirileri [Proceedings of the Ninth 2006. Military History Seminar], Vol. II, p. 132. Ali Fuat ŞAFAK, Nurdan; Bir Tanzimat Diplomatı Türkgeldi, Mesâil-i Mühimme-i Siyasiyye, Vol. I, Kostaki Musurus Paşa (1807-1891), unpubli- p. 103. shed doctoral thesis, Marmara University In- 12 Enver Ziya Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi, Vol. II, stitute of Social Sciences, Istanbul, 2006. p. 54. 13 TUNCER, Hüner; Doğu Sorunu ve Büyük Erim, op.cit., Vol.I, p. 349-351. Ahmed Lûtfî Güçler (1853-1878), Ümit Publishing, Ankara, Efendi, Vak’anüvîs Ahmed Lûtfî Efendi Tarihi, Vol. 2003. IX, p. 239-241. 14 BOA. HR. MKT. 182/39; T.V., No: 552, 5 TÜRKGELDİ, Ali Fuat; Mesâil-i Mühim- Ramadan 1273/29 April, 1857, p. 1. me-i Siyasiyye, Vol.I, prepared by Bekir Sıtkı 15 BOA. İ. HR. 134/ 6913; BOA. İ. HR. 135/ 6951; BAYKAL, TTK Publications, Ankara, 1987. BOA. İ. HR. 135/ 6954; A. AMD. 72/ 94; 74/ 87. APPENDICES 16 BOA. İ. HR. 139/ 7288-1. Nicolae Iorga; Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Tarihi, Vol. 5, p. 414. 17 BOA. İ. HR. 139/ 7288-1. 18 Türkgeldi, op.cit., Vol. I, p. 427-431. [Transla- NOTE tion of the Protocol dated 11 February 1857 and sig- 1 The Catholic-Orthodox conflict starting upon ned between the Sublime Porte and the representa- a ceremony in Beytüllahim in 1847 caused France tives of three states concerning the Administrative and Russia to pressurize the Ottoman State after Reforms of Wallachia and Moldavia]. 19 Türkgeldi, ibid., Vol. I, p. 427-431. [Translation a short while. The Russian envoy Menshikov, who of the Protocol dated 11 February 1857 and signed came to Istanbul in 1853 upon the rivalry between between the Sublime Porte and the representatives Russia and France concerning the protection of the of three states concerning the Administrative Refor- Christians living within the boundaries of the Otto- ms of Wallachia and Moldavia]. man State, made some demands from the Sublime 20 Karal, op.cit. Vol. II, p. 56. C.C. Giurescu sta- Porte; however, he left the country in May when tes that those agreeing for unification of Wallachia these demands could not be fulfilled. Bekir Sıtkı and Moldavia were taken into custody by the office Baykal, “Makamat-ı Mübareke Meselesi ve Babıâli”, of Moldavian kaimakam before the elections, they Belleten, C.XXIII, Issue 90, p. 244-258. İsmail Hami were fired, most of the unification supporters were Danişmend, İzahlı Osmanlı Tarihi Kronolojisi, not recorded in electoral rolls and prevented from Vol. 4, p. 142-143. going to the polls and thus the results of the electi- 2 BOA. [Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives] İ. on were manipulated. C.C. Giurescu et al., Yüzyıllık DH. 274/17189. Bağımsızlık, p. 158. Concerning the claims of frau- 3 Osmanlı Belgelerinde Kırım Savaşı (1853- dulence in Moldavian elections, Cevdet Pasha stated that Vogorides, the Moldavian kaimakam, lost 1856), p. 115-118. (HR.MKT.61/59_2) some part of the document that was privately sent 4 Cezmi Karasu, “XIX. Yüzyılda Eflak ve to him, other part was stolen, and Vogorides could Boğdan’daki Rus İşgalleri”, Türkler, Vol. 12, p. 744. 5 not comprehend the significance of some docu- Takvîm-i Vekâyi (T.V.), No 493, The first day of ments, some state secrets were found out by foreign Moharram 1270/ 4 October, 1853, p. 1. states, and therefore, France and Russia objected to 6 T.V., No 506, 7 Shawwal 1270/3 July, 1854, the elections. Cevdet Paşa, Tezâkir, Vol. 13-20, p. 25. p. 1-2. Nihat Erim, Devletlerarası Hukuku ve Iorga writes that kaimakam Vogorides influenced Siyasi Tarih Metinleri, Vol. I, p. 321-324. election results through threats, detention, admi- 7 M. Smith Anderson, Doğu Sorunu, p. 148. nistrative pressure and fake election rolls. Accor- 10  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ding to the figures given by Yorga, 5 of 48 monastery boat was demanded from the office of Captain abbots, only 29 of 3263 priests and only 28 of a few Pasha. However, as it was not possible for a larger thousand land-owners were able to cast their vote. boat to sail in the Black Sea, it was decided to send Iorga, ibid., Vol. 5, p. 416. the Khaireddin steamboat together with the Beirut. 21 Karal, ibid., Vol. II, p. 58. BOA. İ. HR. 178/9830. 22 Karal, ibid., Vol. II, p. 58. At the second electi- 42 BOA. HR.MKT. 349/84. ons held in Moldavia, where there were controversi- 43 BOA. İ. HR. 179/9848. For the news appea- es, 66 of the 72 council members were elected from ring on the journals on this issue, see: T.V., No: 597, the unionists. Iorga, ibid., Vol. 5, p. 419. 28 Rabi’al-Awal, 1277 / 14 October 1860, p. 1. 23 Giurescu et al., op.cit., p. 159. Türkgeldi states 44 BOA. İ. HR. 183/10195. that the mentioned motion was adopted by 181 to 45 BOA. İ. HR. 179/9867. Cerîde-i Havâdis, 2 in Moldavian Council, and adopted unanimously No: 1009, 3 Rabi’Ath’ani 1277 / 19 October 1860, in the Wallachian Council. Türkgeldi, op.cit., Vol. I, p.1. Iorga states that Sultan Abdulmedjid made a p. 192. few steps to meet Cuza coming before him. Iorga, 24 BOA. İ. HR. 151/ 80004. op.cit., Vol. 5, p. 244. 25 BOA. İ. HR. 152/8035. 46 Cerîde-i Havâdis, No: 1009, 3 Rabi’Ath’ani 26 Iorga, op.cit., Vol. 5, p. 421. 1277/19 October 1860, p. 1. 27 Mecmûa-i Muâhedât, Vol. V, p. 2-18. 47 BOA. A.} DVN. MHM. 31/34; HR.MKT. 28 In order to convey the mentioned firman, a 352/76; Cerîde-i Havâdis, No: 1011, 15 Rabi’ Ath’ani delegation presided by Kâmil Bey, Master of Cere- 1277/31 October 1860, p. 1; T.V., No. 600, 14 Ja- monies in the Foreign Ministry, was sent to Bucha- mada al-Oulah 1277/28 November 1860, pp.1-2. rest, and another delegation presided by Afif Bey, As understood from the news covered by Ceride-i Dîvân-ı Hümâyûn [Imperial Council] beylikci [Se- Havadis and Takvim-i Vakayi, of 35 men accom- cretary of the Council of State], to Iaşi. BOA. İ. HR. panying Prince Cuza in Istanbul, 8 were decorated 161/8588; 161/8598; 161/8610; 164/8786; 165/8848; with the Medjidi Order of 2nd grade, 4 were of 3rd 168/903; HR. MKT. 261/74; 262/61; 262/83; 274/63; grade, 11 were of 4th grade and 12 were of 5th grade. 279/70; 291/75. 48 BOA.HR.MKT. 375/10; A.} MKT.NZD. 324 /52. 29 Aurel Decei, “Boğdan”, MEB İA, Vol. 2, p. 704. 49 BOA.İ.HR. 184/10234. 30 BOA. İ. HR. 164/8778. 50 31 Iorga, op.cit., Vol. 5, p. 423. Cevdet Paşa, op.cit., Vol. 13-20, p. 75. 51 Nurdan Şafak, Bir Tanzimat Diplomatı Kostaki 32 Karal, op.cit., Vol. II, p. 62. 33 Musurus Paşa, p. 118. BOA. İ. HR. 164/8809; A.}AMD. 90/62. 52 BOA.İ.HR. 333/21409. The life of central 34 Iorga, op.cit., Vol. 5, p. 423. 35 commission functioning in Focşani was quite short. Karal, op.cit., Vol. II, p. 62. Decided to be established on 19 August 1858, the 36 Upon this decision, Colonel Sâmih Bey and commission started its activities on 22 May 1859 Colonel Tâhir Bey were charged with going to Iaşi and was dissolved on 02 December 1861. Giurescu and Bucharest and were given a travel allowance of (Ed.), op.cit., p. 194. 15.000 kurush each. BOA. HR. MKT. 305/74. BOA. 53 Iorga, op.cit., Vol. 5, p. 424. HR. KT.306/48. 54 37 BOA. HR. MKT. 311/6. Constantin Giurescu (Ed.), Chronological 38 BOA. İ. HR. 179/9857. History of Romania, p. 196. 55 39 BOA. İ. HR. 178/9805. Giurescu et al., op.cit., p. 169. Tuncer states 40 BOA. HR.MKT. 348/24. that with the activation of the joint assembly the 41 In the related documents, assigning a steam- unity of Romania was declared, and there remained boat to Prince Cuza was told in detail. Accordingly, no official ties but the taxes between the Ottoman as more than 40 officers and boyars were coming State and Romania. Hüner Tuncer, Doğu Sorunu ve along with Cuza, the 9-bed Beirut steamboat was Büyük Güçler (1853-1878), p. 81. supposed to be inadequate. Thus, a larger steam- 56 Giurescu (Ed.), op.cit., p. 197.

 Revista de istorie militară  11 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Dossier: Romanian-Turkish Military Relations during Modern and Contemporary Period

1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War, Pleven (Plevna) Defence and Process Leading to Romania’s Independence

ÖZLEM DEMİREĞEN *

Abstract

Minority uprisings and insurgencies in the Ottoman Empire, Russia’s expansion policy in the Balkans, Romanian and Bulgarian demands for independence and the movement of Pan-Slavism constitute the causes of the 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War. The Conference initiated by the European states and held in Istanbul was proved to be futile and inconlusive because Russia voiced its ambitions on the Ottoman territories and because this move necessitated the Otto- mans to make many concessions. Thus, an Ottoman-Russian War became inevitable. Although the Ottoman Armies staged a successful defense in Pleven, with the Treaty of Berlin signed after the War, Romania gained its independence, whereas the Ottoman Empire lost too much land and its influence in the Balkans to a great extent.

Keywords: Ottoman Empire, Russia, Romania, Ghazi Osman Pasha, Pleven

Introduction marching down to the Black Sea, having access The XIX century began with troubles for to the warm seas and realizing its military and the Ottoman Empire. The Western powers strategic targets gained intensity. Although the had promoted to a position to impose their Ottoman Empire, due to its geographical loca- economic and political hegemony on the tion, kept major sea routes under its control, world. The Ottoman Empire, which could not it had managed to maintain its existence for keep up with the developments in the Modern many years by exploiting the disagreements, Age and stubbornly resisted change, ceased to rivalries and competition among the Great pose a threat to Europe and thus was not con- States arising from desires to possess these sidered a “Great State”. By the turn of the XIX routes. However, the Ottoman Empire had lost century, because of their potential to influence its power in military, financial, social and cul- international policy, only the United Kingdom, tural fields and was sporadically the setting for France, Russia and Austria were considered “Great States”.1 uprisings and insurgencies. In this century, when the balance of power During this period, Russia became pow- changed in Europe, the ambitions of Russia for erful and gradually started to see itself as the

* History Specialist, Military History Branch/Military History Study Center (MHSC),Turkish General Staff Military History Strategical Study and Inspection Department. 12  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor leader, saviour and protector of the Orthodox were taken by Russia, and panslavist organi- world. It voiced various demands through its zations were established and expanded in ambassadors in Istanbul under the pretext Romania and the other Balkan states.4 of safeguarding the rights of the Orthodox In the period of Sultan Abdulaziz, who as- Christian citizens living in the Balkans under cended the throne in 1861, unrests continued the control of the Ottoman Empire. among the Christian peoples of the Ottoman The most fervent advocates of this policy Empire. During the first years of his reign, the were the “panslavists”, increasingly gaining Serbian people, who accepted themselves as a influence in Russia. The Pan-Slavism2 move- part of the Slavic nation, rebelled, demanding ment bloomed under the guise of “salvaging autonomy. Slav brothers suffering under the persecution Struggles for the throne in the Ottoman of Turks, but its main purpose was to amalga- Empire, as well, fostered the Balkan nations’ mate all the Slavs under the rule of Russia and desire for independence. Sultan Abdulhamid to capture Istanbul.3 On behalf of Pan-Slavism II, who ascended the throne in 1876, found rooting in the Balkans, significant decisions himself in the middle of very big internal and

The deployment of the Ottoman and Russian Forces on 12 June 1877  Revista de istorie militară  13 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor external problems within the first years of his nature to violate the rights of sovereignty of reign. While the Russians were provoking the the Ottoman Empire. It gave the right to for- Slavic principalities in the Balkans and organ- eign envoys to interfere in the internal affairs izing the Serbian and Montenegrin insurgen- of the Ottoman Empire, which was totally con- cies, the Bulgarians and Romanians were also trary to the provisions of the Treaty of Paris.9 making major efforts to achieve autonomy. The This Protocol also stipulated the provision Herzegovina rebellion in 1875 and Bulgarian that the Ottoman Empire and Russian demo- rebellion in 1876 were the upshots of the poli- bilized their soldiers under arms. When the cies exercised by the Russians on the Ottoman Protocol was reported to the Ottoman Empire, Empire. Saffet Pasha declined it by saying “Rather than Although the Treaty of Paris, signed on agree to the terms that will only be accepta- March 30, 1856, had in fact guaranteed the ble to a nation after a big defeat, the Ottoman territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, Empire sees it more appropriate to take the risk which participated in the Community of Eu- of war. It can by no means accept the interven- ropean States with this Treaty, Russia, France tions of other nations in its internal affairs.” and the United Kingdom, every now and then, On the other hand, in the declaration that made attempts that violated the Treaty. Rus- it sent to the Russian envoys in Europe, Rus- sia, which notified the European states that it sia stated, “Even though the Tsarist Govern- would not comply with the provisions of the ment endeavoured with all its strength to Treaty of Paris about the impartiality of the settle the disorder arising in the Orient and Black Sea, continued to support the independ- to maintain peace and order with the assist- ence demands of the Balkan Christians.5 On ance of the five big states, it confronted re- the other hand, the Ottoman Empire, which sistance from the Ottoman Empire. The Ot- spoiled its budgetary balance with the loans toman Empire rejected the London Protocol. taken after the Crimean War (1853-1856)6, Since the Ottoman Empire no longer abides was rather politically alienated among the Eu- by the decisions of the European states, we ropean states.7 have been left obliged to achieve through the Upon the Russia’s proposals to determine use of force what the cabinets cannot obtain the form of administration to be exercised in by way of policy.”10 Bulgaria and Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Am- As a result of these developments Rus- bassadors of Germany, Russia, the United sia declared war against the Ottoman Empire Kingdom and Italy convened the Istanbul on April 24, 1877. While France, Italy, Aus- Conference. The Conference, starting on De- tria, Germany and the United Kingdom re- cember 23, 1876, continued without consider- ported that they would remain neutral, only ing the constitutional monarchy declared in the Hungarians protested Russia’s declaration the Ottoman Empire in the meantime and the of war against the Ottoman Empire.11 In the reforms ensued from the constitutional mon- same days, reporting to the Ottoman Empire archy. Although several resolutions were made that it would remain impartial in a potential for the benefit of Bulgaria and Montenegro Ottoman-Russian war and that it would op- principalities of the Ottoman Empire, the pose with its army if Russia attacked, Romania Conference broke up without an agreement wanted to make an alliance with the Ottoman after the Ottoman Empire rejected the severe Empire and, in return, demanded the title of conditions imposed on it. the Principality of Romania to be officially rec- As Russia, upon the disintegration of the ognized by the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Peace Conference, rapidly set about the prepa- Empire, ignoring this request of Romania, gave rations for war, with Great Britain’s initiative a the reply to Bucharest that it felt pleased with conference in London was convened to discuss Romania’s intentions, but that its demands the “Eastern Question”8 for one last time. were of the nature of a European matter and At this Conference held on March 31, 1877, that they would be settled at an international the London Protocol was signed and notified conference.12 On top of that, although Romania to the Ottoman Empire. This Protocol was of moved in the policy of neutrality during a po- 14  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor The deployment of the Ottoman and Russian Forces on 13 June 1877

tential Ottoman-Russian war, it signed an alli- a tribe knowing how to struggle and fight has ance agreement with Russia in order to achieve a significant impact on that.14 The Dacians are independence. This agreement was approved known to be the first inhabitants of Romania by a majority vote of the Romanian Parliament in history. The Dacia Kingdom, destroyed by on April 16, 1877. With this agreement, Russia the Roman Empire in 101 AD, was turned into possessed the advantage of transiting its army a province of the Roman Empire and a large through the Romanian territory and utilizing number of immigrants were settled there. Romanian railways for this purpose.13 The Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia entered Ottoman rule in 1512, but Turkish-Romanian Relations always retained their state structures.15 Although it is among the Balkan states in Even though Wallachia and Moldavia, with geographical sense, Romania is distinct with the name of “Memleketeyn” in the Ottoman the other Balkan nations in historical and cul- sources, were in a different position as of sta- tural sense. The fact that Romanians hail from tus, they were considered an inseparable inte-  Revista de istorie militară  15 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor The Third Pleven Battle (7 September 1877)

gral part of the Ottoman Empire. That is, these By the end of the XVIII century and at the principalities were under the domination of beginning of the XIX century, as well as the the Ottoman sultan in spite of some privileges. other Balkan nations, among Romanians began Romanian territory, during the Ottoman pe- a “cultural movement” under the leadership of riod, preserved its traditional administration the students sent to Rome. These students, systems, but especially came under some ob- grown up with the ideal of Romanian nation- ligations such as paying taxes.16 Wallachia and alism, had learned that they were “Roumain Moldavia principalities were ruled by the gov- (Romanians)” due to their ties to Rome, and ernors called “voivodes”, who were formerly wanted to base the notion of Romanian nation chosen from among indigenous families, and, on the common roots with Rome.21 Romanian from the XVIII century on, were appointed awakening had accelerated in the wake of the from among Istanbul’s Phanariot Greek fami- French Revolution. The ideas of this Revolu- lies by the Ottoman government.17 tion were brought to Romania by the students After the Crimean War, Wallachia and Mol- who had travelled to western universities es- davia’s tendency to separate from the Ottoman pecially in France. These students, when they Empire got stronger. They gained autonomy returned to Romania, transformed Bucharest with the Treaty of Paris, took this status under to “the Paris of the Balkans”.22 protection through the joint guarantee of the Prior to the 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian Great Powers. After this Treaty, the Ottoman War, the Ottoman Empire’s relations with Ro- Empire’s domination over Wallachia and Mol- mania continued within the scope of “affili- davia began to change into that of a symbolic ated state” policy. Romania, which established 18 nature. As a result of all these developments, its national unity and advanced on the way of the merger process has gained momentum in becoming an independent state, had acted in 19 Wallachia and Moldavia. In October 1857, accordance with this longing even in the pe- the councils of the provinces of Wallachia and riod when it was subject to the Ottoman Em- Moldavia declared that they merged under the pire. So much so that, Ottoman’s grand viziers’ name “Romania”.20 The European states’, espe- (prime ministers) direct correspondence with cially Russia’s interventions in the Ottoman Wallachian and Moldavian voivodes was con- Empire continued even after the confluence sidered as a tradition. Midhat Pasha’s compli- of these two principalities under the name of ance with this tradition led to serious diplo- Romania. matic controversy in Romania. According to 16  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor them, from now on, the mutual correspond- the state that might be the most reasonable ally ence had to be carried out solely through the for its benefits.25 Ministries of Foreign Affairs and diplomatic representatives. This attitude was only one of Pre-Ottoman-Russian War the decisive steps towards independence taken of 1877-1878 by Romania. Russia, which had previously reported that On the other hand, Romania, as well, the rejection of the London Protocol could followed a neutrality policy in the Serbia- be a reason for war, declared war against the Montenegro and Bulgaria insurgencies in the Ottoman Empire on April 24, 1877, citing the Balkans in the years 1875-1876. Romania’s at- situation as pretext. The 1877-1878 Ottoman- tempts to impose this policy on the Ottoman Russian War, whose apparent reason was based Empire as well as European states were impor- on the fact that the London Protocol was not tant to demonstrate that it went a long way to accepted, however in reality, which was the become an independent state having the right implementation of Russian policy-making to to determine its foreign policy. expand Russian hegemony in the Balkans, thus After it had become clear that Russia was targeting to reach out to the Mediterranean gearing up for war, Romania declared on every Sea, led to a lot of military and political devel- occasion its desire to ensure its political inde- opments.26 pendence without going to war while it was Russian armies mobilized, on the one maintaining its neutrality policy. Despite all the hand, to advance in the direction of the Dan- efforts of the Romanian State, European states ube River by crossing the border with Romania abstained from giving guarantee that Romania and to pass beyond the border of the Ottoman should or might remain neutral in the face of Caucasus front on the other hand. For this pur- an Ottoman-Russian war which could erupt pose, at a great speed they undertook the neces- in the future. The Romanian State, for a long sary preparations for building small sea vessels time, tried to stay away from signing an agree- and equipment together with bridges and simi- ment with Russia and/or the Ottoman Empire. lar apparatus to cross the Danube River and the However, with the fact that Russia began to large plain.27 The bridge materials prepared in take measures for war, what made the Roma- advance were brought to Bucharest by railway.28 nian State concerned was whether the Russian The Russians, who had begun to mobilize armies would cross through the Romanian territory and, if so, how this would happen. For six months before the declaration of war, put this reason, in October of 1876, several meet- the railways under the administration of the ings were held between Russia and Romania. military, collecting troops in the southern part Despite the agreements reached with Rus- of their homeland. Too much food supply, par- sia, Romania did not have the intention of wag- ticularly wheat and canned food were tendered ing a war against the Ottoman Empire. Indeed, almost from every region of Russia, and in par- on 4-16 April 1877, in the course of the signing ticular from Romania. They appropriated and of the Russian-Romanian Agreement, Foreign allotted all the Black Sea trade ships for mili- Affairs Minister Mihail Kogălniceanu said that tary transportation. “we, in no way, interpret this in a way that we As Russia was completing the military will declare war against the Ottoman Empire.”23 preparations on the one hand, they continued On the other hand, Russia needs the as- to make necessary attempts in the political sistance of Romania in a war it would under- sphere on the other hand. With agreements take against the Ottoman Empire. In this war, made with Austria, they ensured that Austria 29 Russia wanted to use Romania as an outpost took side with themselves. They, shortly be- against the Ottomans.24 Russian troops to at- fore the declaration of war, managed to sign an tack the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans could agreement with Romania by political shrewd- only pass through Romania. Russia, in return ness and adroitness. Moreover, they took pains for that, reported that it would recognize the to be in good relations with the Romanian independence of Romania. Romania pursued people all the time, for this operation would be the purpose of making alliance in this war with conducted through Romania.  Revista de istorie militară  17 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich, ap- set up in Ruse and Varna locations. Müşir (Mar- pointed as the Commander-in-Chief of the shal) Osman Pasha, under whose command was Army collected against the Ottomans in the put a military force consisting of 25 infantry Balkans, promulgated a declaration to the battalions, 12 cavalry divisions, 48 field and 6 people of Romania so that he was welcomed mountain guns, was appointed as commander in the territory of Romania, which his army of the Danube Western Army, the Headquar- 34 would enter. In this Declaration, it was assured ters of which was stationed in Vidin. that the Russian Army would not give any in- Even though the Ottoman Empire, af- conveniences to the Romanian people in the ter completing the build-up, had previously course of its passage through the Romanian thought of occupying some critical targets, passing to Romania – now that Romania was territory, that Romanians were able to get in- a principality subject to the Ottoman Empire, volved with their daily routines as they used to, this move would not be a situation contrary to that the prices of the goods purchased for the the law of the state –, that course of action was needs of the army from the Romanians would abandoned later with the idea that the force to be paid on time and that the goods and souls cross to the left side of the Danube would re- of the Romanian people would not be violated 30 duce the number of troops available and weak- and infringed. en the defence operation.35 Romania’s cabinet decided to mobilize the army after the Russian troops crossed the Ro- 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War manian border. Romania dedicated a 50.000- and Pleven Defence strong portion of its military to assist and sup- Russian forces, reaching the banks of the port the Russian Army. The Romanians signed Danube, went beyond the Danube on 22 June, the agreement which permitted the passage of 1877 without encountering any obstacles, the Russian armies on condition that no hos- launching the river-crossing operation with tile incidents took place during the passage.31 the 69th and 70th Regiments, which constitut- Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s aide-de-camp, in ed the advance guards of the 14th Army Corps. the telegram dated May 2, 1877, delineated the During this crossing, they used the Barboş 36 situation at the front by reporting that 100.000 bridge , which was the only crossing point on Russian soldiers entered Romanian territory the Siret River of the railway line connecting 37 so far, up to 20 freighters decked with a ball Russia to Romania. each were sailed on the Danube, Romania con- The Russian Forces Supreme Command, all ducted a military parade in the honour of the of whose forces had landed on the right bank of Russian Commander-in-Chief to announce its the Danube River until July 7, 1877, completed the necessary preparations for the reconnais- alliance to the world and to show friendship 38 32 sance of Pleven and Lofca vicinities. and gathered his army in Bucharest. The Russian forces under the command of As a result of talks held between Russia and General Gurko, with an offensive launched on Romania on 22 May, 1877, it was settled that July 19, 1877, seized Shipka Pass, which was the Romanian army would occupy Kalafat and one of the most significant ones in the Balkans. the Olt river and withdraw completely to the Thus, Shipka Pass, considered as a next impor- right side of the Olt River, whereas the Russian tant natural defence line following the Danube Army was invading the precincts between this River, was also lost.39 33 river and the Black Sea. Upon these developments, the Ottoman In this period, the Ottoman Empire en- Military Assembly reconsidered the measures deavoured to mobilize all the material and spir- taken against the Russians advancing along itual opportunities in its hands against Russia. the Danube and reported that all the measures Conscripts, animals and supplies being rapidly should be taken for the Russians to advance in collected in Anatolia and Thrace, 90 battalions the Balkans, since the transfer of troops from were formed and dispatched to the Danube ba- Batumi and Sukhum could not be possible, as- sin. Three corps being constituted in the basin signing Yenipazar, Sofia and Nis Divisions un- of the Danube, an army of 100,000 soldiers was der the command of Mehmet Ali Pasha.40 18  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor From Vidin To Pleven: stand for a long time49 and by taking the oppor- The loss of Shipka further increased the tunity of Osman Pasha’s being fatigued. The importance of Pleven. Pleven, at the junction offensive, which was launched with artillery of the main roads from Orhaniye (Botevgrad), fire at 08:45 AM on July 21, 1877, continued Sofia, Lofca (Lovech) and Bulgarani, had a po- developing in the direction of Griviçe. Since sition of strategic importance. The Ottoman the Russian forces assaulted Pleven, the Pleven Empire had to retain Pleven in order to hold District Governership demanded a large quan- together its forces in Vidin, Ruse, Slistre, Varna tity of soldiers, artillery and ammunition to be and Şumnu (Shumen).41 Upon the Russians’ brought from nearby centres.50 In the mean- marching to the interior of Bulgaria after time, upon the counterattack conducted by crossing the Danube, Osman Pasha, who was the battalions commanded by Osman Pasha, commissioned to stay in Vidin, reported to the mutual bayonet offensives occurred between Shumen Military Headquarters by telegraph the two sides. This hand-to-hand combat con- that staying there was of no advantage. He un- tinued on the northern slopes of Yanıkbayır derlined the difficulty of an enveloping opera- for a few hours.51 Duplicate offensive by the tion from all sides to push away the Russians to Russian forces were repelled by the forces of the other side of the Danube, but this proposal Osman Pasha without reaching a conclusion.52 of his did not receive a positive response. Osman Pasha reported this success by sending Therefore, Osman Pasha was forced to a telegram to Istanbul.53 make do with defending Vidin against the Rus- Although General Şuldner requested assist- sians.42 After a number of Kazakh cavalry en- ance from the Commander of the 9th Corps, tered Vidin on July 943, Osman Pasha was final- he could not receive an affirmative answer to ly given the order to move from Vidin towards this request. Thus, he decided to withdraw to Pleven on the morning of July 14 at 11:00 am Bröşliniçe, 3 hours away from Pleven, so that with his 25,000-strong Corps.44 the 1st Brigade could recover.54 The troops of Although from Ulahiye, on the other side the 9th Russian Corps participating in the First of the Danube, several sporadic gun fire was Battle of Pleven were forced to secure them- opened onto the 16-km-long marching col- selves and withdraw 12 km away from Pleven umn45 arriving in Arçar, due to the short range in order to recover themselves and to regain of Romanian guns, shelling did not cause any power to combat. Ottoman casualties. During the First Battle of Pleven some con- Osman Pasha’s troops, performing a chal- flicts arose between the Russians and Romani- lenging trek from Vidin to Pleven by covering ans from political and military aspects. Many 191 km in 6 days,46 gave a short break after members of the Russian Government did not entering Pleven and spent the night there by approve of the Romanian Army’s active partici- setting up military camps on the banks of the pation in combat. Romania demanded its ar- Gravic Stream in the northeast of Pleven. After my’s course of action to be determined, putting Osman Pasha immediately had the fortifica- forward the possible threats exposed by the Ot- tions built, trenches dug and large tree trunks toman Empire due to the fact that the Russian put at some points, he positioned a large por- Army was utilizing the Romanian territory. tion of the artillery behind the hastily dug earth The Russian Government gave the response shelters.47 to this request that if it suited the political and military interests of Romania, it would be free The First and Second Battles of Pleven to go to war against the Ottoman Empire, but The Russians, on July 20, 1877, tried to keep in that case, it should not expect assistance the Ottoman forces under pressure with gun from Russia, if it was deemed appropriate that fires by making some show of strength towards both armies would cooperate, the Romanian Griviçe and Yanıkbayır hills.48 Army should operate under the command-in- General Şuldner, 5th Russian Division Com- chief of the Russian Army. mander, launched an assault by thinking that Although at first Romanian Prince Charles Pleven, as an open city, was not be able to with- had not found it appropriate to be commanded  Revista de istorie militară  19 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor by a foreign army, the Romanian Goverment, The Romanian Army Corps with its 3 in- considering the subsequently developing con- fantry and 1 cavalry divisions and 1 engineer- ditions and the privileges to be obtained, evening battalion gathered in the north of Pleven. tually reached the decision that the Romanian This Romanian Corps under the command of army should join the war, crossing the Danube. General Cernat lined up in posts from Bivotare By actively participating in and winning the on the bank of the Vid River up to the north- war, the Romanian Government considered it west of Gravic. appropriate to be in an advantageous position Russian Czar Alexander II, as a gesture of 55 at the peace talks at the end of the war. good faith, temporarily put General Zotov’s Immediately after the First Battle of Plev- Western Army Group under the command of en, Osman Pasha, having the first necessary Romanian Prince Charles for this offensive. In measures taken, had the trenches deepened this way, Prince Charles took the responsibility and round-trip routes dug between the front of an army composed of three Russian corps positions. Moreover, on the night of July 26 to and one Romanian corps. To review the final 27, after the First Battle of Pleven, Lofça was 56 preparations of the assault plan, Prince Charles seized again with an offensive. also participated in the meeting together with The Russians, on July 30, 1877, began to Russian commanders at the Russian General stage a three-pronged attack with the approach Headquarters on September 6, 1877. At the to Pleven vicinity of some units of the 9th meeting attended by Grand Duke Nicholas Army Corps, under the command of General Nikolaevich, Prince Charles opposed to the Krudner and reinforced with some units of the general idea of all the commanders includ- 11th Army Corps.57 Undergoing a definite de- ing the Russian Chief of Staff to immediately feat at the end of the battles, the Russians with- commence the offensive. Putting forward that drew to Zictovi, 55-60 km away from Pleven.58 Osman Pasha was a very strong-willed com- After the defeat of the Second Pleven Bat- mander, he was entrenched in very well-craft- tles, Russian Tsar Alexander II, Commander- ed and well-prepared strong fortifications and in-Chief, requested help by saying in a telegram he would be able to inflict give massive casu- sent to Prince of Romania Carol “Come to our alties to the assaulting forces, Prince Charles rescue. The Ottomans are obliterating us. The cause of Christianity is being lost.”59 defended the idea that Pleven should be tightly In the Second Battle of Pleven the Russian surrounded in the west as well in order to un- forces was completely defeated. Until the Rus- dermine and weaken Osman Pasha’s strong sian Supreme Military Command sent rein- fortifications by intercepting the supply routes forcement forces from Romania and Russia, of the Ottoman Army. However, his viewpoint the Russian forces remained in defence almost was not taken into considerations since Grand 60 everywhere. Duke Nicholas insisted on his own plan. In accordance with this plan, a three- The Third Battle of Pleven and Pleven pronged assault on Pleven was launched on Fortifications the morning of September 7, 1877. Romani- For the third and last time to break the an Army took an active role in this offensive, Pleven defence of the Ottomans, the Russian but had to withdraw due to the casualties it 61 Command-in-Chief embarked on necessary underwent. preparations for the offensive. First of all, they The battle, which had lasted six days non- were compelled to collect the troops in a state stop until the morning of September 11, re- of scatter between the Yantra and Lom Rivers. sulted in the defeat of the Russian Army. Os- Prince Carol, commanding the Russian forces man Pasha’s biggest victory against the Rus- gathered in front of Pleven, on September 4, sian Army was the Third Battle of Pleven. The 1877, gave the order to the troops belonging to Russians, forced to retreat in defeat, almost got the Western Army Group to approach to the stuck in the Nicopolis-Rousse-Sipka triangle.62 vicinity of the Pleven defences. Grand Duke Osman Pasha, who achieved the third victory Nicholas Nikolaevich moved his Headquarters in Pleven, was given the title “Ghazi (Veteran)” to Radevince village on September 5, 1877. on September 21, 1877.63 20  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Victory in Pleven was a turning point in the Approaching winter conditions and the Ottoman-Russian War. Osman Pasha, the ar- Russian forces tightening the siege every pass- chitect of victory gained in Pleven, defended ing day put the 40.000-strong Ottoman Army Pleven in a method applied for the first time in a stranded and adverse position. The scar- in the world war history. The trenches master- city of supplies and ammunition was very se- minded and designed by him were applied by vere.70 Especially food requirement reached to the Turks for the first time in war history. The utmost levels and that caused the Ottoman sol- 71 trenches dug into the soil were named “height diers to physically weaken every passing day. ditch”. Although the soldiers roamed through Even though the needs were tried to be sup- 72 the trenches, the enemy soldiers could not see plied , there was meagre supply in the Pleven 73 their movements. The trenches were formed Encampment to suffice only for 20 days. into two sets. The first was called “step”, the Under these adverse circumstances, Grand second “elbow”. A soldier taking the step and Duke Nikola Nikolayevic, Commander-in- putting his right arm on the elbow was able Chief of the Russian Army, made a call for sur- to fire on the enemy. While the soldiers were render to Osman Pasha. covering themselves in the trenches, they were In this call, it was said “His grace the Mar- able to stealthily carry ammunition.64 shal, I have the honour of reporting the follow- At the same time by dumping the earth dug ing to your Excellency. The Ottoman troops in from the trenches elsewhere, it was ensured to the vicinity were taken captive. The Russian Army seized some Turkish positions and em- hide places in the trenches, although trenches placements. The Turkish units were besieged appeared to be individual and horseshoe- by the Russian Western Army reinforced with shaped at first glance, in fact the trenches were a Russian corps comprised of Empire guards, dug as interconnected underground. sappers and miners. Your communication and An Australian Charles S. Ryan, who had transport lines were severed. From now on it served as a surgeon in the army of Osman Pasha, is beyond possibility any supply detachments gave the following information on this issue: get into Pleven. “The fortifications were entered from the For the sake of benevolence and humane- rear. Sometimes one side of the fortification ness and with the responsibility resting on you, was left open as well. Although the infantry to prevent more bloodshed, I invite your Ex- guards of the fortification rested in the trench- cellency to stop your grand resistance and to es outside the fortifications, fortification artil- 65 negotiate the conditions for surrender in a site lery soldiers slept inside.” that you will determine.”74 Russian Czar Alexander II, realizing that Osman Pasha, who declined this invita- they could not seize Plevna with assault trials, tion, decided on a sortie and sally operation summoned a war council. This council reached in order to burst out the Russian siege on ac- the decision that Pleven should be sieged all count of very severe supply shortage, medical around with the participation of Romanian supply scarcity and starvation. On December 66 forces. Reports appeared in foreign press on 10, Osman Pasha divided his 40.000-strong these rumours. In a report dispatched from the army into two equal parts. He charged the Vienna Embassy to the Ottoman Foreign Min- first 20.000-strong force with the duty of the istry were included the news articles appearing Russian fortifications. According to Osman in foreign newspapers covering the Ottoman- Pasha’s plan of operation, this force was to try Russian War. A newspaper published in Bu- to break through the siege line and the other charest stated that the siege of Pleven had to 20.000-strong force was to launch an offen- take place from three sides.67 sive two hours after the first group had passed The Russians totally severed the supply through the Russian siege. routes connecting Pleven to Sofia for the pur- Although Osman Pasha’s forces managed pose of rendering a successful seige.68 The Rus- to approach the Russian positions, crossing sian Army, holding all the retreat routes, occu- the Vid river, the Russians held the Pleven pied Ayvarca, Orhaniye and Lofca districts.69 forces under artillery fire from the direction  Revista de istorie militară  21 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor of Dolni-Dubnic. The battle spread in a short be placed 5 km ahead of this line and there time from the banks of the Vid River up to the would be a demilitarized zone between the heart of Pleven. two Armies.82 However, Russia did not get by Even though, at first glance, this combat with this Armistice. At the end of the January was made with a view to the breakthrough of of 1878, after occupying Edirne, they advanced the siege, it devolved into a pitch battle later up to the fringes of Çatalca.83 Thereupon, the on.75 Although the Ottoman forces assaulted Ottoman Empire had to sign the Treaty of San in great determination and perseverance, they Stefano with Russia on March 3, 1878. fell into a difficult and disadvantageous posi- In accordance with this Treaty, Serbia and tion in front of the Russian forces thanks to the Romania, in addition to land acquisition, ac- Romanians joining the battle.76 Notwithstand- quired the status of independent kingdoms. ing Osman Pasha’s forces achieved to break Some regions where the Albanians lived were through two of the three siege loops, they left to Serbia. Montanegro acquired autonomy completely lost their combat strength, getting as a small principality. In the region between squeezed between the Russian and Romanian the Danube, the Black Sea and the Agean Sea, forces advancing from all around. In the mean- covering Macedonia and Rumelia, a large Bul- time, Osman Pasha, getting wounded, fell pris- garian Principality was going to be established. oner of war.77 Bulgaria was to remain under the Russian oc- Osman Pasha, who was the hero of the cupation for two years and to be actually ad- Pleven Defence, which has still been men- ministered by a Russian commissar.84 As well tioned with admiration and reverence by the as the Ottoman Empire recognized the inde- Russians, was encountered in high esteem and pendence declaration of Romania, it paid some respect though held captive. Czar Alexander war indemnity/compensation.85 On the other II, being at the Russian Headquarters then, hand, owing to the establishment of Bulgarian showed his esteem and respect to Osman Pa- Principality and its expansion up to the Agean sha by way of returning his sword to him.78 Sea, the physical linkage between Istanbul and the Rumelian territory of the Ottoman Empire The End of the 1877-1878 was severed and the Ottoman Rumelian terri- Ottoman-Russian War tory was divided into two. The Ottoman Em- The 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War, pire indirectly left its sovereignty on Bosnia- starting simultaneously in two fronts with Rus- Herzegovina to Russia and Austria as well.86 sia’s assaulting from across Romania and the Russia’s attempting to solve the Eastern Caucasus, ended with the defeat of the Otto- Problem on its own with the Treaty of San man Empire owing to such reasons as the Otto- Stefano Treaty upset the European balance of man forces spreading over a large area, the lack power established with the Paris Treaty. Thanks of communication among the Ottoman com- to this Treaty, Russia became a powerhouse to manders, the conduct of the War from Istanbul, control the strategically significant Dardaneles the shortage of equipment and ammunition, Straight and the Black Sea. Since this position the incompetence and impotency of the Otto- went against the interests of Great Britain, man Navy in the Black Sea and so forth.79 France and the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, In compliance with the assault plan of the an international conference was decided to Russian Command-in-Chief, which was de- convene in Berlin. signed to cross over the Balkans, Philipe and Bismarck, who announced that he would Edirne were occupied by the Russians.80 At this serve as an independent arbiter and under- point, on January 31, 1878, the war was ended lined that they had no interest in the Eastern with the Edirne Armistice signed with the Problem, did not find it realistic that Russia, Russians.81 which had lost the opportunity of invading Is- According to the Armistice, the Otto- tanbul, would consent to making peace by way man forces would withdraw to the Terkos- of a conference. He emphasized that the reso- Küçükçekmece line, the Russian forces would lutions to be taken would only consist of a bal- 22  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ance of power by saying to the Ottoman del- till it gained its independence. This property of egation “if you think that the Conference will Wallachia and Moldavia, which determined its convene for the benefit of Turkey, you will be own administrators, displayed difference with- mistaken. If the Treaty of San Stefano did not in the state structure of the Ottoman Empire. disturb the certain interest of Europe, it would The Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1878 remain untouched.”87 can be evaluated as a way of expansion and de- At the end of the Conference, the Berlin scending to the Mediterranean Sea as for Rus- Treaty was signed on July 13, 1878.88 Articles sia and as a struggle for complete independ- 43 through 57 of this 64-article Treaty stipu- ence as for Romania. In the aftermath of this lated that the independence of Romania would War, the Balkans completely changed, the Ot- be recognized by the signing states, a large toman influence in the region decreased and portion of Bessarabia, which was annexed to Russian influence increased. Romania with the Paris Treaty, would be aban- The promises given by Russia at the onset doned to Russia, Tulçi island and its district of the War that Romania would be endowed Dobruca in the Danube basin would be left to with autonomy at the end of the War ensued 89 that Romania, a principality subject to the Ot- Romania. With the Berlin Treaty, while the 94 Balkan nations acquired their independence, toman Empire, took side with Russia. the Ottoman Empire lost two fifths of its lands Notwithstanding that fact, the Russians, in Europe. 90 aiming to throw off the Ottomans from the With this Treaty, the validity of the articles Balkans and to conquer Istanbul, paused and prognosticated in front of Pleven. The Pleven of the Treaty of San Stefano as regards Roma- Defence went into history as one of the most nia was saved. In the process initiated by the glorious defence wars in Ottoman history. The Berlin Treaty, every unrest rising in the regions successes staged by the Ottoman forces under where the Christians lived gave the great pow- the command of Osman Pasha and the defence ers the opportunity of applying pressure on the positions and fortifications prepared by the Ot- Ottoman Empire and intervening in its inter- 91 toman troops in great devotion and persever- nal affairs. ance delayed the progress of the enemy forces for a long time. These unexpected circumstanc- Conclusion es marred the Russian plans and saved time for Like many other issues arising as a result of the other European states to meddle through the fact that the Ottoman Empire had phased diplomatic channels with Russia, which was into the period of decline since the XVIII cen- aspiring to dominate the whole Balkans. In ad- tury, the Turco-Romanian relations were grad- dition, the Pleven defence went into history as ually and increasingly evaluated within the a defence war in which the trenches dug into framework of international relations. In Walla- earth were used skilfully to set the example and chia and Moldavia, which had remained under to blaze a trail for defence wars. the rule of the Ottomans for centuries, from In the process leading to Romania’s inde- the XIX century onwards the establishment pendence after the unification of the Princi- of a unified national Romania was accelerated palities of Wallachia and Moldavia under the 92 with the influence of Russia as well. name of Romania in 1857, Romania gained its The nationalist movements initiated by independence with the Treaty of Berlin signed the French Revolution took effect all over the on July 13, 1878. Thereafter, Romania adopted world in a short time. Consequently the Ot- a policy of keeping good relations with the toman subjects such as Serbian, Bulgarian, Ottoman Empire.95 Greek, Romanian and Albanian nations started to establish autonomous and independent BIBLIOGRAPHY states on the basis of nationality.93 In fact, considering the whole of the Turk- Archives ish-Romanian relations, it is seen that Roma- The Archives of the Turkish General Staff nia enjoyed an autonomous status even within Military History and Strategical Study (ATASE) the period it remained under the Ottoman rule and Inspection Department.  Revista de istorie militară  23 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Printed Works Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi (Detailed Otto- man History), Vol. VI, Güven Yayınevi (Güven 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbi Harp Tarihi Printhouse), Istanbul, 1963. 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ATAK, Sadık; Rusya Siyaseti ve Rusların Yayılma Siyaseti (The Russia’s Policy and the SHAW, Stanford J.; Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Russian Expansion Policy), Ankara, 1964. ve Modern Türkiye (History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey), Traslated by BAŞAR, Fahamettin; 100 Soruda Osmanlı Mehmet Harmancı, Vol. II, Doğuş Matbaası Devleti Tarihi (The History of the Ottoman (Doğuş Printing Press), Istanbul,1983. Empire in One Hundred Questions), Dünya Yayınları (Dünya Publications), Istanbul, 1999. SLOANE, William M.; Bir Tarih Laboratuarı HERBERT, F.W. Von; Plevne Müdafaası Balkanlar (The Balkans as a History Labora- (The Pleven Defense), Translated by Nurettin tory), Translated by Sibel Özbudun, Süreç Artam, Yüksel Yayınevi (Yüksel Printhouse), Yayınları (Süreç Publications), Istanbul, 1987. Istanbul. STANLEY, Francis; St. Petersburg’dan HÜLÂGÜ, Metin; Gazi Osman Paşa (Gha- Plevne’ye Gazi Osman Paşa (Ghazi Osman zi Osman Pasha), Boğaziçi Yayınları (Boğaziçi Pasha from St. Petersbourg to Pleven), Trans- Publications), Istanbul, 1993. lated by Salih Cıngıllıoğlu, Profil Yayıncılık (Profil Publication), Istanbul, 2007. KOCABAŞ, Süleyman; Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm (The Loss of SÜER, Hikmet; 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus the European Turkey and Panslavism in the Harbi Rumeli Cephesi (1877-1878 Ottoman- Balkans), Vatan Yayınları (Vatan Publications), Russian War Rumelia Front), Genelkurmay Istanbul, 1986. Basımevi (Turkish General Staff Printhouse), Ankara, 1993. KURAT, Akdes Nimet; Türkiye ve Rusya (Turkey and Russia), Sevinç Matbaası (Sevinç ŞAPOLYO, Enver Behnan; Gazi Osman Press), Ankara, 1990. Paşa ve Plevne Müdafaası (Ghazi Osman Pasha and Pleven Defense), Türkiye Yayınevi KUTLU, Sacit; Balkanlar ve Osmanlı (Turkiye Printhouse), Istanbul, 1959. Devleti (The Balkans and The Ottoman Em- pire), Bilgi Yayıncılık (Bilgi Publishing), Istan- TALAT, Mahmud; Plevne Müdafaası (The bul, 2007. Pleven Defense), Kültür Yayınları (Kültür Publications), Istanbul, 2008. KUTUCUOĞLU, Zeki; Gazi Osman Paşa TANSEL, Selâhattin; 93 Seferi 1877 Har- Plevne’de (Ghazi Osman Pasha in Pleven), binin Sebepleri (The 93 Expedition – The Erkânı Umumiye Basımevi (Erkânı Umumiye Causes of 1877 War), Doğuş Matbaası (Doğuş Printing Press), Ankara, 1957. Press), Ankara, 1943. 24  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Tarihte Türk Rumen İlişkileri (Turco-Rume- tion. As a result of the endeavors of Russia trying to nian Relations in History), Genelkurmay ATASE promulgate the ideal of Pan-Slavism by establishing ve Denetleme Başkanlığı Yayınları (Publications clandestine associations and organizations, many of the Turkish General Staff Military History, insurgencies and rebellions erupted in the Balkans. Strategic Study and Inspection Department), Fahamettin Başar, 100 Soruda Osmanlı Devleti Ankara, 2006. Tarihi (The Ottoman Empire in One Hundred Questions), Dünya Yayınları (Dünya Publications), Istanbul, 1999, page 195. TURAN, Oğuz; 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus 3 Akdes Nimet Kurat, Türkiye ve Rusya (Turkey Harbi (93 Harbi)(1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian and Russia), Sevinç Matbaası (Sevinç Printing War), Harp Akademileri Basımevi (Military Press), Ankara, 1990, pages 74-75. Colleges Printhouse), Istanbul, 1978. 4 Oğuz Turan, 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbi (93 Harbi)(1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War), Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri Tarihi Osmanlı Devri Harp Akademileri Basımevi (Military Colleges 1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Harbi Kafkas Cephesi Printhouse), Istanbul, 1978, page 2. Harekâtı (Turkish Armed Forces History, Ot- 5 Metin Hülâgü, Gazi Osman Paşa (Ghazi Osman toman Era, 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War Pasha), Boğaziçi Yayınları (Boğaziçi Publications), Caucasus Front Operation), Vol. II, Genelkur- Istanbul, 1993, page 43. 6 may Basımevi (General Staff Printhouse), The loans the Ottoman Empire obtained for the Ankara, 1985. Crimean War completely surpassed its budget. The revenues of the state were not able to liquidate even the interests of its debts. It was opted to manufac- UÇAROL, Rifat; Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Paşa ture cartridges from the lead covering the domes of (Ghazi Osman Pasha), Filiz Kitabevi (Filiz mosques and medreses in Istanbul. Turan, page 6. Bookstore), Istanbul, 1989. 7 Zeki Kutucuoğlu, Gazi Osman Paşa Plevne’de (Ghazi Osman Pasha in Pleven), Erkânı Umumiye UÇAROL, Rifat; Siyasi Tarih (Political His- Basımevi (Erkânı Umumiye Printing Press), Ankara, tory), Ankara, 1979. 1957, pages 6-7. 8 In the Ottoman history, the Eastern Problem/ YALAZAN, Talat; Plevne Savunması (The Question started in the second half of the XVIII Pleven Defense), Genelkurmay Basımevi century and it was given this name at the Vienna (Turkish General Staff Printhouse), Ankara, Congress of 1815. In the XIX century, it was used of- 1997. ten by the western diplomats and statesmen. In the beginning, it was handled to mean the protection YÜCEBAŞ, Hilmi; Gazi Osman Paşa ve of the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire. However, later on, it was used for the sharing of the Plevne (Ghazi Osman Pasha and Pleven), Kenan Ottoman territory. In the XX century, it meant to Matbaası (Kenan Printing Press), Istanbul, wholly share the Ottoman Empire. Başar, page 194. 1943. 9 Hülâgü, pages 54-55. 10 Enver Behnan Şapolyo, Gazi Osman Paşa ve Plevne Müdafaası (Ghazi Osman Pasha and Pleven NOTE Defense), Türkiye Yayınevi (Türkiye Printhouse), 1 Sacit Kutlu, Balkanlar ve Osmanlı Devleti (The Istanbul, 1959, pages 51-52. Balkans and the Ottoman Empire), Bilgi Yayıncılık 11 Thereupon, the Ottoman Empire expressed (Bilgi Publishing), Istanbul, 2007, page 45. its content by returning to the Hungarians the 35- 2 The movement of Pan-Slavism, which means volume book collection confiscated from the library the unification of the nations hailing from Slav race, of Hungarian King Matyas Korvinos and kept at the has come to existence with Russia’s wishing to sup- Ottoman Royal Treasury. Sultan Abdülhamid II in port all the Orthodox Christians and to unite them person ensured these books to be delivered to Aus- under its own domination. Asserting that Orthodox trian Emperor Franz Joseph by being taken to Vien- Christians in the Balkans were Slavic, in the sec- na by his aide-camp Tahsin Bey. ibid, pages 55-56. ond half of the XIX. century when the Ottoman 12 Kutlu, page 108. Empire began to decline, Russia began to put forth 13 Hikmet Süer, 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbi that they should be assembled under its administra- Rumeli Cephesi (1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War  Revista de istorie militară  25 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Rumelia Front), Genelkurmay Basımevi (Turkish mobile hospitals on the Krakovi-Lemberg-Cernoviç General Staff Printhouse), Ankara, 1993, page 13. main railway and the Volozisk-Brodi highway. Halil 14 Tarihte Türk-Rumen İlişkileri (Turco-Ru Sedes, 1877-1878, Osmanlı-Rus ve Rumen Savaşı menian Relations in History), Genelkurmay ATASE (1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian and Romanian War), ve Denetleme Başkanlığı Yayınları (Publications Askeri Matbaa (Military Printing Press), Vol. II, of the Turkish General Staff Military History and Istanbul, 1936 page 3. Strategic Study and Inspection Department), 30 Şapolyo, pages 58-59. Ankara, 2006, page 88. 31 15 William M. Sloane, Bir Tarih Laboratuarı Süleyman Kocabaş, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Balkanlar (The Balkans as a Historical Labratory), Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm (The Loss of the Translated by Sibel Özbudun, Süreç Yayınları (Süreç European Turkey and Panslavism in the Balkans), Publications), Istanbul, 1987, page 104. Vatan Yayınları (Vatan Publications), Istanbul, 1986, 32 Süer, page 87. page 154. 33 16 Tarihte Türk-Rumen İlişkileri (Turco-Rume Tarihte Türk Rumen İlişkileri (Turco- nian Relations in History), page 89. Romanian Relations in History), page 117. 34 17 Rifat Uçarol, Siyasi Tarih (Political History), Hülâgü, page 55. 35 Ankara, 1979, page 164. Sedes, Vol. II, page 15. 18 Tarihte Türk Rumen İlişkileri (Turco- 36 If the 246-metre-long bridge connecting Rumenian Relations in History), page 105. Russia to Romania had been destroyed beforehand, 19 Uçarol, page 165. the crossing of the Russian Army could have been 20 Fahir Armaoğlu, Siyasi Tarih 1789-1960 delayed at least two months. Turan, page 21. (Political History 1789-1960), Ayyıldız Matbaası 37 ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military (Ayyıldız Printing Press), Ankara, 1975, pages 153- History and Strategical Study Division); Koleksiyon 154. (Collection): Osmanlı Rus Harbi (The Ottoman- 21 Stanford J. Shaw, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ve Russian War), Kutu (Case): 9, Gömlek (Portfolio): 8, Modern Türkiye (History of the Ottoman Empire Belge (Document) 8-1., Şapolyo, pages 63-65. and Modern Turkey), Traslated by Mehmet 38 Süer, page 114. Harmancı, Vol. II, Doğuş Matbaası (Doğuş Printing 39 Tarihte Türk Rumen İlişkileri (Turco- Press), Istanbul,1983, page 181. 22 Romanian Relations in History), page 118. Kocabaş, pages 158-159. 40 23 Tarihte Türk Rumen İlişkileri (Turco-Rume ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military nian Relations in History), pages 111-115. History and Strategical Study Division); Koleksiyon 24 Selâhattin Tansel, 93 Seferi 1877 Harbinin (Collection): Osmanlı Rus Harbi (The Ottoman- Sebepleri (The 93 Expedition – The Causes of 1877 Russian War), Kutu (Case): 5, Gömlek (Portfolio): War), Doğuş Matbaası (Doğuş Printing Press), 88, Belge (Document) 88-1. Ankara, 1943, page 6. 41 Hülâgü, pages 76-77. 25 Halil Sedes, 1877-1878, Osmanlı-Rus ve 42 ibid, pages 58-59. Rumen Savaşı (1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian and 43 Talat Yalazan, Plevne Savunması (Pleven Romanian War), Askeri Matbaa (Military Printing Defense), Genelkurmay Basımevi (Turkish General Press), Vol.I, Istanbul, 1935, page 38. Staff Printhouse), Ankara, 1997, page 2. 26 Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri Tarihi Osmanlı Devri 44 Hülâgü, page 74. 1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Harbi Kafkas Cephesi 45 Turan, page 28. Harekâtı (Turkish Armed Forces History, Ottoman 46 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbi Harp Tarihi Era, 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War Caucasus Broşürü (The War History Brochure of the 1877- Front Operation), Vol. II, Genelkurmay Basımevi 1878 Ottoman-Russian War), Genelkurmay (General Staff Printhouse), Ankara, 1985, page 7, Kurat, page 82. Basımevi (Turkish General Staff Printhouse), 27 ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military Ankara, 2000, page 31. 47 History and Strategical Study Division (MHSS); Hülâgü, page 75. 48 Koleksiyon (Collection): Osmanlı Rus Harbi (The Yalazan, page 10. 49 Ottoman-Russian War), Kutu (Case):17, Gömlek 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbi Harp Tarihi (Portfolio):120, Belge (Document):120-1, Süer, pag- Broşürü (The War History Brochure of the 1877- es 63-64. 1878 Ottoman-Russian War), page 31. 28 İbid, page 84. 50 ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military 29 In accordance with the Agreement signed History and Strategical Study Division); Koleksiyon with Austria, the Russians were permitted to build (Collection): Osmanlı Rus Harbi (The Ottoman- 26  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Russian War), Kutu (Case): 32, Gömlek (Portfolio): 70 ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military 113, Belge (Document): 113-1. History and Strategical Study Division); Koleksiyon 51 Yalazan, page 11. (Collection): Osmanlı Rus Harbi (The Ottoman- 52 Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi (Detailed Ottoman Russian War), Kutu (Case): 21, Gömlek (Portfolio): History), Vol. VI, Güven Yayınevi (Güven 6, Belge (Document): 6-1. Printhouse), Istanbul, 1963, page 3310. 71 Mahmud Talat, Plevne Müdafaası (The Pleven 53 ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military Defence), Kültür Yayınları (Kültür Publications), History and Strategical Study Division); Koleksiyon Istanbul, 2008, page 176. (Collection): Osmanlı Rus Harbi (The Ottoman- 72 ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military Russian War), Kutu (Case): 10, Gömlek (Portfolio): History and Strategical Study Division); Koleksiyon 41, Belge (Document): 41-1. (Collection): Osmanlı-Rus Harbi (The Ottoman- 54 Süer, page 167. Russian War), Kutu (Case): 21, Gömlek (Portfolio): 55 ibid, pages 170-171. 61, Belge (Document): 61-1. 56 Yalazan, pages 13-14. 73 ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military 57 On the morning of Tuesday, July 30, 1877 History and Strategical Study Division); Koleksiyon at 01.30 hours, as in the First Pleven Battle, the (Collection): Osmanlı-Rus Harbi (The Ottoman- Russians appeared from the northeast and from Russian War), Kutu (Case): 21, Gömlek (Portfolio): the right side of the combat line said to be par- 61, Belge (Document): 61-3. allel to the Danube. Thereupon, gun fires were 74 F.W. Von Herbert, Plevne Müdafaası (The initiated from the Gravic gun emplacement. The Pleven Defence), Translated by Nurettin Artam, artillery combat lasted for a few hours. The thick Yüksel Yayınevi (Yüksel Print House), Istanbul, smoke rising from the subsequent infantry com- pages 234-235. bat blotted the sky and darkened the battlefield. 75 Talat, page 206. ibid, pages 16-21. 76 Tarihte Türk Rumen İlişkileri (The Turco- 58 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbi Harp Tarihi Romanian Relations in History), page 120. Broşürü (The War History Brochure of the 1877- 77 Süer, pages 485-486. 1878 Ottoman-Russian War), page 33. 78 Kurat, page 84. 59 Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi (Detailed Ottoman 79 Başar, pages 196-197. History), page 3311. 80 Sadık Atak, Rusya Siyaseti ve Rusların 60 Süer, pages 359-364. Yayılma Siyaseti (The Russian Policy and the Russian 61 Francis Stanley, St. Petersburg’dan Plevne’ye Expansion Policy), Ankara, 1964, pages 9-10. Gazi Osman Paşa (Ghazi Osman Pasha from 81 Tarihte Türk Rumen İlişkileri (The Turco- St Petersburg to Pleven), Translated by Salih Romanian Relations in History), page 120. Cıngıllıoğlu, Profil Yayıncılık (Profil Publication), 82 Uçarol, page 260. Istanbul, 2007, pages 110-111. 83 Armaoğlu, page 268. 62 Hülâgü, pages 162-163. 84 Kutlu, page 113. 63 This title was bestowed upon Osman Pasha 85 Shaw, page 236. as a reward of the Third Pleven Victory. The high 86 Rifat Uçarol, Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Paşa ranking officers and soldiers were also honored (Ghazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha), Filiz Kitabevi (Filiz with the good regards of the Ottoman Sultan. Bookstore), Istanbul, 1989, page 119. Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi (Detailed Ottoman 87 Kutlu, page 117. History), page 3312, Yalazan, page 82. 88 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbi Harp Tarihi 64 Şapolyo, page 101. Broşürü (The War History Brochure of the 1877- 65 Hülâgü, pages 140-141. 1878 Ottoman-Russian War), page 59. 66 Süer, page 452. 89 Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi (Detailed Ottoman 67 ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military History), pages 3335-3336. History and Strategical Study Division); Koleksiyon 90 Turan, page 52. (Collection): Osmanlı Rus Harbi (The Ottoman- 91 Kutlu, page 536. Russian War), Kutu (Case): 17, Gömlek (Portfolio): 92 Tarihte Türk Rumen İlişkileri (The Turco- 180, Belge (Document): 180-1. Romanian Relations in History), page 98. 68 Süer, page 454. 93 Başar, page 205. 69 ATASE Başkanlığı Arşivi (Archives of Military 94 Hilmi Yücebaş, Gazi Osman Paşa ve Plevne History and Strategical Study Division); Koleksiyon (Ghazi Osman Pasha and Pleven), Kenan Matbaası (Collection): Osmanlı Rus Harbi (The Ottoman- (Kenan Printing Press), Istanbul, 1943, pages 73-75. Russian War), Kutu (Case): 24, Gömlek (Portfolio): 95 Tarihte Türk Rumen İlişkileri (The Turco- 75, Belge (Document): 75-1. Romanian Relations in History), page 123.  Revista de istorie militară  27 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Dossier: Romanian-Turkish Military Relations during Modern and Contemporary Period

A Delegate of the Turkish-Romanian Friendship Relations: Ambassador Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver

F. REZZAN ÜNALP *

Abstract

The foundations of the Turkish foreign policy in the 1920s were based on the principles of “realism, protection of independence, modernization, pacifism, and adherence to law”, which were set by the founder of the Turkish Republic Mustafa Kemal ATATÜRK depending on his in-depth knowledge of national and perception of general history. These principles guiding the Turkish foreign policy aroused deep interest within the Romanian political and diplomatic milieus of the time. ATATÜRK ascribed a special significance to regional cooperation and tried to develop bilateral relations with the Balkan states. Within this framework, he appointed Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, one of the most distinguished statesmen and intellectuals of those times, as the Am- bassador to Romania in 1931. Tanrıöver, who was appointed as an Ambassador to Bucharest, gained the confidence and sympathy of the Romanian political circles through his high merits. He undertook important endeavors especially for the continuation of the cultural ties between the Gagavuz Turks and Turkey and exerted efforts for the safeguarding of Turkish-Romanian friendship. This article embraces the life history of Ambassador Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, who served as the ambassador in Bucharest from 1931 to 1944, and his endeavors for the conservation and perfection of the Turkish-Romanian friendship.

Keywords: Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, Bucharest, Romania, Turkey, Gagavuz

Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver was born at Hamdullah Suphi – who was to become the Suphi Pasha Mansion in Aksaray, İstanbul, the thirty-eighth Minister of Turkish Educa- in 1885. His grandfather, Abdurrahman Sami tion, and the second Minister of Education of Pasha (1795-1878), was the first Minister of the Republican Era owing to his exceptional Education of the Turkish education history. education in science and arts – was brought His father was the well-known scholar and a up in a mansion where the most notable fu- statesman, and the sixth Minister of Turkish ture promising scholars, intellectuals, poets, Education Abdullatif Suphi Pasha (1818-1886); and statesmen were taught and trained. As his his mother was the Caucasian Ulfet Hanim. grandfather Abdurrahman Sami Pasha was the

* Dr. Air Force Ins.Col., Head, Division of Military History, TGS Department of ATASE. 28  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor first, his father Suphi Pasha the sixth, and his brother-in-law, one of the well-known com- posers of the times, Vizier Mehmet Yusuf Ziya Pasha, the twenty-second Minister of Educa- tion, Hamdullah Suphi Bey was generally re- ferred to as the “Minister of National Educa- tion by blood.” Ghazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha, in his speech on the occasion of Hamdullah Bey’s second appointment as the Minister of Edu- cation on March 4, 1925, said “Hamdullah is Minister of Education by birth.” 1 Hamdullah Suphi completed his primary education at the Kisikli, Altunizadeh, and Numune-yi Terakki schools; he completed his secondary school education at the Lycée de Galatasaray as a boarding student upon the decree issued by Sultan Abdulhamid II. Having had graduated in 1904, he took a position as trainee at the Department of Transla- tion, Tobacco Monopoly Central Administra- tion, in 1905.2 Speaking of Hamdullah Suphi of Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver the times, Abdülhak Şinasi Hisar says: He was dedicated to searching, appreciat- ing and encouraging all the competent young to his spirit. Having taken up journalism, with hearts in his homeland; he felt the thirst for the power of the pen he had been holding since instilling an ideal spirit in them, and feeling his school years he persuades people to write in of fondness for himself in return. He learned line with his ideas. His life as a teacher further fervent patriotism, personal dignity, courage, helped him improve his might in oration that self-denial, and altruism from Namık Kemal. is even more influential than writing. He per- He was a person deeply moved by his famil- ceived the lack of the notion of nationalism as ial righteousness. Moreover, he, under the in- one of the most important defects of the nation; fluence of the good manners he was taught, is resuscitating national traditions glorified the highly conscious of the fact that maintaining former virtues.3 nobility is the greatest accomplishment in life. Hamdullah Suphi Bey, who was only 24 He has an innate need and capacity for toiling when he was appointed as a lecturer to the uni- and exertion. He is yearning to furnish his tone versity, achieved a great success by giving par- of voice with a mature style to encourage and ticular importance to Turkish and Islamic arts voice his nation’s feelings. He is longing to deal in his lectures and studies thereby in instilling with his nation’s education. He is not a library- an appreciation and creating a spirit of national ridden scholar; he is a true intellectual owing art. His teaching of Arab, Persian, and Indian his accumulation of knowledge to his environ- arts within the framework of Islamic Civiliza- ment, life and experiences. He is a poet reciting tion; and especially his taking his students to his native land pleasantly even in poetry, that the mosques, mausoleums, small mosques, is but a lyric expression of the spirit. He is the public fountains, aqueducts, bridges, inns, one who is moved by an ardent feeling of resist- soup-kitchens, and caravanserais found in the ance against autocracy. He displays courage in different districts of Istanbul brought liveliness the face of danger. He has a high sense of beauty and aroused deep interest in his lectures hence of life and knows how to credit it. He always he gained popularity and respect among uni- careful and takes great pains in reflecting him- versity students. Meanwhile, he also started self on to people around him. There is an ener- lecturing both at the Naval School and Con- getic and vigorous, and an eternally joyous side servatoire. Nevertheless, his greatest service  Revista de istorie militară  29 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor and role were to emerge within the organiza- Suphi, following the declaration of the repub- tions of the Türk Ocağı [Turkish Hearth]4 and lic, was the first person to feel the need for the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA). founding of a university in Ankara, and was the Hamdullah Suphi was elected as a mem- one who sow its seeds within the body of the ber of the propagandizing committee, set up Turkish Hearth. by the Governorship of Edirne in 1913, deter- As there was a severe lack of cadres to un- mined to keep Thrace and Edirne under the dertake the affairs of the state in the first days of sovereignty of Ottoman State and to voice the the Turkish National War of Independence the Bulgarian atrocities committed during the Bul- representatives were appointed to the adminis- garian occupation. In 1917, he was married to trative posts, ranging from General Director to Ayşe Saide Hanim, daughter of Isfendiyaroğlu Undersecretary, at the ministries keeping their Ahmet Muhtar Bey. rights as the members of the TGNA. Hamdul- When he got married, Hamdullah Suphi lah Suphi Bey, who joined the Turkish National had been a lecturer at the Naval School at War of Independence as Antalya Representa- Heybeliada, Istanbul. The Minister of Navy, tive, was appointed as the General Director of Cemal Pasha, who had always appreciated his Press and Communications on June 7, 1920. efforts and who knew the İsfendiyaroğlu Fam- Mustafa Kemal, being the leader of the ily very closely, sent the newly wed couple to National Struggle, founded the Anatolian Germany for two months. However, as all the Agency on April 6, 1920, in order to undertake routes of transportation were blocked due to the tasks of receiving and distributing of the the First World War, the couple had to stay news, and to systematize the performance of eleven months in Germany. They eventually domestic and foreign propagandas, which he took a ship, Akdeniz, from Hamburg to Turkey deemed as the most crucial aspect of the Na- in May 1919. Hamdullah Suphi Bey delivered tional Struggle as of the earliest days. TGNA, his first ardent speech while passing from the opened on 23 April, 1920, decided to set up the Çanakkale Strait. General Directorate of Press and Communica- The days Hamdullah Suphi returned home tions embracing the Press Directorate and the witnessed the occupations in the country Anatolian Agency. The General Directorate, starting with the Greek occupation of İzmir, affiliated to the Board of Executive Repre- May 15, 1919. To protest the occupations in sentatives, was founded upon a law passed by Anatolia, he held fervent meetings all over Is- the TGNA on June 7, 1920; Hamdullah Suphi tanbul. His zealous speeches in the meetings Bey was appointed as the General Director of led him to take his due place among other in- Press and Communications on the same day, tellectual patriots like Halide Edip (Adıvar), and maintained this position until August 19, Dr. Riza Nur, and the poet Mehmet Emin Bey, 1920. who had not joined the movement in Anatolia Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, who was the by then. Hamdullah Suphi’s reopening of the second Minister of Education of the Turkish Turkish Hearth, which was one of the first as- Republic, and the thirty-eighth Minister of sociations closed down by the British, within the Turkish Education, undertook impor- the organization of National Instruction and tant tasks in both terms. The acceptance of Education Center a week after, the passionate the poem Mehmet Akif had written as the speeches he made at Sultanahmet meetings, Turkish National Anthem on March 12, 1921, the dauntless inauguration speech5 he made by the TGNA, was realized with his zealous at the Ottoman Parliament in 1920 as Antalya endeavor.6 representative did not leave him any chance of survival in the British occupied Istanbul. Hamdullah Suphi Bey’s Informing Mustafa Kemal Pasha on the Ambassadorship at Bucharest closing of Turkish Hearth with a telegraph, Hamdullah Suphi crossed over to Ankara and It is evident that the foundations of the organized the spreading of Turkish Hearth not Turkish foreign policy in the 1920s, when the only in Ankara but all over Anatolia. Hamdullah Turkish Republic was founded, were based on 30  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor the principles of “realism, protection of inde- Dobrudja, hence, began using Latin alphabet pendence, modernization, pacifism, and ad- in their curriculum. In line with the reforms herence to law.” ATATÜRK, ascribing a spe- initiated by ATATÜRK in Türkiye, the clothing cial significance to regional cooperation and of the school children of Turkish-Tartar com- developing of bilateral relations with the Bal- munity was modernized. Furthermore, Ham- kan states appointed one of the most distin- dullah Bey persuaded the Romanian Ministry guished statesmen and intellectuals of the era, of Education to implement courses on Turkish Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, as the Ambassa- History in addition to core courses like Gen- dor to Romania in 1931. Tanrıöver, who was eral History and Romanian History. appointed as an Ambassador to Bucharest, Ambassador Tanrıöver not only won the winning the confidence and sympathy of hearts, affection, and sympathies of the Ro- the Romanian political circles with his deep manian palace and government but a deep knowledge of history, culture, and eloquence, credence of the Romanian people at large. Ro- undertook important endeavors ranging from manian government was more than accommo- the safeguarding of Turkish-Romanian friend- dating to Hamdullah Bey’s close dealings with ship to the continuation of the cultural ties be- the Romanian subject Muslim and Christian tween the Gagavus Turks and Türkiye. Turkish peoples.11 Hamdullah Suphi Bey was first appointed University of Bucharest conferred him to Bucharest in 1931 as “the Exceptional Del- an Honorary Doctor of Philosophy degree; egate and Intermediary Envoy”7; he was pro- Marshal Antonescu, the Romanian Prime moted to Ambassador in June 28, 1939, and Minister of the time in his letter to the Presi- submitted his Letter of Credence to the King dent of the University of Bucharest spoke of of Romania on July 8, 1939.8 Tanrıöver as “a guide of his nation and an in- Commencing his mission in Romania, tellectual warrior.” 12 Hamdullah Suphi Bey became interested in Turkish-Romanian relations that were the Turkish minority, the Gagavuz9 and con- ceased on August 20, 1916, during the First ducted studies in the towns and villages of World War, were revived as of June 20, 1922.13 Dobrudja and Basarabia. He first sent 30-40 The revival did not only reflect itself on bilat- young Gagavuz, who had not lost their mother eral declarations of good will and principles language, to Türkiye to receive middle and but on firmly established economic relations. higher education.10 As Romania realized eighty percent of its for- The only institution of higher educa- eign trade over international waters, she close- tion in Dobrudja, during Hamdullah Suphi ly followed the developments at the Lausanne Tanrıöver’s Ambassadorship in Bucharest, was Peace Talks. Moreover, she advocated the the Muslim Seminary at the town of Medjidié Turkish proposal on the principle of free pas- near Babadagh. Hamdullah Bey had talks with sage through the Turkish Straits, and strongly the lecturers and the students and examined supported Türkiye’s struggle for the abolishing their curriculum and training programs. He, of the capitulations.14 applying to the Romanian Ministry of Educa- A “Friendship, Non-aggression, Umpirage, tion, convinced them to institute schools offer- and Reconciliation Treaty,” to which Hamdullah ing education in Turkish in twenty-six Gagavuz Suphi Bey made great contributions, improv- towns and villages. Moreover, he had the Min- ing the air of friendship was signed between the istry of Education appoint teachers from the parties on October 17, 1933.15 These relations Dobrudja Turks and the graduates of Medjidié also contributed to Tanrıöver’s efforts in creat- Muslim Seminary. Thus, at the primary and ing a big Turkish cemetery in Bucharest. 16 secondary schools found in Constanta, Tulcea, There are three Turkish martyrs’ cemeter- Sislistra, and Pazardzhik, as well as at the ies, where the Turkish soldiers fallen martyrs Medjidié Muslim Seminary, courses offering on the Romanian Front during the First World Turkish and Turkish Literature were launched War are buried in Romania. These martyrs’ by bringing books written in Latin alpha- cemeteries are found in Bucharest, Brăila, bet from Türkiye. All the Turkish schools in and in Slobozia. They were found in compli-  Revista de istorie militară  31 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ance with the Lausanne Treaty Article: 126, ian and Turkish units; as well as launching of and in accordance with the protocol signed an attack on Dobrudja and hence occupying between the Turkish and Romanian govern- the Walachia Plateau. Consequently, with the ment on September 18, 1930. The protocol forces gathered to march over Bucharest the stipulated the preservation of the cemeteries Romanian Army would be enveloped. of the both sides where soldiers killed in ac- Bulgarian border troops commencing tion, and/or those who died under captivity – an attack on September 2, 1916, seized the as of August 27, 1916 – were buried. During Tutrakan Castle on September 6, and stopped Hamdullah Suphi’s Ambassadorship to Bucha- Russo-Romanian counter-attacks. While the rest all the Turkish martyrs, aside from those operation was developing, 6th Turkish Corps who were buried in Slobozia, were transferred formed upon the orders of Supreme Military to the martyrs’ cemeteries found in Gencagha, Command dated July 20, 1916, and by bringing Bucharest, and in Brăila as of September 1930. various divisions, regiments, and battalions to- These cemeteries were opened to public visits gether in Edirne was ready to be deployed at as of 1958.17 Dobrudja. According to the operation plans devised Units affiliated to theth 6 Corps, to lend against Romania in July 1916 it was suggested support to the 6th Bulgarian Army, crossed the that the Germans and the Austrian units were Danube through the Tutrakan-Ruse line, in to draw the Romanian Army by realizing a the evening of September 30-October 1, and demonstration attack in the north thereby al- engaged with the Russo-Romanian forces. 6th lowing the Bulgarian Army to launch an attack Turkish Corps realized important achieve- on Dobrudja and conquer the Tutrakan and Sil- ments. The total number of losses for the 6th istra castles. Meanwhile, the Bulgarian forces Corps was 11.600. The bodies of those Turkish concentrated in the Nikopol were to cross the martyrs buried singly or in groups, are found Danube from south to north and march over in the Turkish Martyrs’ Cemeteries mentioned to Bucharest. Moreover, this operation was to above.18 be backed up by Austrian Danube Fleet. Fur- Türkiye, during the First World War, to thermore, an Ottoman Force to be gathered in realize the German proposals sent corps to the environs of Edirne was to lend its support Macedonia and Galicia upon the orders of the to 3rd Bulgarian Army. Ministry of War Enver Pasha. As the situations Having thus had curbed the Romanian the Turkish Army fought on the other fronts advance in Transylvania, German General started to change dramatically Enver Pasha, Headquarters was aiming at realizing the thinking that it would be best to withdraw the definite result on the Carpati Mountains; but forces from the Balkans, sent a message to Ger- this end necessitated the reinforcement of the man Marshall Hindenburg and therewith stat- German and Austrian forces with the Bulgar- ed his urgent need for those troops in taking

Turkish Officers in front of the Romanian Foreign Ministry during the First World War

32  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor A Turkish Unit charged with passing across the Danube at the Romanian Front during the First World War

Baghdad from the English. However, the reply Nicolae Titulescu, the Romanian Minister of he received from General Ludendorf was not Foreign Affairs, and Tevfik Rüştü Aras, Turkish negatory at all. Of the two Turkish divisions Minister of Foreign Affairs. Hamdullah Suphi th th (15 and 25 Divisions] at the Romanian front Bey playing a significant role in establishing one returned home in December 1917, and the cordial relationships between the Romanian 19 other could only return by April 1918. and Turkish diplomats as well, at times, was First World War ended with the defeat of the invited to the Romanian Palace by the Mother Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Queen Elena.23 Ottoman State, and Bulgaria) in November Death of ATATÜRK, 1938, and the devel- 1918. The Ottoman State, upon the stipula- opments brought along with the beginning of tions of the Moudhros Ceasefire Agreement a new world war could not even deteriorate the signed, took its place in the pages of history.20 atmosphere of friendship set between Turkish Following the Turkish War of Independ- and Romanian peoples. National interests ence launched under the leadership of Mustafa of the era made the continuation of relations Kemal against the occupations in Anatolia, and mandatory. Turkish-Romanian diplomatic ties the subsequent proclamation of the Turkish continued until 1944 within the framework of Republic, Turkish-Romanian relations started friendship Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver estab- to develop within a new framework. In the era prior to the Second World War, Mustafa lished with some of the influential members of Kemal ATATÜRK and Nicolae Titulescu21, a the Romanian Government. Romanian diplomat, worked zealously to for- Hitler, during the Second World War, hav- mulate an alliance among the Balkan states. ing learned the Soviet Government’s proposals Titulescu, in a speech he made at a Balkan Pact made in the November 25, 1940 Memoran- meeting held in 1935, speaking of Mustafa Ke- dum, on December 18, 1940, ordered the Ger- mal ATATÜRK said: man Supreme Command Council to execute Mustafa Kemal’s unrivaled work aroused the Russian War [Operation Barbarossa] plan. deep interest and acclaim in every corner of the However, he, deciding first to secure the south- world. Mustafa Kemal is an intellectual who re- ern flank prior to the execution of the plan had juvenated the Turkish nation, and who by sav- the German Army march into Romania in the ing his peoples from the pangs of reactionism beginning of 1941. Developing circumstances encouraged them towards the ever-higher levels initiated some significant changes in the rela- of civilization. The stability ATATÜRK created tions established between Türkiye and Roma- is the absolute proof to the magnificence and nia as of the end of the First World War.24 endurance of the work.22 One of the major measures the General Ion Hamdullah Suphi Bey played an important Antonescu25 Government, that came to power role in establishment of close ties between on September 4, 1940, took in foreign rela-  Revista de istorie militară  33 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor tions was the invalidation of the Balkan Pact, 1941; and reached Turkish territory by June. which it declared to be out of date. Changes in General Ion Antonescu, taking the develop- the Romanian foreign policy and the collaps- ments for granted tried to draw Türkiye into ing of the Balkan Pact, for Hamdullah Suphi war on the side of the Axis Powers; to this end Tanrıöver, would never hinder the everlasting he invited Turkish Ambassador to Bucharest friendship ties established between Türkiye Tanrıöver to his office. and Romania. It was needles to say that this When Tanrıöver said, “Who could have friendship would develop further under differ- thought that the German Army would swarm ent states of affairs.26 and occupy Greece and the islands in the Medi- The newly established Romanian Govern- terranean Archipelago close to Anatolian shores ment, ruled by Ion Antonescu, upon Hitler’s in such a short time?”.Ion Antonescu respond- demands, by resorting to certain diplomatic ed by claiming, “Romania and Türkiye should maneuvers tried to draw Türkiye on the side of establish close cooperation with Germany, this the Axis Powers. One of the first attempts was is the only way we can protect our mutual in- the ceasing of the transportation between the terests in the region.” Romanian and Turkish ports. Upon the devel- Tanrıöver confronting such a pressure re- opments, Turkish Ambassador to Bucharest, plied declaring, “Turkish Government has no Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, requested an ap- intention of taking an action against Germany. pointment with Ion Antonescu; the meeting Should the German Army ever attacks Türkiye was realized on February 15, 1941. During the our government is ready and resolved as ever to meeting, Ambassador Tanrıöver demanded defend our national borders. Our government is the invalidation of the decision concerning the determined to do so; a Turk’s word has always ceasing of transportation between Romanian been, is, and will be a word of honor, no one and Turkish ports by asserting that the meas- should question whatever he is resolved to do.” 27 ures taken would have an impeding effect on As is reflected in such talks, some of the the economies of the both nations; and further results drawn from the documents pertaining added that the security of the Romanian ships Turkish Republic’s Ambassador to Bucharest, would be guaranteed by the Turkish Govern- Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver’s diplomatic con- ment. tacts with the Romanian statesmen between Ion Antonescu claiming that the English the years 1940-1943 are as follows: set up several air bases on the Turkish soil said, Türkiye was compelled by Germany, Italy, “We are not supposed to carry the fuel the en- and Romania to abandon her non-military pol- emy planes need for bombarding our territory itics and take sides with the Axis Powers; the are we?” He, further elaborating on the issue intensity and the harshness of these pressures claimed that the British Fleet would sail into yielded in time to more formal levels depend- the Black Sea and destroy the Romanian Fleet, ing on the developments at the fronts. At the and added that “Türkiye might engage in a war diplomatic talks held between the sides, ex- against Germany; but, such an attempt would change of information on the national security bring an enormous cost on Türkiye, and the of both countries was generally conducted on Soviet Government may decide to open a sec- the basis of friendship.28 ond front on the Caucasus.” Tanrıöver’s reply to Ambassador Hamdullah Suphi, in the talks such a threat is highly significant: “Türkiye has he held with the Romanian vice Prime Min- no intention of declaring war on Germany un- ister and Minister of Foreign Affairs Mihail less she is confronted with an attack; however, Antonescu on June 2, 1942, and on August 4, should this ever to happen, no one should ever 1942, declared that “Türkiye is determined to doubt that she will defend herself.” keep her non-military politics;” adding that Military developments in the Balkans in “Türkiye is resolved to maintain her non-mil- April-June 1941 reached such an extent that itary politics despite the changes that might they threatened Türkiye’s national borders and occur as a result of German advancement in national security. German divisions launched the Caucasus.” Tanrıöver, in his meeting with attacks on Yugoslavia and Greece on April 6, the Romanian vice Prime Minister and Min- 34  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ister of Foreign Affairs Mihail Antonescu on DAĞISTAN, Adil; “Hamdullah Suphi’nin June 23, 1943, pronounced that the Turkish Romanya Büyükelçiliği ve Gagavuz Türkleri”, nation had deep sympathies towards the Ro- Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, Issue 54, manian nation, that both nations were bound Ankara, Kasım 2002. to each other with common interests, and that EKREM, Mehmet Ali; “Atatürk ve Roma- the Turkish government was giving utmost im- nya Kamuoyu”, I.Milletlerarası Türkoloji Kon- portance to the Romanian people’s cause as if gresi Bildirileri, Vo:I, İstanbul, 1979. it were his. Hamdullah Suphi never made any ...... ; “Hamdullah Suphi concessions on the non-military policies of the Tanrıöver’in İkinci Dünya Savaşı Yıllarında Turkish Government.29 Bükreş’teki Diplomatik Faaliyetleri”, XI.Türk Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver retired from Tarih Kongresi-5-9 Eylül 1990, Ankara, 1994. the Turkish Embassy in Romania on December ...... ; “İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nda 5, 1944. On returning Türkiye he took his place Türk-Rumen İlişkileri: Almanya’nın Antones- at the TGNA as a deputy; having had dedicat- cu Hükümeti Aracılığı İle Türkiye Üzerine ed his life to Turkishness and Turkism died on Baskıları”, X.Türk Tarih Kongresi 22-26 Eylül June 10, 1966, in Istanbul.30 Rather than be- 1986, Vol.VI, Ankara, 1994. ing respected as a poet and a man of letters, KARPAT, Kemal; Balkanlarda Osmanlı Hamdullah Suphi is highly respected for his Mirası ve Milliyetçilik, Timaş Publications, eloquence and rhetorical skills. Although he İstanbul, 2012. entered the Turkish literary scene as a poet and KUSHNER, David; Türk Milliyetçiliğinin critic, he found his due place within the cadres Doğuşu, Kervan Publications, İstanbul,1979. of National Literary Movement and in Turkish SOYSAL, İsmail; Türkiye’nin Siyasi Hearth. He is one of the ardent proponents of Andlaşmaları, Vol.I, Türk Tarih Kurumu Pub- Turkism movement initiated by Ziya Gökalp, lications, Ankara, 1983. Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, and Müftüoğlu Ah- ŞİMŞİR, Bilal N; Atatürk ve Yabancı Devlet met Hikmet; he only seconds to Ömer Naci in Başkanları, Türk Tarih Kurumu Publications, the Turkish World as a national orator. Ankara, 2001. Turkish Republic’s Ambassador to Bu- Tarihte Türk-Rumen İlişkileri, Gnkur. charest, Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, of the ATASE Bşk.lığı Yayınları, Ankara, 2006. ATATÜRK’s era31, who returned home with TEK, Müfide Ferid; “Hamdullah Suphi Bey”, invaluable services, owing to his idealist char- Türk Yurdu, Vol.6, Issue 2, Şubat 1967. acter had served within the framework of TEVETOĞLU; Fethi; Hamdullah Subhi Turkish Foreign Policy whose bases were set by Tanrıöver, Kültür Bakanlığı Publications, ATATÜRK; and spent great effort for the ever- Ankara,1985. developing Turkish-Romanian friendship at all ÜLKÜSAL, Müstecip; “Hamdullah Suphi levels of higher governmental echelons. Tanrıöver ve Dobruca Türkleri”, Emel Journal, Issue 35, Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü REFERENCES Publications, Ankara, 1966. ARAL, Hamid; Dışişleri Bakanlığı 1967 Yıllığı, Ankara, 1968. ARASLI, Altan; Avrupa’da Türk İzleri, Vol.I, NOTE Kültür Bakanlığı Publications, 2001. 1 TEVETOĞLU, Fethi; Hamdullah Suphi AYBARS, Ergün; Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Tanrıöver, Ankara, Kültür Bakanlığı, 1985, pp. 14-15. 2 Tarihi, Cilt I, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Publica- TEVETOĞLU, p. 27, 41. 3 tions, Ankara, 1995. TEVETOĞLU, p. 73. Hamdullah Suphi, took up a position at the Deed Birinci Dünya Harbi’nde Türk Harbi Rom- Office in 1907; he began his teaching career the fol- anya Cephesi, Cilt:VII, Gnkur. Harp Tarihi lowing year at the Haghia Sophia High School by lec- Dairesi Publications, Ankara, 1967. turing on Rhetorical Skills, History of Civilization, CIAHIR, Nicolae; Atatürk Döneminde and giving French lessons. Hamdullah Suphi who Türkiye-Romanya İlişkileri, translated by worked as an interpreter at the Istanbul Municipal- Çağlar ENNELİ, Türkler, Vol.16, 2002. ity in 1909, was appointed to the Istanbul Teachers’  Revista de istorie militară  35 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor School in 1910, and to the Istanbul University Fac- 6 TEVETOĞLU, pp. 137, 157-159 ulty of Letters as a lecturer in 1913. Having received 7 ŞİMŞİR, Bilal N; Atatürk ve Yabancı Devlet his professorship he began giving courses on Turk- Başkanları, Vol. IV, Ankara, TTK Publications, ish Literature and Pedagogy. Applying to the Minis- 2001, p. 36. try of Education he instigated the establishment of 8 ARAL, Hamid; Dışişleri Bakanlığı 1967 Yıllığı Department of History of Turkish and Islamic Fine [Ministry of Foreign Affairs Almanac 1967],Ankara, Arts; changing the curriculum, set by his predeces- 1968, p. 849. sor Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil, that was based on the stud- 9 KARPAT,Kemal; Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ies of Eugène Véro’s book dedicated to the analyses ve Milliyetçilik [Ottoman Heritage and Nationalism of aesthetics and fine arts: L’Esthétique. Hamdullah in the Balkans], İstanbul, Timaş, 2012, pp. 305-306, Suphi dedicating his all his energy to the lecturing 315. in this newly founded discipline, handed the course The Gagavus are the Turkish speaking Orthodox devoted to the development of good manners over Christians who are known to be still living in the to İsmail Hakkı Baltacıoğlu, who he believed would regions of Varna, Balchik, Russia, Basarabia, South- teach better than himself. ern Kazakhstan, Frunze, Tashkent, Fergana, Akty- 4 Towards the end of the Sultan Abdülhamid II ubinsk, and in Semipalatinsk. The Gagavuz first set- reign, Turkish intellectuals – among whom were tled in the western coastline of the Black Sea, mainly Şemseddin Sami, Necib Asım, Veled Çelebi, Me- in the Varna region, and lived there until the end of hmet Emin Yurdakul – formed a cultural Turkish the nineteenth century. Upon the invitation of the nationalist intellectual circle. Following the decla- Russian Tsar, most of the Gagavuz moved to settle ration of II. Constitutional Monarchy the activities in the region known as Basarabia (today Moldavia), of the group were made public; however, with the north of the Danube River. Some of those new set- increasing of freedom the intellectuals having di- tlers later moved to the inners sections of Russia. It verse opinions prevented the group from taking up is a well known fact that most of the Soviet Gaga- its former status. In December 1908, Turkish Asso- vuz people had still been preserving their languages ciation, to undertake studies on all Turkish peoples’ and traditions in the 1960s. The Gagavuz, who were history and culture, was founded with the efforts the Seljuk Turks affiliated to İzzettin Keykaus, -ac of Yusuf Akçura; nevertheless, association’s being cepted the Christian faith between 1318 and 1320. open only to the intellectuals and its profound in- It is claimed that the Gagavuz yielding before some terest in language reform did not bring the expected external pressures accepted the Christian Orthodox support from the society at large. It was replaced by faith in the 14th Century and became affiliated to the the Turkish Hearth in 1912; the aim of this group Istanbul Romaic Patriarchate. Hence, some influ- was to improve the national education, as well as to ences of the Christian religious practices made their promote Turkish peoples’ economic and social sta- way into the Gagavuz customs and folklore. For ex- tuses. ample, while the names were Christianized family KUSHNER, David; Türk Milliyetçiliğinin names remained their Turkish characteristics. In Doğuşu [Birth of Turkish Nationalism]. Kervan Yay., other words, first names, indicators of the Islamic İstanbul, 1979, pp. 153-154. faith, were cast aside but the family names denoting The short lived Turkish Association, Turkish Fa- the ethnic and linguistic origins were left intact. Al- therland League, and the Turkish Learning Society though some of the customs and beliefs were adapt- that were founded after the Second Constitutional ed to Christian terminology they are in fact mostly Monarchy, and their publications like Turkish As- of the Turkish customs and beliefs. sociation, Turkish Fatherland and Learning Journal, 10 KARPAT, pp. 305-312. their founders, administrators and writers were in Evaluation of the historical data pertaining to fact to set the bases for the Turkish Hearth and its the earliest settlements of the Gagavuz the theo- publication the Turkish Fatherland. TEVETOĞLU, ries suggesting that they moved from Anatolia and p. 102. those claiming that they took northern route to 5 In the speech he made at the Ottoman Parlia- their present homeland intersect at one point; that ment he said, “You are not a National Assembly. You is there were Turkish peoples in Rumelia even be- do not have an army, or money, or a government. If fore the Ottomans moved in. The first historian to you could only and possibly declare that you are sup- propound the Anatolian origins of the Gagavuz, porting the National Movement that started in Ana- and their being the followers of Izzettin Keykaus tolia as the representative of last hope of freedom you (1238-1278) was the well known Bulgarian his- can become a National Assembly. Or else, the first torian G.D. Balascev. He published his findings in English corporal to peep through that door has the Sofia, 1939. The publication, embracing the preface power to and will take you to any prison he likes.” written by George I. Bratianu, was translated into 36  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Romanian with the efforts of Hamdullah Suphi ertheless, Oğuzname [Oghuz Chronicles] and the Tanrıöver, the Bucharest Ambassador of the time. Selçukname [Seljuk Chronicles] reveal that Izzettin Balascev only took Seyyid Lokman’s Oghuz Chroni- having had involved in a plot against the Emperor cles as his reference. In other words, Balascev did in 1264 was imprisoned at the Enos castle. Later an not analyze Yazıcıoğlu Ali’s Seljuk Chronicles, in army composed of Tartars, Bulgars, and of Seljuk fact forms the source of Seyyid Lokman’s work, cov- Turks (better known as the Oghuz) took Izzet- ers the history of the Seljuk Turks migrating from tin from the castle and handed him over to Bereke Anatolia to the Balkans between 1281 and 1420s. Khan in Crimea. Soon the Turks who had settled Yazıcıoğlu Ali’s work gives additional information in Dobrudja immigrated to Crimea to be with the on the groups migrating from the south to Do- highly respected Izzettin. His son, Melik Constan- brudja as of 1281. Despite not making use of this tin, and one of his daughters took Christian faith. invaluable work Balascev did not only gave concrete Paul Wittek who made an in-depth analysis of Balas- theory on the origins of Gagavuz by complement- cev’s thesis under the light of Yazıcıoğlu Ali’s Seljuk ing Seyyid Lokman’s work with Georgius Pachym- Chronicles, covering the events between 1281 and eres’s de Michaele et Androniko Palaeologis Libri 1420, brought significant findings to light. His stud- Tredecem and Nikepheros Gregoras’s Byzantina ies propound that following İzzettin Keykaus’s death Historia, but also propounded that the name Gaga- in Crimea, 1278, his uncle Sarı Saltuk, gathered the vuz was derived from the very name of Keykavus. Oghuz, who had followed İzzettin from Anatolia to Balascev, asserted that the Seljuks moving with Crimea, the migrants, and re-settled them in Do- İzzettin Keykavuz pronounced the letter “k” as “g” brudja around 1280-90. His findings also revealed and therefore the name “Gagavuz” should have that Sarı Saltuk died some twenty years later, around been pronounced as “Kakavuz” [Keykavus]. Wittek, 1300, in Babadagh. Thus, we learn how Sarı Saltuk, who clarified the origins of the Gagavuz, aside from about whom Seyyit Lokman in his Oghuz Chronicles simple variations, is of the same opinion with Balas- said had moved to Crimea, came back to Dobrudja, cev. Prof. Dr. Kemal Karpat, states that Hamdullah and was buried in Babadagh. The Seljuk Turks (the Suphi Tanrıöver, who had a profound interest in Oghuz), who had emigrated to Dobrudja in 1263 the Gagavuz was asked to put all his notes on the under the leadership of Saltuk Baba (Saltuk Dede Basarabian Gagavuz together, and to complete his or Sarı Saltuk) from Anatolia during the reign of studies on the history and folklore of the Gagavuz. İzzettin Keykaus and re-settled in Dobrudja in the Karpat, further claims that Tanrıöver had managed 1280s, first met with the Ottoman Army, - advanc to publish a 200-page book by bringing the limited ing under the command of Yaksi Bey, hundred years number of materials that were available in his hand. later, in 1388 and joined them. Recent studies con- Observing the bases of the theories put forward we ducted on the Gagavuz seem to acknowledge this learn that Seljuk Sultan Izzettin Keykaus II., not be- very fact. ing able to resist the Mongol pressures and finally 11 TEVETOĞLU, pp. 206-208. following his defeat in a war against the Mongols 12 TEK, Müfide Ferid; “Hamdullah Suphi Bey.” he sailed from Antalya to Istanbul and took shelter Türk Yurdu [Turkish Fatherland], February 1967, in his maternal uncle Byzantine Emperor Michaele Vol. 6, Issue. 2, p. 2. Palaeologis VIII, whose empire had recently been 13 CIAHIR, Nicolae; Atatürk Döneminde Türki- freed from the Latins. Having lived in Istanbul for a ye-Romanya İlişkileri [Turkish-Romanian Relations while, Izzettin Keykaus asked his uncle for a land to During Atatürk Era],Trans. Çağlar Enneli,“Türkler”, rule, I order to fulfill his nephew’s request Palaeol- Vol. 16, (2002), p. 655. ogis VIII gave him the Dobrudja region. The emper- Diplomatic Turkish-Romanian Relations had or by giving those lands to Seljuk Turks was in fact ceased during the First World War. Turkish Re- intending to form a means of pressure and thus se- public’s first Ambassador to Bucharest, Cevat Bey, cure his lands against the Bulgarian state of Trnova. was appointed in March 1924; likewise, Romania Izzettin Keykaus after having received the lands he appointed M.Georges Filality as an Ambassador to was given sent a message to his paternal uncle Sarı Ankara. ŞİMŞİR, pp. 5-8. Saltuk, who was living around Iznik then, and ena- 14 Tarihte Türk-Rumen İlişkileri [Turkish-Roma- bled settling of 20.000 Seljuki Turks in Dobrudja (a nian Relations in History], Ankara, Gnkur. ATASE, rich coal region), in Kavarna, and Balchik regions in 2006, p. 145. 1263. Meanwhile, Sarı Saltuk himself settled in Ba- 15 SOYSAL, İsmail; Türkiye’nin Siyasi badagh in the north of Dobrudja. As it is uncertain Andlaşmaları [Political Treaties Türkiye Signed], that Izzettin Keykaus settled in Dobrudja, it is gen- Vol, I, (1920-1945), Ankara,TTK, 1983, p. 437. erally accepted that he preferred to stay in Istanbul 16 DAĞISTAN, Adil; “Hamdullah Suphi’nin in pursuit of regaining his throne in Konya. Nev- Romanya Büyükelçiliği ve Gagavuz Türkleri”  Revista de istorie militară  37 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor [“Hamdullah Suphi’s Ambassadorship to Roma- Bükreş’teki Diplomatik Faliyetleri” [Hamdullah nia and the Gagavuz Turks”], Atatürk Araştırma Suphi Tanrıöver’s Diplomatic Mission in Romania Merkezi Dergisi [Journal of Atatürk Research Cent- During the Second World War], XI. Türk Tarih Kon- er], İssue 54, Ankara, Kasım, 2002. p. 820. gresi [Proceedings of XI. Turkish History Congress], 17 ARASLI, Altan; Avrupa’da Türk İzleri [Turkish September 5-9, 1990, Vol. VI, Ankara, 1994, pp. Traces in Europe], Vol. I, Ankara, Kültür Bakanlığı 2516-2517. [Ministry of Culture], 2001, p. 300. The article taking place in the footnote was writ- 18 Birinci Dünya Harbi’nde Türk Harbi [Turkish ten under the light of the documents obtained from War During the First World War], Vol. VII, Roma- Romanian Foreign Ministry Archives, (File: 71, Tur- nian Front., Ankara, TGS Depratent of War History, key, 1939-1943; File: 61-63). 1967, pp. 27-31, 95. 28 Tarihte Türk-Rumen İlişkileri, pp. 159-160. 19 Tarihte Türk-Rumen İlişkileri, p. 138. 29 EKREM, Mehmet Ali; “İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nda 20 AYBARS, Ergün; Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Tarihi Türk-Rumen İlişkileri” [Turkish-Romanian Rela- [History of the Turkish Republic], Vol. I, Ankara, tions during the Second World War], p. 3117. Dokuz Eylul University, 1995, p. 151. 30 TEVETOĞLU, p. 214. 21 Nicolae, TITULESCU; (1882-1941), He served 31 ŞİMŞİR, pp. XVII-XVIII. as the Romanian Minister of Foreign Affairs during ATATURK had a long and close friendship with the years 1927-1928 and 1931-1936. 22 the Romanian King Carol II, who personally in- EKREM, Mehmet Ali; “Atatürk ve Romanya formed ATATURK that he was “declared, by his fa- Kamuoyu” [“Ataturk and the Romanian Public Opin- ther King Ferdinand I, as his successor and the King ion”], I. Milletlerarası Türkoloji Kongresi Bildirileri st of Romania” in 1930. ATATURK having congratulat- [Proceedings of the I International Congress of ed him through a note he sent to Turkish Republic’s Turcology Vol. I, İstanbul, 1979, p. 38. ], Ambassador to Bucharest, sent him an official let- 23 ÜLKÜSAL, Müstecip; “Hamdullah Suphi ter. Their friendship and close ties continued in the Tanrıöver ve Dobruca Türkleri” [Hamdullah Suphi following years as well. Turkish Ambassador to Bu- Tanrıöver and the Dobrudja Turks], Emel Journal, charest, Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, presented his Issue 35, 1966, p. 36. Letter of Credence to the Romanian King “with the 24 EKREM, Mehmet Ali; “Hamdullah Su- special greetings” of ATATURK, on June 27, 1931. phi Tanrıöver’in İkinci Dünya Savaşı Yıllarında King Carol II, coming to Istanbul, in June 1938, on Bükreş’teki Diplomatik Faliyetleri” [Hamdullah board the royal yacht “Luceafarul” was welcomed by Suphi Tanrıöver’s Diplomatic Mission in Romania the Prime Minister Celal Bayar and the Minister of During the Second World War], XI. Türk Tarih Foreign Affairs, Tevfik Rüştü Aras, off the coast of Kongresi [Proceedings of XI. Turkish History Con- Büyükdere, to hold a meeting with ATATURK. The gress], September 5-9, 1990. Vol. VI, Ankara, 1994, p. 2516. meeting was held on board the Savarona on June The article taking place in the footnote was writ- 19. In the talks, Romanian King’s honoring Istanbul ten under the light of the documents obtained from from time to time and his being entertained at the Romanian Foreign Ministry Archives, (File: 71, Tur- Florya Atatürk’s Pavilion was accepted. King Carol key, 1939-1943; File: 61-63). II, who visited Istanbul again in August 1938 could 25 General Ion Antonescu acted as the Chief of not meet ATATURK but was entertained at the Romanian Council of Ministers in the 1940-1944 Atatürk’s Pavilion. On his departure the Romanian period. Being an ally of Germany he declared war King sent ATATURK a note of gratitude. ATAT- on the Soviet Union. He was toppled on August 23, URK’s death three months after the King’s visit was 1944, imprisoned, and executed in 1946. met with great sorrow in Romania. The day ATAT- 26 EKREM, Mehmet Ali; “İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nda URK was buried; a mourning ceremony was de- Türk-Rumen İlişkileri: Almanya’nın Antonescu clared in Romania. Romania sent an official delega- Hükümeti Aracılığı ile Türkiye Üzerine Baskıları” tion headed by one of the ministers, a military unit, [“Turkish-Romanian Relations During the Second and a battleship. Romanian Minister of Air, General World War: German Pressure on Türkiye Through Paul Teodoresco, represented the King Carol II at the Antonescu Government”], X. Türk Tarih Kon- the funeral ceremony. The Romanian delegation as- gresi [Proceedings of X. Turkish History Congress], sisted by a Romanian military squad took part in the September 22-26, 1986, Vol. VI, Ankara, 1994, ceremony held in Ankara. The Romanian torpedo p. 3112. boat “Maria Regina” accompanied the “Yavuz” bat- 27 EKREM, Mehmet Ali; “Hamdullah Suphi tleship that carried ATATURK’s body from Istanbul Tanrıöver’in İkinci Dünya Savaşı Yıllarında to Izmit. 38  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Dossier: Romanian-Turkish Military Relations during Modern and Contemporary Period

The Romanian Principalities, the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean War. Political and Military Considerations

SERGIU IOSIPESCU *

Abstract

The Crimean War represented a defining moment in the history of the RomanianPrincipalities, while its outcome paved the way to their subsequent unification. The paper below analyzes the course of the war from a Romanian perspective, as revealed by the diplomatic documents from that time.

Keywords: Romanian Principalities, Crimean War, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire, France, Britain

On June 26, 1853, a manifest of Tsar of the last Russian-Ottoman war – the one of Nicholas I announced Europe that, in the face 1828-1829 –, the occupation of the Danubian of Porte’s refusal to accept the Russian demands Principalities constituted a direct and immedi- for a Russian protectorate over the Christians ate threat on Constantinople, on the Straits, in from the Ottoman Empire, he “arrived at the face of which, just like in 1849, the maritime decision to advance our armies in the Danu- powers could not remain passive. bian Principalities”. After assiduous diplomatic At that time, the old Ottoman ahidnâmes negotiations, on October 4, 1853, the Porte – or “capitulations” – for the Danubian demanded Russia to evacuate the Principali- Principalities (Moldavia and Walachia), dat- ties in fifteen days, the refusal to do so being ing back from the 15th and 16th centuries, had considered a casus belli. become obsolete not only because of their age, Thus, the Romanian Principalities garnered but also because of the major change in the the entire attention of the diplomacies of the international balance of forces in the Black Sea, major powers, their situation determining the the latter due to the political and military rise of maritime policy of the maritime powers in Russia and its territorial conquests. Through a Eastern Mediterranean and soon enough in the tenacious effort, military and diplomatic, Russia Black Sea. From a strategic and even geopolitical had managed to replace the old link between point of view, especially given the experience the Romanian Principalities and the Porte with

* Senior researcher, Institute for Political Studies of Defence and Military History.  Revista de istorie militară  39 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor in accordance to the conditions of the joint Russian-Ottoman occupation that ensued following the defeat of the Revolution of 1848. The end of the joint occupation, on May 10, 1851, allowed Prince Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei and Prince Grigore Al. Ghyka to speed up the development of Wallachia and Moldavia. This was also visible in the military field and the reports sent by the French general consul to Bucharest, Eugène Poujade, updated on a regular basis Emperor Napoléon III and his government on the evolution of the Romanian Principalities. In early 1852, the armed forces were estimat- ed at “16.444 bayonets in Wallachia: /…/ 4.937 regular line troops with two artillery batteries of six pieces each, gendarmes, all mounted – 4.659; border guards – 6.848; all perfectly armed and Emperor Napoléon III equipped /…/”. The recently established military school (1850) also drew youth to the military the provisions of its own peace treaties with field, despite the reduced number of available the Ottoman Empire, starting with the Treaty positions. In October 1852, the French general of Kutchuk Kaynardji (July 21, 1774) and end- consul signaled that “Russia stopped taking an ing with the Treaty of Adrianople (September 14, interest in the Principalities and watching over 1829), going as far as obtaining the protectorate their progress, it now considers that everything that is done here is against it, prompting its over them, as a preparation for their complete representative to see with great dissatisfaction annexation. At the same time, since 1806, the the importance granted by the Prince to the military occupation of the Principalities had development of the army and of infantry, the become the familiar prelude to Russia’s wars reviews, the patriotic allocutions with military against the Ottoman Empire. This premise had overtones that he holds during his various taken shape almost ineluctably in the face of European diplomacy during the dispute for the Holy Sepulchre, which constituted the prelude to the Crimean War1. Immediately after the Russian occupation of the Principalities, the French ambassador to the Sublime Porte, La Cour, presented to his British colleague in Constantinople, Lord Stratford of Redcliffe, the opinion of the Cabinet from the Tuileries, or maybe just that of emperor Napoléon III, which envisioned their future independence and the immediate abrogation, due to the Russian occupation, of any treaties referring to them2. In what the Romanian Principalities were concerned, the most recent agreement between the Russian and Ottoman empires, namely the Treaty of Baltá Liman (May 1, 1849), materialized through the appointment of Prince Barbu Ştirbei in Wallachia and Prince Grigore Lord Stratford of Redcliff Alexandru Ghyka in Moldavia, who governed 40  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor inspections”. The mountain and water borders Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Edouard Thouvenel, began to be seriously guarded since 1851. The relayed it to London, for the British cabinet. training of troops improved in the Principalities, After all, it represented a remarkable prediction Moldova requesting from Munich manuals of regarding the international developments from training, war applications and bridge building. the coming years. The territorial troops were trained for the front During July 1853, the Romanian Principali- service, just like the line troops. In December ties were once again subjected to a new Russian 1852, the same French general consul reported occupation (the fourth in the 19th century). that Prince Ştirbei elevated Wallachia’s armed Prince – and General – Mikhail Gorchakov forces “at an respectable level /…/ today they commanded the 4th infantry corps and partially are able to maneuver coherently and precisely”, the 5th corps (81.540 soldiers, 5.741 auxiliary concluding that “Romanians are good soldiers troops, 1.646 officers, out of whom 201 gen- and horsemen; they quickly prove military al- eral staff officers, and 196 cannons). At the lure; with good officers, their regiments would Danube, the Ottoman army commanded by command respect; those from the Austrian Omer Pasha numbered about 145.000 soldiers. army offer a clue on what the Moldo-Valachians While the Ottoman commander drew to his are capable if they are well led or enrolled in an army numerous former Polish and Hungarian army with military spirit”3. revolutionaries, Prince Gorchakov counted on Following a conversation with Prince Ştirbei Romanian troops, evaluated at 11.702 soldiers. regarding an article published on December 11, Because of the international ambiguity, of 1852, in “Gazette d’Augsbourg”, according to Russian and also of British and French hesita- which the Porte considered Wallachia’s army tions to engage in an armed confrontation, for as a contingent of the Russian army, Eugene a while the situation in the Principalities re- Poujade reproduced the Prince’s response, mained marked by confusion. The Princes and who said that he preferred absolute silence their governments remained on positions and regarding the progresses made in the country so did the foreign diplomats accredited in the and army; the complete purging of the Russian capitals and in the important cities. Through the officers had just ended three months before. general consul in Bucharest, Eugène Poujade, The conversation was revealing for the new and his colleagues from Iaşi and Galaţi, the evolution and new spirit gaining traction in the Emperor Napoléon III and his government Principalities. were kept updated not only about the general Therefore, the declaration made by Prince evolution, but also about the troop movement Ştirbei to the diplomatic representative of the and the military operations from the Lower Emperor regarding the news of an imminent Danube and Dobrudja. Russian occupation – which already caused Therefore, on July 4, 1853, the French vice- despair in the Principalities – may seem stun- consul Castaing reported from Iaşi the passing ning: “But this occupation can become crushing of the Prut River a day earlier – on July 8, that for the country, it can span for many years. It is –, through Sculeni, of 10.000 infantry soldiers is a calamity that France and Britain should under the command of General Dannenberg. help us free from. Why don’t their fleets enter While their camping had been prepared in the Bosporus? Once arrived here, the two maritime villages close to the capital, the Russian troops powers will say to Russia: when you will leave reached Iaşi during the night, on a heavy rain the Principalities, we shall leave Bosporus. and after a one day march through hot weather, Or even the Porte would have the chance to prompting them to enter by force in the homes declare the independence of the Principalities of locals, where they aggressively demanded under Europe’s guarantee and the ambassadors food. Other troops had previously passed the of France and Britain should suggest this idea. Prut River through Leova, on July 2, so in a The situation has never been more opportune”. short span of time there were in the Principality Being perfectly aware of the significance of the 44.000 Russian soldiers, equipped with heavy declaration made by the Romanian Prince, the and light artillery, with a transport fleet and Director of Foreign Affairs from the French an ambulance service. From July 8 onwards,  Revista de istorie militară  41 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor the Russian invasion encompassed the other Romanian principality, Wallachia. The detailed data on the composition of the Russian occupation army had been immediately conveyed to the French consulate by the ruling prince, Ghrigore Alexandru Ghyka. The figures provided were rather precise, as his government dealt with the Russian requests for all sorts of provisions, for the improvement of the road from Reni to Galaţi, for the creation of a boat service on the Danube, for the establishing of a hospital with 450 beds in Focşani. While Russian requisitions also targeted individuals, those imposed on the government were immediately communicated to the French consul in Iaşi4. The Russian diplomacy soon abandoned the good manners: on June 22 / July 4, 1853, Grigore Alexandru Ghyka, Prince of Moldavia the ambassador to London, baron Brünnow, (1849-1853, 1854-1856) wrote to count Nesselrode: “The presence of the British squadron to Tenedos did not prevent the occupation by our troops of Iaşi and British parliament, government and newspa- Bucharest. This fact puts an end to the talks, pers. I have nothing else to add to this argument, Russia obtaining a decisive victory, despite the which is the best and the strongest of them all”. On October 9, 1853, sultan Abdul Medjid I sent an ultimatum to the tsar, demanding the latter to evacuate what he called “the imperial territory”, and, following the Russian refusal, he declared war on October 16. Facing the injunc- tion of the Porte, the Romanian princes Grigore Alexandru Ghyka of Moldavia and Barbu Ştirbei of Wallachia retreated to Vienna, where an attempt to find a diplomatic solution to the crisis was going on5.

By autumn, the Russian occupation army from the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia numbered 84.932 people, with 312 cannons, according to the report sent on October 8, 1853, by Eugene Poujade, the French general consul. However, after subtracting the 13.000 sick soldiers from the hospitals and the troops guarding the camps and the ammunition depot, the French consul found out that the army of operation, concentrated between the Sabar and Argeş rivers, the small corps deployed in Oltenia – ready to withdraw to the main forces in Stoieneşti – could not number more Sultan Abdul Medjid I than 47.000 people and 184 cannons. 42  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor The French general consul to Bucharest so was the specter of defeat once “its imagined portrayed the terrifying sanitary situation of power will be reduced and its despotic govern- the Russian army, detailing the fever, dysentery, ing removed”. Prince Gorchakov hesitated to diarrhea and typhus that raged in Focşani, admit the situation and did not know how far affecting more than a tenth of the effectives. the repression could have gone. Poorly fed, with a diet based mostly on melons However, after the third army corps was and fruits, inadequately sheltered, the soldiers deployed at the border between the two princi- proved very vulnerable and the Russian cam- palities in late November 1853, the Russian army paign hospitals were mediocre at best. The of operation, occupying Danube’s left bank from Russian army from the Principalities was de- Orşova to Izmail, was ready to act. moralized and plagued by desertions, despite According to the report by the general the public executions of the offenders. Despite consul Poujade from late October, despite the of the orders arrived from Saint Petersburg promises made to the two Romanian princes stipulating the diet of the troops – including five and even the instructions received from Saint meals containing meat every week –, despite Petersburg, the Romanian border troops main- the attempts of the administration of Wallachia tained their positions, being reinforced in a few to supply what was needed and despite the places with a small number of Cossacks: “but, provisions arriving from Bessarabia, nothing in a large number of places, it was only the changed, the Russian soldiers begging on the Wallachians, these border guards defending streets of Bucharest. “In the villages, the peas- with determination the left bank of Danube ant where the Russian soldier is stationed has against the Turks, who were seeking to break the obligation to feed him and often each home the laws of quarantine; they now show the same or hut sheltered four to six soldiers, while the resistance to the Ottoman soldiers and relatively owners and their families were forced to sleep serious clashes took place…”. in the stables”6. Faced with the gravity of the situation and On October 18, under the pressure of the with the lack of troops, Prince Gorchakov 30.000 soldiers commanded by Omer Pasha in demanded the Administrative Council of the Rustchuk area, Prince Gorchakov gave the or- Wallachia to supply the division of Gen- der for the occupation of the heights dominating eral Fischbach, operating in Oltenia, with 300 Romanian infantry soldiers, and the Romanian Giurgiu, located between Slobozia and Frăţeşti. border guards deployed on the Danube – num- From Ruşii-de-Vede in Wallachia, the disposition bering 3.065 men –, led by Romanian unmarried of the troops of General Fischbach continued in officers, for “the defense of the state against the Oltenia, through Caracal, Islaz and Segarcea. enemy”. Moreover, conscriptions by force took On October 20, Omer Pasha took the initia- place for the militia, with an official number of tive to cross Danube at Turtucaia and to take an 900 but, in the opinion of Eugène Poujade, the islet close to Olteniţa, which he occupied the real number was four times higher. next day. The Russian assault of October 23, com- In early November 1854, an increasingly prised by the hesitations of General Dannenberg, worried Prince Gorchakov held long talks with ended with a withdrawal and heavy losses. Nicolae Mavros – the former general inspector From the Russian side, the goals of the war of quarantines – and with Colonel Solomon in remained rather unclear even to the officers, order to establish how to use all the military other than the talk about the liberation of forces of Wallachia. Such plans faced opposi- Orthodox Christians and the annexation of the tion even in the Administrative Council, the Romanian Principalities and Serbia. treasurer Iancu Filipescu being firmly against. On the other hand, the contact with the “Most of the Wallachian officers follow with Romanian environment and with the Western disgust the flags of the Emperor Nicholas; but newspapers – inaccessible in Russia at that no resignation is accepted and those which time – initiated the officers in ideas contrary still are submitted can only compromise the to autocracy. Russia’s confrontation with the families of the officers who dare to act”, noted maritime powers became imminent and, with it, Eugene Poujade.  Revista de istorie militară  43 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Izvoarele from the same county rebelled against the Russian orders to participate to transports, more detachments of Cossacks being needed to suppress the peasants “exasperated by the ill treatment they were subjected to”. Even though the Cossacks, under the command of Colonel Solomon, killed women and children, the Russians troops were eventually forced to retreat because the peasants joined the border guards. The peasants from two more villages burned their homes and withdrew to the Ottoman camp of Ismail Pasha. An all out insurrection broke out in January 1854 in the villages from Oltenia, outraged by the Russian demands and threatened with conscription7. Facing growing Romanian opposition, in Tsar Nicholas I late 1853 and early 1854 the Russian command encouraged the creation of a Greek volunteer In an important report addressed on corps, whose organization was entrusted to November 13, 1853, to the minister of foreign General Salas, a Swiss by origin. At the same affairs and partially communicated to the min- time, the series of defeats on the Danube line ister of war, the French general consul added caused profound discord among the Russian that, with the police regime in place, it would high ranking officers, the generals accusing each be an illusion to hope for a move favoring the other for the defeat at Olteniţa, Giurgiu, Turnu, Porte in the Principalities: “the Russians are and Calafat. This desperation also reflected on deeply unpopular and make the life difficult the Bulgarian peasants from the convoys of Ot- even to their partisans… but Wallachia lacks toman troops, who were maltreated, they who the elements needed for a national insurrection were about to be liberated! against an army sufficiently powerful to control In Oltenia, too, the fighting from Calafat- a country, limiting itself to wish in a low voice Cetate from the end of December 1853 and be- the defeat of its protectors”. ginning of January 1854 ended with great losses Despite Prince Ştirbei’s decision, taken right for the Russians, just like those from Olteniţa, before his departure, to withdraw the infantry all of them being blamed by the Russian and regiment from Brăila to Buzău in order to avoid Soviet historiography on the incapacity of the its engaging alongside the Russians, Prince Baltic high ranking officers, the insufficient Gorchakov ordered its redeployment and, fur- training of soldiers and especially on the nu- thermore, sent the Romanian artillery to be used meric superiority of forces under the command in Brăila. However, the infantry from Oltenia of Omer Pasha. did not obey the order and, without going to the Turks, withdrew into the mountains. The com- The nebulous projects of Tsar Nicholas I and mander, Major Burileanu, threatened by exile in of some of his court of Pan-Slavist orientation Siberia, died suddenly. Because of this manifest regarding the universal anti-Ottoman rebellion ill will, the Romanian troops were used mainly of Christian populations from the Balkans under for transports and for guarding the prisoners. the sign of religious liberation did not produce Detailed reports with the plans of the the expected results, the Ottoman authorities Russian positions reached Emperor Napoléon generally standing out for their tolerance to- III and his government thanks to the same wards Orthodox Christians. Eugene Poujade. What the Russians were si- lent about was the beginning of the Romanian * rebellion in Oltenia. In early 1854, the infantry soldiers from the county of Mehedinţi raised As early as October 17, a note by the against the Cossacks detachments. The village of Russian chancellor, count Nesselrode, with the 44  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor consent of the Tsar, warned the British govern- Consequently, he asked the Tsar to make peace ment that, by entering with their fleet in the in order to avoid the danger. The letter rep- Black Sea, Great Britain and France will make resented Austria’s entry into the orbit of the war with Russia inevitable. For the cabinets of maritime powers and the complete isolation Tuileries and St. James, the presence of Tsar’s of Russia. armies at the Danube and the threat of a sur- The destruction on November 30 of an prise landing at Constantinople (now Istanbul) Ottoman patrol force by the Russian fleet from by Russian expeditionary corps arriving on a Sevastopol (led by Admirals Pavel Stepanovich flotilla leaving from Crimea represented a suf- Nakhimov and Fyodor Novosilski) in front of ficient reason for the ambassadors of the mari- the fortified port of Sinope led to escalation time powers to order, on October 20, 1853, of the tensions between the maritime powers the British and French fleet to enter the Sea of and Russia. As Admiral Pavel Nakhimov him- Marmara after the expiration of the ultimatum self feared, the victory of Sinope, the destruc- and the beginning of the state of war between tion of the Ottoman patrol force of Osman Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Pasha offered the British and French fleets The British government intervened to grant the opportunity to enter the Black Sea. Count a loan of 200.000 pounds in gold from London Alexei Feodorovich Orlov too considered that and Paris to the Porte in order to continue war the victory of Sinope made the war between with Russia. At the same time, Lord Aberdeen Russia and the maritime powers inevitable. received in Paris the delegation of the Polish On January 16, 1854, count Nesselrode exile, led by count Wladislaw Zamoyski, who conveyed to the maritime powers Russia’s pro- too insisted for Britain’s support for the war ef- test against the entry of their fleets in the Black fort of the Porte. Sea; the Russian ambassadors to London and In a personal letter to Nicholas I (December Paris were instructed by the Tsar to break dip- 11, 1853), Franz Joseph justified his coopera- lomatic relations in case the two powers de- tion with Britain and France, showing that it clared themselves on the side of the Ottoman was the latter who forced him to join under Empire. the threat of the tricolor flag in Italy – where At this date, the French ambassador to the it would provoke a general uprising –, led by Porte had sent lieutenant-colonel Dieu on a fact similar attempts in Hungary and Transylvania. finding mission to the general headquarters of

French fleet in Constantinople  Revista de istorie militară  45 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor the Ottoman army on the Danube, in Şumla. Tsar Nicholas’s negative response followed Omer Pasha was confident in the strength of soon, ending with the statement that “in 1854, the fortified bridgehead from Calafat, which Russia is no longer what it was in 1812”. In the represented a major challenge for the Russian same vein, on February 21, 1854, the Tsar made troops in Oltenia. The French officer sought to public his manifest regarding the breaking of personally assess the situation by visiting the diplomatic relations with Britain and France. entire theatre of military operations on the On the front from the Lower Danube, Lower Danube, from Vidin to Silistra. the military actions of the Russians against On January 29, 1854, Emperor Napoleon Calafat (February 1854, General P.P. Liprandi), addressed directly to the Tsar, proposing Nicopolis (February, General K.A. Schilder) and to withdraw his troops from Moldavia and the Ottoman troops that crossed the Danube Wallachia, promising, in this case, to pull out through Silistra stalled. the allied fleets from the Black Sea and to start However, alarmed by Russians’ movements negotiations for a new treaty between Russia at the Danube, the French ambassador to and the Porte, endorsed by the other four ma- Constantinopol, General Baraguey d’Hilliers, jor powers. had sent staff colonel Dieu to the camp of Omer At the same time, talks had already taken Pasha at Şumla. From here, the latter went to place in Paris and London regarding the de- Calafat in order to advise Ahmed Pasha in ployment of an expeditionary corps to the his action against the Russian positions from Ottoman Empire, being studied the possibil- Maglavit and Poiana. The Ottoman camp from ity to land troops near the Gulf of Saros and Calafat war fortified and Colonel Dieu had demarches being started to overcome the sus- words of praise for the Ottoman soldier, despite picions of the Porte and to obtain its consent the questionable abilities of the officers. through an express convention. The operation According to the information gathered by envisioned about 45.000 French soldiers and Lieutenant-Colonel Dieu, in late March and about 20-25.000 British soldiers. early April 1854, claiming that the Russians had On February 5, 1854, the British ultimatum set up a trap, the Ottomans completely evacu- had been issued to the Russians to evacuate the ated Dobrudja. Principalities until April 30 and, on February 11, as a consequence of Tsar’s refusal to offer Together with the other news sent to Paris an answer, the government of Queen Victoria from Constantinople and from the Danube, ordered the embarking of troops from Malta these would eventually shape the opinion of with destination Constantinople. the decision factors from London and Paris With the support of the Queen Amalia of and, first and foremost, of the French emperor, Greece, the Court of Saint Petersburg tried to having a major impact on the elaboration of the organize a diversion through a Greek insurrec- future plans of military action. tion against the Turks. The information sent by Colonel Dieu de- The rapid succession of events also deter- termined General Baraguey d’Hilliers to advise mined the reaction of the cabinet in Vienna: Omer Pasha to strengthen the left flank of his Count de Buol, seemingly alarmed by the agi- army, namely the positions from Rustchuk to tation of the “provinces” from the Danube and Silistra, so that the Ottoman army from the of Montenegro, proposed the French cabinet Danube would not be repelled, its communica- to join the maritime powers in defending the tions with Şumla intercepted and thus captured authority of the Sultan anywhere the latter in South Dobrudja. The French government would have been threatened. It was one of the wanted Omer Pasha to avoid a decisive engage- very first manifestations of Austria’s interest ment until the arrival of the allied expeditionary driven by cupidity to intervene in the Roma- corps in Turkey. nian Principalities. For the time being, the On March 2 and 3, 1854, Britain and then French imperial cabinet decided to leave the France had given an ultimatum to Russia to proposal unanswered, subordinating it to the evacuate the Romanian Principalities in no Porte’s consent and to Austria’s adoption of an more than two months. The court from Saint unequivocal international position. Petersburg did not accept the ultimatum and 46  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor the Tsar ordered Danube’s crossing. On March General Schielder wished for. At the end of 23, 1854, an army corps under the command April 1854, in the attempt to avoid provoking of General Lüders crossed the Danube near the Austrians, Prince Paskevich ordered the Galaţi, in Northern Dobrudja, while other evacuation of Oltenia. A confidential report troops traversed through Izmail. The Ottoman (Greve to Menshikov, Bucharest, April 23, 1854) forces from the fortifications nearby Izmail put communicated the attempt of the Assembly a serious fight. The Russians occupied without (Divan) of Wallachia to deter this measure: fight Tulcea, Isaccea (March 24) and Măcin “His highness, after listening to all these claims, (March 25), which had been abandoned by the maybe did not manage to calm the members of Turks. However, this promising offensive soon the state, but he did instill in these gentlemen came to a halt because of the threat posed by a certain notion of discipline, telling them loud the Austrian military presence in Transylvania. and clear that they are fools and, secondly, that Simultaneously, the only uprising from the it is not their business to give orders regarding Ottoman Empire, unleashed in the spring of the movement of the troops, adding that if he, 1854 by the Greeks from Epir, who did not enjoy his highness, would find it necessary, he would the support of the Albanians, Vlachs and Slavs, withdraw even from Bucharest without firing a represented rather a threat to the Greek throne single shot”. The same report highlights the joy than to the Sultan, as ambassador Meyendorf of the “democrats and turkophiles” at the news warned count Nesselrode. of the Russian withdrawal. On March 31, 1854, the British Parliament The British ambassador to Constantinopol voted, after long debates, for declaring war was assaulted by the representatives of the Polish against Russia. Emperor Napoléon III commu- exile, headed by Zamoyski and Wysovski, looking nicated to the Senate his declaration of war, to to advance their cause once with the war with which Monsignor Dominique Auguste Sibour, Russia. The issue of forming a Polish legion, as the archbishop of Paris, added the efficient well as the formation of auxiliary corps for the Ot- character of the confrontation which aimed toman army was on the agenda during the second to eradicate the “heresy of Photius”. It also half of April 1854, but the Viscount of Redcliffe represented an answer to the proclamation of preferred to wait the arrival of Lord Raglan. “Plan the Tsar, who saw himself as the only defender for acting up Wallachian and Circassian resist- of the faith. ance, which have introduced me to men of high The key of the Russian campaign of 1854 had spirit and persevering characters, laudable for to be Silistra, the weak point of the Ottoman military coldness and enduring patriotism”. defense from the Lower Danube. Tsar’s decision The British ambassador intervened to re- to send here Engineer General K.A. Schielder place the governor of the island of Samos in – the one who had an important contribution order to prevent an attack by the Greeks. The to the fall of the fortress in 1829 – was signifi- new appointment was Ion Ghica8. cant. On March 24, 1854, the Russian siege of Under these circumstances, on May 12, Silistra began, fortified batteries being installed 1854, Gheorghe Magheru9, the former revolu- around the fortress, supplied by ships on the tionary and General, sent the French ambas- Danube, river gunboats being also deployed. sador to Constantinopol, General Baraguey Most of the engineer works were executed by d’Hillier, a long letter advancing the cause of Romanian peasants, coerced by the occupation the Romanian nation. This was not the first Ro- authorities. manian intervention to the French embassy to In anticipation of the war in the Balkans, the Constantinopol, but the continuation of the ef- Tsar sent to Bucharest the supreme commander forts to determine the Porte to confirm through of the army, Field Marshal Paskevich. However, a new firman the old rights to autonomy of the Prince considered the campaign on the the Principalities. The situation from Oltenia, Danube as useless and strategically dangerous, abandoned by the Russians, urgently brought his decision being to withdraw the Russian to the attention of the Romanian circles from armies to the left of the Prut River. Therefore, the Ottoman Empire the issue of forming a the siege of Silistra lacked by far the vigor that Romanian legion to participate to the war, thus  Revista de istorie militară  47 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor exerting “their right to take part in the defense of In early April, once with the start of the land- the motherland under their national flag”. After ing of the allied troops in Varna, staff lieutenant- showing the enormous exploitation of the Prin- colonel Desaint, the chief of the publishing and cipalities by the Russian occupation, Gheorghe political service of the French army, asked Omer Magheru denounced Austria’s opposition to the Pasha, in the name of General Canrobert, who Romanian cause and to the arming of the popula- was the temporary commander-in-chief, for tion of the Principalities and its participation to information regarding the enemy, needed for the fight against the Russians. The former revo- the joint plan of operations. While concise, the lutionary did not hesitate to threaten Austria, clarifications offered by the Ottoman Generalis- which “might see the Principalities, under the simo on April 16, 1854, are worth mentioning. inspiration of the allied powers, leading the rising At that date, the Russian army cops (General of all the Romanians from Transylvania, Banat, Lüders), which crossed the Danube through Bukovina and Hungary, who form together a Măcin, Isaccea and Tulcea, numbered 45.000 population of four million”. His letter ended people and about 150 cannons, its avanposts with a call addressed to the allies to accept the being between the landing places in Dobrudja participation of the Romanian Principalities to and the Karasu Valley. After he enumerated the the war. “The Principalities, besides their part Russian troops from Wallachia, Omer Pasha in helping the S[ublime] P[orte] in such grave stated that the most probable Russian action was circumstances, seem to not have the right, while “the siege of Silistra, the monitoring of Varna enjoying a certain independence and assured of and Şumla (now Šumen) and the entrenchment their autonomy rights, to combat at home this on Karasu in order to have a base of operations enemy of civilization and to reject a protectorate until the movements of the allies start to take that is killing them and wants to take away their shape”. nationality?”. For an incipient coordination with the The publication in Britain of the reports of Ottoman army on the Danube (Omer Pasha), Lord Hamiltor Seymour regarding the propos- General Bosquet, the commander of the 2nd als of the Tsar hastened Austria’s decision. On infantry division, participated personally to a April 20, 1854, an Austro-Prussian agreement reconnaissance mission, from Varna to Balchick of political military cooperation was signed and Şumla. The joint fleet was anchored in in Berlin. Consequently, 95.000 soldiers were Balchik. Its presence and the assumption of called to arms, strengthening the forces from troops onboard determined General Lüders Austria’s Carpathian border. to be concerned of having his communica- The cabinet from Vienna also managed to tions lines cut off. Admiral Hamelin had sent sign two conventions with the Porte, ensur- three steam ships on a reconnaissance mis- ing its right to temporarily occupy Albania, sion between Varna and Odessa, the shores of Montenegro and Bosnia, as well as the Roma- Dobrudja having only one single place adequate nian Principalities. Aware of the danger, Field for landing. Marshal Paskevich wrote to Menshikov on April Through the fortified Provadia, General 23 that he would maintain a supposed offensive Bosquet went to Şumla: “Omer Pasha – he wrote on the Danube in order to draw here the allied – is the military man I imagined: superior to forces and to deflect the landing units from everyone around him, thinking and working a the Russian shores. At the same time, he drew lot and, I think, having a very clear vision. He the attention on the policy and strategy of the is a man that can help Turkey rise; anyway, he allies, who were waiting for Austria’s decision; will continue to play with superiority the role under these conditions and in order to avoid the he will be given in this war /…/”. The Şumla situation to become even more serious than in position and the entire defense seemed to the 1812, he hoped that Tsar’s orders would occupy French general calculated efficiently by the “direct positions” in order to ensure at least the Ottoman commander, approving the latter’s security of the fleet. opinion that a Russian action towards Varna and Şumla was impossible as long as Austria * could not be compelled to join the allies, a case 48  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor in which “he sees the front line retreating as far setti, Dumitru Brătianu, Nicolae Golescu, A.G. as Bessarabia”. Very important is also the repro- Golescu, I.I. Filipescu, Vasile Mălinescu and duction by General Bosquet of the opinion of the others) arrived from the West in the Ottoman Ottoman commander regarding the situation Empire and in the Lower Danube. N. Apolonie, from the Lower Danube and the Principalities: Gr. Ioranu, Ioniţă Magheru took advantage of “For Omer Pasha, the general spirit in Bulgaria the Ottoman bridgehead from Calafat in order (Turks and Christians) is excellent and I tend to to enter Oltenia and call the population to rise believe him even from the little I have seen. As against the Russian occupier. The rebellion took for Wallachia, he wholeheartedly and in good off immediately in the counties of Mehedinţi and faith explained to me that he long tried to stop Dolj, also involving the border guards under the the Wallachians from taking the arms and start- command of Grigore Scurtulescu. The momen- ing the insurrection because he did not want to tary halt of the rebellion, caused by the savage cause any harm until the proper moment fully repression at the hands of the Cossacks led by comes – but that he thinks at this insurrection Colonel Solomon, lasted only until the spring, as a cannon that is just about to fire. According when the unrest became widespread. to him, the Russian knout caused a complete The British ambassador the Porte – the aversion as far as Bessarabia, where encouraging “great consul” – enumerated the Porte’s vari- revolts took place”. The French general found ants: “another plan in contemplation is to raise the morale to be high, as well as the faith in the the inhabitants of Lesser Wallachia against the allied victory and in the positive consequences Russians, and it seems to be of a very plausible of the latter10. character”. As for the creation of a “foreign A Turkish irregular cavalry corps (10.000 corps”, comprising the expatriates from various horsemen) was deployed to Bazargic, in countries, and of the Polish legion, Viscount Dobrudja, for reconnaissance and to avoid a of Redcliffe directed Lord Raglan to Count surprise attack by the Russians. Zamoyski, Generals Wisowski and Klapka, At the same time, at the Dépôt de Guerre in the latter being well known for the defense of Paris, a summary was being prepared for the us- Komárom. The British ambassador was in touch age of Marshal de Saint Arnaud, containing the with all the officers and thought they all could information collected from the Lower Danube be used. in 1848 at the order of General Aupick, the Meanwhile, the former fortyeighter revo- document ending with an important observa- lutionary and member of Wallachian regency, tion: “I admired the lively national feeling, this Ion Heliade-Rădulescu, arrived to the Şumla pride of the Roman origins that emboldens the camp, militating for the creation of a Romanian patriots to dream of the restoration of ancient legion that should fight alongside the allies. But Dacia, taking from the Russians Bessarabia and Austria’s opposition, as well as the imminent from the Austrians Bukovina, Transylvania and occupation by the double monarchy of the Banatul Timişoarei. It is truly a mass of 8 million Romanian principalities, halted the attempts of people, descendents of Trajan’s colonists, cover- the former Romanian revolutionaries to act in ing the territory delimitated by the Carpathians the North of Danube. to the North, by the Danube to the South, Tisa to the West, Dniester and the Black Sea to the * East”11. First sent to the Emperor, together with the corresponding cartographic material, these On May 4, 1854, General Lüders left from summaries profoundly influenced Napoléon III Hârşova to Silistra, where he joined the siege regarding the Romanians. The “masses” of 8 mil- troops (May 5/6), who would eventually encom- lion belonging to a reborn Romanic nation reso- pass 70 infantry battalions, 64 cavalry squadrons nated perfectly with the “Napoléonic ideas”! and 4 Cossacks regiments, equipped with 200 The information received by General field cannons and 10 siege cannons. The mortal- Bosquet from Omer Pasha was not far from ity was terrifyingly high, with 8 deaths at every the truth. A number of Romanian fortyeighter 40 wounded or sick. The Ottoman garrison revolutionaries (Ştefan Golescu, C.A. Ro- numbered 20.000 soldiers.  Revista de istorie militară  49 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Almost simultaneously, Marshal de Saint- On May 31, the first French troops boarded Arnaud arrived to Constantinople, immediately in Gallipoli in order to organize their camp on sending Colonel Henry to the headquarters June 2 on the heights North of Varna, the ones of Omer Pasha from Şumla. Here, there were chosen a month earlier by General Bosquet. It around 45.000 Ottoman soldiers and Omer was hoped that this vanguard would represent a Pasha believed that the Russians refrained from boost for the morale of the Ottoman forces, who attacking him because they feared the allies were pressured on the Danube by the Russians. might land at Varna. The situation became increasingly dire as the In Silistra, General Schielder put his hopes enemy forces had numerous agents informing in the bombarding of the fortress, which would them on every movement of the allied troops. have paved the way for taking it with the support Under these circumstances, Marshal de Saint- of the troops of General Lüders, located on the Arnaud created an office of secret intelligence, Dobrujan bank of Danube. “whose guiding agents to offer, if not all the But, on May 4, 1854, Prince Paskevich desired guarantees, at least those based on the showed the Tsar that the Principalities could not old and multiple relations in Bulgaria, Wallachia, be possibly retained if 60.000 Austrians fell be- Moldavia and, up to a point, the Russian army”. hind the Russian front; in this case, the Russians Under these circumstances, the French will have to resort to forced withdrawal, being Marshal wrote to the Ministry of War that, while from a military point of view time does not ad- chased by 100.000 French and Turks. The letter vantage the Russians and while it is needed to then dashed Tsar’s hopes in a general uprising concentrate the allied forces in order to strike in the Balkans against the Turks and recom- the decisive blow to the weakened enemy, “in mended the immediate withdrawal from the the political situation we find ourselves, it is Principalities, before the deadline of the Aus- impossible to sit idle, as the Turks are waiting, trian ultimatum. The old prince of Warsaw had the Austrians are waiting, the Wallachians are in mind the terrifying image of a defensive war, waiting, Europe is waiting” (emphasis added). stretching from the Baltic to the Danube, against On May 19, 1854, Marshal de Saint-Arnaud, the whole of Europe – but especially against Lord Raglan, the serasker and Roza Pasha ar- Austro-Prussians and the Ottoman army, whom rived in Varna, where they held talks with Omer strength he did not ignore. The supreme blow Pasha. At this moment – and later on –, the to the Tsar came through the recognition of a supreme Ottoman commander was expecting situation similar to that of 1812, when the Rus- the imminent fall of Silistra and did not dare to sians only escaped the French by having three risk his troops in a counter-attack in the open, days advance ahead of them. preferring the Franco-British help. In his reply, on May 11, 1854, Tsar Nicholas The Russian assault of the fort of ArabTabia, I considered that the junction of Franco-British attempted on May 28, 1854, ended in failure forces with those of Omer Pasha could not take and caused heavy losses. During the same day, place before June and, under these circum- near Caracal, at the bridge from Teslui, a part stances, the situation must be exploited in the of the Alexandriiski Hussar Regiment, led by South of Danube, being also ready to repel the Colonel A.N. Karamzin – the son of the histo- Austrians. rian with the same name –, was crushed, being The Russian siege of Silistra restarted on ambushed by more numerous Ottoman forces. May 15, 1854, and Omer Pasha’s calls for help Nevertheless, this local victory emboldened reached the allied headquarters on the banks of the Turks, meaning that the withdrawal of the Bosporus, from where Marshal Saint-Armand army corps led by General Liprandi took place was writing to the emperor that, unfortunately, in uncertain conditions. the preparations were not over. Meanwhile, on June 4, for the safety of the Only due to the insistence of Lord Stratford Russian troops besieging Silistra, a “vanguard” to the Ottoman Divan that the services were (Khrulev) was established, meant to cover the eventually able to organize in the places that direction Şumla-Silistra; it only had isolated the Porte made available. clashes with the troops of Omer Pasha. 50  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor The siege of Sevastopol

After the death of General Schielder, hit by Saint-Arnaud wrote to the minister of war in a grenade (June 13), Prince Gorchakov, faced Paris that he cannot understand the causes of with the orders of Prince Paskevich, canceled the Russian withdrawal from the Principalities: the assault of Silistra and lifted the siege after they must have taken place either under the June 20. The Tsar, just like Paskevich, had in- pressure of the allied landing in Varna, either formation that Austria might enter the war on because of the advance of the Austrian occu- July 1st, something that determined the orders of pation troops. He also mentioned a potential withdrawal, first from Silistra. The Tsar favored political decision of the Tsar to spare Austria in a concentration of troops in Ploieşti in order to order to have its support when signing peace. counter the Austrians, while the other forces Once with the gradual concentration of the could have been evacuated to Izmail. Also, news allied armies in Varna, the action of the Polish was circulating regarding the landing of one exile also intensified, hoping to exploit the war British and two French divisions in Varna. for the liberation of Poland and even of Ukraine. In the Ottoman Empire, the exponent of these The Russian withdrawal, which started im- ideas was the former insurgent from 1831, mediately, ended with heavy losses in the battles Michał Czajkowsk, who had become Sadyk from Giurgiu (June 23-25). The covering of the Pasha, the commander of the Cossack detach- withdrawal was then done in Frăţeşti. ment from the army of Omer Pasha. In early June, in a letter sent to Gorchakov, Regarding the restoration of Poland, the Tsar Nicholas I pondered to resist the Austrians position of Emperor Napoléon III was am- on the Siret River. The Tsar doubted the allied biguous, as it could have endangered the ties troops were able to intervene against Gorcha- with Austria and Prussia, thus prolonging the kov’s army: “more likely, they would save their war. Regardless, through negotiations with efforts for the landing in Crimea or in Anapa”. the Austrian ambassador to the Porte, Brück, At the end of August, the remaining Russian the participation of Poles and Hungarians was troops evacuated Dobrudja, crossing to Izmail. accepted only at the Caucasian frontier of the The evacuation of the Romanian Principalities Ottoman Empire. represented a terrible blow dealt to the public In early July, the instructions sent by the opinion in Russia, especially to the Pan-Slavist Ministries of War from Paris and London to circles and even more so to the Tsar Nicholas I. the commanders of the French and British ar- For the critics of the regime, it also represented mies from the East demanded them to refrain the defeat in the war with the allies. entering Dobrudja and chasing the Russians On June 29, 1854, after receiving a report on beyond Danube in order to keep all the effec- the Russian works at Silistra, now abandoned, tives and resources for an imminent expedition and information from the Austrian ambas- in Crimea and for the siege of Sevastopol. This sador to Constantinople, Brück, Marshal de “capital” action could only have been given up  Revista de istorie militară  51 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor in case of a large and proved disproportion of of the French Army of the Orient the Russian forces. It was stipulated that a Turkish army disposition in Silistra, Omer Pasha added: “The corps led by allied officers to take Perekop in Wallachian soldier who gave me the informa- order to cut off the isthmus or to execute a tion, in which I trust, stated that in their army diversion in Circassia; occupying Anapa and [Russians – S.I. note] “une grande demoralisa- Sukhumi Kale, “the only points that Russia tion aussi bien parmi les officiere que parmi kept on this littoral”. Lord Raglan was also im- les soldats, et que les généreux parmi les quels mediately told about “the interdiction to expose règne un désacord complet, critiquent récip- his army to the destructive action of the fever roquement et hautement les actes les uns des in Moldavia”. autres”. Observing the received orders, Marshal de The siege of Silistra ended after 42 days, Saint-Arnaud demanded a maritime recon- causing numerous deaths and casualties, the naissance on the Northern and Eastern shores, Romanian officer mentioning the foot contu- based on which he made the plan for a simulta- sion of Marshal Paskevich, whom he had seen neous landing in Sevastopol, Anapa and Lupiak in Călăraşi. Two young British engineering Kale, the latter also to support the rebellion of captains, Butler and Bellard, together with Shamil. their fellow countryman Nasmith, had efficiently contributed to the defense of Silistra, in * which the first died heroically. By the end of the month, the Ottoman On June 1st, 1854, the information gathered Generalissimo had already sent three irregular showed that the gradual withdrawal of the Rus- cavalry regiments to chase a Russian division, sian army from the Danube continued, while two to Rasova and the third to Karasu. maintaining an important number of troops in According to the information collected by Călăraşi and Giurgiu. In fact, the withdrawal of the British captain Simmons from the Royal such an army – together with its storehouses, Engineers, among others from a Romanian of- equipment and hospitals, would have required ficers that had deserted from Bucharest on the 10.000 carriages, but the Romanian Principali- symbolic date of June 11 – the date in which ties were exhausted after one year of occupa- the 1848 Revolution broke out in Wallachia –, tion. The Russian morale was very low, deser- who had arrived to Şumla through Vidin, the tions taking place despite the terrifying pun- Russian storehouses had been evacuated to ishments. In Oltenia, Ottoman troops were Buzău and in Bucharest there were no more seen as liberators and severe orders had been than 4.000 Romanian soldiers and as many given that all requisitions had to be paid. Ac- Russians, constantly rotated. The last remain- cording to the latest news sent by informants ing troops in Oltenia were preparing to leave from Moldavia, Russian troops were prepar- Slatina. The British captain did not fail to men- ing a defense line on the Siret River in order tion the role in the siege of the brigade led by to operate even against the Austrians and were Bikram Pasha (British General Cannon), who, hastily fortifying Focșani in order to make it an by maneuvering in the Deliorman forest, had important strategic point. threatened the rear of the Russian disposition In the midst of these feverish preparations around Silistra. and hardships in Varna, in the night of June 27 The news regarding the lifting of the siege to 28, 1854, the troops defending Silistra were of Silistra by the Russians led to an incredibly informed that one of the Russians divisions fast reaction from the British government. On had left its positions on the Danube with 2.000 June 29, the instructions sent to Lord Raglan carriages and was heading to Brăila. formally prohibited him to enter Dobrudja or According to the report by a Romanian of- to chase the enemy beyond the Danube, the ficer who had left Bucharest eight days prior British government claiming that nothing is to join the allies, the storehouses, the artillery “more necessary than an expedition in Crimea and the Russian hospitals had been evacuated and the siege of Sevastopol”. An ottoman corps to Focşani. After presenting to the commander led by British officers was about to occupy the 52  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Perekop isthmus, which was a mission of out- Cought between a long term political per- most importance and which potentially may spective and the recommendation regarding have required supplementary forces. A naval the immediate military operations, Marshal expedition was supposed to block the strait of Vaillant, who considered as insufficiently clear Yeni-Kale in order to intercept the reinforce- the intentions of the Russians, kept postpon- ments sent by the Russians to Crimea. In case ing, favoring to keep Varna as the base of op- the expedition to Crimea seemed impossible erations. to the two commanders, then they had to oc- Eventually, the decision regarding the ac- cupy Anapa and Sukhumi, the last remaining tion plan for future operations largely depend- Russian position in Circassia, and an Ottoman ed on the military action of Austria, which had army corps had to land on the Eastern shore an army of 100.000 men in Transylvania, with and join Shamil’s forces, going for Tiflis. The the same number preparing in Bukovina and a Ottoman army from Asia, from the pashaliks reserve of 30.000. of Trebizond, Erzurum and Kars, reorganized Therefore, July 1854 represented a moment by Kurshid Pasha (General Guyon) – who en- of crisis for the Eastern war and the solution joyed the trust of he British government –, was had to be found, first and foremost, by the expected to act in a convergent manner. French supreme commander. He was pressured In agreement with the Franco-British alli- by the Emperor Napoléon III, who wanted vic- ance, the minister of Foreign Affairs, Drouyn tory over the Russians by attacking their siege de Lhuys, conveyed these instructions to his forces from Silistra in order to throw them in colleague from the Ministry of War, Marshal the Danube, then to create a French military Vaillant, but, in order to elaborate the mis- presence in the Romanian Principalities in sions of the Army of the Orient, also commu- order to counter the impact of the Austrian nicated a second letter, drawn up according to occupation, thus paving the way for a dura- the orders of the Emperor for the Marshal de ble French influence. On the other hand, un- Saint-Arnaud. der the conditions of the alliance with Britain, This second letter, from the French foreign Marshal de Saint-Arnaud had to prepare the minister to the ambassador to London, Count expedition to Crimea or on the Eastern shore Walewski, dated July 6, 1854, began with the announcement that the Austrian ambassador of the Black Sea in order to liquidate the Rus- to Paris supposedly made regarding the im- sian military presence. The strategic decision minent entry of the troops of Franz Joseph in taking was hampered by the serious situation Wallachia and their desire for military coop- of the French expeditionary forces, who were eration. Count Walewski had to communicate hardly hit by the terrible cholera epidemic, by to Lord Clarendon that Austria had to be as- the shortage of landing equipment and, last but sured that it would not be left alone in the war not least, by the lack of information regarding with Russia and that it would receive reinforce- the enemy. ments from the allied troops in the needed On July 10, the report of the Office of proportion. Military Intelligence signaled the crossing Obviously, the idea contradicted the in- of the Danube through Giurgiu of the Otto- structions sent by the British government to man division under the command of Has- Lord Raglan and sought to exploit the ties of the san Pasha: “The inhabitants of Giurgiu wel- major maritime powers with Austria and the comed Turkish troops and ensured them that necessity to use it against Russia. The essence everywhere people are very content with the of Napoléon III’s thinking could be seen at the Ottoman troops, who left in the towns only end of the correspondence between Drouyn small detachments that commit no crimes and de Lhuys and Marshal Vaillant, which affirmed do not interfere in the administration of the France’s long term interest to be present in country”13. In the crossing of the Danube and the Principalities, so that French, British and the action of repelling the Russian troops, the Ottoman forces to be alongside the Austrians recognition went to Bikram Pasha (General in a part of their territory: “TheEmperor wants Cannon) and his corps. General Soimanov, the it dearly”12 [original emphasis]. commander of the Russian 10th Devision, had  Revista de istorie militară  53 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor set the remaining storehouses on fire and had In addition to these considerations, of withdrawn in the direction of Focşani. which General Canrobert was well aware, In Călăraşi, too, almost half of the Rus- there was Napoléon III’s urging to not to miss sian forces that had participated to the siege of the opportunity to throw the Russians in the Silistra were now on their way to Brăila. Danube and to establish the French flag as In Dobrudja, the 7th Infantry Division close as possible to the Romanian Principali- (General Ushakov), from the Osten-Sacken ties or even inside them. corps, occupied the fortifications of Măcin and In Marshal de Saint-Arnaud’s view, there Isaccea – both restored after being taken over was also the possibility to hasten the with- from the Ottomans – and three regiments of drawal of the Russian army from the Romanian Cossacks had their outposts on the line com- Principalities through French military pressure prising Hârşova, the South of the Babadag for- at the mouths of Danube, something that cor- est, Gaugagia (“Kaukadie”) and Karaharman. responded to the Emperor’s express wish. In the Babadag forest, the locals were used by In the same day when Marshal de Saint- Russians to cut trees in order to use them for Arnaud decided to organize the expedition in fortifying Silistra. The withdrawing Russian Dobrudja, the French minister of war, Marshal troops had attracted a part of the Bulgar- Vaillant, addressed a long letter to the former, ian population (8.000 people, 2.000 carriages) in which he recommended him to keep Varna from the pashalik of Silistra in order to settle as a base and to observe Austria’s decision them in Bessarabia. while watching Russians’ movements. Simultaneously with the naval reconnais- In taking a decision, Marshal de Saint- sance (Admirals Bruat and Lyons) of the theat- Arnaud now had to also take into considera- er of operations from Crimea and Sevastopol tion the instructions of Emperor Franz Joseph – Generals Canrobert and Sir George Brown, in order to observe the Convention of Bojadji Colonels Trochu and Lebeuf –, Marshal de Köy. The sovereign from Vienna demanded the Saint-Arnaud decided by mid-July 1854 an withdrawal of all allied troops from the Prin- expedition to Dobrudja. On the other hand, cipalities, claiming that only Austria had the after the Russians had abandoned the siege of right to occupy them14. Silistra, units of the Russian army had been sig- The wish of the French emperor to put naled in Northern Dobrudja. At the same time, the flag of his country in the Principalities as the British papers had published detailed proved completely justified in order to counter news regarding the imminent allied expedition Austria’s aims. In addition, Napoléon III con- in Crimea and against Sevastopol, Marshal de tinued to skillfully manipulate the Court from Saint-Arnaud considered necessary to create Vienna, which oscillated between the annexa- the diversion in Dobrudja. tion of the Principalities and the fear for its At the same time, in his negotiations with possessions in Italy. Omer Pasha, the military commander of the Moreover, through a Franco-British- future Austrian occupation troops demanded Ottoman agreement, in the autumn of 1854, an exclusive zone in Oltenia to the River Olt, Princes Grigore Ghyka and Barbu Ştirbei were then in Western Wallachia to Bucharest, some- reappointed in order to counter the effects of thing that revealed the scale of the projects of the Austrian occupation and their reigns pro- the Cabinet from Vienna. The annexation of longed until the summer of 1856, after the end Oltenia represented only a fraction of these of the Crimean War. projects, derived from the previous occupa- In mid July, after he established his head- tion of 1718-1739. quarters in Rustchuk, Omer Pasha managed At the same time, the Russian army contin- to consolidate the bridgehead on the left bank ued its “embarrassing” withdrawal to Iaşi, with from Slobozia Giurgiului, the Russian troops a line of defense on Siret River. Regardless, the (about 15.000 soldiers) being fortified on the intention of Omer Pasha was to establish his heights from Frăţeşti, dominating Giurgiu. headquarters at Rustchuk. Another 18-20 thousands Russians could still 54  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor be found in Călăraşi and several more thou- the blunt refusal of the artillery commander, sands in Olteniţa. captain Filipescu, who enjoyed the firm support of his troops. It is also worth mentioning * that Filipescu had been trained in Aleski, in the guberniya of Chersonesus, and that his troops The French expedition in Dobrudja took had received their instruction at the model place between July 21 and August 9, 185415. Be- regiment from Petersburg. yond the tragedy of the huge loss of lives, caused The shift of the allied theatre of war to by the cholera epidemic, it did represent the first Crimea did not mean the abandoning of the time since 1812-1814 that French and Russians Lower Danube of the Romanian lands. The were pitted against each other, even if this only importance of Küstendje (Constanţa) on the happened at the level of vanguards. But what no Dobrudjan shore of the Black Sea, at just 60 one seemed to notice was the coincidence be- km from the Danube, and also the situation tween the advance of the French troops until 40 of the mouths of the river, blocked with sand km from Babadag and 100 km from the mari- and controlled by Russian troops, forced the time Danube, the Russian frontier and Bessara- high allied command to begin the construc- bia, and the sudden withdrawal from Wallachia tion of a road between the Black Sea port and ordered by Prince Mikhail Gorchakov. The ex- the “Romanian village” of Rasova. According amination of the map with the theater of mili- to the report by the military intendance dep- tary operations from the Romanian Principali- uty Blondeau, the plan was drawn in 1855 by ties and Dobrudja reveals this remarkable co- French road and bridges engineers Lalanne incidence and the true, yet ignored value of the and J. Michel, with the help of Romanian to- expedition and sacrifice of the French troops in pographers, and, by February 1856, the 63 kil- the Ponto-Danubian isthmus. ometer long dirt road was finalized, with wells As a result, on August 8, 1854, the Russian at every ten kilometers. The road, as well the ambassador to Vienna and future chancellor port facilities from Costanţa and Rasova, im- Gorchakov announced the official decision proved the supply of the allied armies from the of Tsar Nicholas I to evacuate the Romanian Principalities and Northern Bulgaria16. With Principalities. The withdrawal of the Russian this occasion, it was also envisioned a railroad troops from Iaşi caused one of the most im- between the Danube and Constanţa and po- portant manifestations of Romanian nation- tentially a canal and, regardless, the future ris- alism, which is even more notable as it took ing of the port of Küstendje. place in such exceptional circumstances. On August 18, 1854, wanting to attract * in their withdrawal the Moldavian army and threatening it with the use of force, the Rus- In a letter sent by Lord Stratford to his wife sian headquarters and units were faced with on April 16, 1854, he presented his project,

Council of war in Paris, in 1855

 Revista de istorie militară  55 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor namely “the organization of Poles and emi- cation of the Principalities and of Bessarabia: grants into a legion, or other kind of military “This country will cease to be on object of dis- body”, the issue having to be fine-tuned from pute between Russia, Austria and Turkey, an a military point of view by Lord Raglan; at the arena that endlessly invites them to fight /…/, same time, he worked on “plans for getting up but a sort of buffer zone that will make the vio- Wallachian and Circassian resistance, which lent clashes between these three empires im- have introduced me to men of high spirit and possible in the future”. persevering characters, laudable for military In the same vein, he also advised General boldness and enduring patriotism”17. He also Magheru and Prince Ştirbei, in collaboration envisioned the appointment of a new governor with the Prince of Moldavia, to seek the unifi- in Samos in order to prevent the Greeks from cation with Bessarabia and to obtain the right taking over the island. of hereditary monarchy with the Great Powers In May 1854, while Prince Napoleon was as guarantors. still in Constantinople in his way to the Army In December 1855, under the sign of the of the Orient, Nicolae Golescu and C.A. Rosetti conference of ambassadors in Constantino- conveyed him a memorandum envisioning the ple, Gheorghe Magheru sent a new memoran- unification of the Principalities with Bessarabia dum to Edouard Thouvenel and to the minis- and the independence of the new state under a ter of Sardinia to the Porte, Baron Giovanni foreign Prince, with the Great Powers as guar- Ramoaldo Tecco, regarding the unification of antors. At the same time, General Magheru the Principalities and of Bessarabia under a he- submitted too a similar memorandum to Lord reditary monarchy. Stratford, insisting on the value of Bessarabia Nevertheless, the most important initia- and on the potential capacity of the united tive regarding the return of Bessarabia to the principality, with a population of 5 000 000, to Principality of Moldavia belonged to Prince raise an army of 100 000. Grigore Alexandru Ghyka and his collabora- In March 1855, Nicolae Golescu addressed tors, in a coherent demarche unfolded in the a new memorandum to Emperor Napoléon III fall of 1855 and throughout the Congress of himself, in which he showed the importance Paris. The action not only reunited the political to create a Romanian state through the unifi- circles from Moldavia, but, despite the risks,

Congress of Paris (1856) 56  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor managed to attract personalities from Bessara- ties under a foreign prince, in the interest of bia. With ability, the idea of Moldavia’s reunifi- Europe and of the Ottoman Empire. cation with Bessarabia gained ground with the In a letter addressed to Lord Clarendon on representatives in the Orient of Austria and February 3, 1856, right before the latter’s de- Britain – the Great Elči Lord Stratford, Robert parture to Paris for the peace congress, Lord Gillmour Colquhoun – and of France, consul Stratford presented his principles regarding general Eugène Poujade. the settlement after the war, insisting on the Both princes sent memorandums to the rep- formation of buffer states between Russia and resentatives of the Great Powers and Grigore the Ottoman Empire. In addition to the sepa- Ghyka even communicated his observations to ration of Crimea from Russia, the restoration the Congress of Paris. If the memorandum of of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, the granting Prince Barbu Ştirbey revealed his commitment of independence to Cherkessia, he considered to an organic evolution, the one of the Molda- the restoration of the border on Dniester one of vian prince had a much broader scope. It was the essential conditions for a peace in the ben- the expression of the Romanian political elite efit of the allies and the security of the Otto- united around the Prince and it was addressed, man Empire18. The British ambassador had in- confidentially, to Count Walewski, as future sisted before on the border on Dniester, which president of the Congress. The memorandum he considered preferable even to any kind of proposed sending special commissioners of financial compensation19. On February 21, the Great Powers in the Principalities and con- 1856, under the direct influence of Lord Strat- vening national assemblies to draft the new ford, the sultan issued the well known Hatt-i constitution, which had to respond to the real humayun, granting full equality to the citizens needs on the ground. It rejected not only the of the empire regardless of religion, something idea of having the Porte appointing ts (kaim- that was meant to counter the attempts to in- akams), but also the continuation of the reigns terfere in the internal affairs of the Porte at the established at Balta Liman; the regency of three coming negotiations in Paris. It thus expanded ministers established by the Organic Constitu- the imperial decree of Gulhane, renewing the tion represented a guarantee of impartiality. privileges and the guarantees of all commu- It also considered necessary the return to a nities, regardless of social class and religion, General Assembly, adapted to the needs of the promising the security of people, property and time, as the only representative body wanted by dignity, the respect for any religion and sect, Romanians, and the rapports of the Principali- guaranteeing the access to justice, public office ties with the Porte regulated by capitulations, and the military, at the same time condemn- whose confirmation represented “a commit- ing corruption and abuses. The Great Elči saw ment which Europe took on herself under the in this reform of the Ottoman Empire the tri- eyes of the entire world”. The main provisions umph of his actions, the Hatt-i humayun be- had to be respected: the inviolability of the ter- ing explicitly mentioned in the article 9 of the ritory; the election of the Prince, for life, by the Treaty of Paris. nation; the right to have a native agent to the Lord Stratford’s friendship towards Ion Porte; the tribute. Detailing each of them, the Ghica, the Romanian who became the gov- memorandum affirmed the right of the Prin- ernor of Samos, was based on their common cipalities to defense through their own forces, views on the Ottoman Empire, the British am- conditioned the right to property on land on bassador being convinced that, through the the adoption of their own legislation and equal Hatt-i humayun issued by Sultan Abdul Medjid taxation with that of the natives; it also stip- on February 21, 1856, included in the Treaty ulated the internal regulation of the land tax of Paris, the inequality between Muslims and and vehemently rejected the assimilation of Christians was abolished20. In the eyes of the the Principalities to the Ottoman Empire. In great British ambassador, it represented a step the end, the memorandum put a matter of po- forward in blocking any Russian interference litical science to the Congress, proposing the in the name of defending the Christian popula- decisive the measure to unify the Principali- tions from the Ottoman Empire, thus erasing  Revista de istorie militară  57 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor The map of Southeast Europe after 1856

any advantage gained by Russia through the mission of the contracting powers, which was Treaty of Kuciuk Kaynardji (1774). to go to Bucharest, with the ad-hoc assemblies On March 1st, the Prince of Moldavia also (divans), composed in such a manner to repre- submitted to the Congress of Paris the petition sent as precisely as possible the interests of all of some members of the clergy, nobility and the social classes; a convention signed in Paris corporations, the unification of the Principali- was to establish the final organization, consti- ties being seen as the fulfillment of the histori- tuted through a Hatti-i Sherif (articles 23-25). cal and European mission of the Romanians A separate article (number 26) was entirely from the mouths of Danube. devoted to the “national armed forces” of the Principalities, who had the double mission to * maintain the internal order and to guard the The Treaty of Paris, signed on March 30, borders. In order to repel a foreign aggression, 1856, dedicated articles 20 to 27 to the Romani- extraordinary defense measures could be taken, an Principalities. Regarding their international with the agreement of the Porte. status, it enshrined their privileges and immuni- 21 The new border of Bessarabia started from ties, under the suzerainty of the Porte and the the Cotu Morii, on Prut River, and went down collective guarantee of the contracting parties. on Ialpug to the Black Sea, one kilometer east An exclusive protection, as well as a particular from Burnazul Lake (article 20): “the territory right of interference in their internal affairs was excluded (article 22). The Porte committed itself ceded by Russia will be annexed to the Princi- to maintain their administration independent pality of Moldavia” (article 21). and national, to preserve the freedom of reli- Indirectly, through the neutralization of the gion, the legislation of commerce and navigation Black Sea, according to article 11, the Principali- (article 23). In case of internal unrest, the Porte ties were prohibited from having military ports. had to agree with the other powers the measures The creation of the European Commission of needed to restore order, no armed intervention the Danube (article 26) removed the mouths of being able to take place without the agreement the river from the authority of the Principality of the signatories (article 26). The legislative of Moldavia, which, according to the article 21 reorganization of the Principalities was to be of the Treaty, was the beneficiary of the territory done in accordance with the findings of a com- ceded by Russia. 58  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor The treaty reorganized the rapports between 6 Sergiu Iosipescu, op.cit. the Ottoman Empire and the Romanian Princi- 7 V. Paul Barbu, Acţiuni sociale şi antiţariste în palities according to the tradition that gradually timpul Războiului Crimeei, în „Analele Olteniei”, 12, developed in the 17th and 18th centuries from 1997, p. 51-62. the “capitulations” obtained by the Romanian 8 For his action after 1848, see Anastasie Iordache, princes from the Ottoman sultans. In the general scheme of things, the Danube Ion Ghica – organizator al emigraţiei române din Principalities occupied a central role, being Imperiul ottoman după înăbuşirea revoluţiei de la closely accompanied by the status of the Black 1848, în „Revista istorică”, V, 5-6 (1994), p. 537-550. Sea and of the mouths of Danube, all of them, 9 See also Nicolae Isar, Generalul Gheorghe in fact, interdependent. The official picture of Magheru şi proiectele revoluţionare din exil. Trei the Congress has in the background the bust scrisori ale lui Alexandru Christofi adresate lui of Emperor Napoléon III – the overseer of Christian Tell, în „Revista istorică”, V, 5-6 (1994), the entire transformation of 1853-1856. For p. 407-421. France, the Treaty of Paris of 1856 meant, first 10 Sergiu Iosipescu, op.cit. and foremost, the abolishing of the provisions 11 of the Peace of Vienna of 1815. Secondly, it also Ibidem. 12 represented the French commitment to renewal Ibidem. by establishing a Romanian state on the Lower 13 Ibidem. Danube. The Crimean War thus became the 14 Regarding the aims of the Austrian policy and War for Romanian unity. occupation, see Leonid Boicu, Austria şi Principa- tele Române în vremea Războiului Crimeei (1853- 1856), Bucharest, 1972. NOTE 15 See also Cristina Marinescu, Prezenţa franceză 1 On this confrontation, see Alain Gouttman, La Guerre de Crimée 1853-1856, Paris, 2006; Orlando în Dobrogea în timpul Războiului Crimeei, în „Cele Figes, Crimea. The Last Crusade, Penguin Books, Trei Crişuri”, 7, 1-2 (1996), p. 8. 2010; on the Russian point of view, see the mono- 16 Tudor Mateescu, Date noi despre contribuţia graph by E.V. Tarle, La Guerre de Crimée, t. I-II, Mo- românească la construirea şoselei Rasova-Constanţa, scou, 1943-1944 which is yet irreplaceable. in „Revista Istorică”, 8, 9-10 (1997), p. 879-884. 2 Report sent to the Foreign Office in June 1853, 17 Stanley Lane-Pole, op.cit., p. 346. in Stanley Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honura- 18 ble Stratford Canning, viscount Stratford de Red- Lord Stratford to Lord Clarendon, in Stanley cliffe, vol. II, London, 1888, p. 283. Lane-Poole, op. cit., p. 437. 3 Sergiu Iosipescu, Nouveaux documents fran- 19 Ibidem. çais relatifs à l’histoire militaire des Roumains (in 20 Ibidem, p. 445. process of publication). 21 V. Vitalie Văratic, Trasarea noului hotar în 4 Ibidem. 5 N. Iorga, Istoria românilor, vol. IX, ed. Gh. sudul Basarabiei şi lichidarea aşezărilor căzăceşti Cliveti, M. Cojocaru, Cr. Ploscaru, Bucureşti, din preajma Dunării, în „Revista Istorică”, 6, 5-6 2010, p. 162-163. (1995), p. 509-527.

 Revista de istorie militară  59 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Dossier: Romanian-Turkish Military Relations during Modern and Contemporary Period

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Romanian Historiography

PETRE OTU *

Abstract

The study analyzes the manner in which the Romanian historiography reflected the personality and activity of Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey. According to our investiga- tions, these historiographical demarches conducted by Romanian historians can be divided into a number of stages. The first such stage occurred during the lifetime of the Turkish leader and, for the most part, coincided with the period between the two world wars. Given the very good relations between Romania and the new Turkish state, the Romanian public opinion was particularly interested in the phenomena and processes initiated and coordinated by Mustafa Kemal, who was trans- forming a centuries-old empire from its foundations. In its turn, the Romanian historiography attempted to provide a coherent perspective on the transformations taking place in Turkey and on the person behind these. This is the period in which the first monographs and solid studies regarding Atatürk’s activity started to be published, such as the one authored by Petre Ghiaţă. The second stage coincided with World War 2, when the two countries had a different status – Turkey remained neutral, while Romania was first Germany’s ally, then a de facto member of the Coalition of the United Nations. During this period, there was no groundbreaking work, the research remaining at the same parameters as in the previous years. After World War 2, for nearly a quarter of a century, the Romanian historiography largely ignored the topics of Romanian-Turkish relations and the personality of Kemal Atatürk In the early 1970s, given the improvement in the Romanian-Turkish relations, the personality of the founder of modern Turkey returned to the attention of Romanian historiography, the most important moment being the centennial of his birth. After 1989, the historiographical interest remained at a high level, the Romanian historians analyzing various aspects of Atatürk’s work in papers, studies and doctoral theses.

Keywords: Kemal Atatürk, Petre Ghiaţă, N. Iorga, Mihail Guboglu, Mihai Maxim

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is, without a doubt, sands of volumes and also in tens of thousands one of the great personalities of the 20th centu- of papers and articles published in Turkey and ry. Founder of modern Turkey and exceptional elsewhere. military strategist, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was Such an outstanding personality also caught dedicated a huge bibliography, his life and ac- the attention of Romanian historiography tivity being analyzed in hundreds and thou- from early on. The present paper will succinct-

* Deputy Director, Instistute for Political Studies of Defence and Military History. 60  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ly present the manner in which the Romanian sides, opting for conditioned neutrality. The historians portrayed the leader from Ankara, Romanian authorities repeatedly declared, alongside their main findings, assessments and both in public and in private, that Romania nuances. Because of the limited space, the pic- would remain neutral in the Balkan conflict as ture sketched by the Romanian specialists will long as the status quo in the area remained un- not be exhaustive, but we are confident it man- changed. However, if the latter happened, the ages to depict the main directions in the life Romanian state reserved the right to change its and activity of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. political stance. As this eventually occurred, in the form of the attack perpetrated by Bulgaria Sinuosities in the Romanian-Ottoman against its former allies, Romania did enter the relations at the end of the 19th century and war, its army crossing to the south of Danube beginning of the 20th century in early July 19131. The relations between Romanians and Romania’s intervention put an end to the Ottomans were influenced by the different conflict, the Peace Congress taking place status of their political-territorial formations. in Bucharest. The peace treaty signed in The Ottoman Empire, stretching across three Romania’s capital (July 28 / August 10, 1913) continents, was one of the major powers of the created a balance of power in the Balkan re- world over a span of several hundreds years, gion, both Romania and the Ottoman Empire while the Romanians lived in much smaller working together to achieve it. states – Moldavia, Wallachia, Transylva- During World War 1, Romania and the nia. Following the expansion of the Ottoman Ottoman Empire acted in opposite sides, large Empire to South-Eastern and Central Europe, Ottoman units deployed north of Danube the three Romanian states gradually fell – for fighting against Romanian ones in 1916-1917. varying periods – under its suzerainty. After 1859, when the modern Romanian Romanian-Turkish relations under the state was established, the latter still remained sign of cooperation and mutual understand- under Ottoman suzerainty, but, in accordance ing with the provisions of the Treaty of Paris of At the end of World War I, the Ottoman 1856, which ended the Crimean War (1853- Empire was confronted with an extraordinary 1856), it also entered under the collective guar- situation, the Armistice of Mudros (October antee of the seven major European powers. 30, 1918), according to Turkish historiography, Two decades later, in the context of the marking the starting point of its disintegra- rekindling of the “Eastern question”, Romania tion. This hastened the formation of the Turk- won its independence, its newly created army ish nation and the establishment of a Turkish fighting alongside Russian army against the national state, General Mustafa Kemal playing Ottomans (1877-1878). Its independence was an outstanding role in this process. recognized through the Treaty of Berlin (July The events are known all too well and we 1/12, 1878) and was ratified by the European shall not go into detail. What is worth keeping powers, including the Ottoman Empire. in mind, however, is that the relations between At the end of the 19th century and begin- Romania and the Ottoman Empire resumed ning of the 20th century, the relations between on November 15, 1919, the Romanian govern- the Romanian state, which was led since 1866 ment sending an envoy to the government in by King Carol I from the German dynasty of Istanbul. During the Paris Peace Conference, Hohenzollern and which became kingdom in Romania made efforts to participate to the 1881, and the former suzerain were very good, talks regarding the future treaty with the Otto- the two countries collaborating in a number man Empire. Following these demarches, dur- of fields, including maintaining the balance of ing San Remo conference (April 19-28, 1920), power in the Balkans. the Supreme Council admitted Romania to be During the First Balkan War (1912-1913), represented in the International Straits Com- the Romanian kingdom rejected the offers of mission in the Black Sea. On August 10, 1920, cooperation received from both belligerent Romania – through Nicolae Titulescu and  Revista de istorie militară  61 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Dimitrie I. Ghica – signed the Treaty of Sèvres Romania also supported Turkey’s de- with the Ottoman Empire, but, as it is well marche to change the status of the Black Sea known, it never entered into force. Straits at the Montreux Conference and asked Regarding the “kemalist revolution” and its support in strengthening the Balkan Pact in the Greco-Turkish War, Romania chose not to order to transform it into a more effective in- get involved, despite Britain’s requests to sup- strument of security. In the context of the ten- port Greece. When asked to deploy an expe- sions in the international system in the period ditionary corps in the Straits in order to block 1838-1939, King Carol II made a private visit the Turks, prime minister Ion I. C. Brătianu to Turkey, on June 18-20, 1938, where he met responded that the Romanian government did high ranking Turkish officials. While President not have ships. Had Great Britain provided the Atatürk initially conveyed to the Romanian ships, Romania would have considered send- King that he would be unable to receive him5, ing troops. The Romanian proposal remained the two eventually met on the yacht “Savarona” unanswered. on Sunday, June 19. This is how King Carol II Romania’s conduct during this major re- described him: “A man of average height (the gional crisis represented the foundation of Nordics would say small), with an energetic an atmosphere of cooperation with the new look, a nose like a potato, blue eyes, piercing Turkish regime2. This Romanian-Turkish look, he makes a good impression, but an even closeness became especially visible during the better one when he talks. He is clear, energetic Conference of Lausanne (November 20, 1922 and precise in words and actions”6. – July 24, 1923), which discussed the peace The two heads of state assessed the interna- treaty and the status of the Black Sea Straits3. tional situation and the state of bilateral relations Subsequently, the cooperation between and found each other to be “in complete agree- the two countries extended, the most impor- ment on every issue”. President Atatürk reiter- tant moments being the Balkan conferences of ated the need to strengthen the ties within the 1930-1933 and the establishment of the Balkan Balkan Pact, including from a military perspec- Pact (February 9, 1934)4. tive, and to attract Bulgaria in this organization. At the same time, he pointed out that Turkey was very content with the Romanian-Polish alliance, which, in the view of the Romanian King, represented an important premise for the creation of a security belt comprising the Baltic Un- ion, the Black Sea and the Balkans. King Carol also mentioned the very good rapports between Turkey and the Soviet Union, something that represented an opportunity for Bucharest to improve its relation with Moscow. Carol II’s impressions regarding the personality of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk stand out, as he enjoyed enormous authority among his compatriots: “Everything he orders is sacro- sanct, but what he orders is well thought out and debated. He takes a decision only after the matter has been long debated and after hear- ing all the opinions he saw fit, but, once the decision is taken, regardless of its nature, it is no longer discussed, but executed without hesitation”7. King Carol had the impression that the meeting invigorated the Turkish leader, ob- Mustafa Kemal Atatürk taining his promise to visit Constanţa in 1938 62  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor or 1939. However, the two never met again, tinuous. Next to politicians, diplomats, jour- Mustafa Kemal Atatürk dying on November nalists, this flow of information also drew the 10, 1938. attention of historians from early on, who at- Despite this, Turkey continued to represent tempted to discern, in the multitude of facts, an important partner for Romania. On August events, initiatives, some of them out of the or- 11, 1939, three weeks before the beginning of dinary, the nature, the direction and their con- World War 2, King Carol II met in Istanbul sequences. In this process, a special place was Atatürk’s successor, İsmet İnönü, where they given to the personality of Mustafa Kemal, the analyzed the ongoing international crisis and man who transformed under the very eyes of the possibility of joint actions in the field of his contemporaries an imperial structure that foreign policy. Concretely, in case of a poten- had endured hundreds of years. tial aggression, the two countries decided to In addition to the articles printed by the defend themselves and to request the rapid in- daily newspapers, studies gradually started tervention of both Paris and London, to jointly to be dedicated to the founder of modern persuade Belgrade to strengthen Yugoslavia’s Turkey. A first such attempt belonged to Th. position in the Balkan Pact, to establish per- Martinescu-Asău, who placed Mustafa Kemal manent consultations between the two govern- alongside Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, the Bolshevik ments, to strengthen the ties with Poland etc. leader, and Benito Mussolini, the head of the The Romanian King also showed his interest fascist movement that had seized power in in the mediation of the Turkish government in Italy (1922)9. order to reach an agreement between Romania The study reviewed the life and activity of and the Soviet Union, the goal being the sign- the leader of the kemalist revolution, marking ing of a non-aggression pact which would have the main milestones. It detailed the environ- included the mutual recognition of the border ment in which Mustafa Kemal was born and between the two states8. grew up, his military career with the ups and In conclusion, at the end of the interwar downs during the military confrontations with period, the Romanian-Turkish relations had Italy (1911-1912), the Balkan wars (1912-1913) reached a high level of cooperation and mutual and World War 1 (1914-1918). It granted spe- understanding, despite – as one can expect – cial importance to the events from the first the divergent interests and the different per- post-war years, a period of exponential affir- spectives on various international issues. At mation for Mustafa Kemal, marking the begin- this point, it must be said that this intensity in ning of his enduring reforms. “His work, the the bilateral relations largely resulted from the author notes, will soon provide a rather curious activity of the founder of the modern Turskish sociological analysis for historians and sociol- state, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. ogists. And perhaps it will serve as an example to the countries that indulge in their own The Grey Wolf social malaise, declaring themselves powerless The outstanding personality of General in the face of reaction or throwing the word Mustafa Kemal, the victories he obtained on impossible when talking about the attempts to the battlefields of the Great War and especial- escape the collective disease. The peoples are ly in the period 1920-1922, his deep reforms animated by the power of example and formed which imprinted a new course to the Turkish by imitation”10. society and state, all were watched by the Ro- Th. Martinescu-Asău summarized the manian political and cultural elite – and by great reforms launched by Mustafa Kemal: the the public opinion, as well – with great atten- abolishment of the caliphate, the proclamation. The flow of news and information, of re- tion of the republic, the introduction of Latin ports, analyses etc. about what was happening alphabet, the introduction of surnames, the in Turkey, about the revolutionary ideas and emancipation of women etc. All these revolu- the measures taken with tenacity by Mustafa tions prompted his contemporaries to call him Kemal that were shaking the very foundations Ghazi (meaning Victor). He concluded: “Kemal of centuries-old customs, was ample and con- is the most representative figure among the re-  Revista de istorie militară  63 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor formists. He broke the centuries-old trajectory common people, who constituted the founda- of a race in order to tailor it after his views”11. tion of the community. In a similar fashion, Mihail Manoilescu, Like many of his contemporaries, professor Romanian economist and politician, has too Manoilescu asked himself “what would remain placed Atatürk in the company of Mussolini of him and of his work [author’s emphasis]”? and also of Adolf Hitler12. During a scientific A representative of a relatively small country, conference held in Brăila, a port on the Danube, Mustafa Kemal was not destined to propose the author stressed that the 19th century did models for the humanity, but will remain, in not represent an auspicious period for per- author’s view, one of Turkey’s outstanding sonalities, as most statesmen he knew usually personalities, who offered his country “victory sowed anxiety rather than enthusiasm, the ex- and the foundation of a splendid reconstruc- amples in the universal history being Bismarck tion [author’s emphasis]”15. and Cavour and, in the Romanian history, Ion Writer Felix Aderca has too dedicated to C. Brătianu. Paradoxically, not even the “Great Mustafa Kemal Atatürk a short, but profound War” created epic and legendary figures. After study16. First, he did not agree with the idea the war, national heroes were few: “Piłsudski in circulated at that time that Mustafa Kemal Poland; Masaryk in Czechoslovakia; Kemal in usurped the power of the Sultan, taking the lat- Turkey; Averescu in Romania”13. ter’s place as the president of the republic. By Mihail Manoilescu considered that Mustafa the time he became the leader of the Turkish Kemal was little known in Romania, this being nation, he no longer had whom to usurp, as the reason why he dedicated him most of his the Ottoman Empire had practically ceased to conference. In his opinion, Kemal’s work was exist17. From this perspective, Mustafa Kemal based on three elements: Turkish mindset, fa- was the founder of the country, Turkey being talist in nature; the empire organized to con- his and only his creation, against all the dis- quer, but unable to keep what it had conquered; sent, at home or abroad18. the situation of the country, on the brink of Secondly, the Turkish leader could not be collapse, following its adventure in World War likened to an ordinary dictator, such as Stalin, 1. At the same time, he espoused a number of Mussolini, Hitler, Salazar etc. He did not take immutable principles, never abandoning his over power, as he “did not have what to take beliefs. The first was his faith in his own peo- over”. He created the power – his power – ple, the fact that, for him, the word “impossi- from almost nothing. “Mussolini, Stalin, Hitler, ble” never existed. This faith was accompanied wrote Aderca, climbed from the street to the by two seemingly contradictory elements, ide- top of political power in three well-defined alism and practical sense, his personal motto states, with precise and safe borders, with ar- emphasizing the importance of taking action. mies well equipped, with normally functioning The second principle aimed at bringing Turkey budgets and with the recognition of the vast back to its true national path, a view that set majority of their people, craving for a whip”19. him completely apart from his rival, Enver Bey. Aderca too praised Mustafa Kemal’s excel- “Turkey for Turks”, this was the basis of his re- lent military skills, in whom he saw a hero, not forms. As professor Manoilescu asserted, “had only for his actions as a staff officer, but also he envisioned for the new state to subjugate for his spiritual strength, given the obstacles other peoples, all sympathy in Europe would and the hurdles that he constantly had to over- have been lost”14. come. The third principle in Kemal’s state policy Writing his study in 1934, when Turkey’s was the faith in the power emanating from transformation was at its peak, Felix Aderca the masses, or, if we use the modern term, in was not convinced of its viability. In fact, the the public opinion. He was close to his people, motto of his study consisted in the words of whom he knew how to mobilize not only with the Marquess of Salisbury: “To change Turkey words, although he was an excellent orator, but means to kill it”. He concluded that “We do not also with his modest living. An exponent of the believe in Turkey’s «modernization», as we masses, he helped and showed respect for the do not believe that millenary traditions that 64  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor entered the very fabric of life can be changed sequently brought obvious advantages. He had by force, much like Anatolia’s longitude or the same conduct in the conflicts with France the heat of sun. We do believe, however, in and Britain over the Mosul area and the Sanjak Mustafa Kemal. His advent, with his persona of Alexandretta and also during the confer- defined by precision and accuracy, idealism ences of Lausanne and Montreux. The attitude and energy, all in a Turkey from folk tales, is of Mustafa Kemal towards Greece is one more a miracle. What he realized with the available example of his political talent. Diamandi’s human material, which he frantically modeled, conclusion is very categorical: “Mustafa Kemal is another miracle”20. can rightly be considered the most important The first biography of Mustafa Kemal in statesman of this moment”25. Romanian language that met academic stand- The most important Romanian historian, ards was the one written by Professor Gheorghe N. Iorga, also praised the reforms conducted Dragoş from Cluj Napoca, printed in 193521. by Mustafa Kemal, considering him one of the The study was drafted on the information most interesting and dynamic personalities of available at that time and comprised a presen- the interwar period. The obituary he wrote at tation of the life and reforms of Kemal Atatürk, the death of the Turkish leader is very reveal- which greatly impressed his contemporaries. ing in this respect. Under the title “A founder Another study in which the personality of of a country – Atatürk”, Iorga managed to out- Atatürk was presented in more detail belonged line with his characteristic genius Atatürk’s to Sterie Diamandi22. In over one hundred personality and extraordinarily dynamic ac- pages, Diamandi depicted all the aspects of the tivity. “His force despite all the hardships, his life and activity of the Turkish leader, insisting incessant energy that could not be humanly on the special qualities he exhibited from an opposed, his giant spirit who liked to wrestle early age. The author made extensive refer- anything hostile, they were all eventually sub- ences to the prewar situation of the Ottoman Empire, stressing that the latter was the “sick man of Europe” and its demise looked certain. “Turkey’s resurrection seems a crazy thought, a chimera. However, against all expectations and to the astonishment of the world, Turkey comes back to life and, unbelievably, it steps with determination, confidence and at a fast pace towards progress. The man who performs this miracle: Mustafa Kemal”23. The “miracle” the author spoke about was based on exceptional reforms, which presupposed overcoming huge difficulties; it would not have been possible without Mustafa Kemal’s truly outstanding will and tenacity. According to the author, what these reforms did, essen- tially, was to impose the western model over Turkish society, something that prompted a number of specialists from Western Europe to express doubts regarding the viability of such an option24. Sterie Diamandi praised not only the military qualities of the Turkish leader, but also his extraordinary political sense. Thus, after defeating the Greeks, he wisely chose not to launch hostilities against Britain, preferring to make a deal with the latter, something that sub-  Revista de istorie militară  65 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor jected to the ruthless law of life that no one has sis], but a genius he was not”, arguing that the ever escaped from”26. introduction of the western model in Turkish The historian was impressed with Mustafa society, which was so different to that of Eu- Kemal’s outstanding determination to reform ropeans, did not represent the best option. Turkish society, but not without overlook- Argentoianu concluded that future historians, ing his military qualities: “A soldier by calling who would be less impressed with Kemal’s and by profession, he remained that way de- willpower, would be less enthusiastic when spite his entry into politics and despite being judging the work of the victorious General an avid reader, an avidness he demonstrated in who destroyed the Caliphate and an Empire, just about anything he wanted to learn, and he but put nothing instead”29. saw nothing else but the target, towards which Another work of reference over the life and there was only one direct path, which had to activity of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was writ- be followed no matter what, even in a less than ten by Petre Ghiaţă, a Romanian politician, kind manner, if necessary )”27. Reviewing brief- and was published in 1939, after the death ly Atatürk’s initiatives, the historian pondered, of the Turkish leader30. The author had met like all his contemporaries, whether the work Mustafa Kemal in 1935, during the reunion of of the Turkish leader would outlast him28. the representatives of the Balkan Pact, as he Constantin Argentoianu, another prestig- was a member of the Romanian delegation, led ious personality of the political life in the in- by Nicolae Titulescu. The speech held by the terwar period, author of invaluable memoirs Turkish president on the same occasion im- covering over half a century, had other opin- pressed the Romanian politician and the ideas ions on the work of Atatürk. On November 11, presented then were subsequently inserted in 1938, he wrote that Mustafa Kemal “displayed the book31. an unprecedented willpower [author’s empha- Its title – “The Grey Wolf” – reminded of an old legend, recorded by a Chinese chronicle from the 7th century, which claimed that the ancestors of Asian Turks were annihilated in a war, the only survivor being a boy who was later adopted and nurtured by a female wolf. The legend has it that later on the female wolf became his wife and gave birth to ten sons, from whom the Turkish people – T’u-chüe – derived. In battle, they carried a flag with the golden head of a wolf. By virtue of this legend, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was given by his compatriots the name of “Grey Wolf”, thus being reborn the image of the legendary Genghis Khan (1162-1227), the blue wolf, who took a white deer as his consort, together giving birth to the Turkish people (the blue wolf symboliz- ing cosmic light and the white deer the earth). In the words of Professor Petre Ghiaţă, “What we aimed at was to write the very first complete study regarding the contemporary Turkish phenomenon [author’s emphasis], to mirror accurately the unfolding of the events and to outline the decisive role that Ghazi Kemal Atatürk played in the evolution of the movement”32. This demarche was based on a rich documentation, Romanian and foreign, on author’s recollections and on a series of 66  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor documents from the Ministry of Foreign Af- besides nationalism, such as: statism, republi- fairs. The book is structured into five large canism, democratization, laicism, revolution- chapters, which comprise the sequences of the arism. These were not simply copied from the life and activity of Mustafa Kemal: early life; West, but adapted to the realities of Turkish the hero of Gallipoli; the founder of modern society. Turkey; general philosophy; doctrine. Among In another study, Petre Ghiaţă analyzed an the topics discussed extensively in the study, interesting phenomenon in the universal his- one should mention Mustafa Kemal’s mili- tory, namely the talent in the art of governing, tary exploits in World War 1 and the conflict reaching the conclusion that it has been very that ensued with Greece, the latter backed by rarely inherited. To back his idea, he came Britain, which was won, first and foremost, with a list of names from the universal history, thanks to his genius. such as: O. Cromwell, Marshall Hindenburg, The largest chapter was dedicated to the Emperor Napoleon, Georges Clemenceau and great reforms after 1923, which changed the others. Among those named, there was also very foundations of the Turkish society, this Mustafa Kemal, “the son of a modest title-deed representing the basis on which the modern clerk working for the Ottoman administration Turkish state – or the Republic – was created. in Salonica”35. A number of topics are analyzed, such as: the The study signed by Petre Ghiaţă repre- abolition of the sultanate; the creation of the sented the first monograph about Atatürk People’s Party; the abolition of the caliphate; published in Romania in the interwar period. the elimination of the fez; the suppression of In a sense, it synthesized the preoccupations religious congregations; the emancipation of of the Romanian historiography with regard women; the introduction of Latin alphabet; to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his extensive the rediscovery of Turkism; the nationalization reforms. The Romanian historians from the of language; the Turkization of names etc. The interwar period were his contemporaries and author’s conclusion is unambiguous: “Asian in were impressed by his qualities in driving appearance, wild in temperament, pure-bred the reforms, even if their views on the latter general, politician of genius, a hero in the real varied. meaning of the word – Atatürk remains the We should also emphasize that the most original and brilliant contemporary po- Romanian also readers had at their disposal litical personality”33. a number of translations of works dedicated Petre Ghiaţă’s reflections on the social phi- to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, among which we losophy of the leader of the kemalist revolution mention the one signed by Mikusch Dagobert, are also full of substance. He considered that entitled “Ghazi Mustafa Kemal”, and “The Grey Mustafa Kemal’s doctrine was based on his Wolf”, signed by Amstrong and translated by unshakable faith in the qualities of his people, Alice Ionescu36. being at the same time realistic and pragmatic. Some historians from the interwar period “His modest attire, glowing only through the chose to place Atatürk among the authoritar- expression of a figure that has become legen- ian leaders on the firmament of the interna- dary worldwide, reveals an individual without tional political stage of that time, but not with- prejudices, despising expensive pomp and the out highlighting, at the same time, the major boredom of protocol. Throughout history, to differences between them. The Romanian his- some extent, perhaps only Cromwell achieved torians were almost unanimous in recognizing such harmony between spirit and appearance Atatürk’s major contribution in the pacification when manifesting in front of his peers, in all of the Balkans and in the consolidation of the circumstances”34. relations between Romania and Turkey, which As for his doctrine, it was nationalistic, but at that time were deemed excellent. kemalist nationalism, while defending the primacy of Turkish interests, was not intolerant Rediscovering Atatürk or aggressive. His doctrine, as Petre Ghiaţă Following World War 2, Romania and concluded, also contained a series of elements Turkey took on separate paths. The balance of  Revista de istorie militară  67 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor forces and the arrangements among the major [“Collection of speeches and discourses”], powers of the Coalition of the United Nations published in Moscow the previous year40. The practically placed Romania and other coun- volume was a synthesis of the three tomes pub- tries from Central and Southeast Europe in the lished in Turkey in 1949-1950 by the Institute Soviet sphere of influence. “The Iron Curtain” of History of the Turkish Revolution. In this – a term coined by Winston Churchill –, the synthesis, the Soviet historian gathered the bipolar confrontation between the United most significant speeches and interventions of States of America and the Soviet Union, the the Turkish leader, enabling the reader to un- “Cold War”, all have isolated Romania from its derstand the situation of the Ottoman Empire traditional allies, including Turkey. In the post- immediately before, during and after World war period, the two countries belonged to dif- War 1, as well as the importance of the kemal- ferent political and military alliances. In 1952, ist revolution. Turkey joined NATO and, three years later, in The review written by Al. Vianu highlight- 1955, Romania entered the Warsaw Pact. ed the decisive role played by Mustafa Kemal The bilateral relations decreased consider- in creating a new destiny for Turkey and the ably, Bucharest and Ankara being compelled to role of latter on the international stage, includ- comply with the logic of their respective po- ing by supporting regional initiatives, such as litical blocs, something that negatively affected the Balkan Pact. The reviewer concluded that scientific exchanges, including those in the “the volume comprising select speeches of field of historiography. Kemal Atatürk constitutes a valuable contribu- They were resumed gradually, as the re- tion in understanding Turkey’s contemporary gime in Bucharest was distancing itself from history”41. the Soviet Union – or the “Big Brother”, as In the 1960s, the Romanian historiogra- Romanians used to call it privately37. Since the phy manifested an increased interest over mid 1960s, Romania multiplied its ties with Romania’s foreign policy during the interwar the Western countries, including those from period, the personality of Nicolae Titulescu, to opposite bloc – NATO –, and began to par- the Romanian foreign minister in the peri- tially reevaluate its previous historiography. ods of 1927-1928 and 1932-1936, being often Among these measures, it is worth mentioning evoked. At this point, it is worth mentioning the re-establishing in 1963 of the Institute of the publishing of two volumes of speeches and Southeast European Studies, founded initially diplomatic documents comprising many ref- by Nicolae Iorga in 191438. After it was reestab- erences to the personality of Mustafa Kemal lished, the newly created institute functioned Atatürk42. under the leadership of Professor Mihail Berza, This was the context in which the first ma- the latter playing a role in boosting the research jor postwar synthesis dedicated to the Turkish on the history of the Balkans, including the re- leader was published, the author being the ori- lations between Romanians and Turks. entalist Mehmet Ali Ekrem, then researcher This was the context in which the- per at the “N. Iorga” Institute in Bucharest43. The sonality of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk started volume had 254 pages and was based, as the to draw again the attention of the Romanian author himself asserted, on the most recent historians. Turkish documentary sources and specialty In 1963, the magazine “Lumea” [“The studies published in Turkish and in other lan- World”] published an article entitled “25 Years guages44. Its aim was to offer a clearer and more since the Death of Atatürk”, which presented realistic image over the life and activity of the his life and work39. founder of the Republic of Turkey, attempting Four years later, in the fourth issue of the to present him – both to the casual readers and magazine “Studii Revistă de Istorie” [“Stud- to the Romanian specialists – in all aspects of ies. Review of History”], under the segment his work. “Reviews”, Alexandru Vianu analyzed the vol- The author accomplished his goal, analyz- ume coordinated by the Soviet historian A.F. ing in the first three chapters the early years Müller, entitled: Izbrannîe reci i vîstuplenie and the education of Mustafa Kemal and the 68  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor situation of the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 19th century. This is the period in which Mustafa Kemall affirmed himself as the chief of staff of the revolutionary army which deposed Abdul Hamid II (1909), roamed the empire, either as a banished person, either with secret or official missions, and traveled through Europe for various purposes, including to take care of his health. During World War 1, Mustafa Kemal’s rep- utation grew following his contribution in the victory from the Dardanelles over the fleet of troops of the Entente and the battles from the Caucasus and the Middle East. Chapters four and five were devoted to the period 1918-1923, which propelled General Mustafa Kemal as an outstanding political and military leader, the battle of Sakarya (1921) bringing him the title of Marshal and “ghazi” (“victor”), just as his years in school brought him the name of Kemal (“perfection”). In the next two chapters, six and seven, Mehmet Ali Ekrem focused on Atatürk’s reforms, analyzing the measures taken by the kemalist regime in the political, economic, social, cultural and spiritual fields, thus creating Three decades after Petre Ghiaţă’s work, the a completely new state. Also, the author did Romanian historiography was enriched with a not elude the political and social turmoil dur- new study, which brought once more into the ing the introduction of the major reforms. attention of the Romanian public opinion the The eighth chapter was devoted to the many-sided personality of Mustafa Kemal, foreign policy of the kemalist regime, placed who, once with the adoption of surnames, was under Atatürk’s well-known motto: “Peace at named by his fellow countrymen as Atatürk home, peace in the world”. This is the context in (Father of the Turks)46. which efforts were made towards the creation We should also add that, in 1974, the of the Balkan Pact and in which the friendly same author published in the “Revista de Is- relations between Turkey and Romania were torie” [“Review of History”] the study entitled strengthened, as highlighted, among others, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the Romanian Pub- by the Montreux Convention (1936), which lic Opinion (Mustafa Kemal Atatürk în opinia amended the regime of the Black Sea Straits. publică românească)47. The article summarized The final chapter – the ninth – was devoted the manner in which the Romanian political to Atatürk’s place in history, the author conclud- leaders, the intellectual elite and the public ing that he was one of the great statesmen of the opinion perceived Turkey’s profound transfor- contemporary period, who “destroyed the idols mation under the reforms initiated by Mustafa of the past, tore apart the dark fabric of igno- Kemal. It reproduced fragments from articles rance, fatalism and indolence, facilitated the ad- published in the major newspapers of that time, vent of the light of human progress on his coun- such as “Universul”, “Dimineaţa”, “Adevărul”, in try’s soil, the light which was then discovered by Romanian publications in Turkish language a youth thirsty for culture, ideals and work, and (“Türk Birligi”, “Hak sőz”), as well as assess- who succeeded, thanks to his efforts, to create a ments by important Romanian figures, such as new country: the Republic of Turkey”45. N. Iorga and N. Titulescu.  Revista de istorie militară  69 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor In the mid 1970s, on the anniversary of half Turkish Historical Society50. The Turkish del- a century since the proclamation of the Repub- egation was composed of Prof. Dr. Bekir Sitki lic of Turkey, Petre Ghiaţă published, in 1975, Beykal, vice-president of the Turkish Histori- a new edition of his work from 193948. Under cal Society and member of the Department of a different title, “Atatürk”, it did not bring new Modern History of the University of Ankara, information, but it did have the merit of main- Dr. Afet Inan, the adopted daughter of Mus- taining the interest alive with regard to the tafa Kemal Atatürk, Prof. Dr. Bahadir Alkim, personality of the founder of the Republic of Prof. Dr. Semavi Eyice and Prof. Dr. Tayyib Turkey and to highlight the constantly good Gőkbilgin. The reunion was also attended by rapports between Turkey and Romania. the Turkish ambassador to Bucharest, Nahit In fact, in the 1970s, although Romania and Ozgur, accompanied by members of the dip- Turkey belonged to antagonistic political and lomatic staff. military alliances, the bilateral ties were strong, During the symposium, which addressed a something that created the proper framework multitude of interesting topics, the personal- for the intensification of scientific coopera- ity of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was given special tion between Romanian and Turkish special- attention. For instance, Eliza Campus high- ists in the field of historiography. This is also lighted the contribution of the Turkish leader the context in which the Romanian historiog- in the development of the cooperation ties in raphy started to be increasingly interested in the Balkans, relations that culminated with the personality and activity of Mustafa Kemal the creation of the Balkan Pact on February 9, Atatürk. 1934. She also pointed out that Atatürk’s for- On October 20-21, 1977, a symposium eign policy was consistent with the principle took place in Ankara, under the auspices of “Peace at home, peace in the world”, which was the Turkish Historical Society, dedicated to widely circulated internationally. the centenary of Romania’s independence. At his turn, Prof. Baykal talked about the The Romanian delegation was led by Ştefan importance of the study entitled “The History Ştefănescu, the director of the “N. Iorga” In- of the Ottoman Empire” [“Istoria Imperiu- stitute of History, while the Turkish delegation lui ottoman”], by the great historian N. Iorga, was headed by Professor Enver Ziya Karal, which, in his view, represented a milestone for the president of the Turkish Historical Soci- the manner in which the Romanian histori- ety. The papers presented by the Romanian ography perceived the history of the Turkish and Turkish historians analyzed various as- people. Moreover, postwar historiography had pects, such as: the manner in which the Ro- the duty to elaborate a new and genuine histo- manian historiography reflected the history ry of the Ottoman Empire, as the one by Iorga, of the Ottoman Empire; the influence of the written in German and still not translated to Ottoman art over the architecture and art in Romanian at that moment, has profusely ful- the Romanian Principalities; the Romanian- filled its role. Ottoman and Romanian-Turkish rapports in The 1970s also brought new contribu- modern and contemporary history, following tions by Romanian historians to the study of the War of Independence of 1877-1878. The Romania’s foreign relations during the inter- debates highlighted the fact that, in the interwar period, which constituted one more oc- war period, thanks to the openness promoted casion to highlight the contribution of the by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the relations be- Turkish leader to the development of coop- tween the two countries reached a high level, eration among Balkan states. In 1971, Cristian which was also maintained, in fact, during Popişteanu published the study Romania World War 249. and the Balkan Pact (România şi Antanta In the following year, on May 25-28, 1978, Balcanică)51, in which he highlighted Atatürk’s a new bilateral reunion took place in Bucha- contribution to its creation. rest, gathering historians from both countries, Also in 1971, he published the first volume organized by the Academy of Social and Po- in a series of three, entitled Topics in Romania’s litical Science, the “N. Iorga” Institute and the Foreign Policy (1919-1939) [Probleme de 70  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor politică externă a României (1919-1939)], in concluded that the kemalist nationalism had which the Romanian-Turkish relations enjoyed nothing in common with aggressiveness and special attention. Robert Deutsch elaborated intolerance, being open to international coop- the study Romania’s Position at Montreux eration while observing the primacy of Turkish (Poziţia României la Montreux), in which he interests58. emphasized Atatürk’s role in the amendment During the same year, the volume entitled of the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne The Affirmation of National, Independent and towards the reinstatement of Turkey’s owner- Unitary States in Southeast Europe (1821-1923) ship on the Straits and Romania’s support in [Afirmarea statelor naţionale independente 52 this regard . unitare din centrul şi sud-estul Europei (1821- In 1972, Eliza Campus, in line with her ear- 1923)] was published, analyzing the develop- lier research, published the monograph The ments in ten countries. The study devoted to Balkan Pact (Înţelegerea Balcanică), in which Turkey was written by Ion Calafeteanu, one of she analyzed in detail Atatürk’s role in the un- the coordinators of the volume59. The kemal- folding of the Balkan conferences and in the ist revolution was given the largest space, the 53 creation of the regional alliance . essential role of its leader being particularly The military aspects of the Balkan Pact were emphasized. analyzed by Mihail E. Ionescu in two influential In the following year, Constantin Iordan- studies in Romanian historiography, published Sima published an article in the “Revue des in the collection “Pages from the Military His- Études Sud-Est Européeenes” containing the tory of the Romanian People” [“File de istorie thoughts of a Romanian diplomat on the vic- militară a poporului roman”], in 1973, and in 60 tory of the kemalist revolution . The respec- the “Revista de Istorie” [“Review of History”], tive diplomat was G.G. Ionescu, the Romanian in 197454. consul to Salonica, who, in the period between Another important editorial event was the April 12, 1922 and March 3, 1923, sent fifteen publishing of Mustafa Ali Mehmed’s volume, letters to his old friend and former minister to History of the Turks [Istoria turcilor], in 197655. Athens, diplomat Nicolae Filodor61. Being pri- The eighth chapter was dedicated to the end of vate, this correspondence did not observe the the Ottoman Empire, while the conclusion to canons of diplomatic language, the opinions the birth of a new nation. In this closing part, the author analyzed the life of Mustafa Kemal, expressed by the Romanian diplomat being as well as his activity in the reformation of the rather frank. The topics were diverse, start- Turkish state and society. In his words, “The ing with the developments on the battlefield fundamental principles of kemalism resided and ending with the regional implications of in the Six Arrows: Devletçilik (statism), Cum- the Greco-Turkish conflict. Also, the author huriyetçilik (republicanism), Ihtilâlçilik (re- reproduced fragments from the speeches of formism), Miliyetçilik (nationalism), Lâikçilik Mustafa Kemal and had words of praise for his (Laicism) and Halkçilik (populism). Formu- energetic activity. lated and enforced during the life of Mustafa In 1980, several studies were published, Kemal Atatürk, who remained president of the dedicated to the Romanian-Turkish relations Republic of Turkey until his death, these prin- in the interwar period, in which the personali- ciples continue to constitute today the founda- ty of Atatürk and his reforms were given a cen- tions of modern Turkey”56. tral place. Eliza Campus published the mono- In 1979, Anca Ghiaţă published in “Revue graph Moments in Romania’s Foreign Policy des Études Sud-Est Européeenes” a study on 1913-1947 (Din politica externă a României the kemalist concept on nation and modern 1913-1947)62, the interwar period being de- state57. The author found that the kemalist voted almost half from the total of 600 pages. revolution put and end to the ideology that The contribution of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was interpreting historical phenomena on the was mentioned in two significant moments for basis of religion, replacing it with a national the status of the Straits – the conferences from conception, modern in spirit. Yet, the author Lausanne and Montreux63.  Revista de istorie militară  71 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor At his turn, Ion Calafeteanu published Ottoman Empire from late 19th century to the the study Romanian Diplomacy in South- early 20th century. In his opinion, the “revolu- east Europe (March 1938 – March 1940) tion of Young Turks” (1908-1909) complicated [Diplomaţia românească în sud-estul Europei the situation of the Ottoman state instead of (martie 1938 – martie 1940)], which empha- simplifying it. The entry into World War 1, de- sized Romania’s and Turkey’s role in the con- cided by the triumvirate comprising the Grand text of the outbreak of World War 2, Atatürk’s Vizier, Talaat Pasha and Enver Pasha, proved political program being continued by president fatal to the Empire. The Armistice of Mudros İsmet İnönü64. (October 30, 1918) and the Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920) represented the final stages The centennial of Atatürk’s birth of its collapse. The anniversary of one hundred years since Reviewing the life of Mustafa Kemal, prof. the birth of Atatürk, celebrated by UNESCO, Guboglu highlighted his qualities as a military was marked by Romania with a series of ac- commander, statesman and reformer. They al- tivities designed to bring the personality of the lowed a vast action of reformation, which trans- Turkish leader ever more vigorously in the at- formed the very foundations of the Turkish so- tention of the Romanian public opinion65. ciety and state. The author also emphasized the On March 28, 1981, the Association of contribution of Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, Oriental Studies organized a symposium dedi- who was the diplomatic envoy to Bucharest of cated to this event, during which university republican Turkey for almost 15 years. lecturer Mihail Guboglu presented the paper Another paper was signed by Mihai Max- entitled The Personality of Mustafa Kemal im, a younger turkologist, lecturer at the Fac- Atatürk [Personalitatea lui Mustafa Kemal ulty of History-Philosophy of the University Atatürk]. The author, a renowned Romanian of Bucharest. His study was entitled Atatürk turkologist, presented the evolution of the and Historical Research [Ataturk şi cercetările istorice] and focused on the contribution of the Turkish leader in the reformation of historical education, museums and archives from T u r k e y . The third paper wasThe Image of Atatürk in Literature [Imaginea lui Ataturk în literatură], presented by university lecturer Yusuf Nevzat from the Department of Oriental Languages of the Faculty of Foreign Languages from the University of Bucharest. Nevzat identified two major periods in which the Turkish literature evoked the personality of Mustafa Kemal. In the first phase, after 1915, patriotic poetry reflected his military activity in the context on his contribution during World War 1 and the ensuing war of independence. The second phase began after 1935, when literary works were dedicated entirely for him, his personality and activity being highly praised. Another scientific reunion was organized on May 19, 1981, by the Association of In- ternational Law and International Relations (A.D.I.R.I.) and the UNESCO National Commission. The proceedings were led by Pro- fessor Emil Condurachi, the general secretary of the International Association of Southeast 72  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor European Studies. He stressed the historical The series of manifestations dedicated to importance of the major reforms undertaken the centennial of Atatürk’s birth continued by Musfata Kemal and the perseverance and with the symposium held in Constanţa on June energy demonstrated by the Turkish leader 6, 1981, organized by the Society of Historical in applying them. Several papers were pre- Sciences from Romania. Several presentations sented, the first belonging to Professor Ismail highlighted various aspects from the activity of Arar, former minister of culture of Turkey. He Mustafa Kemal. For instance, Professor Mihail analyzed Kemal Atatürk’s Concept on History Guboglu analyzed Kemal Atatürk’s Place in and the Manner in which the History of Tur- World History according to International and key is Reflected in Universal Historiography. Turkish Research [Locul lui Kemal Atatürk în Although, strictly speaking, Atatürk was not istoria lumii după cercetări străine şi turceşti], a philosopher, he did practice philosophi- while university lecturer Nicolae Ciachir cal reflection, especially when having to deal from the Faculty of History-Philosophy of the with the practical demands of state building. University of Bucharest presented the paper Contrary to the religious precepts encourag- Atatürk in Romanian Archives [Atatürk în ing passivity and discouragement, the Turkish arhivele româneşti]. leader called for disciplined and meticulous The local perspective on the Turkish leader work of every citizen. Rationalist and positiv- could be found in the presentations held by pro- ist, Atatürk appreciated the role of science, fessors Murat Actuan (Atatürk, as Seen by the which he considered the best guide in life. Dobrudjan Ibrahim Temo [Atatürk văzut de do- The second presentation, Atatürk – brogeanul Ibrahim Temo]) and Ekrem Melibay Reformer of Turkey [Atatürk – reformator al (The Dobrudjan Press onKemal Atatürk [Presa Turciei] was held by Grigore Geamănu, former dobrogeană despre Kemal Atatürk]), both from ambassador to Ankara. Professor Geamănu the Museum of History from Constanţa. focused on the reforms in the legislative field, The manner in which Turkish literature re- which helped establish a laic republic, nation- flected the personality of Atatürk represented al, populist and revolutionary. the subject of the presentations held by Mamun University lecturer Mihai Maxim pre- Negret from the “George Călinescu” Institute sented the paper Atatürk and the Beginnings of Literary History (Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in of Modern Turkish Historiography [Atatürk şi Turkish Poetry [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk în lir- începuturile istoriografiei turceşti moderne], ica turcă]) and Valeriu Veliman from the State concluding that, through his activity and di- Archives in Bucharest (The War of National rectives, a new historiographical school was Liberation 1918-1923 in the Contemporary created in Turkey. Turkish Novel [Războiul de eliberare naţională Mustafa Ali Mehmed, from the Institute 1918-1923 în romanul turc contemporan]). of Southeast European Studies in Bucharest, Atatürk’s merits in the military field were presented the study Atatürk – Thinker and evoked by researchers Mihail E. Ionescu and Humanist [Atatürk – gânditor şi umanist], Sergiu Iosipescu from the Center of Histori- stressing that the actions and the principles cal Studies and Research and Military The- promoted by the Turking leader played a major ory (Topics in the Turkish-Kemalist Military role in the success of the reforms that helped History [Probleme ale istoriei militare turco- create modern Turkey. kemaliste]), while Anca Ghiaţă from the Insti- Cristian Popişteanu, the editor in chief of tute of Southeast European Studies analyzed “Magazin Istoric” [“Historical Magazine”], the contribution of the Turkish leader to the presented The Romanian-Turkish Relations in emancipation of women (The Kemalist Con- the Time of Atatürk [Relaţiile româno-turce în cep on the Emancipation of Women [Concepţia epoca lui Atatürk], in which he made an inter- kemalistă despre emanciparea femeii]). The esting parallel between Atatürk and Titulescu, topics of foreign policy were analyzed in the both having played an important role in the papers presented by Mehmet Ali Ekrem, from establishing of excellent bilateral rapports dur- the Romanian Television, author of the syn- ing the interwar period. thesis The Principles and the Methods of the  Revista de istorie militară  73 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Foreign Policy Promoted by Atatürk [Prin- these documents also revealed the dimensions cipiile şi metodele politicii externe promovate and the directions of actions in the foreign de Atatürk] and Tahsin Gemil from the State policy of the Republic of Turkey, including the Archives in Bucharest (Romanian-Turkish Re- upward trend of the relations with Romania. lations in the Memoirs of Hamdullah Suphi In the year of the centennial of Atatürk’s Tanrıöver [Relaţiile româno-turce în memoriile birth, Mihail Guboglu published two studies lui Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver]. in which he summarized the main coordinates The centennial of Atatürk’s birth was of the activity of the Turkish leader, especially marked not only through scientific mani- the radical transformations he initiated in the festations, but also through studies and ar- Turkish society that resulted in the creation of ticles published in the main history maga- a new political-territorial entity with a modern zines. Some of these publications also hosted structure69. a number of studies presented at the various In its first issue from 1982, “Revue des reunions that took place in 1981. Thus, under Études Sud-Est Européeenes” published a dos- the title The Centennial of Kemal Atatürk’s sier dedicated to the centennial of Atatürk, Birth [Centenarul naşterii lui Kemal Atatürk], comprising five studies, three by Turkish re- “Revue Revue Roumaine d’Histoire” published searchers and two by Romanians70. two important studies. The first was signed Mustafa Ali Mehmet analyzed the politi- by Eliza Campus and analyzed the relations cal thinking of the founder of modern Turkey, between kemalist Turkey and Romania dur- identifying a number of fundamental princi- ing the interwar period66. The author, who was ples: liberty and independence for states and well acquainted with Romania’s international individuals; the definition of revolution and relations in the interwar period, reviewed the reforms through the characteristics of Turkish- main moments in the Romanian-Turkish rela- Islamic society, something that presupposed a tions, emphasizing the special contribution of firm stance in promoting the transformations, Mustafa Kemal to their development. The con- as well as the continuity of this process; the ra- clusion was that the development of relations tio between force and justice, the latter being of with Romania represented one of Atatürk’s paramount importance; the relation between priorities. state’s internal and foreign policies, both being The second study was signed by Mehmet intimately connected; the relation between indi- Ali Ekrem, who focused on the relation be- vidual and society, national-international, par- tween Atatürk’s internal reforms and his for- ticular-general, Atatürk considering that every eign policy67. The author concluded that there individual had to be preoccupied with his/her was an indestructible link between Atatürk’s own future; the interdependence between indi- internal reforms and his directions in foreign vidual/nation and humanity; the need for world policy, the Turkish leader being a great defend- peace; the obsolete nature of pan-Slavism and er of peace and sovereignty of every state. pan-Turanism, both having a profound ideo- A study with new elements was published logical character. The author concluded that by Nicolae Ciachir in “Revista de Istorie” Atatürk’s philosophical and social-political con- [“Review of History”] in June 198168. The au- siderations were deeply humanistic in nature. thor examined the main Romanian archives, At his turn, Constantin Iordan-Smia ana- namely the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign lyzed the difficult issue of Mosul, an object of Affairs and the State Archives, reviewing the dispute between Britain and Turkey. The is- information and assessments regarding the sue was brought before the League of Nations, activity of the Turkish leader sent by Roma- which, in December 1925, gave a verdict unfavo- nian diplomats. The diplomatic reports sent by rable to Turkey. Immediately after, the authori- the Romanian envoys from Turkey and from ties from Ankara signed a treaty with the Soviet other European capitals highlighted the speed Union, something that represented a means to and depth of the reforms initiated by Mustafa pressure British diplomacy. Eventually, Britain Kemal, which were changing the very founda- and Turkey engaged in direct talks, which re- tions of the Turkish society. At the same time, sulted in the agreement of June 5, 1926, Mosul 74  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ceasing to be a litigious issue between Britain Romanian historiography in the postwar and republican Turkey. The resolution of this period, published the study The Romanian- conflict by compromise demonstrated, in au- Turkish Relations between the Two World Wars thor’s view, Atatürk’s qualities as a statesman. [Relaţiile româno-turce între cele două războaie In conclusion, the centennial of Atatürk’s mondiale]73. Knowledgeable in both Romanian birth, an event included in the calendar of and Turkish historiography, the author made UNESCO, was marked in Romania through a precise radiography of the rapports between a series of scientific manifestations and stud- the two countries in a variety of fields: polit- ies published in the main specialty magazines. ical-diplomatic, economic, cultural-scientific, They had the merit of having brought once military, etc., highlighting both the points of again into the attention of the Romanian pub- convergence, in fact quite many, but also some lic opinion the personality of the founder of of the divergences which appeared along the modern Turkey and to have deepened the re- way. In this context, the author analyzed the search over his life and activity. major role played by Atatürk in the develop- Until 1989, the year when the communist ment of these relations, the partnership with regime in Romania collapsed, there were no Romania being of major importance for repub- more distinct articles and studies on Mustafa lican Turkey. An expression of these good rap- Kemal Atatürk. However, his personality was ports was also the Treaty of Friendship, Non- evoked by a number of historians within stud- Aggression, Arbitrage and Conciliation, signed ies about international relations, Romania’s by Romania and Turkey on October 17, 1933. foreign policy and the Romanian-Turkish re- Another important contribution in the relations in the interwar period. For instance, search of the life and activity of Mustafa Kemal Eliza Campus published the volume Small and Atatürk happened in the academia. In 2011, at Medium-Sized States from Central and South- the University of Oradea, Aurel Mircea Romo- east Europe in International Relations [State cia, under the scientific supervision of Prof. Dr. mici şi mijlocii din centrul şi sud-estul Europei Viorel Faur, presented the doctoral thesis enti- în relaţiile internaţionale], in which she evoked tled The Biography and Activity of Kemal Mus- Romania’s and Turkey’s roles in maintaining tafa Atatürk, the Founder of Modern Turkey regional stability, highlighting Atatürk’s expo- [Biografia şi activitatea lui Kemal Mustafa nential contribution in this regard71. Ataturk, fondatorul Turciei moderne]74. The thesis had over 300 pages and was divided into Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the Romanian four chapters: the life and activity of Mustafa historiography after 1989 After 1989, Romanian historiography Kemal Atatürk as reflected by historiography; considerably widened its area of research, his biography; his activity towards the creation reevaluated its principles and directions and of the modern state of Turkey; the personality multiplied its relations of cooperation with of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk as seen by poster- similar structures from other countries, espe- ity. It also comprised abbreviations, foreword, cially with those from the Euro-Atlantic space, conclusions, bibliography, the chronology of Romania joining NATO in 2004 and the Euro- the main events in Atatürk’s life, his main re- pean Union in 2007. forms and their chronology, the six kemalist The analysis of the Romanian foreign policy principles, the views of the Turkish leader on between the two world wars, including in the economy and foreign policy, glossary, a pho- Balkan area, remained an important field of netic guide for Turkish language and a number research, the number of published articles and of annexes. studies being relatively high. Consequently, During the same year, 2011, under the aegis given the limited available space of this study, of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Bucharest, such an analysis is very difficult and cannot be the first volume of documents was published undertaken72. regarding the bilateral relations in the period We shall mention only several contribu- 1923-193875. The volume had a dense intro- tions, the ones we consider most significant ductory study, in Romanian and English, and for our topic. contained 197 documents – telegrams, re- In 1993, Mehmet Ali Ekrem, the author ports, diplomatic letters and notes – selected of the only monograph about Atatürk in the from the Historical Archive of the Ministry  Revista de istorie militară  75 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor of Foreign Affairs. It also included a list with tafa Kemal Atatürk drew the attention of the the heads of the two diplomatic mission and Romanian historiography from very early on. 27 photographs, facsimiles and maps, accom- Until now, according to our research, he was panied by explicative notes. The reproduced devoted four monographs and over 20 studies documents contained information and assess- and articles published in the main Romanian ments about the personality of Atatürk and specialty magazines, which analyzed various about his essential contribution to the thor- aspects from his extraordinary biography and ough transformation of the Turkish society. activity, as he succeeded to create the modern In 2014, Ionuţ Cojocaru published an analy- state of Turkey in less than two decades. The sis entitled Romania and Turkey. Important authors of these volumes and studies were Actors in the System of International Relations important personalities of Romanian histo- during the Interwar Period (1918-1940) [Româ- riography and public life – N. Iorga, Mihail nia şi Turcia. Actori importanţi în sistemul de Manoilescu, Petre Ghiață, Emil Condurachi, 76 relaţii internaţionale interbelice (1918-1940)] . Eliza Campus, Mihail Guboglu, Mihai Maxim The study, originally a doctoral thesis at the Uni- and others. Furthermore, numerous other versity of Bucharest, was based on a vast bibli- studies, especially those focusing on inter- ography, the author being a Turkish speaker. national relations in the interwar period, de- The thesis followed Romania’s and Turkey’s voted parts to the life and activity of Atatürk efforts, individual or collective, in defending or assessed his personality. Also, the press and promoting their interests during the inter- published, over the years, hundreds of articles war period. It also detailed the positions and which contained news and analyses on the ini- attitudes of the two countries during the con- tiatives of the Turkish leader, on the traits of ferences of Lausanne and Montreux, which set his personality and on his legacy. the status of the Black Sea Straits, the individual The second conclusion highlights the sinu- or joint security initiatives in the Balkans, and ous course in which the Romanian historiog- Romania’s geopolitical and geostrategic posi- raphy reflected the figure of Mustafa Kemal tion, different to that of Turkey, on the eve and Atatürk. During the interwar period, there immediately after the outbreak of World War 2. was a strong interest in what was happening in The author made ample references to the Turkey, which was undergoing a transforma- initiatives and measures taken by General Mustafa Kemal, designed to firstly ensure the tion from empire to republic, the process being victory of the revolution and then to speed up envisaged and materialized by a tremendously the materialization of his profound reforms. imposing personality. Atatürk undoubtedly at- He is one of the central characters of the study, tracted the interest of his contemporaries from the author highlighting the contribution of Romania, especially since he had been little the Turkish leader in every sequence of the known to Romanian public opinion. As a con- study. As a result of the efforts made by both sequence, the publications from that period Romania and Turkey, the relations between were full of information about him and about the two countries during the interwar period the revolutionary measures he undertook. At followed a steady upward course in the politi- its turn, the Romanian historiography reacted cal, economic, cultural and military fields. to this public interest and, consequently, a Consequently, Romania and Turkey con- number of studies were dedicated to the per- tributed to the stabilization of the situation in sonality of the Turkish leader. the Balkan Peninsula, the latter ceasing to be After World War 2, amid the onset of the the “the powder keg of Europe”, as in previous bipolar confrontation and of the instaura- times77. tion by force of the communist regime in Romania by the Soviet Union, the two coun- Conclusions tries found themselves in opposite camps. The After highlighting the main Romanian con- consequence was a diminished interest of the tributions published during the 20th century Romanian historiography in the analysis of the and in the first years of the 21st century, some relations with Turkey, one of Romania’s tradi- final reflections are definitely necessary. The tional partners, something that lasted over a first observation is that the personality of Mus- quarter of a century. 76  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor In the early 1960s, however, the regime 1935; Titu Maiorescu, România, războaiele bal- in Bucharest reevaluated, to some extent, its canice şi Cadrilaterul, ed. Stelian Neagoe, Editura rapports with the Soviet Union, rejecting the Machiavelli, Bucharest, 1995; Anastasie Iordache, interference of the latter in its internal affairs. Criza politică din România şi războaiele balcan- Consequently, Romania engaged in a rap- ice 1911-1913, Editura Paideea, Bucureşti, 1998; prochement with the Western countries – and Gheorghe Zbuchea, România şi războaiele balcan- with Turkey, as well –, the relations becoming ice. 1912-1913. Pagini de istorie sud-est europeană, increasingly better. Editura Albatros, Bucharest, 1999; Daniela Buşă, In this context, the personality of Mustafa Modificări politico-teritoriale în sud-estul Europei Kemal Atatürk became once again a subject of între Congresul de la Berlin şi primul război mondial (1878-1914), Editura Paideea, Bucharest, 2003; research for Romanian historiography, espe- Mihai Macuc, România, Balcanii şi Europa, vol. I-II, cially since his tremendous activity for the af- Editura ANI, Bucureşti, 2009 etc. firmation of Turkish nation could have served 2 For details, see Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as a model for Nicolae Ceaușescu, the leader România-Turcia. Relaţii diplomatice, vol. 1 1923- in Bucharest proclaiming himself a “hero” of 1938, ed. Dumitru Preda, Cavallioti, Bucharest, 2011. the struggle for Romanians’ independence to- 3 Regarding Romania’s position at the Conference wards the Soviet hegemon. But, beyond the of Lausanne, see: Mircea N. Popa, Nicolae Daşcovici, calculations of the politicians, the Romanian Marea Neagră şi regimul Strâmtorilor, Iaşi, 1937; historians analyzed with seriousness and pro- Poziţia României faţă de Turcia la Conferinţa de fessionalism the personality of Mustafa Kemal la Lausanne şi în anii imediat următori, Analele Atatürk, the articles and studies published in Universităţii Bucureşti, istorie, XVII, 1968, p.141- that particular postwar period maintaining 154; Paul Gogeanu, Strâmtorile Mării Negre de-a their value over the years. lungul Strâmtorilor, Editura Politică, Bucureşti, The peak of this scientific interest was 1966; Iulian Cârţână, România şi problema reached during the anniversary of the centen- Strâmtorilor, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucharest, 1974; nial of Atatürk’s birth, in 1981, manifestation in- Gh. N. Cazan, Problemele Orientului Apropiat de scribed in the UNESCO calendar. It coincided la războiul mondial la Conferinţa de pace de la with a remarkable historiographical event host- Lausanne, in „Relaţii internaţionale în perioada interbelică”, Editura Politică, Bucharest, 1980; Eliza ed by Romania – the 15th International Con- Campus, State mici şi mijlocii din centrul şi sud-estul gress of History, which took place on August Europei în relaţiile internaţionale. Prima jumătate 10-17, 1980. a secolului al XX-lea, Editura Politică, Bucharest, After this date, the personality of Atatürk 1988, p. 114-118; I.G. Duca, Memorii, volumul IV, was confined to historiographical penumbra, Războiul (1917-1919), ed. Stelian Neagoe, Editura being mentioned only in the syntheses pub- Machiavelli, Bucharest, 1994, p. 261-315; Petre lished in this period. This situation lasted until Otu, Marea Neagră în relaţiile internaţionale din st the second decade of the 21 century, when perioada interbelică, in “Marea Neagră de la lacul the interest in the life and activity of Mustafa bizantin la provocările secolului XXI”, ed. Major Kemal Atatürk was once again revived. General (ret.) dr. Mihail E. Ionescu, Editura Militară, Bucharest, 2006, p. 248-279 etc. NOTE 4 Cristian Popişteanu, România şi Antanta 1 Regarding Romania’s situation in 1912-1913, Balcanică, Editura Politică, Bucharest, 1971; Eliza see, among others, Corvin Petrescu, Istoricul cam- Campus, Înţelegerea Balcanică, Editura Academiei paniei militare din anul 1913, Imprimeria “Jockey Republicii Socialiste România, Bucharest, 1972; Club”, Bucharest, 1914; G. A. Dabija, Războiul Alexandru Oşca, Gheorghe Nicolescu, Tratate, bulgaro-turc din anii 1912-1913, Bucharest, 1914; convenţii militare şi protocoale secrete (1934-1939), Lieutenant colonel C. Şerbescu, Observaţiuni şi Editura Valahia, 1998. învăţăminte culese din războaiele balcanice (1912- 5 Regarding the illness of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 1913) din punct de vedere politic, strategic şi tac- from the Romanian perspective, see Ministry of For- tic. Diverse, cu 11 crochiuri în culori afară din eign Affairs, România-Turcia. Relaţii diplomatice, text, pentru ofiţeri activi şi de rezervă din toate vol. 1 1923-1938, ....., p. 323, 330-331. armele, Tipografia „Buciumul Român” Spiridon 6 Carol II, Între datorie şi pasiune. Însemnări Gheorghiu, Galaţi, 1914; Colonel George Garoies- zilnice, vol. I (1904 -1939), eds. Marcel-Dumitru cu, Războaiele Balcanice 1912-1913, Editura Cen- Ciucă and Narcis Dorin, Editura Silex, Bucharest, trului de Instrucţie al Infanteriei, Sfântu Gheorghe, 1995, p. 262.  Revista de istorie militară  77 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor 7 Ibidem, p. 264. 34 Ibidem, p. 196-197. 8 Ibidem, p. 395-399. 35 Petre Ghiaţă, Valori conducătoare, Editura 9 Th. Martinescu-Asău, Lenin, Benito Mussolini, Ideia, Bucureşti, 1941, p. 57-58. Mustafa Kemal, Universitatea “Alcalay”, Bucharest, 36 (D.V.) Mikusch, Gazi Mustafa Kemal 1880- 1934 (Biblioteca pentru toţi). This volume was 1938. Între Asia şi Europa, Craiova, 344 pages (col- bringing together the previous studies by the author. lection “Istoria romanţată”); H.C. Amstrong, Lupul See also Idem, Lenin, B. Mussolini, Mustafa Kemal cenuşiu [Kemal Ataturk], Biografie, translated by (articles), Editura Sensul Modern, undated. Alice Ionescu, Editura Vatra, Bucharest, 1943. 10 Ibidem, p. 105. 37 For this very complex matter, see Ioan Scurtu, 11 Ibidem, p. 133. România – retragerea trupelor sovietice (1958), 12 Mihail Manoilescu, Mussolini, Hitler, Kemal Arhivele Naţionale Române, Editura Didactică şi (conferinţă), Brăila, 1934. The conference was held Pedagogică, Bucharest, 1996; Alexandru Oşca, in October 1933 and inaugurated the fifth round of Vasile Popa, România, o fereastră în Cortina de conferences organized by “Analele Brăilei”, a review fier. Declaraţia de independenţă din aprilie 1964, of local studies. Editura Vrantop, Focşani, 1997; Petre Otu, Gheorghe 13 Ibidem, p. 3. Vartic, Mihai Macuc (coord.), On Both Sides of the 14 Ibidem, p. 8. Iron Curtain, Military Publishing House, Bucharest, 15 Ibidem, p. 9. 2001; Dennis Deletant and Mihail E. Ionescu, Ro- 16 Felix Aderca, Oameni excepţionali, Editura mania and the Warsaw Pact, 1955-1989. Selected “Vremea”, Bucharest, 1934. The part dedicated to Documents, Bucharest, Paideia, 2004; Florian the Turkish leader was entitled “Mustafa Kemal or Banu and Liviu Ţăranu, Aprilie 1964 – „Primăvara Turkey without Fez”. de la Bucureşti”. Cum s-a adoptat “ Declaraţia de 17 Ibidem, p. 151-152. Independenţă a României?”, Editura Enciclopedică, 18 Ibidem, p. 153. Bucharest, 2004; Constantin Olteanu, Alesandru 19 Ibidem. Duţu, România. 36 de ani în Pactul de la Varşovia, 20 Ibidem, p. 161. Editura Niculescu, Bucharest, 2014. 21 Dr. Gheorghe Dragoş, Kemal Ataturk. Omul, 38 This had been closed down in 1948, together opera, Cluj, 1935. with the Institute of Balkan Studies and Research, 22 Sterie Diamandi, Galeria dictatorilor: Pilsud- founded in 1937 by Victor Papacostea. sky, Atatürk, Salazar, Hitler, Bucharest, 1938. 39 “Lumea”, November 3, 1963. 23 Ibidem, p. 95. 40 Al. Vianu, Kemal Atatürk, Izbrannîe reci i 24 Ibidem, p. 173-174 vîstuplenie, Moscow, 1966, 469 pages in “Studii 25 Ibidem, p. 189. Revistă de Istorie” no. 4/1967, p. 807-811. 26 N. Iorga, Oameni care au fost, volume 4, 41 Ibidem, p. 811. Fundaţia pentru Literatură şi Artă, “Regele Carol I”, 42 Nicolae Titulescu, Documente diplomatice, Bucharest, 1939, p. 279. Editura Politică, Bucharest, 1967; Idem, Discur- 27 Ibidem. suri, foreword and annotations by Robert Deutsch, 28 Ibidem, p. 280. Bucharest, Editura Ştiinţifică, 1967. 29 Constantin Argetoianu, Însemnări zilnice,, volu- 43 Enciclopedia Istoriografiei Româneşti, mul 5 (1 iulie-31 decembrie 1938), ed. Stelian Neagoe, coordinator Ştefan Ştefănescu, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Editura Machiavelli, Bucharest, 2002, p. 210. Enciclopedică, Bucharest, 1978, p. 216. 30 Petre Ghiaţă, Lupul cenuşiu, Viaţa furtunoasă 44 Mehmet Ali Ekrem, Ataturk, făuritorul Turciei a ghaziului Kemal Ataturk, 1st edition, Editura Ideea, moderne, Editura Politică, Bucharest, 1969, p.5. Bucharest, 1939. A second edition appeared shortly 45 Ibidem, p. 230. after, being published in the same year (1939). 46 The study was given a positive review by 31 The author wanted the study to be published Mustafa Ali Mehmed in “Studies. Review of History” in 1940 in Turkish and Hungarian. According to our (“Studii. Revistă de Istorie”), no. 4/1970, p.836-838. information, this objective did not materialize, one 47 Mehmet Ali Ekrem, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of the causes being the events from the summer of în opinia publică românească, „Revista de Istorie”, 1940, Romania’s integrity being severely affected no. 4/1974, p. 597-604. by the annexation of a number of Romanian prov- 48 Petre Ghiaţă, Atatürk, Editura Enciclopedică inces by the Soviet Union (Bessarabia and Northern Română, Bucharest, 1975. The imprint mentioned Bukovina), Hungary (North-Eastern Transylvania) that the volume was printed in 9 390 copies. and Bulgaria (Southern Dobrudja). 49 Paul Cernovodeanu, Le symposium d’histoire 32 Petre Ghiaţă, op. cit. p. 2. roumano-turk d’Ankara, in “Revue Roumaine 33 Ibidem, p. 180. d’Histoire”, XVIII, 2, 1978, p. 359-360. 78  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor 50 Mihai Maxim, Simpozionul româno-turc de is- de Kemal Atatürk, “Revue Roumaine d’Histoire”, 3, torie, „Revista de Istorie”, no. 10/1978, p. 1877-1878. 1981, p. 435-454. See also Cristina Feneşan, Das rumänisch-türkische 68 Nicolae Ciachir, Informaţii din arhivele Symposium (25-26 mai 1978), “Revue Roumaine româneşti despre Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, “Revista d’Histoire”, no. 4, 1978, p. 789-790. de Istorie”, no. 6/1981, p.1135-1148. 69 51 Cristian Popişteanu, România şi Antanta Mihail Guboglu, Kemal Atatürk, (1881- Balcanică, Editura Politică, Bucharest, 1971. 1938) – fondatorul Republicii Turcia, “Revista 52 Probleme de politică externă a României 1919- Comisiei Române pentru UNESCO”, 23, no. 3, 1981; 1939. Culegere de studii, vol. I, Editura Militară, Idem, Moustapha Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938) - il- Bucharest, 1971. The study by Robert Deutsch can lustre personnalité de l’histoire turque, „Analele be found at pages 219-258. Universităţii Bucureşti”, istorie, 30, 1981. 70 53 Eliza Campus, Înţelegerea Balcanică, Ed- The two studies by the Romanian research- itura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România, ers are: Mustafa Ali Mehmet, Mustafa Kemal Bucharest, 1972. Atatürk - penseur et humaniste, “Revue des Études 54 Mihail E. Ionescu, Preliminariile încheierii Sud-Est Européeenes”, p. 52-59 and Constantin convenţiilor militare balcanice (1934-1936), în Iordan-Sima, Pétrol et diplomatie: la Turquie kémal- „File de istorie militară a poporului român”, no.1, iste, l’Angleterre impériale et le problème de Mossoul, 1973, p.143-160; Idem, Încheierea alianţei militare Ibidem, p. 67-83. The researchers from Turkey pub- balcanice tripartite (1936), în „Studii. Revista de lished three articles: Ismail Arar, La place d’Ataturk Istorie”, no.2, 1974, p.63-75. parmi les grants courants de l’histoire, Ibidem, p. 41- 55 Mustafa Ali Mehmed, Istoria turcilor, Editura 51; Coşkun Ûçok, Atatürk-Der erőffner eines neunen Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucharest, 1976. zeitalters in den islamichen ländern, p. 61-65; Hamit 56 Ibidem, p. 371-372. Z. Koşay, Presentation to Ataturk, Ibidem, p. 85-92. 71 57 Anca Ghiaţă, La Nation et l’État moderne Eliza Campus, State mici şi mijlocii din centrul dans la conception Kémaliste, “Revue des Études şi sud-estul Europei în relaţiile internaţionale. Pri- Sud-Est Européeenes”, tome 17, 4, 1979, p. 777-798. ma jumătate a secolului al XX-lea, Editura Politică, 58 Ibidem, p. 795. Bucharest, 1988, p. 116, 168, 266-267. Among oth- 59 Ion Calafeteanu, Turcia în „Afirmarea state- er things, the author highlights the importance of lor naţionale independente unitare din centrul şi the meeting between Carol II and Mustafa Kemal sud-estul Europei (1821-1923)”, Editura Academiei Atatürk in June 1938. Republicii Socialşiste România, Bucharest, 1979, 72 From the long list of contributions, we men- p. 228-257. tion: Alexandru Oşca, Gheorghe Niculescu, Tratate, 60 Constantin Iordan-Sima, Un diplomate rou- convenţii şi protocoale secrete (1934-1939), Piteşti, main sur la victoire de la révolution Kémaliste, 1994; Mihai Retegan, În balanţa forţelor. Alianţe “Revue des Études Sud-Est Européeenes”, tome 18, militare româneşti interbelice, Bucureşti, 1997. 3,1980, p. 425-435. 73 Mehmet Ali Ekrem, Relaţiile româno-turce 61 At that moment, Nicolae Filodor was the sec- între cele două războaie mondiale (1918-1944), retary general of the Romanian Ministry of Foreign Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucharest, 1993. Affairs, later on being appointed plenipotenti- 74 Aurel-Mircea Romocia, Biografia şi activi- ary minister to Prague (19124-1928) and Belgrade tatea lui Kemal Mustafa Ataturk, fondatorul Turciei (1928-1931). moderne, University of Oradea, 2010 (scientific co- 62 Eliza Campus, Din politica externă a României ordinator Viorel Faur). The thesis was presented 1913-1947, Editura Politică, Bucharest, 1980. on January 22, 2011, the commission of referents 63 Ibidem, p.239-240, 343. comprising Prof. Mihai Maxim from the Univer- 64 Vezi Ion Calafeteanu, Diplomaţia românească sity of Bucharest, lecturer Virgil Ţârău from the în sud-estul Europei (martie 1938 – martie 1940), “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca and Prof. Bucharest, 1980. Ion Zainea from the University of Oradea (www.uo- 65 For details, Mihai Maxim, Comemorarea cen- radea.ro, accessed on November 3, 2014). tenarului Ataturk în România, „Revista de Istorie”, 75 Ministerul Afacerilor Externe, România- no 10/1981, p. 1958-1963. Turcia.Relaţii diplomatice, vol. 1 1923-1938, ed. 66 Eliza Campus, Les relations entre la Turquie Dumitru Preda, forewod by Alexandru Ghişa and kémaliste et la Roumanie entre les deux guerres Dumitru Preda, Cavallioti, Bucharest, 2011. mondiales, “Revue Roumaine d’Histoire”, 3, 1981, 76 Ionuţ Cojocaru, România-Turcia. Actori p. 411-434. importanţi în sistemul de relaţii interbelice (1918- 67 Mehmet Ali Ekrem, Considérations sur les 1940), Editura Cetatea de Scaun, Târgovişte, 2014. réformes intérieures et sur la politique étrangère 77 Ibidem, p. 219.  Revista de istorie militară  79 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Dossier: Romanian-Turkish Military Relations during Modern and Contemporary Period

“The Turkish Channel” in Romania’s negotiations for exit from the Axis

CERASELA MOLDOVEANU *

Abstract

Romania’s attempts to get out of the alliance with the Axis powers passed, also, through the Turkish channel – Bucharest-Ankara-Istanbul. This diplomatic channel proved particularly useful, through the mediation of Romanian diplomats, namely minister Cretzianu and col. Teodorescu, Romania’s military attaché. The two Romanian officials were consulted both by the democratic opposition, led by Maniu,I. and by Mihai Antonescu, on behalf of the Ion Antonescu government. Western governments and allied intelligence services took note through telegrams, messages, information of great importance, by means of two Romanian diplomats, to all efforts made by the democratic opposition and Romanian government to quit the alliance. This diplomatic channel was also an effective military and political barometer, for both Romania and Turkey and the Allied States, a focal point of the Romanian state interests with those of Great Powers These attempts have been facilitated by the neutrality status Turkey maintained during the war, and by her maneuvers between the two belligerent camps.

Keywords: Turkish channel, Alexandru Cretzianu, World War 2, diplomacy, allies, democratic opposition

The military successes of the United Na- essary. They took into account the decrease of tions coalition during the year 1942 and es- the support provided to the Reich and even to pecially the defeat suffered by the Wehrmacht stop its continuation. and the Romanian army at Stalingrad (No- On this basis, the Antonescu regime refused vember 1942 / February 1943) changed the re- to send more troop contingents on the Eastern lations between the two belligerent coalitions front, and made step by step retreats of the units and made improbable the victory of Germany. still dislocated in Russia. In the same time start- In these circumstances, the Romanian political ed the probing negotiations, especially with the class (the power and the opposition) became Western powers of the United Nations coalition, aware of that a major political change was nec- through different communication channels.

* Researcher, Institute for Political Studies of Defence and Military History. 80  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Discrete probing negotiations between unsuccessfully tried in the first years of the Bucharest and the Allies war, after the occupation of Poland and France, Foregoing the German military failure at to reach a concord with the British and French Stalingrad, the Foreign Affairs minister Mihai governments for ending hostilities. According Antonescu has started by the middle of 1941 to recent discoveries, Hitler tried in 1941, by the first indirect attempts of mediations with means of Rudolf Hess, who was sent in Scot- the Allies, just in case for the military failure land, to negotiate a secret peace agreement of the Axis and of losing the war. He took into with Great Britain which specified the retreat consideration Italy because his close relation of the Nazi armies from Western Europe and with the Italian ambassador at Bucharest, the invasion of Soviet Union without the inter- Renato Bova Scoppa, in order to strengthen vention of the Allies5. Churchill denied every the relationships with Rome, in the prospect time the peace proposals made by Hitler, being of an exit of both countries from the Axis. suspicious about his promises. The approaches were rendered difficult The situation get worse because the condi- by the beginning by the permanent restraints tions imposed at the beginning of 1943 by the manifested both by Count G. Ciano and by American president Roosevelt, who introduced Mussolini. After the removal of Mussolini at 26 the expression “unconditional capitulation” July 1943, Antonescu continued the approaches at the Casablanca Conference (14-24 January with the new Italian foreign minister in the Ba- 1943), concerning Germany and all her al- doglio government, R. Guariglia, by the same lies. Later events have demonstrated that this Bova Scoppa. Antonescu considered that Italy decision had negative consequences includ- and Romania, for ”their salvation and for the ing for Romania, because the German leader salvation of Europe” must put the Reich in front asked from his allies a greater solidarity. On 12 of the ”accomplished fact”, proceeding to a sepa- April 1943, Hitler told to I. Antonescu that in rate peace with the United Nations mediated by July 1940 he made public ”the last peace pro- Turkey 1. The attitude of Guariglia was evasive, posal”, being still decided ”to fight until the last and a month later, when the Italian government consequence”6. wished to negotiate with the Anglo-American representatives, they admitted only the unconditional capitulation of Italy2. The failure of a rapprochement to the British and American governments by means of Italy determined the Bucharest government to try other negotiation channels. The attention of Mihai Antonescu turned to Vatican, engaging discussions on this theme with the apostolic nuncio at Bucharest, Andrea Cassulo. Meanwhile, Antonescu charged the Roma- nian minister at Bern, Nicolae E. Lahovary, to contact nuncio Bernardini, who was asked to make the Western cancellaries sympathetic to the closing of a separate peace with Germany3. Both Mihai Antonescu and the Vatican emissaries considered that “a separated peace between the western powers and Germany was extremely necessary”4. The approaches made with this purpose to the German authorities by the same Mihai Antonescu, with the unspoken agreement of Antonescu, were not agreed that time by the Führer. It has to be remembered that Hitler Barbu Ştirbey  Revista de istorie militară  81 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Yet, according as the situation on the war as most it was possible, the economic or po- theaters worsened, the Antonescu government litical requests of the main actors of the world continued the approaches for contacts with conflict, Great Britain, USA and Germany. All the western allies, with the purpose to find exit this political and diplomatic effort had as main possibilities from the war led aside Germany. target to avoid the entrance of the country in a Therefore, the deputy president of the Ministry general conflict, with an army not suitable pre- Council, Mihai Antonescu, with the unspoken pared, which would most probable led to its agreement of Marshal Ion Antonescu, turned occupation by the belligerent forces. The main the attention to several negotiation channels in advantage, the supremacy over the Straits, the capitals of the neutral states (Stockholm, was used with discernment and wisely in the Lisbon, Madrid, Bern, Ankara, Cairo). The benefit of both coalitions, without endanger- main Romanian emissaries charged with the ing the sovereignty of Turkey. It is obvious negotiations or with the mediation of the mes- that strained situations and even the danger sages between the Romanian authorities and of an invasion were present, but the policy of the Allies, were: Gheorghe Barbul at Madrid, the Ankara government, double faced and ef- Alexandru Cretzianu at Ankara, Barbu Ştirbey ficient at the same time, removed this pressure at Cairo, and Frederic Nanu at Stockholm. for a long time. The main negotiation channels, constantly If the fast expansion of the German army in used, were those from Ankara-Cairo and Central and Western Europe at the beginning Stockholm. of the war caused a state of fear and insecurity in Turkey, the advance of the Bolshevik armies The importance and their potential danger for the Balkans came of the „Turkish channel” to be the main concern for Ankara after the Placed in an area of maximal geostrategic signing of the Treaty with Germany (1941). importance for Romania, Turkey became an The basis of preservation of this neutral- important element in the efforts of the Roma- ity was given by four important agreements nian authorities for negotiations with the gov- negotiated by Turkey with Germany but also ernments of the allied states, especially with with the Allies. The first one was the French- Great Britain and USA. The geographic close- British-Turkish Treaty of Mutual Assistance, ness of the countries, the position of absolute signed at Ankara on 19 October 1939, which „master” of the Straits owned by Turkey and specified the military help provided by France the preservation of the neutrality during the and Great Britain in the case of an attack of conflict were the premises from which began an European state against Turkey, which was the political and diplomatic approaches led by obliged to help the partners in the case of an Romania. Turkey was linked not only by a mul- aggression in the Mediterranean Sea.8 The ti-secular history, but also by cooperation and chapter three mentioned the interest of Tur- friendship relationships significantly exhibited key for the achievement of the French-British in the period between the two World Wars, guarantees for Greece and Romania. Concern- both countries being members of the Balkan ing the relations with USSR, Turkey’s state of Antante established on 9 February 19347. Al- fear and strain was expressed by its right to not though defeated in World War I, the Turkish be involved in any military conflict with the foreign policy found a common denominator Soviets.9 The main benefit of this agreement with the Romanian one, the aim of both coun- would have to be the attempt of modernization tries being the preservation of the territories, of the Turkish army, its equipment with mod- of the state sovereignty and of the stability in ern armament of British and French produc- the Balkan region. tion. The Turks were disappointed by the way Turkey’s decision to remain neutral and its how their western partners fulfilled the obli- capability to preserve this status almost along gations, and after the occupation of France by the entire war was based on the clever diplo- the Germans the delivery of military materials matic policy of the Ankara authorities, who and armaments were mostly symbolic. In the were able to keep an equilibrium and to satisfy, second, we remember the Turkish-Bulgarian 82  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Declaration of 1 February 1940, aimed to pre- the appetence for expansion and conquests serve both countries outside any conflict, but of USSR, and for its open interest for the Bal- which did not specified a mutual military com- kan region. In the same time, Romania was for mitment.10 The third one was the Non-agres- Turkey a constant factor in its war strategic sion and friendship Treaty between Turkey and plans, a subtle but sustenable motivation for Germany, signed on 18 June 1941, by which not satisfying the British demands to open the the two states respected and mutually guar- Turkish territory to allied military bases. Ac- anteed the sovereignty and the territorial in- cording to the opinion of the Turkish decision tegrity. The last document, the Declaration for makers, as long as Romania will not receive a Mutual Assistance between Turkey and USSR guarantee from the great allied powers for the of 25 March 1941, both parts mutually guar- exit from the coalition with Germany, name- anteed their neutrality. If one of the parts was ly that will not be abandoned in the Soviet attacked by a third power, they would be able sphere of influence and that its territory will to rely on the support of the other one, mostly not be occupied, Turkey itself will not benefit moral, a kind of “full understanding”11. of a guarantee that will spare it from a future This system of treaties was built with clev- benevolent “protection” of the neighbor from erness by the Turkish diplomacy, when each of north-east. the parts involved in the conflict did not wish This state of mind of the Turkish politi- that, in case of a too virulent and categorical cians was displayed by the talks after the Inter- attitude toward it, Turkey will join the adverse allied Conference of the Foreign Affairs min- coalition. This would also mean to leave to the isters in Moscow (19-30 October 1943), when enemy the right to use of the Straits. At Ankara the Turkish Foreign Affairs minister, Numan it was considered that ”assurances of Germany Menemencioğlu reproached to Anthony Eden and the Russian declaration indicate the wish that no decision was made concerning Iran, of both countries to leave the Straits under the Iraq and the Balkan region. He expressed the guard of Turkey, instead to see them control- fear for the interest of USSR in the Balkans14. led by others”12. Eden denied the information knew by Turkish We could appreciate that the Turkish gov- minister about a compromise reached be- ernment tried to preserve an equilibrium at- tween the allies which allowed to USSR the titude toward Germany and USSR. Its stra- right to decide in Eastern Europe. It should tegic position allowed to exploit the rivalries also be taken into consideration the idea of the between the great powers and to use them for British Prime Minister W. Churchill to open, its benefit. For instance it could be remem- according to the experience of World War I, bered that Turkey delivered chrome ore to the second front in the Balkans, as a way to Germany, contrary to the open disappoint- prevent the control of this region by the Sovi- ment manifested by Great Britain and USA. ets15. Bringing into discussion the situation of Meanwhile, the American pilots who made Romania, Eden asserted again the condition of forced landings in Anatolia were well received its unconditional capitulation, an answer that and sheltered by the Turkish authorities, a fact determined Menemencioğlu to reply categori- knew by the German ambassador at Ankara, cally that Turkey will never urge Romania to von Papen13. Regardless the concessions made capitulate without conditions to USSR16. to both states, the fear against the present or future intentions of USSR to occupy the entire Common approaches of the power and Balkan region including Turkey and to take the opposition to contact the western allies supremacy in the Black Sea and at the Straits In this atmosphere began the activity the remained unchanging. Romanian ambassador at Ankara, Alexandru Concerning Romania as an ally of Germany, Cretzianu, who replaced in September 1943 the Turkish government has always a benevo- Alexandru Telemaque, with the delicate mis- lent and even protective attitude, explained sion of restoring the contact and to make ne- by the nearness of their geopolitical and state gotiations with the representatives of the Unit- interests. Both states were preoccupied by ed Nations governments. He was escorted in  Revista de istorie militară  83 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor his mission by the Romanian military attaché at Ankara, colonel Traian Teodorescu. Since the beginning of his charge, Cretzianu was warned by the Turkish foreign affairs minister that as concerns the peace negotiations engaged by Romania, ”the Anglo-American- Soviet diplomatic front has no crack”, being thus excluded the possibility to negotiate only with England and USA, without Soviet Union17. We remember that the Antonescu government, in concordance with the opposition led by Iuliu Maniu, mentioned since the beginning in the requests that “the Romanian government wish to be assured a complete discretion toward the Russians”18. The governments of Great Britain and USA wished not to Alexandru Telemaque, Envoy Extraordinary disappoint the Soviet authorities by engaging and Minister Plenipotentiary to Ankara separate negotiations with a state allied with (1936-1938, 1941-1943) Germany19, a fact later strengthened by the resolution adopted at the Moscow Conference The measures adopted at the Casablanca (19-30 October 1943), which specified that the and Moscow Conferences, by which it was three great powers decided to mutual inform requested the “unconditional capitulation” of and to decide by common agreement when the members of the Axis and the compulsory probing or request negotiations are made by negotiation with all the allies, including Soviet governments, individuals or groups of indi- Union, about which Antonescu had great hesi- viduals from states which are in war with the tations, were the main factors which led, in the United Nations20. case of Romania, to the tergiversation of closing the truce and to the prolongation of the negotiations until 23 August 1944. In such circumstances, the Turkish foreign affairs minister declared to Cretzianu that Turkey, with all its benevolence, could not intervene on behalf of Romania, because the allies will immediately inform Moscow, and this will expose the government of Ankara to ”grave and dangerous accusations”21. In the same time with the diplomatic approaches of the Antonescu government, the opposition from Romania, conducted by Iuliu Maniu, the leader of the National Peasant Party, also used the Turkish channel in the negotiation efforts. On 4 January 1943, he transmitted a message via Ankara to the exiled in London Czechoslovak president Edvard Beneš, proposing a political cooperation thwarted by the declaration of the latter who considered that the exiled Czechoslovak government was in war with Romania 22. Instead, the British Headquarters in Cairo Iuliu Maniu has sent a note by the offices of Istanbul inform- 84  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ing Maniu that “the situation in Romania could be took in consideration only if will rise the weapons against Germany”23. Maniu answered with a new explanatory document about „the temporary impossibility of a military action against the Axis, when the Romanian armies are far away on the Eastern front”24. The exchange of messages between Maniu and the British Headquarters in Cairo and next with Foreign Office continued by means of the British offices in Istanbul. The leader of the Romanian opposition insisted that: the Romanian army will be on the side of the Allies only if Anglo- American guarantees for the territorial status of Romania will be obtained, and that an actual action is conditioned by the British point of view concerning the Romanian territories25. His point of view was the same with that expressed by the Antonescu government by the Madrid channel, in the winter of 1943, by Gheorghe Barbul, the secretary of Ion Alexandru Cretzianu Antonescu. There were requested: 1. A large Anglo-Saxon landing in the Balkans in direc- In February 1943, at the departure of the tion to Romania; 2. The entrance of Turkey in Turkish ambassador in Bucharest, Suphi action on the side of the Allies; 3. The Roma- Tanriőver toward Ankara, after the Confer- nian government wished to be assured of the ence of Adana, Maniu has sent a new message true participation of the Anglo-Saxon armies to the British government reminding the po- in the military events that will concern our ter- litical circumstances of 1940 when Romania ritory26. Point 4 asked to be avoided the infor- allied with the members of the Axis and start- mation of the Soviet government, but the reply ed then the war against USSR. He emphasized of the British and American representatives that there were favorable circumstances for a was, since the beginning of the negotiations, change of the military and foreign policy of very categorical and without ambiguity, show- Romania, but repeated the same condition for ing that the governments of USA and Great capitulation, to know first the point of view of Britain are decided to respect „a honest coop- the British and American governments about eration with all their allies, during the war and the frontiers and the role which Romania will after its end”. The American government has have in the future29. too specified that „will avoid any gesture that In March 1943, the British intelligence serv- could leave Russian the impression that it is ices from Istanbul informed about the official fooled by United States”27. position of the American and British govern- However, the conditions from points 1 and ments, which included their agreement to sup- 3 given by the Romanian government proved port such an action, but with the establishment to be unachievable, because at the Inter-Allied of a concord about Romania with the Soviet Conference of the chiefs of states from Teheran government. As soon a result was reached, this (28 November-1 December 1943) was decided will be communicated to Maniu30. that the landing in the Balkans will be can- On 8 March 1943, the general elections celed, and the entrance of Turkey in the war in Turkey had as a result the preservation against Germany will be postponed. The ori- in functions of most of the members of the entation of their military effort in the West was Parliament and the new investment as presi- directed to the achievement of the „Overlord” dent of Ismet Inönü. With this occasion, the operation28. former Romanian ambassador at Ankara,  Revista de istorie militară  85 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor A. Telemaque, considered that „for us, the came operative against the Balkans and the oil Romanians, the reelection of the president region in Romania36. At the end of the confer- and the continuity of the administration of ence, the British government has transmitted Prime Minister Saraçoğlu are important, be- his decisions concerning Romania by means of cause all of them are friends of Romania”.31 In the same Cretzianu. They included the condi- his turn, the Turkish minister of foreign affairs tions already mentioned, and the approaches Menemencioğlu declared to Cretzianu that were intended to be necessarily achieved by „the interest for Romania was large until since the three allies, by „emissaries charged with we were in the Balkan Entente”32 and that „Ro- full powers”, able to sign an unconditional ca- mania and Turkey are sisters with convergent pitulation in the name of their state. No other interests”33. In the spirit of the relationships of formula was taken into consideration37. closed friendship and cooperation mentioned Alexandru Cretzianu has established rela- above, in a discussion with Mihai Antonescu tions with the emissaries of some allied secret at 23 June 1943, the Turkish ambassador at services. On 29 January 1944 he was contacted Bucharest, Tanrıöver, transmitted an official at Istanbul by a representative of the British message of the Turkish government which Secret Service who brought a message from mentioned: „Turkey considers that the prob- colonel de Chastelain. The message asked for lems of Romania are like heirs, and that the the support and cooperation with the British two nations have identical interests. Therefore, SOE38. On 2 and 3 February 1944 he also met for the future Turkey will preserve only a for- colonel E. C. Masterson39 and a colleague of mal distance concerning the problems which this one, who were intermediaries for the mes- affect the interests of Romania”34. sages between the British and Maniu. They re- It was a clear link between the relations of ceived from the very source data about the in- the two states and the evolution of the events tentions of the Antonescu government and of on the South-Eastern front. In the summer of the Romanian opposition. In their messages, 1943, Germany lost the most important con- Marshal Antonescu and the members of the frontations with the United Nations coali- opposition insisted for the presence of Anglo- tion, important strategic points in Caucasus, American troops in South-Eastern Europe in Northern Africa and Mediterranean Sea, being the moment of the “desertion” of Romania compelled to retreat in front of the large offen- from the Axis, in order that the country will sive launched by the Red Army. After the con- not fall under another foreign occupation40. quest of the northern Africa at 16 July 1943, By the same beginning of 1944, Iuliu the Allies landed in Sicily on 3 September, Maniu, through Cretzianu and with the ap- crossed the strait of Messina, and established proval of Marshal Antonescu, asked the Allies the domination in southern Italy after a harsh to receive Barbu Ştirbey as emissary of Roma- resistance of the enemy. In a report from 3 Au- nia to start the negotiations at Cairo. Although gust 1943, col. Teodorescu, the military attaché the destination of the travel and the mission from Ankara, mentioned that the British are were secret, they were disclosed and pub- disappointed that they made so many sacrifices lished on 14 March 1944 by Reuter Agency41. for the benefit of Turkey, while the government The attempts of Gestapo to stop the travel to of Ankara remained neutral and did not offer Cairo, via Sofia-Istanbul, were hindered by the help to the British, not even surreptitious, in stubbornness of Prince Ştirbey, who received the operations in the Mediterranean Sea35. at Ankara a passport with fake name, being The capitulation of Italy and the conquest able to continue the way without troubles42. of the Mediterranean Sea cancelled every dis- The uncovering of his mission is seen by some appointment of the British. A. Eden declared contemporary authors as a deliberate action of at the Moscow Conference (October 1943) the British, who, by a true “psychological war” that after the events of Italy and the landing in wished to destroy the moral of Germany and Sicily, the entrance of Turkey in the war, less her allies. The uncovering of Ştirbey was a part equipped and prepared, became futile. The of the large plan of hoaxing Germany about Anglo-American bases from southern Italy be- the place of the second front in Europe43. 86  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor The negotiations made by him with the great units in the north-eastern Romania. representatives of the three great powers, Because the perspective of the occupation of England (Lord Moyne – member of the Brit- Romania by the Soviet army created panic at ish government residing in the Middle East), Bucharest, the efforts for exiting from the Axis USA (Lincoln Mac Veagh) and USSR (Nicolai became more intense. Novikov) did not started under good auspices Called by Hitler at his headqurters (20 and have not the end aimed by the Romanian March 1944), Ion and Mihai Antonescu, be- government and opposition. The three negoti- ing anxious that this invitation is the prelude ators announced Cretzianu from the beginning to the occupation of Romania, like in Hungary, that the sending of an emissary was useless if informed Cretzianu about this, asking an ur- he was not charged to accept the unconditional gent point of view from the allies. The answer capitulation or the coming to power of a gov- for Cretzianu came after short time, but after ernment willful to accept this obligatory con- the departure to Klessheim of Ion and Mihai dition44. Even more, Mac Veagh informed the Antonescu, from the American general Henry Romanian diplomat that, according to the de- M. Wilson48. The tone of the message suggests cisions took at the Teheran Conference where a sincere concern for the fate of Romania and it was established that the landing of the allies of her rulers, who “by no way” will respect the will occur on the western front and not in the request of the Führer; from Bucharest were re- Balkans, “there is no hope that British troops quested efforts to hinder the Germans, in order will depart near Romania and it would be bet- to be sooner defeated and to save Romania from ter for Romania that she will already turned the fate of fighting field in the following weeks49. the weapons against Germany when the Rus- After some deliberations between the gov- sians will arrive at her frontiers”45. Loyal to the ernments of the three Allies, it was concluded Romanian interests and in full concord with that the negotiations with Romania will con- the requests issued before by the Romanian tinue with Barbu Ştirbey at Cairo, a situation emissaries, Cretzianu answered in the same which caused a change of the attitude and of way, incredible and unacceptable for the allies, the position of USSR toward Romania. On be- that if the British armies will arrive near Dan- half of the Soviet government, V. Molotov, the ube by Bulgaria, then “Romania would made Russian foreign affairs minister, expressed his an unconditional capitulation to England”, willingness for the continuation of the negotia- because Romania prefers “to die in fight than tions at Cairo, even urging that the allied gov- to be remembered in history that the present ernments to address directly to Ion Antones- rulers made unconditional capitulation to cu, who, in his turn, will proceed to take the Russia”46. Ştirbey, asked by the three emissar- measures proposed by the Allies: the capitu- ies about the help expected by the Romanian lation of the Romanian troops to the Soviets; authorities from the Allies, being aware of the the Romanian units from Dniester and Crimea impossibility of an allied landing in the Bal- will be sent after the capitulation back to the kans, suggested an air support and a landing at country to be reorganized and used against Constanţa. It is obvious that this help was pos- the Germans; the establishment of direct and sible only from the Soviets who were nearby, a mutual contacts between the Romanian and fact less agreed by the Romanian government the Soviet Headquarters etc50. Besides that, the and opposition47. chiefs of the allied general staffs considered that the removal of Romania and of the Balkan The allied ultimatum via Ankara allies from the Axis had a big military impor- While the allies continued to consult about tance, advising the American Department of the way to tackle the Romanian problem, State to do not express “restrictive political searching a point of view agreed by all of them, considerations opposed to a quick capitulation the political and military events evolved fast. of the Romanian forces”51. The advance of the Red Army led to the lib- Because the Soviet offensive in the north- eration of Ukraine by the Ukrainian Fronts 1, eastern part of the country was stopped and 2 and 3, and to the penetration of the Soviet the front situation was stabilized at the end  Revista de istorie militară  87 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor of March and the beginning of April 1944, Antonescu by a coup d’état, if he will refuse a situation preserved until 20 August 1944, the closing of the truce in the terms requested Antonescu has interrupted the “dialogue” with by the Allies in April, instead the Antonescu Cairo, which was still continued by the leader government tried to improve the conditions of of the opposition, Iuliu Maniu. the truce by the negotiations led at Stockholm On 2 April 1944, the people’s commissary with the representatives of USSR, Alexandra for foreign affairs of USSR has specified ina Kollontai and Vladimir Semionov. press conference that the units of the Red Army Maniu, who had difficulties to accept the that entered Romania in the offensive opera- signing of the truce without the active presence tions against the Germans have no occupation of the British and American forces in Romania, mission, because the Soviet government “does sent a second emissary at Cairo, Constantin not intend to obtain a part from the territory Vişoianu, a clever and experienced diplomat, of Romania or the change of the existing state close collaborator of Nicolae Titulescu, to ac- statues...”52. According to the opinion of the company Barbu Ştirbey in the negotiations for chief of the American diplomacy, the declara- the truce conditions sent by the Soviets55. At tion of Molotov offered “some guarantees” to the remarks presented by Vişoianu to the al- the Romanians, who do not have serious rea- lied representatives, the Soviets offered at 1 sons to be anxious53. June 1944 a steady answer which denied the On 12 April 1944, USSR presented the continuation of discussions until Maniu will conditions for closing the truce with Romania, not agree the truce conditions. In the same day, which will be approved, with small changes, on behalf of the three allied powers, the ne- by the governments of Great Britain and USA, gotiations with the Romanians were stopped, being addressed both to the Romanian govern- being adopted a “final declaration”, a real ul- ment and to Maniu. They requested without timatum both for Antonescu and for Maniu. ambiguity the total break of the relations with Aware about the difficulty of the reversal of Germany, the acceptance of the annexation the arms in the presence of the German oc- by USSR of Bessarabia and Northern Buko- cupation troops, it was decided that if Maniu vina, the payment of war damages to the So- or Antonescu will accept the conditions, they viets and the liberation of the prisoners. In the will be announced by Cretzianu to send on to same time, the Soviet government disavowed the front an emissary to the Russians to estab- the Diktate of Vienna of 30 August 1940, be- lish “the moment and place where, in the same ing prepared to intervene besides Romania time with the Russian forces, the Romanians against Germany and Hugary to give back to will fulfill military actions”56. The diplomatic Romania “the entire Transylvania or its most channel from Cairo was thus silenced, and all part”.54 In order to exert a higher pressure to the future appeals of Iuliu Maniu to the allies, Bucharest and to determine a sooner decision, from June-August, will remain without an- these messages were accompanied by a series swer, although he agreed on 11 June 1944 for of powerful bombings in Romania, executed closing the truce on the basis of the conditions by the American air forces. given by the allies. Because all the attempts of the government The main reasons of lacking interest from and of the democratic opposition of closing a the allies for the continuation of the truce separate truce with the allied powers exclud- negotiations with Romania are, on the one ing USSR failed, the single solution was to im- hand, the changes occurred after the landing prove by negotiations the conditions sent at 12 in Normandy („operation Overlord”) of 6 June April. In this point the ways of action of the 1944, which removed the hope for the open- Antonescu government and of the opposition ing a front in the Balkans. On the other hand, get divergent. While the leader of the opposi- their attitude was caused by the temporary de- tion, Iuliu Maniu, continued to insist until 23 limitation of the spheres of interests in South- August 1944 on the achievement of the truce Eastern Europe reached in May 1944, for the negotiations fulfilled by the Cairo channel, duration of the war. Romania will be declared accepting even the reversal of Marshal Ion area of Soviet operations, while Great Britain 88  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor reserved Greece for itself57. The victories of the The Department of State, through the Red Army on the eastern front in the summer state secretary Edward Stettinius, transmitted of 1944 decreased much the interest of Mos- the proposals of the Romanian government cow for signing a truce with Romania. to the ambassadors in London and Moscow. The decrease of the interest of the Sovi- The American ambassador in USSR, Averell ets was in close link with the political targets Harriman considered the approach from Bu- followed by Kremlin in Romania. The end of charest as ”vague and mostly not realistic”, a the offensive of the Red Army in the central point of view expressed both to the Depart- part of the eastern front, in the second half of ment of State and to the deputy of the foreign July 1944, offered to Moscow the possibility affairs minister, I. Vâşinski61. On 21 August to launch a large operation on the Romanian 1944, he replied by a telegram to Harriman, front. Because in Romania there were no po- sharing his opinion about the „not realistic” litical changes or military rebellions against character of the proposals made by the Roma- the Reich, able to provide to the Soviets a tac- nian emissaries. tical opportunity like those created in Poland by the anti-German insurrection, the leaders Ankara and the last attempts of Romania from Kremlin decided to further the conquest to exit from the Axis of Romania by concentrating large military The arrival of the Romanian emissaries forces. By consequence, hoping in a fast „neu- at Ankara coincided with the breaking of the tralization” of Romania and in the future es- diplomatic relations of Turkey with Germany tablishment of a pro-Soviet political regime in and its joining to the Allies (2 August 1944), the country, it is easy to understand why the a situation considered a delicate one in the Soviets were no more interested in the closing Romanian-Turkish relations, because Roma- of a truce in July-August 194458. nia continued to be the allied with Germany. Meanwhile, the Turkish channel, left some- The commercial attaché of Turkey, Shefgati, how in shadows, was permanently used as a declared on 1 August to a Swiss diplomat that real political mediator between Bucharest and Turkey will break the diplomatic relations only Cairo, and also for correspondence, being for with Germany and that it will preserve the rela- the allies a true “observation post” of South- Eastern Europe, Romania especially. The failure of the negotiations of Barbu Ştirbey in Cairo determined the Antonescu government to use again Turkey in his attempts to resume the contacts with the Americans, sending professor Constantin C. Giurescu and colonel Tra- ian Teodorescu at Ankara, on 2-3 August 1944 as negotiators59. They, by means of ambassador Cretzianu, contacted the American diplomats and OSS agents, being authorized by the two Antonescu to announce the sending of another emissary to Cairo for the dialogue resumption. If this was accepted, Ion Antonescu promised important concessions for the American and British governments in the oil, minery and forest industries and son on, in exchange for the taking over by the Anglo-American authorities of the war damage compensations requested by USSR, and with an Anglo-American military support, airborne and naval, fighting togeth- Telegram by which Alexandru Cretzianu was er the Romanian forces against the German informed on the ending of his mission starting troops 60. August 15, 1945  Revista de istorie militară  89 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor tions with their allies, especially with Romania, observed the passion of the Romanian ambas- although ”it would be difficult to preserve nor- sador for all his missions which made of Ankara mal relations with Romania, but we will claim one of the most important channels for nego- the previous cases of Finland with the Allies tiations with the allies, and of Turkey a real and and of Bulgaria with Germany”62. efficient collaborator for the Romanian cause. The negotiations from Stockholm andCairo During his charge, Cretzianu was also in- did not reach the wished aim because the evi- volved in various problems like the situation dent delays of the Romanian government and of Alfred G. de Chastelain and his colleagues, opposition, who refused until the last moment requested with insistence by the Reich to be to accept that the western allies could abandon sent to Berlin64, or interventions at high lev- Romania and the entire South-East and Central el which implied discussions with president Europe to the Bolsheviks. Roosevelt, with secretary of state Hull and his A last approach for closing truce, made by deputy Stettinius, in order to obtain from the Mihai Antonescu, with the full agreement of Antonescu government the permission for the the Marshal and of the opposition, took place emigration of the Jews,65; the evacuation of on 22 and 23 August, by means of the Turkish the British prisoners of war from Braşov and representative at Bucharest. He waited for 24 Timişu de Sus66, after 23 August 1944 etc. hours an answer from the British and Ameri- can allies, making the same omission of not Conclusions including explicitly the Soviet government, al- During all this long process of negotia- though it was vaguely mentioned the sending tions launched by Romania to exit from the of a Romanian emissary to Moscow, for dis- alliance with Germany and to join the United cussions on the terms of the truce. It followed Nations, the Turkish ”channel” of negotiation a change of telegrams to Ankara-London- was a constant and efficient diplomatic - out Washington-Moscow, which remained with- post, from where, by means of the two Roma-

out reason after the event of 23 August 1944 nian diplomats, minister Cretzianu and colo- After three years of failed negotiations and nel Teodorescu, the telegrams, messages and attempts, Romania entered in the war after the pieces of information of major importance for removal of Marshal Antonescu and his collab- the approaches of the Romanian government orators, without signing a truce and without and democratic opposition concerning the ef- obtaining political guarantees from the allies, forts of exit from Axis, were dispatched to the a condition requested every time by Marshal diplomatic offices, military headquarters and Antonescu, with insistence. secret services of the allies. It was also a kind Alexandru Cretzianu was the first diplomat of political and military barometer of Roma- informed about the events of 23 August and nia, Turkey and of the Allies, a crossing point the sudden change in the Romanian policy af- of the Romanian and great powers interests. ter that day. He returned from the mission on It should be reminded that this channel ben- 6 February 1946. During all this time, by the efited not only from the professionalism and Ankara channel were disclosed the details of the honesty of the diplomats, but also from the the discussions in Moscow for the closing of protection and the help of the Turkish govern- the Truce Convention, and the allies were in- ment and political class, who always expressed formed about the abuses done by the Soviet hearty and friendly sentiments for Romania, part in the Control Allied Commission, but easing thus the mission of the Romanian and 63 without reaction . foreign emissaries. The activity of the diplomat Cretzianu in the capital of Turkey was not limited to the establishment and the preservation of the contacts NOTE with the representatives of the allies concern- 1 Alexandru Cretzianu, Ocazia pierdută, In- ing the retreat of Romania from the Axis. It was stitutul european, Ediţia a II-a, prefaţă de V.Fl. more developed, becoming a true link between Dobrinescu, Postfaţă de Sherman David Spector, the two parts. During all that time it could be p. 91. 90  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor 2 Ibidem. 20 Ibidem. 3 Aurică Simion, Preliminarii politico-diplo- 21 Arh. MAE, Fond Turcia 1, Ankara, 1944, vol. matice ale insurecţiei române din august 1944, 2, f. 68. Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1979, p. 269. 22 Aurică Simion, op.cit., p. 273. 4 Andreas Hillgruber, Hitler, Regele Carol şi 23 Ibidem, p. 274. Mareşalul Antonescu. Relaţiile româno-germane 24 Ibidem (1938-1944), Editura Humanitas, Bucureşti, 1994, 25 Ibidem, p. 275. p. 125. 26 Liviu Vălenaş, Convorbiri cu Gheorghe Barbul. 5 See Peter Patfield, Hess, Hitler and Churchill: Mareşalul Antonescu şi frontul secret, Editura The Real Turning Point of the Second World War – A Marineasa, Timişoara, 1999, p. 34. Secret History, October 2013 [Kindle Edition]. 27 Ibidem, p. 35. 6 A. Hillgruber, op. cit., p. 217. 28 Aurică Simion, op.cit., p.341. 7 For the Romanian-Turkish relations in the 29 Ibidem, p. 276. interwar period see for instance: Eliza Campus, 30 Ibidem, p. 277. Înţelegerea Balcanică, Editura Academiei Repub- 31 Arh. MAE, Fond 71/Turcia, vol. 10, p. 194 licii Socialiste România, Bucureşti, 1972; Ministerul 32 Ibidem, p. 195. Afacerilor Externe, România-Turcia. Relaţii diplo- 33 Ibidem, p. 332. matice, vol. 1 1923-1938, ediţie de Dumitru Preda, 34 Ibidem, Fond 71/Turcia, vol. 63, p. 260. Editura Cavallioti, Bucureşti, 2011; Ionuţ Cojocaru, 35 Ibidem, Fond 71/Turcia, vol. 11, p. 263 România-Turcia.Actori importanţi în sistemul de 36 Leonida Loghin, Mari conferinţe internaţionale relaţii interbelice (1918-1940), Editura Cetatea de (1939-1945), Editura Politică, 1989, p. 323. Scaun, Târgovişte, 2014. 37 See Alexandru Cretzianu, op.cit., p. 123-124. 8 Emanuel Plopeanu, The Romania factor and 38 Ibidem. the British-Turkish negotiations for abandoning neu- 39 Member of Intelligence Service, he was gener- trality and joining Allied side (1943), in ”Mircea cel al director al the Oil Company „Unirea”; he assured Bătrân” Naval Academy Scientific Bulletin”, Volume from Cairo the radio link with the underground net- XV-2012-Issue 1, published by ”Mircea cel Bătrân” work from the National Peasant Party led by Iuliu Naval Academy Press, Constanţa, p. 179. Maniu. 9 Ibidem. 40 Ibidem. 10 Telegram of the military attaché in Turkey – 41 See Alexandru Cretzianu, op.cit.; Paul D. Quin- col. Traian Teodorescu, nr. 5876, Ankara, 10 Janu- lan, Clash Over Romania. British and American ary 1940, in Alesandru Duţu, Lenuţa Nicolescu, Policies toward Romania, (1938-1947), vol. II, Oana Alexandru Oşca, Andrei Nicolescu, Ataşaţii mili- Leonte, Ioana Ene (Editori), American Romanian tari transmit..., vol. II, (1938-1940), Editura Europa Academy of Arts and Science, Second Edition, 2014. Nova, Bucureşti, 2002, p. 124. 42 See Alexandru Cretzianu, op.cit., p. 127. 11 Arh. MAE, Fond 71/1920-1944, Turcia, vol. 43 The start of the Cairo negotiations was in- 66, Telegram nr. 961, 25 March 1941 of the Roma- tended to create for Romania conflictual states nian minister at Moscow, Grigore Gafencu, for the with Germany, according to a plan of the Allies, Romanian Foreign Affairs Ministry. called „Zeppelin“. This plan of the allied secret serv- 12 Ibidem, Fond 71/1920-1944, Dosare speciale, ices was prepared from the summer of 1943, and vol. 479, f. 2, Telegram nr. 1188, 23 March 1941 aimed to create a hoax for the Germans concern- from the Romanian minister at Sofia, Filotti, for the ing the future actions of the allies in the Eastern Romanian Foreign Affairs Ministry. Mediterranean and in the Balkans. It was a part of 13 Ibidem, Fond 71/Turcia, , vol. 10, p. 212. the general strategy of mystifying applied first in the 14 Emanuel Plopeanu, op.cit., p. 180. plan „Jael“, and next in the plan „Bodyguard”. Dur- 15 The opening of a second front in the Balkans ing the Teheran Conference in November 1943, the was requested by Churchill during the conferences three great one discussed the problem of mystifying of Quebec (2-14 August 1943) and Cairo (22-26 and hoaxing the enemy, and Stalin agreed to a col- November 1943), with the participation of Turkey, laboration with the Anglo-Americans. It followed but Stalin and Roosevelt opposed. the signing of the top secret agreement, on 3 March 16 Emanuel Plopeanu, op.cit., p. 180. 1944, at Moscow, and the Joint Commission set the 17 Ibidem, vol. 2, f. 68. headquarters in Scotland. From the archive docu- 18 Arh. MAE, Fond 71/România, vol. 15, f. 22. ments results that the authors of the operational 19 Aurică Simion, op.cit., p. 338. plan reserved to Romania an important role; See  Revista de istorie militară  91 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor also Elisabeth Barker, British Policy in South-East ment” between Churchill and Stalin, from Moscow Europe in the Second World War, in “American (9 October 1944). Historical Review”, Volume 82, Issue 3, 1977, pp. 58 Liviu C. Ţârău, Între Washington şi Moscova. 643-644; Eugen Preda, Săritura de pisică, Editura Politicile de securitate naţională ale SUA şi URSS Militară, Bucureşti, p. 198. şi impactul lor asupra României (1945-1965), Cluj- 44 Aurică Simion, op.cit., p. 354. Napoca, 2005, p. 317-318. 45 Ibidem, p. 355, telegram of Mac Veagh to the 59 See Valeriu Râpeanu, Constantin C. Giurescu Secretary of state, 3 March 1944. la Istanbul: înainte şi după 23 august 1944. 46 Ibidem, pp. 354-355. Corespondenţă inedită cu Victor Papacostea, in 47 Ibidem, p. 360. „Biblioteca Bucureştilor”, 11, nr. 4, 2008, p. 31-35. 48 The spontaneous intervention of Wilson 60 Aurică Simion, op.cit., f. 413, apud Foreign Re- disturbed the Soviet ambassador Novikov, who lations, 1944, vol. IV, p. 187-188 – Telegram of the reproached that he was not consulted in this situ- deputy of state secretary E. Stettinius to the USA ation. ambassador in USSR. 49 Arh. MAE, Fond Turcia 1, Ankara, vol. 1, f. 144. 61 Gh. Buzatu, op.cit., f. 277. 50 Arhivele Naţionale Române (ANR), Fond 62 Arh. MAE, Fond 71/Turcia, vol. 62, f. 275. Microfilme SUA, rola 662, cadrul 802 – Telegram 63 Alexandru Cretzianu, op.cit., p. 34-35. nr. 539 of Steinhard to Hull, Ankara, 27.03.1944. 64 See Ivor Porter, Operaţiunea „Autonomous”, 51 Ibidem. Editura Humanitas, Bucureşti, 1991. 52 Al. Vianu şi colab., Relaţii internaţionale în 65 Alexandru Cretzianu, op. cit., p. 33; see also acte şi documente, 1939-1945, Editura didactică şi Ion Calafeteanu şi colab., Emigrarea populaţiei Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1976, p. 158. evreieşti din România în anii 1940-1944. Culegere 53 Paul D. Quinlan, op. cit., p. 93. de documente, Editura Silex, Bucureşti, 1993 – 54 Alexandru Cretzianu, op.cit., pp. 149-150. Telegrama nr. 226/1 101, 5 July 1944, Al. Cretzianu 55 Ibidem, p. 151. to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 56 Gheorghe Buzatu, România şi Marile Puteri, 66 Arh. MAE, Fond Turcia 1, Ankara, 1944, vol. 1, Editura Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 2003, p. 309. f. 235; Edward Mark, The OSS in Romania 1944-1945: 57 Aurică Simion, op.cit, p. 405. This delimitation An Intelligence Operation in the Early Cold War, in will become permanent after the „Percent agree- „Intelligence and National Security”, nr. 2/1944.

92  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Centenar Primul R`zboi Mondial

Dimensiunea psiho-cognitivă a leadershipului german şi tentaţia expansiunii extra-europene

ŞERBAN FILIP CIOCULESCU * SILVIU PETRE **

Abstract

The historiography of World War I is almost entirely statocentric, and reluctant to open up to transdisciplinary perspectives. In order to address this shortcoming, this article draws a link between the psychology of German elites during the summer of 1914, German strategic culture and the instrumentalisation of different transnational revolutionary and nationalistic networks in order to undermine Allied rezistance. Namely we focus our attention on the relationship between Berlin and Ghadar Party, a cell of Indian expats fighting to free their mainland against the British masters.

Keywords: Germany, British Raj, psychology, perception, subversion, strategy, transnational society, Ghadar Party

Introducere internaţionale.2 Migraţiile popoarelor, atât din- Perioada premergătoare Primului Război spre lumea industrializată spre cea în curs de Mondial s-a remarcat prin ceea ce am putea dezvoltare cât şi invers au întreţinut o societate numi astăzi zorii globalizării. Sfârşitul de secol transnaţională puternic colorată politic. Noile XIX şi inaugurarea celui următor maturizea- ideologii (naţionalism, liberalism marxism etc) ză procese începute deja cu două trei secole în s-au propagat dinspre Chicago, Londra, Pa- urmă, anume: naşterea sistemului capitalist, ris, Zürich, Sankt Petersburg înspre estul Eu- extinderea imperiilor coloniale europene îm- ropei şi Orient (în accepţiunea cea mai largă preună cu popoarele bătrânului continent şi a termenului): Cairo, Calcutta sau Hanoi etc. valorile cultural-religioase aferente. Ceea ce Militanţi şi revoluţionari musulmani, indieni, începuse în Renaştere avea să conducă în ur- chinezi, vietnamezi ori africani s-au adăpat la mătoarele sute de ani la apariţia unui sistem ideile Revoluţiei Franceze, au urmat cursurile internaţional; la o istorie globală a umanităţii universităţilor occidentale şi au intrat în con- care, în pofida ritmurilor diferite de existenţă tact cu minţi similare din Europa şi America dobândea un sentiment comun1 şi, din punct pentru a-şi legitima propriile aspiraţii politice de vedere moral, la naşterea unei opinii publice din patria de baştină.

* Cercetător ştiinţific gr. II, Institutul pentru Studii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie Militară. ** Cercetător, Centrul de Studii Est Europene şi Asiatice.  Revista de istorie militară  93 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Izbucnirea Primului Război Mondial a in- rilor majore ale sistemului internaţional de strumentalizat în direcţie ideologică şi tactica state la începutul secolului XX, la fel de bine potenţialul societăţii transnaţionale. Pe de-o putem să ne axăm pe trăsăturile esenţiale ale parte, marile puteri europene au căutat să ca- forţelor armate (compoziţie, structură, planuri paciteze acele mişcări iredentiste sau de eli- strategice), ale societăţii industrializate asoci- berare care puteau submina frontul intern al ate naţiunilor moderne, să urmărim relaţiile adversarului; pe de cealaltă reprezentanţii miş- dintre liderii politici şi cei militari (angrenajul cărilor respective au profitat de mâna întinsă birocraţiilor statale), ori - de ce nu - o istorie a de una sau alta din puterile europene pentru a doctrinelor şi curentelor de idei ce dominau în grăbi disoluţia imperiilor coloniale şi plecarea epocă (naţionalism, socialism, liberalism etc.). stăpânilor albi. Saga lui Lawrence al Arabiei Însă nu cred că trebuie să omitem a acorda sau Wilhelm Wasmuss redau atât eforturile atenţie şi aspectelor psiho-cognitive ale lea- britanice de a folosi triburile arabe contra mu- dership-ului marilor puteri, deoarece ordinele ribundului Imperiu Otoman cât şi, invers, pe de pregătire a armatelor, mobilizare şi atac nu acelea ale Berlinului de a provoca haos în inte- l-au dat nişte entităţi abstracte numite state riorul Rajului Britanic. ci, în primul rând nişte indivizi istorici, uşor Argumentul studiului de faţă este acela că de identificat, aflaţi temporar la conducerea istoria Primului Război Mondial nu trebuie ci- afacerilor politice în ţările respective. Există tită doar în cheie statocentrică, actorii non-sta- o responsabilitate individuală a liderilor, care tali fiind deosebit de importanţi pentru dinami- finalmente nu se pot ascunde la infinit în spa- ca balanţei de puteri şi hotărârile luate de elitele tele statelor pe care le-au administrat sau păs- statale. Acestea fiind spuse, studiul va supli- torit, în diverse moduri, exact la fel cum şi în menta perspectiva ştiinţelor politice cu aceea a cazurile de genocid judecate de curţi naţionale psihologiei. Prima parte va fi dedicată trecerii sau internaţionale se insistă pe imposibilitatea în reviste a mai multor teorii şi scheme psiho- logică şi faptică de a culpabiliza state în locul cognitive şi interpretării acestora în contextul indivizilor. În studiul de faţă, contribuţia lui acţiunilor celor mai importanţi actori de pe Şerban F. Cioculescu se va axa pe înţelegerea scena mondială. A doua parte se va concentra elementelor psiho-cognitive cele mai impor- pe componenta non-statală şi va zăbovi asupra tante ce l-au caracterizat pe Kaizerul Wilhelm modului în care pasiunea elitelor politico-inte- al-II-lea, dar şi pe unii dintre miniştrii şi con- lectuale germane pentru Orient a determinat silierii săi. Vom folosi literatura istorică bazată susţinerea unor reţele de revoluţionari ce pro- pe arhive dar şi pe mărturii directe din epocă, miteau subminarea antantei anglo-americane. şi în acelaşi timp, pe elementele teoretice fur- nizate de psihologia politică. I. Ştiinţe politice şi psihologie. Liderul politic, fie că este vorba de un stat Spre o sinteză operaţională democratic, fie că vorbim de un stat dictato- rial sau chiar totalitar, este în permanenţă Multitudinea de analize dedicate Primului atent la situaţia internaţională, încercând să Război Mondial constituie un element benefic evalueze mediul de securitate, mai precis spus pentru cititorul dornic să reconstituie cauzele potenţialii adversari şi aliaţii. El îşi formează profunde şi contextul în care a avut loc acea aşa-numita „percepţie a ameninţării” (threat „fatidică” înlănţuire de evenimente ce a condus perception), bazată pe factori precum cultura la marea conflagraţie, prima de o asemenea de securitate, lecţiile geopolitice învăţate, an- anvergură din istoria lumii. În general, adepţii turajul dar şi psihologia individuală şi de grup. fiecărei discipline sunt convinşi că metoda lor Anxietatea liderului politic derivă din faptul de analiză are avantajele cele mai consistente, că mediul strategic în care statul îşi desfăşoară de aceea, în general, interdisciplinaritatea nu „viaţa” este marcat de incertitudine – nu cu- este la mare căutare sau oricum nu în main- noaşte decât în mod aproximativ capabilităţile stream-ul expertizei de profil.3 şi intenţiile adversarilor reali sau presupuşi, Desigur, putem înţelege declanşarea răz- nu poate anticipa exact nici comportamentul boiului prin luarea în considerare a trăsătu- aliaţilor. În plus, politicianul nu are acces la in- 94  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor formaţia directă, ci ea îi este filtrată de către cepe direct mediul operaţional, fapt ce con- consilieri, anturaj, serviciile de informaţii etc. trazice paradigma realistă a actorului raţional Astfel, de fiecare dată când liderul politic şi omniscient! Decidenţii supremi în stat pot trebuie să evalueze o situaţie, şi să ia o deci- ajunge să fie complet „ecranaţi” faţă de realita- zie, el se va confrunta cu distorsiuni cognitive te, trăind într-un fel de univers paralel! mai mult sau mai puţin grave, dar în orice caz În ceea ce priveşte percepţia asupra adver- decizia sa nu va mai fi una pur raţională în sen- sarului, intervin şi unele mecanisme simpli- sul dat de autorii curentului neorealist în RI. ficatoare şi auto-liniştitoare precum „funda- Calculul pur raţional al costurilor (riscurilor) mental attribution error theory”. Astfel, acţiu- şi beneficiilor nu poate fi decât unul imperfect nile agresive ale unui actor judecat drept ostil deoarece lumea este în plină schimbare, se sunt considerate ca izvorând din „ostilitatea” produc procese non-lineare ale evoluţiei (de intrinsecă, naturală a adversarului, în timp ce tip „turbulenţe” – James Rosenau), mediul de eventuale acţiuni de reconciliere din partea securitate este extrem de complex, pe de altă acestuia sunt percepute ca un efect al puterii parte accesul la informaţie al decidentului e şi nivelului de intimidare (deterrence) ale ac- unul incomplet, trunchiat, cu limitări inerente torului iniţial, aşadar un semn de slăbiciune poziţiei sale. Astfel distorsiunile cognitive pot şi teamă, nu de deschidere şi dialog.11 Acţiu- influenţa la modul semnificativ percepţia psi- nile celuilalt nu au nici o semnificaţie în sine, hologică a ameninţărilor. Există aşa-numitele ele au nevoie de interpretare, de o citire într-o „cognitive biases”4, procese de deviere cauzate anumită grilă. Psihologia socială oferă instru- de complexitatea mediului şi densitatea infor- mentele teoretice necesare unei bune explica- maţiei care intră în reţea)5, dar şi „motivated ţii a comportamentului decidenţilor în situaţii biases”6 – legate de emoţii, de percepţii bazice de criză. Confruntat cu adversari care iniţiază (frică, dorinţă, vinovăţie etc.) politici dure de tip cursa înarmărilor, alianţe Decidentul sau cel care percepe o situaţie agresive pe flanc, ameninţări verbale etc, dede securitate, în mod inconştient caută să fie cidenţii din statul ţintă vor tinde să pună acest coerent cu propriul său sistem de credinţe şi de comportament pe seama unei ostilităţi profun- valori, cu ceea ce Nathan Leites a numit pride, native, carcaterului rău, ignorând adesea mul „codul operaţional”.7 În acest fel, se produ- factorii legaţi de feed-back-ul generat de proce o deviere majoră faţă de modelul actorului priul nivel de ameninţare – ajungem la faimo- raţional oferit de teoriile rational choice şi de sul mecanism al dilemei securităţii. După cum Neorealism-Neoliberalim din RI. Confruntat arată Levy şi Thompson în volumul lor „Ca- cu informaţii multiple şi care se pot contrazi- uzele războiului”, se ajunge frecvent la „subes- ce, decidentul le va selecta inconştient pe cele timarea efectelor dilemei securităţii”, adică nu care îi confirmă puntul de vedere, credinţele, consideră că adversarul judecă exact ca el şi opiniile şi le va elimina pe celelalte. Astfel, va interpretează greşit acţiuni defensive ca fiind avea loc o filtrare a informaţiilor, un proces de ofensive şi periculoase.12 Factorii situaţionali selecţie care va elimina din start sau pe parcurs sunt cei care explică dilema securităţii, nu cei informaţiile ce contrazic valorile şi credinţele dispoziţionali. pre-existente ale acelui decident – „premature Aşadar decidentul trebuie să discearnă în- cognitive closure”.8 Harold şi Margaret Spro- tre adversari reali, potenţiali şi imaginari şi, ut au dezvoltat teoria „psycho milieu”, mediul de asemenea, trebuie să decidă ce nivel de risc internaţional şi operaţional, în felul în care acceptă (risk propensity). Uneori adversarul decidentul îl percepe, şi care îi influenţează este perceput ca fiind unul centralizat, unitar, comportamentul (‘the environment as percei- agresiv intrinsec, fără a ţine cont de existenţa ved by the decision-maker & upon which he/she unor birocraţii (cu care decidentul negociază bases his/her reaction’).9 Dar avem şi „mediul politicile adoptate) şi a unei negocieri intra- operaţional”, adică ceea ceea ce există în reali- statale în acel stat. tate (‘the true environment in which the chosen Sistemul de credinţe şi valori este cel mai policy is executed’).10 Între cele două elemente greu de schimbat după cum arată psihologii, există o distanţă, deoarece decidentul nu per- deoarece întregul eşafodaj al personalităţii in-  Revista de istorie militară  95 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor dividului se bazează pe acesta. Persoanele cu Britanie prin programul lui Tirpitz de înarma- o anumită vârstă şi statut înalt se schimbă ex- re navală, să o atragă într-o alianţă, apoi s-ar trem de greu.13 Decidentul trebuie să adapteze fi mulţumit şi cu neutralitatea britanicilor. Dar propriile credinţe şi convingeri informaţiilor tot Wilhelm cochetase anterior cu ideea unei primite, să înveţe lecţii (din istorie) şi să se alianţe cu Franţa şi Rusia contra Marii Britanii, adapteze, în felul de a inţelege riscurile şi ad- în ideea rivalităţilor pentru colonii. Wilhelm a versarii, aliaţii, partenerii. ameninţat adesea, sugerând modificarea gra- Nu doar psihologia decidentului contea- niţelor Belgiei, Franţei, ba chiar tentative de ză, din care poate că o parte e ereditară, alta a ataca par surprise SUA, neluate in seamă de modelată de evenimentele copilariei, ci şi Statul Major german. Totuşi acelaşi Wilhelm „lecţiile trecutului”, învăţarea din analogii cu i-a cerut in toiul crizei lui Helmuth von Moltke evenimente din viaţa personală sau din cea să pregătească armata pentru un război doar colectivă.14 Gândirea analogică permite înţe- contra Rusiei, fiind refuzat de acesta pe mo- legerea rapidă a unor situaţii complexe, dar tiv că nerespectarea planului german de luptă aduce şi riscul analogiilor forţate, adevărate avea să dezorganizeze grav efortul militar, fiind self-fulfiling prophecies în cazuri extreme. În aşadar necesar atacul întâi asupra Franţei, via 1914, decidenţii germani puteau face analogii Belgia şi Luxemburg. Moltke avea să mărturi- cu campaniile napoleoniene cu un secol mai sească soţiei faptul că s-a simţit umilit de re- vechi, cu războiul Crimeei, cu războiul franco- marca împăratului (care l-a comparat defavo- prusian sau cu cel ruso-japonez. rabil cu mult mai faimosul său unchi), fiindu-i Percepţia este în parte predeterminată. „distrusă” auto-încrederea. Unii experţi arată Există o tendinţă a decidenţilor de a percepe că marina militară germană, impulsionată de ceea ce îşi doresc să vadă, aşa numitul wishful leadership-ul viguros al lui Tirpitz, devenise thinking – în numele coerenţei cognitive, ei un fel de stat în stat lucrând in izolare chiar ajung să ignore astfel informaţia care contrazice faţă de armata de uscat, planificând o bătălie propriile lor aşteptări şi să considere probabi- decisivă cu britanicii şi evident căutând acces litatea succesului ca fiind crescută, aşadar vor privilegiat la clasa politică.16 tinde să îşi asume riscuri mai mari. Apare cre- În ce priveşte nivelul de risc acceptat de dinţa sau iluzia că se pot controla evenimentele, către decidenţii germani, el decurge din psiho- că factorul accidental este diminuat şi controla- logia acestora, din cultura strategică şi din ide- bil finalmente.15 În mintea decidentului se for- ologia naţionalistă care îi anima. Acceptarea mează un lanţ cauză-efect bazat pe probabili- riscului e legată atât de psihologia decidentului tăţi iar supra-optimismul generează tendinţa de cât şi de percepţia asupra situaţiei respective. a acţiona curajos, de a asuma riscuri mai mari Psihologii americano-israelieni Daniel Kah- şi a anticipa o victorie, in timp ce pesimismul neman şi Amos Tversky au propus în anii ‘70 generează prudenţă, risc scăzut, aşadar funcţi- ai secolului trecut modelul „prospect theory” onează mecanismul descurajării. Dacă Wilhelm (în cadrul disciplinei „cognitive science”) al II şi miniştrii săi ar fi fost pesimişti în ce priveş- asumării raţionale a riscului, şi au arătat că te rezultatul unei bătălii cu Rusia, şi-ar fi asu- orice actor social stabileşte un punct-reper şi mat riscuri mai mici, de pildă ar fi oprit cumva în funcţie de acesta percepe o situaţie ca fiind mobilizarea armatei germane, cerând imperativ de pierdere sau de câştig.17 În plan psihologic, Austro-Ungariei să nu solicite condiţii atât de tendinţa oamenilor e de regulă de a evita pier- drastice în ultimatumul dat Serbiei. derea, paguba, tendinţă mai puternică decât De ce nu s-a aşteptat totuşi Germania să dorinţa de a câştiga. Identificarea punctului de intervină Marea Britanie în război, de partea referinţă este denumită „framing” – valorile şi Franţei si Rusiei, odată cu violarea neutralităţii credinţele individului, dar şi lecţiile învăţate în Belgiei? Pe de-o parte deoarece Kaiserul spera trecut, îl ajută să selecteze o anumită opţiune. şi îşi dorea ca britanicii să rămână neutri, pe de Psihologii au demonstrat că după ce un indi- altă parte deoarece spera ca nivelul de putere vid sau un grup au suferit o pierdere, vor risca atins de Reich să producă descurajare asupra ulterior mai mult spre a anula pierderea şi a britanicilor. Încercase să intimideze Marea reface situaţia iniţială – aşadar decidenţii vor 96  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor fi risk-taking în situaţie de evitare a pierderii ajunge la concluzia că de vină pentru declan- sau recuperare a pagubei şi risk-avoiding în şarea războiului a fost credinţa în supremaţia situaţii când ar putea cîştiga ceva – după cum ofensivei, anume ideea că victoria e relativ uşor arată Levy şi Thompson „liderii politici au ten- de obţinut pentru cel ce atacă primul, prin sur- dinţa să îşi asume mai multe riscuri spre a îşi prindere. Nu doar Germania ci si Rusia, Franţa menţine poziţiile internaţionale, reputaţia şi şi Austro-Ungaria credeau că avantajul e de sprijinul politic intern impotriva potenţialelor partea celui ce atacă primul! Aşadar teoria pierderi, decât o fac spre a îşi consolida poziţi- ofensivei şi defensivei („offense-defense the- ile. E mai probabil să lupte spre a evita pierde- ory”) conţine elementul „trigger” ce a transfor- rile, decât să obţină câştiguri.” 18 mat criza în conflict21, dar desigur cauzele pro- În cazul Germaniei, se ştie că Wilhelm II funde sunt cele cunoscute: naţionalism exacer- nutrea temerea ca ascensiunea militară şi eco- bat, credinţa în beneficiile morale şi biologice nomică a Rusiei să nu o transforme într-un ale războiului pentru naţiuni (a se vedea cartea inamic imposibil de înfrânt la orizontul anilor generalului german Von Bernhardi – „Ger- 1918-1920, odată cu avansul industrializării şi mania şi următorul război”), motivul „social sporul demografic. Germania ştia că avea he- imperial” (teama kaiserului şi apropiaţilor săi gemonia terestră în 1914, nu dorea să o piar- de agitaţia socialistă) precum şi personalitatea dă in faţa alianţei franco-ruse (Franţa oferea haotic-agresivă a lui Wilhelm. Cercuri ale in- capitalurile şi know how-ul industrial, Rusia telligentsiei naţionaliste din Germania denun- aducea în alianţă milioane de soldaţi, gata de ţau pericolul jugului slav (barbariei slave), iar sacrificat şi construia căi ferate strategice cu în Rusia panslaviştii denunţau germanismul banii francezi).19 Germania dorea să spargă în- imperialist, spiritul teuton nefast – aşadar se cercuirea strategică („complex de încercuire” – dezvoltaseră curente xenofobe populare, cu cf. David Stevenson), „anaconda” franco-ru- tentă chiar rasistă22, grefate pe fundalul darwi- să, care o sufoca strategic în timp ce rivalitatea nismului social din geopolitica vremii! economică cu Imperiul Britanic şi SUA o su- Din acest punct de vedere, percepţia ger- foca economic. Se ştie că Stephen Van Evera, mană ar fi fost de apărare a poziţiei hegemo- profesor la Massachussets Institute of Techno- nice continentale bazată pe industrie, capital logy-MIT, a analizat cauzele WWI pornind de uman şi tehnologie militară, dar implicit şi a la «cultul ofensivei» şi balanţa (teoria) ofensi- rasei germanice. Şcoala neorealistă actuală vă-defensivă. face distincţia între actorii „lacomi” (cu moti- Practic Germania dar şi Austro-Ungaria, ve de tip „greedy”) şi cei „defensivi”, satisfăcuţi pretinde Van Evera, s-au temut că dacă nu va- („security seeking”).23 Charles Glaser a furnizat lorifică rapid o fereastră de oportunitate, ulte- un model de analiză a comportamentelor ba- rior se vor găsi în situaţie de vulnerabilitate şi zat pe informaţii, capabilităţi, intenţii atribuite risc de infrângere militară. Exista credinţa că celorlalţi dar intenţiile sunt tot o problemă de aceste state „trebuie să crească sau să moară”, percepţie şi de „lessons learned”, ca şi una de fără o cale de mijloc, practic un darwinism ge- pasiuni colective (naţionale). Dacă Rusia nu ar opolitic accentuat. Iar statele majore din Ru- fi fost percepută la Berlin ca un adversar for- sia şi Germania aveau strategii militare bazate midabil, care practic permitea Franţei să re- doar pe ofensivă (fără opţiuni defensive), în ziste cu succes unei confruntări cu Germania, perspectiva războiului pe două fronturi – „ear- poate că dorinţa Rusiei de a obţine strâmtorile ly offensive in all directions”.20 Teama de a pier- turceşti nu ar fi provocat o reacţie de opozi- de aliatul major a influenţat Franţa şi Marea ţie atât de clară. Până cu un deceniu inainte de Britanie faţă de Rusia, iar în cazul Germaniei Primul Război Mondial, Franţa apărea ca ad- teama de o umilire a Austro-Ungariei în faţa versarul cel mai probabil al Germaniei iar Ber- Rusiei, urmată de agitaţie etnică internă şi im- linul tolerase destul de bine elanurile expansi- plozie. Germania a atacat Belgia (după un ulti- oniste ruseşti spre zona strâmtorilor pontice. matum respins de Bruxelles), nu a dat nici un De precizat, totuşi, că un cunoscut expert în avertisment anterior clar, de aceea nu a putut fi studii strategice, Dale Copeland, consideră descurajată, mai ales de Marea Britanie. Evera că, de fapt, cancelarul german şi asociaţii săi  Revista de istorie militară  97 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor au preferat un război generalizat, major, unuia putem considera că o analiză raţională ar fi localizat sau unei negocieri paşnice, aşa încât arătat că riscul de catastrofă naţională nu era «au folosit criza spre a manipula celelalte state, atât de crescut – Germania se putea dezvolta inclusiv Austria, spre război.» El respinge ar- armonios şi fără o expansiune spre Est, pu- gumentul atribuit lui lui Fritz Fischer, anume tea deveni cea mai mare putere industrială şi că liderii germani au căutat războiul mai ales comercială a Europei, putea evita războiul cu ca să se apere de agitaţia socialistă internă, Rusia şi putea gradual să se decupleze strate- arătând că, dacă ar fi fost astfel, era mai logic gic de Austro- Ungaria. Incercuirea strategică să evite un război cu consecinţe imprevizibile! pe care o percepea Germania putea fi depăşită De asemenea respinge argumentele istoricilor prin alt fel de politici, mai puţin agresive, prin Egmont Zechlin şi Dietrich Edermann, anume metode graduale de detensionare. că Germania a dorit un război localizat în Bal- Robert Jervis, profesor la Universitatea Co- cani, în sprijinul Vienei.24 lumbia, afirma în faimosul său volum despre Foarte util este şi modelul „polieuristic”, percepţiile eronate în politica internaţională folosit de Alex Mintz şi Nehemia Geva, care că trebuie căutate cauzele unor războaie atât arată că decidentul aflat în situaţie de criză, la nivelul decidentului (al percepţiei) cât şi la parcurge un proces mental în două etape – nivelurile naţional, birocratic şi internaţional, elimină din start alternativele de acţiune ce dar că alegerea nivelului de analiză are profun- implică un cost politic intern prea mare, apoi de implicaţii morale.26 evaluează raţional opţiunile rămase şi o ale- Factori esenţiali în declanşarea războiului ge pe aceea care aduce cea mai mare utilitate precum alianţele extrem de rigide, teama reci- scontată. De pildă Wilhelm II nu putea cere procă a marilor puteri, planificarea prea rigidă Austro-Ungariei să nu ia nici un fel de mă- a strategiilor militare, naţionalismul exacerbat sură contra Serbiei deoarece ştia că agitaţia şi grevat pe un filon darwinist, se bazează cel naţionalistă risca să surpe imperiul aliat. Nici puţin parţial şi pe factorii psiho-cognitivi. Nu nu o putea lăsa pe mâna Rusiei, deoarece ar fi se poate spune că decidenţii supremi pre- rămas fără principalul aliat în caz de conflict cum Wilhelm II sau Nicolae II ar fi fost cu ulterior cu Rusia şi Franţa. Germania a ajuns adevărat prizonierii unor birocraţii politi- sa interpreteze ofensiv acordul cu Austro-Un- co-militare, astfel încât să nu poată evita fi- garia din 1879, care avusese o natură defensivă nalmente războiul, cu toate că în Germania prin excelenţă – un cec în alb dat A.-U. pentru militarii şi-au impus planurile strategice în atacarea Serbiei. Aşadar Wilhelm a exclus din faţa Kaiserului, profitând probabil de pani- start aceste scenarii dintre posibilele opţiuni. ca şi confuzia acestuia. Dorinţa lor de a nu îşi Evitarea cu orice preţ a războiului ar fi gene- aliena popoarele, de a corespunde aşteptărilor rat pierderea capitalului politic intern – poate acestora în plan ideologic (naţionalismul), de a chiar revoluţie socialistă, schimbare de regim salva dinastiile, au condus la compromisul cu etc. Teoria polieuristică nu contrazice teoriile birocraţiile tehnice ale statelor respective (şi actorului raţional postulate de neorealişti şi cu forţele politice interne în cazul german) şi neoliberali, ci le rafinează prin recurs la grilele la acceptarea escaladării crizei spre război. Se psiho-cognitive, confirmate experimental pe poate argumenta că psihologia liderilor e cea 25 grupuri de voluntari. care a precipitat declanşarea războiului în august 1914 dar că factorii structurali, sistemici, Orice teorie a războiului trebuie să com- de tipul bipolarităţii şi a cursei înarmărilor, ar bine factorii aflati la cele trei nivele de bază: fi dus oricum la război mai devreme sau mai sistemic, statal şi substatal (K. Waltz). La nivel târziu. Factorul regim politic influenţează şi el sistemic, este adevărat că în 1914, se tindea că- agresivitate externă a unui stat – se ştie că de- tre o forma de bipolaritate astfel că distribuţia mocraţiile consolidate în general păstrează pa- capabilităţilor şi dificultatea de a calcula exact cea dintre ele, pe când regimurile dictatoriale potenţialul de putere al fiecărei tabere a gene- sunt mai înclinate spre atac, cele mai instabile rat incertitudine, teama de a fi depăşit, încon- regimuri fiind cele în tranziţie. Un asemenea jurat, de a pierde aliaţii-cheie. Dar retrospectiv regim îşi pune amprenta şi asupra felului în 98  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor care decidentul percepe realitatea – de pildă Ţarul revine şi sugerează o conferinţă de ar- teama lui de a nu pierde puterea si chiar viaţa bitraj la Haga, aşadar o soluţie instituţională. El (în regimuri revoluţionare) în caz că are o poli- explică măsurile militare de pregătire ca o re- tică externă non-asertivă. acţie la acţiunile A-U de pregătire a campaniei Faimoasele telegrame dintre cei doi îm- contra Serbiei, aşadar Germania nu ar fi avut păraţi (şi veri) Nicolae II şi Wilhelm II relevă nici un motiv de teamă. E clar că pentru Ger- atât îngrijorările legate de mobilizarea armatei mania, mobilizarea Rusiei înseamnă război, iar celuilalt (manevre prea rapide, percepute ca în acest caz Wilhelm nu poate ignora viziunea agresive, teama de atac preemptiv şi de a fi sur- strategică a Statului Major General, bazată pe prins) cât şi divergenţa în percepţii: în timp ce Planul Schlieffen-Moltke (nu război pe două Nicolae se arată scandalizat de politicile repre- fronturi simultan, dar în mod succesiv). Prac- sive la adresa naţionalităţilor ale Austro-Unga- tic Wilhelm aruncă întreaga povară a deciziei riei, Wilhelm era foarte tulburat de naţionalis- – pace sau război – pe umerii lui Nicolae, ca şi mul agresiv al Serbiei şi credea că e necesară o cum nu ar fi înţeles că şi Statul Major rus avea pedepsire sau reprimare a acestuia, spre a salva planuri aproape la fel de rigide de mobilizare imperiul aliat. În telegrama din 29 iulie, Ţarul iar Nicolae nu putea opri singur mobilizarea afirmă că: „I foresee that very soon I shall be fără a se compromite. overwhelmed by the pressure forced upon me Intervine celebra dilemă a securităţii men- and be forced to take extreme measures which ţionate mereu de şcoala (neo)realistă: capa- will lead to war.” 27 Kaiserul spune că „The un- bilităţi versus intenţii, apoi mecanismul de scrupulous agitation that has been going on in spirală a ostilităţii. Wilhelm nu se poate baza Serbia for years has resulted in the outrageous pe vorbele împăciuitoare ale lui Nicolae şi vi- crime, to which Archduke Francis Ferdinand ceversa, din moment ce aparatele decizionale fell a victim. The spirit that led Serbians to ale celor două state s-au identificat reciproc ca murder their own king and his wife still domi- adversari potenţiali. Informaţiile despre pre- nates the country.” Se manifestă şi empatia faţă gătirea armatei ruse sunt interpretate de către de situaţia internă dificilă a Romanovilor: „On Kaiser ca fiind ofensive prin definiţie, nicide- the other hand, I fully understand how difficult cum defensive: „I now receive authentic news it is for you and your Government to face the of serious preparations for war on my Eastern drift of your public opinion” – şi promisiunea frontier.” Rezultă că devenise extrem de greu, la de a pune presiune asupra Austro Ungariei nivel doctrinar şi perceptiv, să se deosebească spre a nu escalada criza. manevrele defensive de cele ofensive. În mod Kaiserul punea accent pe judecarea corec- normal, un stat „raţional”, care nu doreşte să tă şi urgentă a celor care au comis crima con- escaladeze o criză, va face mai uşor concesii al- tra lui Franz Ferdinand, pe când Ţarul insista tui stat dacă îl consideră a fi pro-status quo sau pe necesitatea de a prezerva pacea. Wilhelm chiar un revizionist regional (de nivel inferior). afirma că Austria nu doreşte expansiune teri- Jervis atrage atenţia că acele concesii făcute în torială în dauna Serbiei ci acţionează defensiv, speranţa greşită că celălalt e un actor status legitim. Contrar teoriei că Germania a crezut quo sunt extrem de probabil să fie interpreta- într-un război scurt şi victorios, Kaiserul din te eronat, „dacă celălalt nu înţelege că politica contră vede la orizont o catastrofă, sugerând statului e bazată pe o imagine falsă”. 28 Un stat Rusiei non-acţiunea (cu efecte benefice, în opi- care devine prea conciliator, sau renunţă vo- nia sa, pentru ambele state, Rusia si Germa- luntar la înarmare, fără să primească în com- nia): „I therefore suggest that it would be quite pensaţie ceva similar de la adversarul său, va possible for Russia to remain a spectator of the fi perceput de acesta ca fiind slab, ceea ce va austro-serbian conflict without involving Euro- tenta agresiunea (lipsa efectului de deterrence). pe in the most horrible war she ever witnessed.” A nu îţi apăra activ aliatul în caz de criză cu un În caz contrar, afirmă că nu îşi poate îndeplini adversar poate conduce acel adversar să creadă sarcina de mediator („jeopardize my position că dacă provoacă o altă criză similară, din nou as mediator”) în conflict, iar Austro-Ungaria îi statul ţintă va fi pasiv şi finalmente işi va pierde va scăpa de sub control. acel aliat.  Revista de istorie militară  99 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Oricum, din telegrame se observă că ne spune Clark, dorea să fie stăpânul absolut Wilhelm consideră că nu el va purta reponsa- al politicii externe şi militare germane. „I am bilitatea pentru război deoarece a făcut tot ce a the Foreign Office” a afirma el, iar „ţara mea putut spre a-l evita: „In my endeavours to ma- trebuie să mă urmeze oriunde merg”. Trecea intain the peace of the world I have gone to the peste autoritatea miniştrilor săi, le submina ju- utmost limit possible.” Măsurile militare ruse risdicţia, expunea puncte de vedere personale, sunt văzute ca nejustificate deoarece nimeni neavizate de miniştrii de resort. De pildă, în nu o ameninţă: „Nobody is threatening the ho- discuţia cu ambasadorul SUA la ambasada din nour or power of Russia – Rusia, zice el, are Berlin, cu ocazia unui dineu, a ajuns să spună timp să aştepte rezultatul medierii intreprinse ca Germania are deja 60 milioane locuitori si de Kaiser.” Planul Schlieffen-Moltke făcea ar avea nevoie de teritorii de la Franţa, aşa că imposibil pentru Germania să nu mobili- aceasta ar trebui rugată să îşi mute graniţa mai zeze dacă Rusia începea prima mobilizarea, la Vest!30 Sau îl anunţa pe regele Belgiei Leo- deoarece risca să nu mai aibă timp să scoată pold, în 1904, că va modifica graniţele Frantei Franţa din război înainte de a infrunta ar- aşa încât Belgia să primească şi ea un teritoriu matele ruseşti. (si coroana Burgundiei pentru Leopold), cu E tipicul mecanism de dilemă a securităţii condiţia să i se alăture la război. În caz contrar, între doi actori revizionişti (greedy states) care Germania avea să procedeze strategic, trecand în retorica oficială se consideră state pro-status cu forţele sale prin Belgia spre Franţa. Aceste quo, satisfăcute. E şi o fugă de responsabilitate planuri, spune Clark, plecau de la premiza evidentă. Legal, ambii ar fi putut opri mobi- că Germania avea să fie cea atacată şi se va lizarea armatelor şi evita războiul, dar cu apăra!31 Aşadar o psihologie defensivă, obsesia riscuri personale asumate la nivel crescut. citadelei asediate! Decidentul suprem german se temea atât de De asemenea, a anunţat entuziasmat că Rusia în plan extern cât şi de agitaţia soci- va oferi colonilor germani teritorii în Brazi- aliştilor în plan intern, acceptând astfel un lia (Noua Germanie – Neudeutschland), apoi atac devansat, care să permită un succes mi- Mesopotamia, apoi o bucată din China de Est litar şi politic totodată. (eventual în alianţă cu Japonia) sau o parte din Ambii lideri vorbesc mereu de prietenie, în- America Latină! Dorea ca armata germană să credere, ajutor, simpatie, declară că nu doresc invadeze Puerto Rico, Cuba şi New York şi să defel război, dar prezintă măsurile de mobili- atace prin surprindere SUA dinspre Atlantic. zare militare ca fiind absolut logice, legitime, Miniştrii germani au ajuns sa ia decizii majore neameninţătoare pentru un actor statu-quo. excluzându-l pe Kaiser – neprelungirea trata- Problema e că la nivel perceptiv, acel status tului de reasigurare cu Rusia din 1890 de pildă. quo văzut de Germania şi de Rusia nu e acelaşi! Corespondenţa cu politicieni străini îi era cen- Kaiserul spune că înţelege de ce Nicolae trebu- zurată, controlată, spre a se evita gafele majo- ie să mobilizeze armata (i se spusese anterior re. Vorbea nu ca un rege ci ca „un adolescent de către ţar că e „tehnic imposibil” să oprească hiper-excitat”. Însă cand o criză devenea peri- mobilizarea). Se acuză la final de lipsa de co- culoasă, brusc Wilhelm devenea prudent şi se municare, de transparenţă, şi de garanţii, astfel retrăgea, evitând tonul agresiv şi escaladarea! că mobilizarea militară e văzută ca o necesitate Disputa dintre Kaiser şi cancelarul Bethmann la care nici un lider raţional nu poate renunţa. Holweg pe marginea unor rapoarte diploma- Telegramele, asa cum arată Cristopher Clark, tice despre agresivitatea marii Britanii în plan nu reflectau opinii private, secrete, ci puncte- naval e un bun exemplu în ce priveşte deose- le de vedere ale birocraţiilor politico-militare birile perceptive: memorandumul lui Wilhelm ale celor două imperii! E vorba de telegrame Widenmann (ataşatul naval german la Londra) diplomatice, atent supravegheate şi formulate din 1911, care arăta că Marea Britanie în timpul de personalul diplomatic din cele două mi- crizei din Agadir mobilizase toată flota contra nistere de externe, astfel că monarhii erau de Germaniei vs. raportul Metternich (ambasa- fapt „transmiţătorii mai degrabă decât cei ce dorul german la Londra) care spunea că deşi generau semnalele trimise reciproc”. 29 Kaiserul, englezii se pregătiseră de război, acest lucru 100  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor nu implica agresivitate totală ci doar precauţie. investiţiile (firmele achiziţionate) se vor amor- Kaiserul furios a scris pe marginea raportului tiza în cele din urmă sau, eventualele pierderi Metternich că de fapt era total greşit şi Widen- nu vor fi foarte importante.35 Teoria hibrisului mann era cel ce avea dreptate! Însă, Bethmann se poate aplica cu succes şi în politica interna- cerea o politică de destindere la sugestia am- ţională pentru a explica de ce mari puteri (regi- basadorului Metternich.32 Betmann avea şi el o onale sau globale) intervin în state mici, slabe, teorie a Germaniei care risca pierderea statului convinse că le pot înfrânge, iar când situaţia pe de mare putere prin inacţiune, un fel de auto- teren devine dificilă sunt dispuse să cheltuias- castrare, sau Selbstentmannung, dacă nu spri- că resurse exorbitante pentru a nu se face de jinea dubla monarhie în caz de necesitate.33 ruşine în faţa opiniei publice. Exemplele sunt numeroase, în epoca modernă nu este nevo- Exerciţiile de interdisciplinaritate făcute în ie să enumerăm decât intervenţiile franceză şi sfera relaţiilor internaţionale au totuşi o limi- americană din Vietnam sau sovietică şi ameri- tare → aceea că se fundamentează pe modelul cană şi Afganistan.36 statocentric. Diferitele teorii şi modele explicative prezente aici conţin implicit prezum- Modelul Strategico-subversiv concentric ţia unui sistem internaţional westphalic, ele (SSC) vorbindu-ne prea puţin despre relaţiile dintre După ce am prezentat şi adus exemple pri- instituţiile şi elitele guvernamentale şi actorii vitoare la teoriile de psihologie politică de mai non-statali, aşa precum sunt cei ce vor fi presus, vom avansa un model explicativ pentru zenţi în studiul nostru. comportamentul strategic al Germaniei atât Ştiinţa economică ne poate fi de ajutor în- faţă de actorii statali rivali cât şi faţă de cei tr-un mod mult mai fertil decât a prezentat-o non-statali, pe care îl vom numi modelul stra- neorealismul waltzian. Potenţialul său provine tegic – subversiv concentric: din faptul că, spre deosebire de domeniul rela- Atunci când un stat este încercuit de ad- ţiilor internaţionale care presupune că unităţi- versari mai slabi decât el luaţi individual, le sistemice sunt în general durabile, aici firme- dar mai puternici decât el luaţi împreună, le, principalii actori sunt extrem de volatili şi statul în cauză va utiliza o dublă măsură trec prin schimbări continue şi vizibile, atât în pentru a sparge încercuirea: a) va încerca să interiorul lor cât şi în ceea ce priveşte relaţiile sperie sau să înfrângă adversarii convenţio- dintre ele, unde fuziunile, achiziţiile ori fali- nali prin intervenţii preemtive şi b) va căuta mentele sunt la ordinea zilei. Una din direcţiile alianţa cu acei actori non-statali care pot preferate de studiu în ultimii ani, mai ales în submina frontul intern al adversarilor săi. contextul crizei din 2008, a fost acela al hibri- 1) primul cerc era acela al luptei armate sului corporat, mai ales la nivelul directorilor directe cu adversarul: în câmpiile Flandrei cu marilor companii (CEO) sau speculanţilor la Anglia, Franţa, America şi coloniile supuse bursă.34 Asemenea oamenilor politici în situ- acestora; pe frontul răsăritean cu Rusia ţaristă, aţii de criză sau militarilor în război, jucătorii România, forţele expediţionare ale puterilor economici trebuie adesea să ia decizii bazate occidentale; pe informaţii insuficiente, consecinţele fiind 2) al doilea cerc este acela al manevrelor dramatice. Hybrisul tinde să se manifeste cu subversive menite a submina coerenţa internă precădere în situaţia marilor firme înclinate să facă fuziuni sau să achiziţioneze firme cu mult mai mici. Conştiente de forţa lor precum şi de diferenţa de mărime între cel care achiziţio- nează şi cel achiziţionat, firmele fac investiţii care nu sunt întotdeauna înţelepte. Richard Roll explică într-un articol din 1986 cum ma- nagementul jucătorilor importanţi de pe pia- ţă se poate infecta de hibris şi face calcule în condiţii de informare insuficientă în ideea că  Revista de istorie militară  101 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor a adversarilor. Astfel, marele state major ger- centristă, colonială. Traducerile unui Abraham man împreuna cu instituţii gen Auswartiges Hiacynthe Anquetil Dupperon (1731-1805) şi Amt au stipendiat diferite mişcări iredentiste William Jones (1746-1794) aduc vechile texte sau naţionaliste ce puteau tulbura atenţia ad- sacre (Vede, Upanişade) filozofilor europeni versarilor american şi britanic: în ceea ce pri- permiţând confluenţa spirituală a celor două vea SUA, Berlinul a încercat să capaciteze pe lumi. De la acel moment, gânditori romantici mexicanii care visau să recapete Texasul şi Ca- germani integrează filozofiile indiene pro- lifornia; în ceea ce îi privea pe britanici s-a în- priilor căutări teoretice şi programului poli- cercat capacitatea unor mişcări gen Sin Feinn tic naţionalist. Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, sau organizaţia indiană Ghadar creată la San Schlegel, Herder, Novalis, Nietzsche sau Paul Francisco dar cu ramificaţii în Asia de Sud / Deussen au văzut în budism şi hinduism alter- Sud-Est, Singapore şi Japonia. native la creştinism sau completări la acesta. În Modelul SSC nu însumează toate teoriile cazul unora dintre ei, indo-filia suferă repetate listate anterior dar are puncte comune cu o se- schimbări în cadrul biografiei intelectuale: dacă rie dintre ele. Astfel poate fi foarte bine grefat iniţial Asia de Sud reprezintă sediul umanităţii pe noţiunile de cod operaţional al lui Nathan primare, a rasei ariene din care se originează Leites şi psycho milieu-ul soţilor Sprout; pe cu precădere germanicitatea, ulterior, aceeaşi ideea complexului de încercuirea a lui Steven- regiune decade şi nu mai este privită decât ca son, ca şi pe aceea tematica atacului preemtiv/ un loc al barbariei şi înapoierii din care nu mai preventiv a lui Stephen Van Evera. poate evolua decât adoptând creştinismul.38 Exerciţiile teoretice a fost predatate şi su- II. Germanii şi Orientalismul plimentate de altele practice, numeroşi pastori de origine germană mergând în India pentru a Lipsit de unitatea politică necesară creării răspândi mesajul Evangheliilor: Heinrich Roth unui imperiu colonial, spaţiul german a mani- (1620-1668); Johannes Ernestus Hanxle- festat veleităţi cosmopolite încă din Renaştere. den, cunoscut şi ca Arnos Padiri (1681-1732); Savanţi, comercianţi şi mercenari au îmbrăţişat Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg (1682-1719) – noile descoperiri geografice la nivelul destinu- probabil primul misionar protestant german lui individual. Aşadar, cartografii germani s-au pe tărâmul Gangelor; Carl Gottlieb Pfander dovedit printre cei mai prolifici europeni, tipă- (1803-1868); Ferdinand Kittel (1832-1903); rind, editând şi traducând numeroase opere de Hermann Gundert (1814-1893); Herman călătorie, realizând hărţi sau având un aport Francke (1870-1930). Eforturile lor s-a finalizat substanţial la progresul cosmografiei. Extinde- şi prin scrierea de opere valoroase în domeniul rea orizontului geografic a fost făcut posibil şi lingvisticii. Aşadar Ziegenbalg a scris o grama- graţie a numeroşi aventurieri care au slujit în tică a limbii tamile publicate la Halle în 1716; armatele statelor străine neuitând să lase me- Kittel , cunoscător al limbilor sanscrită, kanna- morii valoroase (este vorba despre figuri preda şi tulu ne-a lăsat un dicţionar englez-kan- cum Balthasar Sprenger care descrie o călă- nada publicat în 1893, precum şi o gramatică a torie efectuată de portughezi în India (1509); aceleaşi limbi scrisă într-un manual de engleză; Ulrich Schmidel care călătoreşte în Rio de la Gundert, bunicul lui Hermann Hesse, a studiat Plata- 1567, sau de aventura venezueleană a lui limba malayam, trecând cunoştinţele dobândi- Philipp von Hutten şi Nicolas Federman din te într-un dicţionar bilingv malayam-englez.39 1550 şi, respectiv, 1557).37 Chiar dacă realismul admite necesitatea De o importanţă deosebită este pasiunea, unui stat puternic şi legitim în vederea susţine- dacă nu chiar fixitatea unor cercuri intelectuale rii unei politici externe influente, el ne vorbeşte germane pentru lumea Asiei de Sud. Începând prea puternic despre mecanismele domestice cu ultima parte a secolului XVIII, India nu mai prin care guvernele îşi extrag resursele materi- redată doar prin intermediul călătoriilor spora- ale şi morale din cadrul societăţilor pe care le dice îmbrăcate în limbaj superstiţios, ci devine păstoresc.40 Studiile postructuraliste aduc aici partea veritabilă a unui program de cercetare plusvaloare argumentând, în manieră foucaul- serios, chiar dacă organizat în manieră euro- diană, că naşterea statului industrial modern 102  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor îngemănează cunoaşterea şi puterea pentru a 1. Wilhelm Wassmuss (1880-1931) în Per- produce actul de guvernare. (Politicul are ne- sia (1915) voie de ştiinţă şi expertiză pentru a acţiona în 2. Oskar von Niedermeyer (1885-1948) în cunoştinţă de cauză, iar ştiinţa se pune în sluj- Afganistan (1914-1916) ba politicului, administrativului pentru a in- 3. Franz von Papen (1879-1969) în Statele fluenţa societatea şi a obţine diferite favoruri). Unite (1914-1915)45 Aşadar, secolul XIX şi mai ales XX cunoaşte o Dovadă a importanţei pe care nemţii au puternică simfonie uneori până la sinonimare ataşau factorului musulman în schema lor între oamenii de stat şi savanţi. Mai mult decât strategico-subverivă este tabăra Halbmondla- atât, domenii precum geografia şi antropolo- ger (Tabără Semilunii) din Zossen, lângă Ber- gia s-au îmbibat de darwinismul social speci- lin- misiunea acesteia era de a colecta prizoni- fic epocii legitimând imperialismul (vezi mai erii de război musulmani ce luptau în rândurile sus). Trece dincolo de scopurile studiului actu- Antantei pentru a-i converti scopurilor germa- al o exegeză pe această direcţie, suficient este ne şi a-i transforma în vector propagandistic a aminti frenezia expoziţiilor internaţionale pentru confraţii lor de credinţă.46 (exposition universelle, Weltausstellung), ve- ritabile ˝panteonuri ale noii Rome unde [bur- II.2. Diaspora indiană globală ghezia] venerează, cu mândrie, zeii creaţi de ea Ingineriile sociale produse de stăpânirea însăşi˝, după spusele lui Karl Marx.41 britanică au favorizat consolidarea unei di- Orientofiliei exersate de către civili/ insti- aspore indiene de alonjă globală. Deja la sfâr- tuţiile civile i s-a suprapus aceea a aparatului şitul secolului XIX, întregi grupuri de origine militar. Pentru a putea avea cunoştinţe cât mai sud-asiatică puteau fi găsiţi în Asia de Sud-Est, temeinice asupra potenţialului statelor vecine, la Singapore, în Japonia, Franţa, Marea Bri- mai ales a celorlalte membre ale concertului marilor puteri, ofiţerii prusaci au fost trimişi tanie, Canada şi Statele Unite. Spre exemplu, recensământul din Burma, în 1931, dădea pre- în numeroase puncte geografice. Războiul Ci- 47 vil din SUA, spectacol de magnitudine a erei zenţi 583.000 indieni. În Singapore numărul naţional-industriale şi repetiţie pentru ceea ce imigranţilor indieni a crescut de la doar 132 în 1821 la 11.501 în 1871 pentru a trece de borna putea fi o nouă încleştare europeană (cum de 48 altfel se va dovezi şi încleştarea franco-prusacă de 28.000 în 1911 şi 50.000 în 1931. din 1870), a determinat numeroase state-ma- În Lumea Nouă numărul sud-asiaticilor se jore să-şi trimită ofiţerii pentru a învăţa din ridica la 2.050, conform recensământului din lecţia americană.42 Unul dintre aceştia, Justus 1900, dar este greu de spus câţi dintre aceştia Scheibert (1831-1903) a stat timp de şapte erau rezidenţi pe termen lung şi câţi în trece- 49 luni în preajma lui Robert E.Lee, fiind mar- re. Lucrurile aveau să se întâmple în perioada torul bătăliilor de la Chancellorsville, Brandy antemergătoare Primului Război când numai Station şi Gettysburg.43 Alte nume, încă mai în California s-au aşezat 10.000 de sikhşi. Tabe- ilustre, asemenea lui Helmuth von Moltke, lul de mai jos descrie statistic variaţia fluxului au fost detaşate în Imperiul Otoman, pentru a migrator al cetăţenilor de sorginte sud-asiatică efectua misiuni de recunoaştere.44 pe teritoriul Statelor Unite50: Dacă astfel de detalii rămân încă în decor, Cei mai mulţi dintre ei erau oameni simpli cu mult mai cunoscute sunt: proiectul căii fe- în căutarea unei vieţi mai bune, dar şi tineri rate Berlin-Baghdad, veritabilă infrastructură a intelectuali, savanţi şi, deosebit de important, Mitteloostpolitikului german şi vizita efectua- revoluţionari. tă în toamna anului 1898 de Kaiser la Damasc, Ierusalim şi Constantinopol. Aşadar, elitele diplomatico-militare ale Reichului sperau în stârnirea unui veritabil Jihad care să galvanize- ze energiile musulmanilor împotriva britanicilor. Încă din primezele zile ale conflagraţiei, mai multe expediţii vor porni dinspre capitala germană spre diferite destinaţii exotice:  Revista de istorie militară  103 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Protoistoria Partidului Ghadar, în bună Ghosh ( cunoscut mai degrabă ca Sri măsură corelată comunităţii sikh, începe odată Aurobindo-reformator social, filozof şi mis- cu Răscoală Şipailor/Sepoilor din 1857. Eveni- tic) şi fratelui său Barindra Kumar au instituit mentul a avut intensitatea şi semnificaţia unui Anushilan Samiti (Societatea pentru Acul- răzbi naţional de independenţă demonstrân- turaţie). Lor se va adăuga Margaret Noble, du-le britanicilor fragilitatea stăpânirii lor pe ştiută prin pseudonimul Sora Nivedita- o an- subcontinent. Pentru a preveni repetarea unor glo-irlandeză fascinată de Orient şi adeptă a crize asemănătoare, autorităţile londoneze au lui Swami Vivekananda şi a prinţului anarhist modificat filozofia administrativă în vigoare Kropotkin.54 Sediul acharyei lor era pe strada până atunci → dacă timp de mai multe decenii Maniktola Garden din Calcutta unde se pre- extinderea sferei de influenţă britanice avuse- dau cursuri specifice de arte marţiale (luptele se loc graţie eforturilor Companiei Indiilor de cu beţe cunoscute drept lathi), cursuri tactice Est, expresie a iniţiativei mai degrabă private, precum şi lecţii despre Mazzini şi anarhiş- după 1857 Coroana Britanică se va implica di- tii ruşi. În 1906/1907 au inaugurat publicaţia rect în demersul de administrare. În speţă, pe Bande Matharam cu ajutorul căreia îşi ven- dimensiunea militară, englezii vor proceda la tilau ideile. La momentul lui iunie 1907 So- recrutarea selectivă a anumitor comunităţi în cietatea se putea lăuda cu 8.400 răspândiţi în detrimentul altora. Judecând în funcţie de lo- 116 sucursale.55 Grupul s-a dedat unei serii de ialitatea trupelor în timpul răscoalei precum sabotaje, violenţe şi atentate între 1906-1908, şi a parametrilor de performanţă, guvernul culminând cu tentativa de asasinare a oficia- colonial a ajuns să prefere aşa-zisele rase mar- lului englez, Kensington. Afacerea, ajunsă ce- ţiale din nordul Indiei, sikhşii ţinând capul de lebră drept cazul Alipore (Alipore bomb case) afiş.51 Cooptarea acestora din urmă la practici- s-a terminat cu peste 30 de arestări, dintre care le de guvernanţă şi în instituţiile de securitate 17 suspecţi au fost în cele din urmă achitaţi se va finaliza cu un efect dublu: 1) recrutarea (Aurobino numărându-se printre ei).56’57 unor contingente valoroase pentru cerinţele În America, primele organizaţii ale indieni- mediului internaţional, aşa după cum o va do- lor s-au născut între 1906-1907: Liga Unităţii vedi anul 191452 şi 2) alimentarea unui bazin Indiene din Vancouver şi Liga Independenţei de contestatari hotărâţi să încheie stăpânirea Indiene din San Francisco etc. Cu nimic mai britanică odată pentru totdeauna prin atentate prejos decât Parisul, cea de-a doua metropolă şi comploturi. nord-americană anunţa un amestec de con- tracultură boemiană, experimente artistice şi II.3. Partidul Ghadar spirituale, eforturi ale sufragetelor, libertinaj Pretextul care a netezit calea formării parti- sexual şi activităţi militante muncitoreşti, pen- dului Ghadar a venit în 1906 odată cu reforma tru a o cita pe Maia Ramnath, autoarea mai administrativă care a împărţit Bengalul în două multor studii dedicate mişcării ghadariene.58 noi provincii, spre nemulţumirea populaţiei În 1907 apare şi periodicul de limbă urdu Cir- sikh. Numeroşi militanţi sikh se vor organiza în cular-i-Azadi (Circularul Libertăţii). Cele mai celule de rezistenţe, ale căror nuclee deveneau multe ong-uri s-au federat sub umbrela Hin- lideri locali, precum Aurobindo Ghosh (1872- dustanee Association cu filiale din Vancouver 1950). Specifice mişcării politice erau cluburile până în California. Ceea ce a insuflat viaţă şi dedicate activităţilor sportive şi artelor marţi- forţă mişcărilor civice sud-asiatice a fost veni- ale (cunoscute sub numele de acharya). Totuşi, rea mai multor personalităţi din patria-mamă. India va reprezenta locul de origine şi punctul Astfel, în 1907 autorităţile britanice deportea- terminus al tuturor acestor activităţi revoluţi- ză Lajpat Rai şi Akit Singh, doi lideri de opi- onare, însă baza logistică era asigurate de di- nie din Punjab care se pronunţaseră împotriva aspora indiană globală aglomerată în diferite creşterii taxelor locale. Cel de al cărui se leagă metropole: Singapore, Tokyo, Londra, Paris şi crearea Ghadar este Har Dayal (scris şi Har- San Francisco. Împreună populau cartografia dayal; 1884/1885-1939). Născut într-o familie solidarităţii radicale transnaţionale ce se con- numeroasă din Delhi, părea destinat unei vieţi tura în primele decenii ale gloabalizării.53 fie academice fie uneia administrative, în mult 104  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor râvnitul High Civil Service, după care se ghida Imperiul Bri- ga comunitate pe care o reprezentau ajung tanic. Absolvă primele studii la Colegiul Naţi- în atenţia presei datorită afacerii Komagata onal din Lahore (Pakistanul de azi) înainte de Maru- un vas de origine japoneză plin cu indi- a pleca cu o bursă la Oxford. După o existenţă eni care nu a fost lăsat să andocheze în portul peripatetică, Dayal ajunge în San Francisco în Vancouver, determinând în cele din urmă în- 1911 şi reuşeşte să găsească un post de asistent toarcerea pasagerilor la Calcutta. Evenimentul universitar la Stanford unde se face cunoscut a avut darul de a trezi solidaritatea panindiană prin prelegeri de coloratură revoluţionară. demonstrând în acelaşi timp sentimentele asi- Cercul său de prieteni număra scriitori radicali anofobe împărtăşite deopotrivă de autorităţile 64 gen: Will şi Ariel Durant, Roger Nash Baldwin, canadiene şi americane. Pe numele lui Dayal Romain Rolland. În Europa îi cunoscuse pe a fost emis un mandat de arestare pe 25 martie George Bernard Shaw şi prinţul Kropotkin.59 1914, acuzaţia invocând faptul că acesta era „un Hardayalismul, în măsura în care se poate vor- membru al claselor excluse, un anarhist care propovăduia răsturnarea prin forţă a guvernu- bi despre un corp teoretic articulat, consemna 65 o subspecie a anarhismului, influenţată de cele lui Statelor Unite.” Arestarea a fost posibilă şi datorită unui spion, William Hopkinson, mai eclectice surse, de la creştinism şi budism 66 până la marxism. Respingând banii, capitalis- care infiltrase rândurile anarhiştilor. După o mul, sistemul castelor indiene, Har Dayal pre- scurtă perioadă de arest, avocatul său a reuşit supunea un proces politic în trei etape: educa- să-i obţină eliberarea pentru suma de 1000$, ţia, revoluţia/războiul şi reconstrucţia.60 Ală- iar Dayal a părăsit teritoriul american pentru a pleca în Europa, în Germania. Exemplul său turi de el, alte figuri marcante: Ram Chandra, nu a fost singular- numeroşi alţi ghadarieni, fie Gobind Bihar Lal, Kartar Singh Saraba se vor s-au întors în India, fie au început o existenţă constitui în părinţii fondatori ai mişcării.61 peripatetică în speranţa că tocmai izbucnitul Pe 13 martie 1913, Dayal şi acoliţii săi con- război din vara lui 1914 le va servi cauza.67 voacă o întrunire la Astoria, Oregon, unde se decide înfiinţarea Asociaţiei Indiene Pacifice II.4. Orientul şi marea strategie germană de Coastă (Pacific Coast Hindustani Associa- Tentaţia instrumentalizării mişcărilor naţi- tion- PCHA), al cărei birou se afla localizat la onaliste şi/sau de eliberare de către autorităţile nr. 436 Hill Street din San Francisco. Stipen- germane antedata izbucnirea Marelui Război. diile oferite de diaspora din întreaga America Încă din 1912 generalul von Bernhardi, mai şi Asia de Est a permis extindere organizaţiei. sus amintit, aducea în discuţia eventualitatea La a doua întrunire a PCHA din Sacramento, intrării în contact cu pan-islamiştii sau revo- octombrie 1913, se stabileşte tipărirea ziarului luţionarii bengalezi. În consonanţă cu el mai Ghadr (revoltă în limba urdu) care să exprime erau Kaiserul Wilhelm II şi arheologul Max ideile Asociaţiei (primul număr avea să vadă (1860-1946), orientalist titrat 62 von Oppenheim lumină o lună mai târziu). Pentru a fixa sem- şi expert al Auswartiges Amt (ministerul afa- nificaţia noului ziar, confesiunea de credinţă a cerilor externe). Acesta din urmă a fost chemat lui Dayal nu lasă loc îndoielilor: din Orientul Mijlociu unde conducea săpături „Today there begins in foreign lands, but in arheologice la un sit hittit pentru a conduce our country`s tongue, a war against the nou înfiinţatul Birou de Informaţii pentru Ră- English Raj.. The time is soon to come when sărit. Hotărârea oficială de a sprijini acţiunile 63 rifle and blood will be used for pens and ink...” de sabotaj a fost luată de cancelarul Bethmann Pe 9 februarie 1914 Har Dayal ajunge cu Hollweg pe 4 septembrie acelaşi an, la momen- o delegaţia la Washington pentru a protesta tul în care devenise evidentă dispoziţia brita- contra unei legi propuse de trei senatori cali- nică de a opune o rezistenţă a outrance.68 (Din fornieni ce ar fi urmat să interzică imigraţia tu- decembrie 1914 Biroul a intrat sub conducerea turor asiaticilor. Gestul nu a trecut neobservat lui Otto Günther von Wesendonck, iar von , iar primul secrear al ambasadei britanice în Oppenheim s-a dus la Constantinopol.) Statele Unite, Earnest Scott a depus o plângere Pentru a-şi duce planurile la îndeplinirea contra militantului indian. Concomitent, mai sau, ad minimum, a se apropia de înfăptuirea  Revista de istorie militară  105 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor lor, germanii au contactat Comitetul Indian unde încărcătura ar fi trebuit să fie preluată de din Berlin (Berlin India Committee) prezidat un alt vas, Maverrick. Din păcate pentru pla- de M. Prabhakar, fost student la Heidelberg nurile germanilor, Othmer şi echipajul său au ce preda la Dusseldorf; Abderrahman de la fost prinşi de autorităţile americane.70 universitatea din Freiburg şi A. Siddiqi de la La sfârşitul lui aprilie 1915 s-a pus la punct Gottingen.69 Forţa celulei a crescut odată cu un al doilea transport constând din 7.300 de venirea lui Har Dayal, Barkatullah şi altor re- puşti Springfield, 1920 pistoale, zece mitraliere voluţionari experimentaţi (ianuarie 1915). De grele Gatling şi 3 milioane de cartuşe. Trans- la respectivul moment, acţiunile ghadariste şi portul era asigurat de vasul olandez-american cele germane de sprijin vor avea tentaţia de a Djember şi ar fi trebuit să aibă drept punct ter- se sincroniza (fără a reuşi), vârful de tensiune minus localitatea Soerabaya după ce părăsea consumându-se pe parcursul lui 1915. Demer- portul New York pe 15 iunie 1915. Şi al doilea sul german se va direcţiona pe patru filiere: a) plan a fost dejucat graţie reţelei de agenţi in- americană; b) bengaleză; c) olandeză/batavă; formativi ai consului general german la New 71 d) tailandeză. În mod autonom, membrii gha- York, Sir Courtenay Bennett. darieni au organizat o serie de evenimente teroriste dinspre nordul Indiei până în Asia de b) Tot în primăvara lui 1915, germanii şi Sud-Est şi Singapore. reuşit să intre în contact cu Jatin Mukherjee, conducătorul unui grup de revoluţionari bengalezi. În martie 1915, emisarul german, Jiten- a) Ca urmare a unei întruniri la nivel înalt de la ministerul Marinei Imperiale (Reichs- dranath Lahiri l-a abordat pe Mukherjee cu oferta unui ajutor în bani şi arme. Acestea din marine Amt) s-a stabilit că demersurile sabo- urmă ar fi fost adus de către vasul Maverick, toare nu vor avea nici un efect fără implicare din povestea anterioară. Chiar dacă transpor- substanţială. În vederea atingerii scopului, tul militar era destinat membrilor Ghadar din ataşatul diplomatic german la Washington, Punjab, bengalezii au reuşit să-i convingă pe Franz von Papen a luat legătura cu un apro- emisarii germani din Asia că poziţia lor este piat al casei Krupp de pe pământ american, mai importantă decât a sikhşilor. Pe 28 iunie , pentru a achiziţiona o canti- Hans Tauscher 1915, consulul britanic din Batavia, Beckett a tate voluminoasă de armament. Deja în prima primit o înştiinţare anonimă de la un anume săptămână a lunii decembrie 1914 cei doi toc- Oren care dezvăluia întreaga schemă. Infor- mai menţionaţi au reuşit să adune 8.080 puşti maţia a năruit întreaga filieră, iar Mukherjee a marca Springfield datând din războiul ameri- fost ucis într-o confruntare pe 9 septembrie, în cano-spaniol; 2.400 carabine Springfield, 410 jungla de pe lângă localitatea Balasore.72 puşti cu repetiţie Hotchkiss, suplimentate de 4 milioane de cartuşe, 5.000 de centuri cu cartu- c) Pe filiera batavă avea să mai fie făcută o şe; 500 de revolvere Colt cu 100.000 de gloanţe ultimă încercare. În aprilie 1915 a fost adus la aferente şi încă 250 de Mausere. Transporta- Berlin Vincent Kraft, cultivator german din rea lor în India revenea căpitanului Hermann Indiile de Est olandeze. Acesta a venit cu ideea Othmer, ofiţer german pe care izbucnirea con- unui atac asupra insulelor Andaman de la sud flagraţiei îl prinsese pe pământ atlantic. Misiu- de ţărmul Indiei. În mai planul său fost aprobat nea sa iniţială era aceea de a naviga spre Java şi, de către Auswartiges Amt. Ceea ce nu se ştia de acolo, spre Bankok sau Karachi, dacă prima era calitatea de agent dublu al lui Kraft, care locaţie nu era fezabilă. Prin intermediul unui flirta cu britanicii. El urmărea să se infiltreze în antreprenor mexican, Marcos Martinez com- preajma oficialilor şi ataşaţilor diplomatici ger- plotiştii ar fi trebuit să folosească vasul Annie mani pentru a le găsi punctele vulnerabile şi ra- Larsen pentru a camufla adevărata direcţie porta mai apoi Londrei. Deznodământul situ- sub acoperirea că livrau armament pentru răz- aţiei a fost tranşat de Ministerul de Externe de boiul civil mexican. Pe 9 martie 1915, Othmer la Berlin ca şi de Knipping, consulul german la a plecat cu Annie Larsen din portul San Diego Shanghai care au abandonat operaţiunea, sus- îndreptându-se către portul mexican Socorro picioşi faţă de şansele de reuşită ale acesteia.73 106  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor d) În Thailanda nu există o comunitate bilit contacte cu persoane din Uttar Pradesh. germană consistentă aşa cum era în Indiile Scânteia trebuia să fie aprinsă pe 21 februarie, olandeze, dar Asia de sud orbita în jurul sfe- dar calendarul s-a mutat pe 19 din cauza unui rei de influenţă britanică, iar în Burma -(par informator, Kirpal Singh, care a înştiinţat au- te a Rajului) se găseau numeroşi ghadarişti. torităţile. Acestea din urmă se vor arăta necru- În octombrie 1914, revoluţionarii Ghadar au ţătoare- senţinta dată în ceea ce a intrat in isto- hotărât să facă din Thailanda baza lor pentru riografie ca Lahore Conspiracy Trials va aduna următoarele operaţiuni. Discuţiile dintre Har 42 de condamnări la moarte; 114 condamnări Dayal şi Barkatullah, pe de-o parte şi, Max von pe viaţă şi alte 93 de pedepse de diferite dura- Oppenheim, de cealaltă, din ianuarie 1915, au te.75 Faza de proiect va fi depăşită doar de că- convins pe decidenţii germani să parieze şi pe tre regimentul baluch76 din Rangoon care s-a frontul thailandez. Sprijinul insurecţioniştilor revoltat cu succes pe 15 februarie reuşind să urma să vină tot prin Statele Unite. Motiv pen- ocupe întregul oraş. Ordinea nu a putut fi sta- tru care au fost cooptaţi trei americani de ori- bilită de britanici decât cu ajutorul primit de la gine germană: negustorul de artă din Chicago, contingente navale ruseşti şi japoneze.77 A lbert Wehde şi încă doi veterani militari: Adunând la activ astfel de fapte, partidul B oehm and Sterneck. Trioul primise sarcina Ghadar se transformase într-o ameninţare de a pilota un cargo cu armament ce ar fi trebu- serioasă pentru guvernul din Calcutta, aşa it să pornească dinspre Manila spre Asia conti- după cum o demonstrează discursul lordului nentală pe două vase: Sachsen şi Suevia. Ca şi Harding de la sfârşitul lui martie 1915: în restul cazurilor prezentate mai sus, autorită- „There existed on the Pacific coast of America ţile portuare americane au găsit suspecte cele a revolutionary organisation which had endea- două vase şi nu le-au mai dat permis de pleca- vour to create trouble in India by agency of pri- re. De cealaltă parte a lumii, în Thailanda, mi- vate communication. In Bengal seditious activi- nistrul afacerilor externe, prinţul Devawongse ties, though not new, had become more daring era conştient de opţiunile sau, mai bine zis de- and the movements were not unconnected. […] terminismul geopolitic al ţării sale şi, deci, era At the outbreak of the war this paper exhor- gata să coopereze cu britanicii. Aşadar, siner- ted all Indians in the State or elsewhere to regia dintre englezi şi forţele de securitate şi de turn to India and take up arms against British informaţii thailandeze au infiltrat contingentul rule. German money may have backed it before revoluţionarilor conducând la arestarea celor the ar. After the wa he began, Germany surely mai mulţi dintre ei (la începutul lunii august backed it.” 78 1915, au fost arestaţi şase căpetenii marcante Anul 1917 înclină balanţa în favoarea An- urmate de alţi cincizeci de membri obişnuiţi). tantei, ceea ce se repercutează şi asupra soartei Cei care au reuşit să scape, fie s-au refugiat în reţelei transnaţionale de luptători. Intrarea Sta- China, fie au fugit în junglele burmeze unde au telor Unite în războiul european în aprilie 1917 fost trădaţi, prinşi şi spânzuraţi.74 îi readuce în atenţia organelor de securitate pe conducătorii indieni. Uzura Puterilor Centra- Revenirea celor 8.000 de militanţi Ghadar le se vădeşte şi în slăbirea ajutorului acordat în Europa, dar mai ales în India şi restul di- până atunci. În 1915 guvernul american ceru- asporei indiene din Asia şi-a adăugat greutatea se rechemarea căpitanului Franz von Papen, masei critice care deja oferea uvertura mişcării gest urmat de unul similar doi ani mai târziu Quit India de mai târziu. Primul an de război cu persoana lui Karl Boy-Ed, ataşatul german in India britanică se remarcă atât prin exemple pentru marină. În 1917 o bună parte din mem- de loialitate cât şi prin altele de rebeliune. Anul bri Comitetului de la Berlin sunt prinşi în San 1915 va constitui vârful acţiunilor de sabotaj. Francisco şi deferiţi justiţiei. Din noiembrie În februarie 1915 ghadarienii au încercat să 1917 până în aprilie 1918 se va desfăşura unul orchestreze o răscoală atât în Punjab (în rân- dintre cele mai lungi şi mai costisitoare pro- dul regimentelor din Lahore, Ferozepur, Sar- cese din istoria jurisprudenţei americane. 15 godha, Bannu, Kohat, Ambala, Meerut) cât oameni vor fi declaraţi vinovaţi şi condamnaţi. şi în Burma. Conspiratorii din Lahore au sta- Washingtonul nu s-a conformat însă cerinţele  Revista de istorie militară  107 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor britanice de-ai judeca pe inculpaţi. În ultima zi – Niamh M. Brennan, John P. Conroy, a procesului Ram Chandra este ucis de un alt Executive Hubris: The Case of a Bank CEO, indian. Har Dayal a fost chemat în boxa acu- Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Jour- zaţilor dar nu a fost condamnat. Deja la mo- nal, 2013, 26(2): 172-195 mentul procesului el pusese în bună măsură în – C. Clark, Sleepwalkers, Penguin Books, spate cariera de revoluţionară reîntorcându-se London, 2013 la aceea originară de cărturar. Mai mult decât – Stephen P. Cohen, The Untouchable Sol- atât, Dayal se converteşte în loialist al Coroa- dier: Caste, Politics, and the Indian Army, The nei, spre surprinderea multora dintre camara- Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 28, No. 3 (May, zii săi de conspiraţie.79 1969), pp. 453-468 – Robert Cowan, The Indo-German Iden- Remarci concludente tification. Reconciling South Asian Origins and Studiul de faţă a fost fondat pe două insati- European Destinies, 1765–1885, Camden Ho- sfacţii: 1) lipsa de comunicare dintre istoriogra- use, Rochester, NY, 2010 fia clasică şi abordări mai noi precum sociolo- – Thomas G. Fraser, Germany and Indian gia, psihologia, varii abordări din relaţiile inter- Revolution, 1914-18, Journal of Contempora- naţionale şi 2) statocentrismul care aproape că a ry History, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr., 1977), pp. 255- monopolizat/confiscat scrierea istoriei Marelui 272 Război. Prima parte a textului a fost dedicată – James Louis Hevia, The Imperial Security prezentării deciziei germane de mobilizare cu State. British Colonial Knowldge and Empire- ajutorul câtorva modele psihologice cunoscute Building State, Cambridge University Press, în literatura de RI şi, ca un bilanţ de etapă, a Cambridge, 2012 propus o schemă ce poate înmănunchia o bună – Charles L. Glaser, Rational Theory of In- parte din respectivele modele în vederea des- ternational Politics.The Logic of Competition cifrării misterului verii lui 1914. Cea de-a doua and Cooperation, Princeton University Press, parte s-a concentrat pe felul în care Germania 2010 wilhelmiană a căutat să capaciteze diferite miş- – Robert Jervis, Perception and Mispercep- cări de eliberare naţională, contribuind astfel, tion in International Politics, Princeton Uni- prin ricoşeu, la decolonizare (proces completat versity Press, Princeton New Jersey, 1976 după anii ’60). Punctul de greutate a studiului – Christine R. Johnson, The German Dis- de caz a fost relaţia dintre Auswartiges Amt şi covery of the World: Renaissance Encounters partidul Ghadar, veritabilă reţea indiană trans- with the Strange and Marvelous, University of naţională cu agendă vadit anti-britanică. Per Virginia Press, 2008 ansamblu, istorisirea de mai sus, profilează ca – Jack S. Levy, William R. Thompson,Cau - orizont de reflecţie relaţia dintre actorii statali ses of War, Wiley Blackwell, 2010 şi cei non-statali. Departe de a fi nişte figuranţi – Annika Lorenz, Acquisition Vs. Alliance: în jurul primilor, agenţii non-statali catalizează The Impact of Hubris on Governance Choice, mersul evenimentelor chiar dacă sunt adesea Diplomica Verlag, Hamburg, 2011 ascunşi în penumbră. Ignoranţa guvernelor – Alex Mintz, Nehemia Geva, „The Polihe- care se folosesc de celule revoluţionare ori teo- uristic Theory of Foreign Policy Decisionma- roriste ce ulterior devin prea puternice şi caută king”. In Alex Mintz and Nehemia Geva (eds), propria agendă, s-a repetat pe tot parcursul se- Decision – making on War and Peace: The Cog- colului XX, aşa cum au arătat pe deplin talibanii nitive – Rational Debate . Boulder, CO : Lynne din Afganistan, acum o ameninţare atât pentru Rienner Publishers, 1997 Occident cât şi pentru statul pakistanez, el în- – Budheswar Pati, India and the First suşi un „păpuşar” al realpolitkului. World War, Atlantic Publishers and Distribu- tors, New Delhi, 1996 Bibliografie (selectiv) – Maia Ramnath, Decolonising Anarchism: – Pallavi Bhatte, Transnational Ghadr Mo- An Antiauthoritarian History of India’s Libera- vement: A Diasporic Dimension, Kyoto Uni- tion Struggle, AK Press and Institute for Anar- versity, 2013 chist Studies, Washngton D.C., 2011 108  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor – Richard Roll, The Hubris Hypothesis of norme în genere acceptate şi originate în Occident Corporate Takeovers, The Journal of Business, şi actualizată de mijloacele media (presă scrisă, mai Vol. 59, No. 2, Part 1 (Apr., 1986), pp. 197-216 târziu televiziune, internet) sau referinţe culturale – J. Scheibert, A Prussian Observes the comune (literatură, artă, ştiinţă etc) prin interme- American Civil War: The Military Studies of diul cărora oamenii mapamondului îşi pot exprima părerea şi pot polemiza. Justus Scheibert, University of Missouri Press, 3 Despre o discuţie despre cearta dintre istori- 2001 cii clasici şi cei moderni (pasionaţi de cauze mari, – H. Sprout, M. Sprout,‘Environmental structurale) a se vedea Lucian Boia, Primul război Factors in the Study of International Politics’, mondial. Controverse, paradoxuri, reinterpretări, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1: 1957, Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2014, pp. 12-16. pp. 309-328 4 http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/fl/W – David Stevenson, 1914-1918 The History hat-Is-a-Cognitive-Bias.htm, accesat pe 20 sep- of the First World War, Penguin Books, Lon- tembrie 2014. „A cognitive bias is a type of error in don, 2004 thinking that occurs when people are processing and interpreting information in the world around them. – Philip Tetlock, „Social Psychology and Cognitive biases are often a result of our attempt to World Politics”, in D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, G. simplify information processing. They are rules of Lindzey (eds), Handbook of Social Psychology, thumb that help us make sense of the world and rea- New York, Mc Graw Hill, editia a-4-a, 1998, ch decisions with relative speed. Unfortunately, these pp. 868-912 biases sometimes trip us up, leading to poor decisi- – Amos Tversky, Daniel Kahneman, „Jud- ons and bad judgments.” gement under uncertainty: Heuristics and Bia- 5 Amos Tversky, Daniel Kahneman, „Judgement ses”, Science, New Series, 185, 4157, September under uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases”, Science, 1974 New Series, 185, 4157, September 1974, pp. 1124- – Moshfique Uddin, Agyenim Boateng, 1131 ; Richard Nisbett, Lee Ross, Human Inference: Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions: UK Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgement, Dimensions, Routledge, New York, 2014 Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall, 1980. Vezi şi Jack S. Levy, William R. Thompson, Causes of War, – Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War, Wiley Blackwell, 2010, p. 141. Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London, 6 Matthew H. Wahlert, The „motivated bias” 1999 dilemma in warfare and intelligence, http://www. – documentarul How the Victorians Wi- tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14751798.2012.7 red the World, http://www.youtube.com/ 08596#.VCH12JR_vIc, 13 September 2012. watch?v=K6_R70S1pLg 7 Nathan Leites, The operational code of the Po- – documentarul: BBC Remembran- litburo”, New York, Mc Grow Hill, 1951. 8 ce – The Sikh Story (Full HQ Program), Jack S. Levy, William R. Thompson, Causes of War, Wiley Blackwell, 2010, p. 142. 9NOV2010, https://www.youtube.com/wat- 9 ch? v=1XIZDj9hiWc H. Sprout, M. Sprout,‘Environmental Factors in the Study of International Politics’, The Journal – documentarul: Kaiser’s Jihad, parte a se- of Conflict Resolution, 1: 1957, pp. 309-328. Vezi si riei The Holy War produs de grupul de televi- „Man-Milieu Relationship Hypotheses in the Con- ziune german ZDF, Regia: http://holywar.zdfe- text of International Politics” de aceiaşi autori. b2b.de/programinfo. Subtitrare în spaniolă: 10 H. Sprout, M. Sprout, An Ecological Paradigm La jihad del Kaiser – La guerra santa, https:// for the Study of International Politics, Princeton, www.youtube.com/watch?v=StJtX009ZiO Center for International Studies, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Prince- NOTE ton University, 1968. 1 Despre rolul revoluţionar al telegrafului a se 11 Philip Tetlock, „Social Psychology and World vedea documentarul How the Victorians Wired Politics”, in D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, G. Lindzey (eds), the World, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K6_ Handbook of Social Psychology, New York, Mc R70S1pLg Graw Hill, editia a-4-a, 1998, pp. 868-912. Aceştia 2 Aceasta din urmă nu trebuie înţeleasă ca o îl citează pe Kalevi Holsti cu sintagma de succes omogenizare a părerilor de pretutindeni- întrucât „the inherent bad faith model ”, fenomen perceptiv diferenţe de opinie au existat şi vor continua să exis- al unor lideri care consideră că alte state, rivale, sunt te- ci mai degrabă ca o platformă bazată de un set de inamici totali şi nimic bun nu poate veni din partea  Revista de istorie militară  109 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor acelora (de pildă secretarul de stat SUA Foster Dul- 34 Niamh M. Brennan, John P. Conroy, Execu- les care nutrea sentimente de ură şi neîncredere faţă tive Hubris: The Case of a Bank CEO, Accounting, de URSS). Auditing and Accountability Journal, 2013, 26(2): 12 Jack S. Levy, William R. Thompson, Causes of 172-195. War, pp. 143-144. 35 Richard Roll, The Hubris Hypothesis of Corpo- 13 P. Tetlock, George Breslauer (eds), Learning in rate Takeovers, The Journal of Business, Vol. 59, No. US and Soviet Foreign Policy, Boulder Co Westview, 2, Part 1 (Apr., 1986), pp. 197-216. Annika Lorenz, pp. 20-61. Acquisition Vs. Alliance: The Impact of Hubris on 14 Jack S. Levy, William R. Thompson, Causes of Governance Choice, Diplomica Verlag, Hamburg, War, Wiley Blackwell, 2010, p. 146. 2011, pp.1-4. Moshfique Uddin, Agyenim Boateng, 15 Ellen J. Langer, „The Illusion of control”, Jour- Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions: UK Dimen- nal of Personality and Social Psychology, nr. 32, 2, sions, Routledge, New York, 2014, p. 16. 36 pp. 311-328. În timpul adiministraţiei Lyndon Johnson, dar 16 Samuel J. Newland, „Victories are not enou- şi mai târziu în anii Nixon-Kissinger, Washingtonul gh: limitations of the German way of war”, http:// a fost dispus să trimite noi şi noi trupe neputând www.StrategicStudiesInstitute.army.mil/, Decem- accepta rezistenţă feroce venită din partea „unei ber 2005, p. 64. ţări comuniste de mâna a treia.” Michael Adas, Do- 17 Daniel Kahneman, Amos Tversky, „Prospect minance by design: Technological imperatives and Theory: an analysis of decision under risk”, Econo- America’s civilizing mission, Harvard University Press, 2006, pp. 291-292. metrica, 47, 2, March 1979, pp. 263-269 37 18 Jack S. Levy, William R. Thompson, Causes of Christine R. Johnson, The German Disco- War, Wiley Blackwell, 2010, pp. 152-153. very of the World: Renaissance Encounters with the 19 Strange and Marvelous, University of Virginia Press, David Stevenson, 1914-1918 The History of the 2008, p. 24 şi passim. First World War, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. 38 Robert Cowan, The Indo-German Identifica- 30. tion. Reconciling South Asian Origins and European 20 Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War, Cornell Destinies, 1765–1885, Camden House, Rochester, University Press, Ithaca and London, 1999, pp. 193- NY, 2010, pp.107-142 (A se vedea capitolele dedica- 239. Vezi mai ales pp. 236-238. te lui Schlegel, Hegel şi Schopenhauer). 21 Idem, pp. 238-239. 39 Avril Ann Powell, Muslims and Missionaries 22 Stevenson, op. cit, p. 2. in Pre-mutiny India, Curzon Press Ltd, London, 23 Charles L. Glaser, Rational Theory of Interna- 2003, pp. 132-137 şi passim. tional Politics.The Logic of Competition and Coope- German Contributions to the Study of Indian ration, Princeton University Press, 2010. 24 regional languages and Sanskrit, German Missions Dale C. Copeland, The Origins of Major War, in India, http://www.india.diplo.de/Vertretung/in- Cornell U.P, Ithaca and London, 2000, pp. 57-58. 25 dien/en/13__Culture/Bilaterals/Regional__Langua- Alex Mintz, Nehemia Geva, „The Poliheuristic ges.html (accesat 21 septembrie 2014, 11:21 am) Theory of Foreign Policy Decisionmaking”. In Alex 40 Realismul clasic este mai atent la relaţiile din- Mintz and Nehemia Geva (eds), Decision – making tre guvernământ şi supuşi. Neorealismul waltzian on War and Peace: The Cognitive – Rational Debate vorbeşte doar în treacăt despre importanţa susţi- . Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1997. nerii populaţiei chiar dacă introduce noţiunea de 26 Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception . Walt şi Mearsheimer intră in International Politics, Princeton University Press, într-o oarecare măsură în cutia neagră a aparatu- Princeton New Jersey, 1976, p. 15. lui decizional concentrându-se asupra importanţei 27 Primary Documents – The “Willy-Nicky” lobby-urilor în formularea politicii externe ameri- Telegrams, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/ cane. Realismul neoclasic face întrucâtva dreptate willynicky.htm neajunsului dedicându-se explicării corelaţiei din- 28 Jervis, op. cit, p. 85. tre factorii sistemici, guverne şi societăţile guver- 29 C. Clark, Sleepwalkers, Penguin Books, Lon- nate. Henry Kissinger, Diplomaţia, Editura ALL don, 2013, p. 513. BIC, Bucureşti, 2007, Cap. 5, pp. 88-17 (A se vedea 30 Idem, p. 178. consideraţiile dedicate lui Napoléon III şi Otto von 31 Idem, 182. Bismarck). Jeffrey W.Taliaferro, “State Building for 32 Idem, pp. 220-222. Future War: Neoclassical Realism and the Resour- 33 http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/blank- ce Extractive State,” Security Studies, vol. 15, no. cheque.htm, accesat pe 20 septembrie 2014. 3 (July-September 2006): 464-95. Steven E.Lobell, 110  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Norrin M.Ripsman, Jeffrey W.Taliaferro, Neoclassi- 49 Padma Rangaswamy, Namaste America: Indi- cal Realism, the State, and Foreign Policy, Cambrid- an Immigrants in an American Metropolis, Pennsyl- ge University Press, Cambridge, 2009. Petre, Silviu vania State University, 2001, p. 42. şi Cioculescu, Șerban Filip, Realismul între știinţă şi 50 Pallavi Bhatte, Transnational Ghadr Move- ideologie, Sfera Politicii, Volumul XX, Nr. 5 (171), ment: A Diasporic Dimension, Kyoto University, Sept-Oct. 2012, pp. 159-168. 2013, pp. 162. 41 Raymond Corbey, Ethnographic Showcases, 51 Stephen P.Cohen vorbeşte chiar despre „pun- 1870-1930, Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 8, No. 3 jabizarea” armatei indiene imperiale. Stephen P. Co- (Aug. 1993), pp. 338-369, pp. 340-341. Pentru un hen, The Untouchable Soldier: Caste, Politics, and studiu despre rolul muzeelor antropologice şi ul- the Indian Army, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. terior al cinematografiei în vederea educării publi- 28, No. 3 (May, 1969), pp. 453-468, esp. 455-457. cului şi legitimării stereotipurile rasiale vezi: Alison C.A. Bayly, Indian Society and the Making of the Griffiths, Wondrous Difference: Cinema Anthropo- British Empire, Cambridge University Press, Cam- logy and Turn-of-the-Century Visual Culture, Co- bridge, 1988, p. 194. lumbia University Press, 2002, pp.9-11 şi passim. 52 Armata imperială din India însuma circa 230- 42 Trebuie precizat că sistemul ataşaţilor militari 240.000 de oameni la începutul conflagraţiei, dintre s-a dezvoltat în Occident după Războiul Crimeei. care 30.000 personal non-combatant. Efectivul va James Louis Hevia, The Imperial Security State. Bri- creşte vertiginos pe măsură ce Londra s-a implicat tish Colonial Knowldge and Empire-Building State, în teatrele de operaţiuni. Per total, peste 1,4 milioa- Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012, p.22. ne de indieni au deservit în Primul Război Mondial, Douglas L. Wheeler, Ph.D, A Guide to the History of India fiind a doua provincie a Imperiului ca donor Intelligence 1800-1918, Intelligencer: Journal of U.S. de trupe după Insulele Britanice. Cei mai mulţi au Intelligence Studies, Winter/Spring 2012, pp. 47-50. luptat pe frontul de vest, în Franţa (132.496), dar şi 43 J. Scheibert, A Prussian Observes the American în Mesopotamia (588.717), Africa de Est (46.906), Civil War: The Military Studies of Justus Scheibert, Egipt (116.159), Golfurile Aden şi Persic (49.700), University of Missouri Press, 2001. Matthew Mo- Gallipolli (9.366). Pierderile în vieţi omeneşti au de- ten, A Prussian Observes the American Civil War: păşit 120 de mii de oameni. Budheswar Pati, India The Military Studies of Justus Scheibert translated and the First World War, Atlantic Publishers and by Frederic Trautmann, The Journal of Southern Distributors, New Delhi, 1996, pp.35, 37, 38. History, Vol. 69, No. 2 (May 2003), pp. 445-446. De curând istoricul David Gray a reconstitu- 44 James Louis Hevia, op.cit., p.23 it povestea a zece soldaţi sikh care s-au înrolat în 45 Pentru mai multe detalii despre calea ferată rândurile contingentului canadian trimis să lupte în Berlin-Bagdad, ca şi despre ceea ce a ajuns în isori- Europa. A se vedea documentarul: Canadian Solder ografie să se numească a se ve- Sikhs: A Small story in a Big War, OMNI TV In- dea Sean McMeekin, The Berlin-Baghdad Express: dependent Producers Initiative 2011, https://www. The Ottoman Empire and Germany’s Bid for World youtube.com/watch?v=Mswi99wZOR4 (accesat 23 Power, 1898 to 1918, Harvard University Press, septembrie 2014, ora 22:00). 2010, precum şi documentarul: Kaiser’s Jihad, parte Vezi şi site-ul Canadian Soldiers Sikhs, http:// a seriei The Holy War produs de grupul de televi- canadiansoldiersikhs.ca/research.html ziune german ZDF, Regia: http://holywar.zdfe-b2b. Pentru un medalion despre rolul comunităţi de/programinfo. Subtitrare în spaniolă: La jihad del sikh în cele două război mondiale a se vedea docu- Kaiser - La guerra santa, https://www.youtube.com/ mentarul: BBC Remembrance - The Sikh Story (Full watch?v=StJtX009Zio (accesat 7 octombrie 2014). HQ Program), 9 NOV2010, https://www.youtube. 46 Florence Waters, Remembering Germany’s com/watch?v=1XIZDj9hiWc (accesat 23 septem- grand First World War jihad experiment, The Daily brie 2014, ora 22:15). Telegraph, August 13, 2014. 53 Afirmaţia nu trebuie înţeleasă în sensul mar- 47 Adapa Satyanarayana, “Birds of Passage”; Mi- xist al unei lupte de clasă globale ce opune marile gration of South Indian Labour Communities to puteri coloniale mişcărilor de eliberare/ burghezia- South-East Asia; protelariatului sau Imperiul- Multitudinii (pentru a 19-20th Centuries, A.D., CLARA Working Pa- folosi limbajul lui Michael Hardt şi Antonio Negri). per, No. 11 Amsterdam, 2001, p. 9. În pofida conturării unui sentiment pan-anticolo- 48 Makeswary Periasamy, Indian Migration into nialist, pragmatismul a reprezentat nota dominan- Malaya and Singapore During the British Period, tă atât din partea guvernelor marilor puteri cât şi Biblioasia, ISSN: 0219-8126, Vol 3, Issue 3, October a mişcărilor de eliberare, liderilor revoluţionari sau 2007, p. 9. altor mişcări militante. Astfel, Statul Major german  Revista de istorie militară  111 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor nu l-a ajutat pe Vladimir Ilici Lenin pentru că îi îm- It will be well for Armenia and the peace of părtăşea ideologia, ci pentru potenţialul de a slăbi the world that Armenia should cooperate with maşina de război ţaristă. Thomas G. Fraser, Ger- all those who are directing forces against British many and Indian Revolution, 1914-18, Journal of imperialism..”[p. 76] Contemporary History, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr., 1977), Professor Vaswani, The Mind International: pp. 255-272, p. 255. „The problems of today cannot be solved if ap- La începutul secolului XX, Japonia se regăsea la proached in spirit of national rivalries and national întretăierea a două tendinţe: pe de-o parte reforme- antagonisms. There is something beyond the nation, le Erei Meiji îi dezvoltaseră capacităţile industriale that for which the nations exist; that something is şi îi încurajau tendinţele militarist-expansioniste, humanity. And the problems of India, the British nediferenţiind-o de restul naţiunilor coloniale. Pe Empire, the new problems of reconstruction all over de cealaltă parte, spaţiul nipon articula filozofia pa- the world, can only be studied and solved in the light nasianismului ce propovăduia cooperarea tuturor of the Ideal International. The nations must think culturilor asiatice împotriva omului alb. Vezi Pan- internationally, and the will kaj Mishra, From the Ruins of Empire. The Revolt only be a league of exploiters until it secures a new Against the West and the Remaking of Asia, Pengu- basis of human fellowship.”[p. 82] The Independent in Books, New York, 2012, esp. pp.122-124. Hindustan, Vol. 1, No. 4, December 1920, SAADA: 54 Maia Ramnath, Decolonising Anarchism: South Asian American Digital Archive. 58 An Antiauthoritarian History of India’s Liberation Maia Ramnath, op.cit., p. 78. 59 Ibidem, pp. 79-80. Struggle, AK Press and Institute for Anarchist Stu- 60 dies, Washngton D.C., 2011, p. 48. Ibidem, pp. 81-87. 61 Ibidem, pp. 100-109. Pentru un studiu despre influenţele externe asu- 62 pra spiritului revoluţionar din Bengal, precum şi Pallavi Bhatte, op.cit., p. 164. 63 Idem. despre rolul surorii Nivedita, Peter Heehs, Foreign 64 În ianuarie 1914, un antreprenor sikh, Gurdit Influences on Bengali Revolutionary Terrorism Singh, a contractat vasul japonez 1902-1908, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 28, No. 3 Komagata Maru pentru a transporta 367 compatrioţi spre Columbia (Jul., 1994), pp. 533-556. britanică. Conştient de legile puternic anti-imigra- 55 P.N. Chopra, B.N.Puri, M.N. Das, A.C. Pra- ţioniste ale autorităţilor canadiene, Gurdit a cerut dhan, A Comprehensive History of India, Volumul ajutorul la doi tineri sikh, Bir Sing şi Daljit Singh 3, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, pentru a lua legătura cu Societatea Khalsa Diwan 2003, p. 206. din Vancouver în ideea că aceasta din urmă ar putea 56 Maia Ramnath, op.cit., p. 56. susţine lobby-ul pro-imigraţionist. Continuous Pas- Kensington supravieţuit, în locul său murind sage Act (Legea Călătoriei continue) promulgată în două femei. Unul dintre făptaşi, Khudiram Bose, 1908 restricţiona imigraţia persoanelor care doreau a fost spânzurat. P.N. Chopra, B.N.Puri, M.N. Das, să vină în Canada din altă ţară decât cea de origine A.C. Pradhan, op.cit., p. 206. 57 sau în urma unei călătorii continue, neîntrerupte- Despre sentimentele solidarităţii internaţio- norma lovind în speţă pe subiecţii indieni. Timp de nale la început de secol XX a se vedea articolele edi- şaizeci de zile, pasagerilor vasului Komagata Maru tate de ziarul The Independent Hindustan, oficios al le-a fost interzisă venirea pe ţărm. Nemulţumiţi, Partidului Ghadar: aceştia s-au lupta cu forţele de poliţie. Presa cana- India and Russo-Turkish Entente: diană a montat la rândul ei opinia publică agitând „It is reported by the Associated Press that an spectrul unei invazii indiene în masă. De cealaltă agreement has been reached by the Russian Bolshe- parte, ong-urile indiene, Khalsa Diwan Society şi viki and Turkish Nationalists to liberate India from United Indian League s-au reunit pe 31 mai 1914 the British Rule. India undoubtedly will welcome la Vancouver pentru a protesta împotriva a ceea ce such an agreement. We want the people of India to considerau a fi o discriminarea în cadrul Imperiu- study the forces of the world, remembering that they lui, mai ales că sud-asiaticii erau supuşi ai Coroanei will render a signal service to the cause of humanity britanice. În cele din urmă vasul a fost obligat să pă- and freedom, if they suceed in destroying British im- răsească portul canadian Victoria ajungând la Cal- perial system.” [p. 76] cutta pe 26 septembrie 1914. Tevatura a alimentat Aid to Armenia mişcarea ghadaristă şi apelurile sale insurecţioniste. The tragedy of Armenia is bound up with the Ibidem, p. 168. tragedy of India, Ireland, Persia, and other countries Componentă militară/ insurecţionistă a episo- […] dului s-a derulat la întoarcerea vasului japonez în 112  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Asia, atunci când cetăţeanul sikh Baba Sohan Sin- Pondicherry (aflat sub stăpânirea franceză) şi Co- gh Bhakna s-a dus în Japonia unde a cumpărat 200 lombo. Dalwinder Atwal, Salvinder Dhillon, op.cit., de pistoale şi 2.000 de gloanţe, plănuind mai apoi p. 11. să se îmbarce pe Komagata Maru pentru a duce 68 Thomas G.Fraser, op.cit., p. 256. armamentul în India. Schema a căzut din cauza 69 Ibidem, p. 257. vigilenţei autorităţilor britanice. Dalwinder Atwal, 70 Ibidem, pp. 262-263. Salvinder Dhillon, Cover Story. On the Centenary 71 Ibidem, p. 263. of Hindustani Ghadar Party, Ghadar Jari Hai, Vol. 72 Ibidem, p. 264. VII, No. 1, Jan-Mar 2013, p.7-21, p.10 Trebuie men- 73 Ibidem, p. 266. ţionat că numărul dedicat centenarului este scris 74 Ibidem, p. 267. dintr-o perspectivă skikh, pro-ghadareză, aşa deci 75 Jane Singh, op.cit., p. 42. că cifrele vehiculate trebuie citite în această cheie. 76 Balochistanul este una intre provinciile actua- 65 Ibidem, p. 165. lului stat Pakistan. 66 Jean Singh, The Gadar Party. Political Expre- 77 Ibidem, p. 43. Dalwinder Atwal, Salvinder ssion in an Immigrant Community, în Jean Yu-Wen Dhillon, op.cit., p. 12. Shen Wu, Ming Gong (ed), Asian American Studies: 78 Ram Chandra, India Againtst Britain, Pamflet, A Reader, Rutgers, The State University, 2000, p. 39 1 Nov. 1916, SAADA: South Asian American Digi- 67 Circa 8.000 de membri ai Ghadar s-ar fi întors tal Archive, p. 5. în India în 1914 prin porturile Bombay, Madras, 79 Ramnath, op.cit., pp. 107-109.

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Dimitrie Cantemir despre statul româno-bulgar al dinastiei Asan

ALEXANDRU MADGEARU *

Abstract

Cantemir was the first Romanian historian who wrote about the Romanian-Bulgarian state established after the rebellion against the Byzantine domination, in 1185. His main source was the history of Niketas Choniates, the most important for the first two decades of the state, but he ignored other indispensable sources like Georgios Akropolites or Jeffrey of Villehardouin. Large fragments from the book of the Byzantine historian and stateman were translated by Cantemir in his unfinished history of the Romanians. Even if he made a major fault identifying Ioniţă (Kaloian) with Ivanko, Cantemir achieved a valuable work. The history of the Romanian-Bulga- rian state was seen as a part of the general history of the Romanians.

Keywords: Dimitrie Cantemir, Byzantine Empire, Romanian-Bulgarian state, Asan dynasty, fourth crusade

Între operele lui Dimitrie Cantemir, Hroni- pie a lucrării lui Cantemir. A urmat modelul cul vechimii romano-moldo-vlahilor este cea acesteia, dar folosind şi alte izvoare2. care reflectă în cea mai mare măsură erudiţia Pe lângă demonstrarea originii romane şi sa. Dacă ar fi fost publicată la vremea ei, evo- a continuităţii românilor în Dacia, unul din- luţia ştiinţei istorice româneşti ar fi fost alta. tre meritele acestei opere neterminate este in- Lucrarea a fost redactată între 1719 şi 17231, şi troducerea pentru prima oară în istoriografia se pare că urma să fie o istorie generală a româ- românească a unor informaţii despre ramura nilor, până în vremea sa. Cantemir a folosit un sud-dunăreană a românilor. Cantemir i-a cu- mare număr de surse romane şi bizantine, dar noscut poate chiar personal pe unii dintre şi opere ale istoricilor medievali şi renascen- aceşti cuţovlahi, cum erau porecliţi de greci, tişti din Italia, Polonia şi Ungaria (lista autori- fiindcă a trăit atât de mult timp în Imperiul lor este dată la începutul cărţii, din păcate fără Otoman. În acel mediu a aflat denumirea re- precizarea ediţiilor). În mare parte, Hronicul... spectivă3. În orice caz, Cantemir a cunoscut şi este un fel de istorie a Imperiului Bizantin, aşa informaţiile consemnate de Laonicos Chalco- cum va fi şi Hronica Românilor a lui Gheorghe condil, care a remarcat identitatea dintre vlahii Şincai. De fapt, Şincai a avut la dispoziţie o co- sudici şi românii nordici („neamul care locu-

* Cercetător ştiinţific gr. I, Institutul pentru Studii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie Militară. 114  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ieşte din Dacia până în Pind”). Scrierea acestui Cange i-ar fi permis lui Cantemir continua- istoric bizantin târziu fusese publicată deja de rea naraţiunii despre ţaratul româno-bulgar şi două ori, în 1615 şi 16504. Cantemir a înţeles după 1207, chiar în absenţa principalei sursei că aceşti vlahi din sursele bizantine erau fraţi bizantine care se referă la acea perioadă (Geor- ai românilor din Moldova, Muntenia şi Tran- gios Akropolites). Astfel, Cantemir s-a bazat în silvania, şi a încercat pe cât posibil să scrie şi scrierea istoriei statului româno-bulgar al di- istoria lor. În Hronic... există şi unele pasaje re- nastiei Asan pe o singură sursă contemporană, feritoare la aromânii din Epir şi Thessalia, dar Niketas Choniates, şi se poate presupune că a Cantemir s-a preocupat mai ales de cea mai avut la dispoziţie doar ediţia lui Wolf. El a avut mare realizare politică a românilor sud-dună- acces şi la istoriile lui Nikephor Gregoras şi reni, statul creat împreună cu bulgarii în urma Georgios Pachymeres, care tratează perioada revoltei anti-bizantine din 11855. Am eviden- Imperiului Bizantin de la Niceea, dar care con- ţiat deja contribuţia lui Cantemir la istoria ţin informaţii puţine despre Bulgaria. Prima problemei, anterioară marii opere a lui Char- dintre ele a fost editată de acelaşi Hieronymus les Lebeau despre Imperiul Bizantin, apărută Wolf la Basel în 1562, existând şi o ediţie pari- începând din 17576. ziană din 17029. Istoria lui Pachymeres a apă- Cantemir a putut scrie despre statul fondat rut pentru prima oară la Roma, în 166610. de fraţii Petru, Asan şi Ioniţă deoarece a avut Despre cruciada a patra, Cantemir a aflat acces la Istoria lui Niketas Choniates, contem- unele informaţii sumare dintr-una dintre lu- poran al evenimentelor. Aceasta a fost editată crările pe care a citat-o frecvent, Rerum Un- pentru prima oară în original şi cu traducere garicarum decades, de Antonius Bonfinius, latină de către Hieronymus Wolf la Basel în terminată în 1495. Acest istoric renascentist 1557, fiind retipărită la Geneva în 1593. A ur- s-a bazat la rândul lui pe o carte apărută în mat ediţia lui Charles Fabrot de la Paris, apă- 1483 la Veneţia, Decadele lui Flavio Biondo, o rută în 1647 (ea face parte din colecţia Corpus compilaţie care a folosit istorii veneţiene mai scriptorum historiae Byzantinae)7. Din păcate, vechi. De la Flavio Biondo, preluat de Bonfi- Cantemir nu a cunoscut istoria altui autor bi- nius, pasajul despre bătălia de la Adrianopol zantin, Georgios Akropolites, care l-a continu- din 14 aprilie 1205 contra Valachi-lor a ajuns şi at pe Niketas Choniates pentru perioada 1207- în opera lui Cantemir. În acel pasaj, Bonfinius a 1260. Opera acestuia conţine informaţii preţi- introdus şi opiniile sale despre originea româ- oase despre ţarii care au urmat după Ioniţă. nilor, despre care ştia că sunt urmaşii colonişti- Prima ediţie a istoriei lui Akropolites a apărut lor romani în Dacia (a inventat însă o derivare împreună cu cele ale lui Nikephor Gregoras şi fantezistă a numelui Valachi de la un general Laonicos Chalcocondil, în 1615, sub ediţia lui roman Flaccus; această idee a fost admisă şi J. B. Baumbach. A urmat o ediţie realizată de de Cantemir)11. Bonfinius nu a scris însă nimic Leon Allatzis, bibliotecar grec la Vatican, care altceva despre statul dinastiei Asan. a apărut în seria de la Paris, în 1651. Nici una Cantemir a reuşit să ofere o descriere a dintre aceste ediţii nu a fost cunoscută de Can- evenimentelor petrecute între 1185 şi 1205, temir. El a ignorat şi relatarea cruciadei a patra care în linii mari concordă cu ceea ce cunoaş- din 1204 şi a evenimentelor care au urmat, fă- tem acum despre ele. Se poate considera că cută de unul dintre conducătorii ei, Geoffroy el a urmărit şi să dea un răspuns ideilor fan- de Villehardouin. Primele ediţii ale aceste is- teziste ale lui Mauro Orbini din Ragusa, unul torii s-au publicat la Paris în 1585 şi la Lyon dintre fondatorii ideologiei panslaviste. Cartea în 1601, dar cea care a cunoscut o mai mare sa Il regno degli Slavi din 1601 a fost tradusă răspândire în epocă a fost cea a lui Charles Du în Rusia în 1722 de către Sava Vladislavić (di- Cange, inclusă ca primă parte a istoriei sale plomatul din Ragusa aflat în serviciul lui Petru despre Imperiul Latin de Constantinopol. A cel Mare, care a negociat tratatul de la Luţk)12. apărut la Paris în 16578. În scrierea cruciatu- Cantemir îl denumea pe Orbini „băsnuitor” şi lui se află numeroase informaţii despre ţaratul „ruşinea istoricilor”13. Orbini a omis partici- româno-bulgar, care le completează pe cele ale parea românilor la revolta din 1185 şi la for- lui Niketas Choniates. În plus, istoria lui Du marea noului stat, şi chiar a falsificat un pasaj  Revista de istorie militară  115 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor din Niketas Choniates în acest scop. Cantemir provenea din ramura familiei Asan care s-a a cunoscut probabil versiunea italiană, înainte stabilit în Imperiul Bizantin după 128017. de realizarea traducerii ruseşti. O eroare majoră este confuzia dintre ţarul Prin evidenţierea locului avut de români în Ioniţă şi uzurpatorul Ivanko, cel care l-a ucis pe desfăşurarea evenimentelor, Cantemir a corec- Asan în 1196. Ivanko, trecut de partea Imperiu- tat deformările făcute de Orbini, care se înca- lui Bizantin, a primit şi numele de Alexios, iar drau în concepţia sa panslavistă. În mai multe Cantemir a crezut că acest Ioan Alexie, cum îl note marginale, Cantemir a atras atenţia asu- denumeşte, este cel care în anii următori a lup- pra deosebirii dintre vlahi şi bulgari, sau vlahi tat contra lui Alexios III Angelos şi apoi contra şi sârbi, menţionaţi concomitent în textul lui lui Balduin, împăratul latin de Constantinopol. Niketas Choniates. Astfel, el a dorit să precize- În realitate, faptele au fost săvârşite de alt Ioan, ze rolul românilor în evenimente, cu numele de cel denumit de regulă Ioniţă, fratele cel mic vlahi dat lor de către greci. Pe cumanii aliaţi ai din familia Asăneştilor, care a preluat puterea românilor şi bulgarilor, Cantemir îi denumeşte în 1197 după uciderea lui Petru. De asemenea, de obicei tătari, dar într-un pasaj menţionează acest Ioan Alexie este confundat cu Ioan Asan că aceşti cumani erau un neam de tătari ce lo- II, deoarece Cantemir susţinea că ar fi domnit cuia pe atunci prin Podolia şi Pocuţia (ampla- până la invazia tătarilor lui Batie (adică Batu). sarea este eronată)14. El nu ştia că Ioniţă a murit în 1207 la asediul În cea mai mare parte, textul lui Cantemir Thessalonicului. Bătălia de acolo pe care o de- este o parafrazare după Niketas Choniates, sau scrie este de fapt cucerirea oraşului de către pur şi simplu o traducere fidelă a acestei surse. Theodor Angelos Dukas din 1225. Cantemir Aceasta nu scade însă din valoarea operei, pen- nu a înţeles nici numele de „domn al Zagorei” tru că istoricul a reunit pasajele despre con- atribuit lui Ioan de către Niketas Choniates. fruntările românilor, bulgarilor şi cumanilor Neştiind că aceasta era denumirea regiunii de cu Imperiul Bizantin şi apoi cu Imperiul Latin la nord de Haemus (Stara Planina), el a crezut de Constantinopol, rezultând o naraţiune co- că ar fi un conducător al sârbilor. De fapt, era erentă şi clară. Cronologia evenimentelor este tot Ioniţă18. în linii mari conformă cu cea acceptată astăzi În pofida acestor erori datorate informaţiei de istorici. lacunare, capitolele din Hronic... dedicate sta- Cantemir a făcut o confuzie, crezând că tului româno-bulgar au meritul de a fi introdus acei vlahi care au pornit rebeliunea veniseră pentru prima oară în scrierea istoriei români- de la nord de Dunăre („aşezământul lor de telor evenimentele la care au participat repre- mei tot peste Dunăre au fost”)15. În vremea sa, zentanţii ramurii lor sud-dunărene. Cantemir populaţia românească odinioară numeroasă în a integrat aşadar statul Asăneştilor în istoria zona Munţilor Balcani (Stara Planina) era deja generală a neamului românesc, aşa cum putea dispărută, şi de aceea Cantemir nu a realizat fi ea scrisă pe vremea sa. La fel va proceda şi că acolo s-a produs mişcarea românilor contra Gheorghe Şincai. Ca şi în alte privinţe (istoria dominaţiei bizantine. Aflând în istoria lui Ioan otomană, studierea religiei islamice, notarea Cantacuzino denumirea Vlahia Mare, el a cre- muzicii turceşti), şi aici Cantemir a fost un zut că aceasta ar fi Moldova. De fapt, acel autor deschizător de drumuri. a scris despre Thessalia, care căpătase şi acest nume în secolul al XIV-lea. Fără a insista prea NOTE 1 mult asupra acestei idei, Cantemir a presupus M. Berza, Pentru o istorie a vechii culturi ro- mâneşti, ed. de A. Pippidi, Bucureşti, 1985, p. 160. că descendenţii lui Asan au ajuns în Moldova 2 într-o perioadă mai târzie. Ideea apare şi în Gr. Tocilescu, Precuvântare, în D. Cantemir, Hronicul vechimei a Romano-Moldo-Vlahilor publi- Descrierea Moldovei16. Problema nu este clari- cat de Gr. Tocilescu (Operele Principelui Demetriu ficată, căci numele familiei boiereşti Asan fiind Cantemiru, tipărite de Societatea Academică Ro- de origine pecenegă sau cumană, poate aparţi- mână. Volumul 8), Bucureşti, 1901, p. XXVI-XLIII. ne unor urmaşi ai cumanilor rămaşi în Moldo- 3 D. Cantemir, Hronicul..., p. 157. va. Pe de altă parte, Cantemir nu ştia că a doua 4 Laonic Chalcocondil, Expuneri istorice, în soţie a lui Ştefan cel Mare, Maria de Mangop, Fontes Historiae Daco-Romanae, vol. IV, Bucureşti, 116  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor 1982, p. 453 (trad. N. Ş. Tanaşoca). Primele ediţii: toribus per annos CXLV, a Theodoro Lascari priore, J. B. Baumbach, Historiae Byzantinae scriptores tres usque ad Andronici Palaeologi posterioris obitum graeco-latini vno tomo simul munc editi, Geneva, gestae, describuntur (...), Basileae, 1562; Nicephorus 1615; Laonici Chalcocondylae Atheniensis Histo- Gregoras, Byzantina historia, graece et latine, Paris, riarum libri decem. Interprete Conrado Clausero 1702. Tigurino (...) Accessit index glossarum Laonici Chal- 10 Georgios Pachymeris, Andronicus Palaeologus, cocondylae, studio & opera Caroli Annibalis Fabroti, sive Historia rerum ab Andronico Seniore im impe- Paris, 1650. rio gestarum ad annum ejus aetatis undequinquage- 5 D. Cantemir, Hronicul..., p. 397-434, 466. simum (...), Roma, 1666-1669. 6 A. Madgearu, Asăneştii. Istoria politico-milita- 11 Antonius Bonfinius, Rerum Ungaricarum ră a statului dinastiei Asan (1185-1280), Târgovişte, decades quatuor cum dimidia: his accessere Ioan. 2014, p. 15. Sambvci aliqvot appendices & alia (...), Francofurti, 7 Nicetae Choniatae Historia, recensuit Ioan- 1581, p. 277 (decada II, cartea VII). nes Aloysius van Dieten (Corpus Fontium Histori- 12 J. Cracraft, The Petrine Revolution in Russian ae Byzantinae. Series Berolinensis, XI/1-2), Berlin, Culture, Cambridge (Massachusetts), 2004, p. 217. New York, 1975, p. CV-CVI. 13 P. P. Panaitescu, Dimitrie Cantemir. Viaţa şi 8 Charles Du Fresne Du Cange, Histoire de opera, Bucureşti, 1958, p. 177. l’empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs 14 D. Cantemir, Hronicul..., p. 407. français, divisée en deux parties, dont la première 15 Ibidem, p. 403. contient l’Histoire de la conquête de la ville de Con- 16 Ibidem, p. 397, 400; Idem, Descrierea Moldo- stantinople par les François et les Vénitiens, écrite vei, trad. de Gh. Guţu, Bucureşti, 1973, p. 281. par Geoffroy de Villehardouin, revue et corrigée en 17 Şt S. Gorovei, “Maria Asanina Paleologhina. cette édition sur le manuscrit de la Bibliothèque du Doamna Moldovlahiei” (II), Studii şi materiale de Roy et illustrée d’observations historiques et d’un istorie medie, 24, 2006, p. 56‐59. glossaire, Paris, 1657. 18 D. Cantemir, Hronicul..., p. 411-420, 423-432. 9 Nicephorus Gregoras, Romanae, hoc est Byzan- Pentru acestea, vezi A. Madgearu, Asăneştii..., p. 73- tinae historiae Libri X, quibus res a Graecis Impera- 74, 97-100, 143-147.

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De la Mesopotamia la Irak. Secvenţe uitate?

DRAGOŞ ILINCA *

Abstract

In the first half of sixteenth century, the area corresponding to the ancient Mesopotamia, was placed under the formal control of Ottoman Empire. On November 5, 1914, after the outbreak of the First World War in Europe, Great Britain officially declared war on Ottoman Empire. Al- most immediately, a significant British force was deployed in Persian Gulf, occupying the Basra city. In spite of this initial victory, the offensive entered soon in a terrible climax for British forces which were forced to surrender. The second stage of the war on the front in the Mesopotamia was more successfully for a new British Expeditionary Force which managed to occupy after fierce fully battles Baghdad city. The issue of future way of administrating this area was one of the main topics during the Peace Conference in Paris. Within the Mandate system evolved as a panacea administrative solution after the war, Great Britain took over the responsibility for the so-called “Mandate for Mesopotamia” comprising the former ottoman provinces of Mosul, Bagdad and Basra. In spite of this, the fervent opposition of the arabs regarding British occupation was the main driver for the decision of creating the Kingdom of Iraq. Subsequently, in 1932 the new state, under the leadership of the King Faisal I, reached full independence.

Keywords: Ottoman Empire, Middle East, Lawrence of Arabia, Hashemites, British Manda- te, First World War, Arab Revolt, Faisal, Gertrude Bell, Iraq

Ca şi în cazul celorlalte state din Orientul găseau în acest perimetru. De asemenea, din Mijlociu, apariţia Irakului se plasează în con- secolului al VIII-lea se întâlneşte şi denumirea textul disoluţiei Imperiului Otoman, consecin- de al-Iraq, utilizată de geografii arabi pentru a ţă direct a înfrângerii acestuia în Primul Răz- desemna, în linii generale, aceeaşi zonă. boi Mondial (1914-1918). Procesul de creare a noii entităţi s-a derulat într-o tipologie aparte, Frontiera otomană pornind de la nucleul reprezentat de teritoriul Instalarea autorităţii Imperiului Otoman în dintre fluviile Tigru şi Eufrat. Până la izbucni- prima jumătate a secolului al XVI-lea a gene- rea primei conflagraţii mondiale, identitatea rat integrarea acestui spaţiu în cadrul unui nou acestei zone nu beneficia de conotaţii speci- sistem administrativ-teritorial sub forma a trei ale, identificarea sa fiind realizată prin apel la entităţi principale corespunzând, în esenţă, Mesopotamia1 antică ale cărei origini se re- perimetrului adiacent principalelor localităţi:

* Dr. în istorie, Misiunea Permanentă a României la NATO. 118  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Bagdad, Mosul şi Basra. Pe fondul existenţei cărui autoritate viza, mai degrabă, sfera admi- unor dificultăţi majore în exercitarea autori- nistrativă. Componenta de securitate internă tăţii otomane în aceste regiuni, până la înce- (poliţie şi elemente similare jandarmeriei) era putul secolului al XIX-lea, conducerea de facto plasată, de asemenea, în subordinea acestuia. a acestor entităţi a fost încredinţată unor elite Segmentul militar din cadrul celor trei entităţi războinice, mult mai cunoscute sub numele de era integrat în cadrul Armatei a VI-a otomane, mameluci2. Această opţiune asumată de Im- având cartierul general la Bagdad, comanda ar- periul Otoman era dictată, în primul rând, de matei fiind menţinută, spre deosebire de zona realităţile acestei frontiere în care principala civilă, în sfera autorităţilor de la Istanbul. ameninţare era reprezentată de tendinţele ex- Nu se poate vorbi, însă, de implementarea pansioniste persane. Din această perspectivă, unui program eficient şi, mai ales durabil, de consolidarea caracterului militar al acestor reforme în plan local, liniile de demarcaţie în- provincii reprezenta elementul prioritar pen- tre principalele comunităţi, shia, sunni şi kurzi tru Înalta Poartă. continuând să se manifeste. Autoritatea repre- În mod evident, echilibrul realizat prin in- zentanţilor birocraţiei otomane a continuat să termediul acestei formule de guvernare îşi avea fie diminuată5 prin menţinerea propriilor for- preţul său. Menţinerea integrităţii teritoriale a mule de autoguvernare la nivelul acestor co- Imperiului Otoman în acest perimetru s-a re- munităţi. Distanţa relativ mare faţă de centrul alizat în defavoarea controlului autorităţii cen- autorităţii otomane a favorizat din plin aceas- trale de la Istanbul liderii mameluci benefici- tă situaţie, generând, de asemenea, o dinami- ind de un grad ridicat de autonomie. Această că particulară în ceea ce priveşte capacitarea situaţie se menţine până în 1808, când sultanul diferiţilor şefi de triburi sau lideri religioşi în Mahmud al II-lea (1808-1839) iniţiază o serie sprijinul guvernatorilor trimişi de la Istanbul. de schimbări în pregătirea unui amplu pro- De asemenea, desele schimbări înregistrate la gram de reformă internă, cunoscut sub numele conducerea vilayetelor a contribuit la accen- de Tanzimat3. În acelaşi timp, pentru perioa- tuarea lipsei de continuitate în implementarea da de debut a domniei sale Imperiul Otoman programului de modernizare. a înregistrat o serie de înfrângeri militare în Reformele Tanzimatului au generat, în urma cărora amprenta teritorială din Europa şi schimb, apariţia unei noi elite, cantonată cu Africa de Nord s-a diminuat semnificativ (ex, precădere în zona militară. Apariţia aceste- pierderea Greciei şi Algeriei). În aceste condi- ia a fost consecinţa directă a programului de ţii, opţiunea lui Mahmud al II-lea în aplicarea modernizare a armatei otomane iniţiat de programului de reforme, întărită adeseori prin Mahmud al II-lea şi dezvoltat de succesorii săi. măsuri4 radicale, a vizat consolidarea controlu- Abandonarea organizării clasice, inclusiv prin lui autorităţii centrale la nivelul întregului Im- desfiinţarea corpului ienicerilor, a deschis, periu, fiind vizate cu preponderenţă regiunile practic, porţile armatei otomane pentru po- de graniţă. Astfel, conducerea mamelucilor pulaţia arabă din cadrul Imperiului Otoman. din cele trei provincii este înlocuită cu repre- Tot mai mulţi tineri aparţinând, în majoritate zentanţi ai sultanului (similari guvernatorilor) comunităţii sunnite din cele trei provincii ur- desemnaţi direct de către sultan. Reluarea con- mează cursurile şcolilor militare otomane din trolului otoman a permis extinderea reformelor Bagdad şi, chiar, Istanbul. Ulterior, majoritatea Tanzimatului, şi în acest perimetru. Reflectarea acestora s-a regăsit în rândurile Armatei a VI-a directă a procesului de reformă s-a realizat prin otomane. În mod evident, armata a continuat adoptarea unor măsuri de reorganizare admi- să reprezinte în perioada Tanzimatului una nistrativă în urma cărora legăturile dintre cele dintre pârghiile esenţiale pentru menţinerea trei entităţi se întăresc. Prin intermediul Legii controlului autorităţii otomane în perimetre- Vilayetelor din 1864, teritoriul era împărţit în le îndepărtate ale Imperiului, atragerea ele- cadrul a trei vilayete (Mosul, Basra şi Bagdad), mentelor arabe fiind de natură să consolideze similar sistemului provinciilor din Europa. La această legătură. conducerea fiecăruia dintre vilayete se afla un Cu toate acestea, situaţia economico-soci- vali (guvernator) numit direct de Istanbul, a ală în acest perimetru geografic nu a depăşit  Revista de istorie militară  119 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor nivelul periferiei, efectele reformelor Tanzi- dere confesional-religios, divizarea era cu mult matului fiind resimţite sensibil diminuate în mai accentuată, populaţia, predominant shia plan social şi economic. Acestei situaţii i s-au fiind concentrată în sudul regiunii, în timp ce adăugat efectele decăderii Imperiului Otoman, sunniţii se regăseau în vest, nordul fiind domi- fenomen accentuat către sfârşitul secolului al nat de populaţia kurdă. Existau, astfel, sufici- XIX-lea. Sultanul Abdul Hamid al II-lea (1876- ente motive de preocupare pentru autoritatea 1909) încearcă refacerea autorităţii şi a puterii centrală otomană, în special din perspectiva otomane mizând, în plan extern, pe recupe- tendinţelor expansioniste persane pentru care rarea teritoriului pierdut în Balcani. Cu toa- majoritatea shiită reprezenta un factor facilita- te acestea, Războiul ruso-turc din 1877-1878 tor. Suplimentar, autoritatea otomană în zonă nu a adus rezultatele scontate contribuind, în se confrunta cu expansiunea wahhabi origina- schimb, la adâncirea crizei în care Imperiul ră din Peninsula Arabia care ameninţa, de ase- Otoman se afla. menea, perimetrul Golfului Persic. Pornind de la realitatea incapacităţii milita- Sub aceste auspicii se impunea adoptarea re otomane pe frontul european, Abdulhamid unui program de consolidare a controlului cen- şi-a concentrat atenţia asupra consolidării uni- tral în această zonă. Din această perioadă da- tăţii interne a Imperiului, cu accent pe com- tează primele idei de unificare a celor trei pro- ponenta orientală a acestuia. În sprijinul aces- vincii şi, implicit, consolidarea în cadrul unei tui obiectiv a utilizat întregul instrumentar de singure entităţi care să beneficieze de un statut care autoritatea sultanului dispunea, în special adecvat la nivelul administraţiei imperiului. titlul de Calif al lumii islamice. Asumarea unei De asemenea, identificarea nevoilor reale în astfel de opţiuni venea să se contrapună ame- teritoriu s-a derulat într-o manieră laborioasă ninţărilor centrifugale din interiorul graniţelor fiind avansate numeroase planuri de reformă imperiale ale căror exprimări s-au consemnat atât în plan economico-social, cât şi în ceea ce în ultimele decenii ale secolului al XIX-lea. În priveşte consolidarea sistemului de apărare a acest context se înscriu mişcările de opoziţie acestei zone. Situaţia financiar-economică7 a şi revoltele din Egipt (1881-1882) respectiv Su- Imperiului Otoman nu va permite, însă, intro- dan (1883-1885), ambele cu profund impact la ducerea unor măsuri de reformă contribuind, adresa coeziunii interne. Reacţia lui Abdullha- astfel, la accentuarea trăsăturilor de periferie al mid viza, astfel, eliminarea riscului de diminu- acestei zone. are a prestigiului autorităţii califiale de la Istan- Degradarea semnificativă a capacităţii in- bul. Prin apel la unitate pan-islamică, se dorea, terne otomane de a exercita controlul la nive- practic, eliminarea riscurilor de fragmentare lul întregului teritoriu a reprezentat trăsătura cu accent asupra provinciilor de graniţă, mult principală a evoluţiei Imperiului Otoman în mai vulnerabile. a doua jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea. Slăbi- ciunea internă, a fost dublată de accentuarea Protectori şi competitori dependenţei faţă de marile puteri europene. Pentru situaţia celor trei provincii din peri- Practic, în momentul instalării pe tron a lui metrul adiacent fluviilor Tigru şi Eufrat, noul Abdulhamid al II-lea Imperiul Otoman întru- curs al politicii otomane avea să genereze im- nea parametrii unui “stat-asistat”, depozitar, plicaţii semnificative. În acest sens, perioada însă, al unui patrimoniu teritorial cu semni- 1880-1890 a fost marcată de o amplă dezbatere ficaţii strategice pentru logica geopolitică a la nivelul aparatului birocratic central de la Is- sfârşitului de secol XIX. În cadrul perspecti- tanbul privind identificarea modalităţilor cele vei eurocentrice a acestei perioade Orientul mai nimerite pentru îmbunătăţirea situaţiei din Mijlociu reprezenta unul dintre principalele cele trei provincii. Tabloul era, însă, extrem de puncte de interes pentru marile puteri europe- sumbru. Populaţia celor 3 provincii se ridica, ne, în special Marea Britanie. Relevanţa zonei potrivit statisticilor otomane la aproximativ 3, era evaluată în conexiune cu efortul principal 3 milioane de locuitori, dintre care doar puţin de securizare a prezenţei britanice din India peste 20% se aflau în mediu urban6, majoritatea şi, subsecvent, menţinerea controlului asupra fiind concentrată în Bagdad. Din punct de ve- principalelor rute de comunicaţii. 120  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Acest obiectiv va orienta, practic, întreaga începeau să se manifeste cu intensitate ten- paradigmă a politicii britanice în Orientul Mij- dinţele expansioniste ale Germaniei. Vizita lociu, în special după deschiderea Canalului de Kaiserului Wilhelm al II-lea la Istanbul şi în Suez, în noiembrie 1869. Pe aceleaşi coordona- Orientul Mijlociu (1898) reprezenta dovada te, evoluţiile din Golful Persic beneficiau de o cea mai grăitoare asupra interesului manifest relevanţă similar strategică pentru securizarea al Germaniei faţă de această zonă. Starea de perlei Imperiului Britanic. Tipologia acţională slăbiciune demonstrată a Imperiului Otoman asumată de diplomaţia britanică a îmbrăcat o oferea oportunităţi de creştere a influenţei ger- paletă largă de exprimări la nivelul cărora rela- mane în Orientul Mijlociu, inclusiv în zonele cu ţia dintre Marea Britanie şi Imperiul Otoman potenţial economic şi comercial semnificativ. a reprezentat unul dintre vectorii principali de În egală măsură, prezenţa monarhului ger- proiectare a propriei agende. În acest context, man venea şi în întâmpinarea dorinţelor lui rolul de protector exercitat de Marea Britanie Abdulhamid al II-lea de contrabalansare a in- relativ constant în negocierea diferitelor con- fluenţei britanice. Pe aceste coordonate, rezul- figuraţii geopolitice ale secolului al XIX-lea a tatul tangibil al apropierii otomano-germane vizat, consecvent, menţinerea integrităţii teri- s-a regăsit în lansarea unui proiect ambiţios toriale a Imperiului Otoman. Avantajele aces- de infrastructură, cunoscut sub numele de tei opţiuni au fost consemnate încă din prima “Calea ferată Berlin-Bagdad”. Din perspecti- jumătate a secolului când Marea Britanie devi- va Istanbulului, acest proiect avea o relevanţă ne principalul “broker” în ansamblul relaţiilor economică particulară, putând să contribuie dintre diferitele elite locale din Golful Persic. la revigorarea comerţului pe vechile trasee in- Alternând diplomaţia cu forţa armelor, Marea do-europene. În acelaşi timp, oferea avantaje Britanie îşi asumă responsabilitatea pentru semnificative în ceea ce priveşte o potenţială apărarea teritoriului corespunzând actuale- refacere economică a frontierei mesopotami- lor state Oman (1829), Emiratele Arabe Unite ene complementând, astfel, linia de cale ferată (1835) şi Bahrain (1866). Hejaz8 care beneficia, de asemenea, de sprijin Opţiunile britanice în relaţia cu Imperiul german. Nu pot fi excluse discuţiei nici impli- Otoman aveau să se schimbe către finalul seco- caţiile concrete, în plan militar, ale proiectului, lului al XIX-lea, în sensul consolidării prezen- în sensul consolidării trupelor otomane din ţei în zonele de interes din Orientul Mijlociu. această zonă şi, implicit, menţinerii unui con- În mod evident, protejarea Canalului de Suez trol otoman optim la frontiera estică. şi, implicit, a rutelor către India reprezentau Principalul obstacol pentru Abdulhamid principalele obiective ale noii abordări. Primul era reprezentat de capacitatea financiară ex- pas avea să se consemneze prin introduce- trem de redusă a Imperiului Otoman de a-şi rea Protectoratului asupra Egiptului (1882), asuma un astfel de proiect. În acest sens, dis- formulă prin care Marea Britanie îşi securiza cuţiile privind finanţarea proiectului de către interesele din acest perimetru pentru o lungă partea germană se derulează în perioada 1896- perioadă de timp. Pentru teritoriile din ime- 1899. Negocierile veneau în prelungirea formu- diata apropiere a Golfului Persic, noul curs al lelor de cooperare existente în acest domeniu politicii britanice avea să aducă transformări care au permis construirea cu sprijin financiar semnificative. Aceasta în condiţiile intensifică- german a unei linii de cale ferată care lega Is- rii activităţilor exploratorii privind potenţialele tanbul de Ankara. Pornind de la aceste prece- zăcăminte petrolifere culminând cu prima des- dente, vizita lui Wilhelm al II-lea a contribuit la coperire a petrolului, în mai 1908, la Masjed încheierea unei înţelegeri, urmată de acordarea Soleyman (sud-vestul Iranului). Pornind de la către companiile germane, în noiembrie 1899, realitatea existenţei în acest perimetru a unor a concesiunii privind iniţierea construcţiei. zăcăminte importante, Marea Britanie şi-a În mod evident un astfel de proiect nu putea concentrat atenţia asupra securizării noilor să treacă neobservat pentru celelalte mari pu- descoperiri. teri europene angrenate în expansiunea globa- Motivaţiile britanice erau cu atât mai pu- lă, caracteristică celei de-a doua jumătăţi a se- ternice în condiţiile în care pe scena orientală colului al XIX-lea. Implicaţiile militare ale căii  Revista de istorie militară  121 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ferate erau principalele motive de îngrijorare în în contextul reformelor promovate prin Tan- special pentru Marea Britanie ale cărei poziţii zimat. Numeroşi ofiţeri arabi se vor regăsi în în Golful Persic putea fi ameninţate prin fina- rândurile organizaţiilor12 naţionaliste care apar lizarea acestui proiect9 în condiţiile extinderii atât în Imperiul Otoman, cât şi în Europa, pre- către Basra, aducând, astfel, în imediata veci- cum: al-Qahtanya (1909), al-Mutada al-Adabi nătate a zonei petrolifere prezenţa germană. (1909), al-Fatat (1911) şi, nu în ultimul rând, Preocupările britanice erau cu atât mai justifi- Al-Ahd (1913). Opţiunea asocierii cu aceste cate în condiţiile în care concesiunea acordată cercuri dezvoltate sub influenţa ideilor naţio- pentru construcţia căii ferate era însoţită de o naliste europene, se constituia, mai degrabă, serie de privilegii acordate statului investitor în ca o formă de protest faţă de centralismul poli- ceea ce priveşte exploatarea minieră şi dreptu- ticii promovate de autorităţile otomane. rile de foraj pe o distanţă de 20 kilometri de o parte şi de alta a traiectului liniei de cale ferată. Primul Război Mondial în Orientul Mij- Suplimentar, în 1904 avantajele sunt întărite lociu prin acordarea monopolului exclusiv în ceea ce Implicarea Imperiului Otoman în confla priveşte prospectările petroliere în perimetrul grația mondială în alianță cu Puterile Centrale a Bagdad – Mosul10. Urmare a acestei situaţii, favorizat activitatea acestor organizații al căror reacţiile marilor puteri europene s-au plasat centru de activitate se concentrează la Damasc în susţinerea „internaţionalizării”11 căii ferate unde va funcţiona pentru aproape întreaga pe- şi, implicit, a neutralizării influenţei germane. rioadă a războiului. Suplimentar activităţii po- Începând din momentul acordării acestei con- litice, numeroşi ofiţeri arabi proveniţi din peri- cesiuni şi până la izbucnirea Primului Război metru Tigru-Eufrat părăsesc armata otomană, Mondial evoluţiile dinOrientul Mijlociu vor participând la luptele ce se vor da în Orientul fi abordate şi prin prisma modalităţii de rea- Mijlociu alături de tabăra anglo-franceză. lizare a proiectului de infrastructură. Cu toate Din perspectivă operaţională, izbucnirea acestea, diplomaţia britanică nu a înregistrat Primului Război Mondial a atras cele trei vila- succese notabile, relaţiile de cooperare dintre yete din regiunea Tigru şi Eufrat în epicentrul Imperiul Otoman şi Germania continuând să confruntărilor derulate pe frontul Orientului se dezvolte. Mijlociu între trupele otomane, sprijinite de Toate aceste aspecte au condus la antago- Germania şi forţele britanice. La câteva zile nizarea suplimentară a atitudinii britanice în după intrarea Imperiului Otoman în război, relaţia cu autorităţile otomane. Instaurarea re- Marea Britanie lansează, prin intermediul For- gimului condus de Junii Turci (1908) nu a con- ţei Expediţionare Indiene (22 noiembrie 1914), tribuit la îmbunătăţirea relaţiilor pe acest pa- ofensiva pe direcţia Basra-Bagdad. Sub co- lier. Practic, politica autoritară promovată de manda generalului Charles Townshend (1861- Abdullah al II-lea fiind asumată de noul regim, 1924), ofensiva viza, în esenţă, securizarea ex- cu accent particular ceea ce priveşte consoli- ploatării terenurilor petrolifere din perimetrul darea autorităţii centrale. Într-o primă etapă, sudic iranian, de o importanţă strategică pen- prin intermediul unei abordări liberale, Junii tru sprijinirea efortului de război britanic. Pe Turci au optat pentru atragerea minorităţilor acest segment se cuvine a fi menţionat faptul din cadrul Imperiului în susţinerea integrităţii că din perioada imediat premergătoare războ- acestuia. Dacă iniţial s-a reuşit agregarea unor iului, Compania Anglo-Persian Oil era impli- formule de sprijin din partea populaţiei arabe, cată în extragerea ţiţeiului şi rafinarea acestuia acutizarea accentelor autoritare ale politicii Ju- în cadrul rafinăriei deschise în 1912 la Abadan. nilor Turci a contribuit la diminuarea acestei În strânsă legătură cu aceste evoluţii, marina solidarităţi. Se poate vorbi chiar de conturarea militară britanică abandonase sistemul de ali- unei mişcări naţionaliste, de opoziţie, la nivelul mentare pe bază de cărbune în favoarea deri- populaţiei arabe faţă de centralismul promo- vatelor din petrol. Această opţiune, combinată vat de la Istanbul. Nucleul a fost reprezentat cu avantaje tehnologice evidente, genera în de tinerii arabi proveniţi din aceste zone care schimb dependenţa de rezervele de petrol din se înrolaseră în rândurile armatei otomane Orientul Mijlociu solicitând, totodată, o aten- 122  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Trupele britanice în Bagdad (1917)

ţie particulară faţă de menţinerea controlului otomane din Peninsula Arabia. În economia în aceste perimetre. războiului, acţiunile sale împotriva garnizoa- Subsumată acestor obiective, ofensiva bri- nelor otomane din acest perimetru vizau, în tanică s-a bucurat într-o primă etapă de un esenţă, susţinerea flancului drept al ofensivei succes promiţător prin realizarea unui cap de britanice lansată dinspre Egipt. Forţele arabe, pod în perimetrul Basra. Dezvoltarea acţiu- alcătuite în majoritate din elemente neregula- nii ofensive spre Bagdad avea să se lovească, te aparţinând triburilor arabe din zona Hejaz, însă, de o rezistenţă puternică din partea for- beneficiau de sprijinul britanic atât prin furni- ţelor otomane întărite cu trupe suplimentare zarea de armament şi muniţie, cât şi prin in- şi beneficiind de sprijin şi consiliere germană. termediul consilierilor britanici, printre care şi Respingerea atacului britanic a fost urmată de celebrul T.E.Lawrence (1888-1935), cunoscut o puternică contraofensivă otomană în urma sub numele de „Lawrence al Arabiei”. De asemenea, în rândurile forţelor arabe se regăseau căreia forţele lui Townshend sunt încercuite şi un număr important de voluntari14 proveniţi şi asediate în perimetrul Kut (decembrie 1915 din perimetrul Tigru-Eufrat în marea lor ma- – aprilie 1916). În ciuda eforturilor disperate joritate având pregătire militară dobândită în de străpungere a încercuirii, trupele britanice cadrul şcolilor otomane. Aceştia se vor regăsi (aprox. 13.000) se predau. Perspectivele conti- în special în cadrul segmentului de forţe ara- nuării ofensivei otomane deveneau din ce în ce be conduse de fiului sharifului Hussein, Faisal mai ameninţătoare pentru poziţiile britanice (1885-1933). din Golful Persic. În economia războiului din Orientul Mij- Evoluţiile nefavorabile înregistrate în acest lociu, lansarea Revoltei Arabe a contribuit, în sector au contribuit, într-o măsură determi- mod semnificativ, şi la pregătirea condiţiilor nantă, la deschiderea unui nou front în Ori- pentru reluarea ofensivei britanice spre Bag- entul Mijlociu menit să slăbească coeziunea dad atât prin sabotarea liniilor de comunicaţii angajamentului otoman. Astfel, la 5 iunie otomane, cât şi prin acţiunile de luptă per se in- 13 1916, după o lungă perioadă de negociere cu capacitând, astfel, efective importante otoma- reprezentanţii diplomaţiei britanice din Egipt, ne. În decembrie 1916, trupele britanice, sub shariful Hussein bin Ali (1854-1931) din Mec- comanda generalului Frederick Stanley Maude ca, reprezentantul dinastiei Hashemite, una (1864-1917) reiau ofensiva spre Bagdad. Pre- dintre cele mai importante din Orientul Mij- gătită minuţios, acţiunea avansează gradual lociu, lansa Revolta Arabă împotriva prezenţei reuşind să se impună în faţa forţelor otomane.  Revista de istorie militară  123 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor La 10 martie 1917 trupele britanice ocupă Bag- ritoriului corespunzând Siriei şi Libanului de dadul care este plasat, alături de Basra, sub ad- astăzi. În contrapondere, interesele Marii Bri- ministraţia britanică. Mosul rămâne sub con- tanii erau satisfăcute prin introducerea controlul forţelor otomane până la sfârşitul războ- trolului direct în Palestina respectiv în Bagdad iului când în urma Armistiţiului de la Mudros şi Basra. Fostul vilayet Mosul urma să intre în (octombrie 1918) trupele otomane se predau. sfera de influenţă franceză15. În paralel cu aceste evoluţii forţele conduse Ulterior, formalizarea în parametrii inde emirul Faisal reuşesc să intre în Damasc (1 stituţionali a prevederilor acestui acord se va octombrie 1918) fiind urmate la scurt timp de regăsi în apariţia, conform articolului 22 al forţele britanice. Convenantului Ligii Naţiunilor, a Sistemului Mandatelor care reprezenta, practic, o formu- A New State is Born lă de gestionare, pe termen mediu16, a teritori- Înfrângerea Imperiului Otoman şi, subsec- ilor desprinse din cadrul Imperiului Otoman. vent, gestionarea „moştenirii” acestuia a repre- Adoptarea deciziilor practice, decurgând şi din zentat una dintre principalele teme ale Confe- înţelegerile anterioare se va realiza cu prilejul rinţei de pace de la Paris. Reperele negocierilor Conferinţei aliate de la San Remo (19-26 apri- fuseseră stabilite, însă, în timpul războiului, lie 1920). Cu acest prilej se agrea independen- prin intermediul Acordului Sykes-Picot (mai ţa provizorie pentru „Siria şi Mesopotamia”, 1916) prin intermediul căruia Franţa şi Marea urmând ca acestea să fie plasate sub mandat Britanie adjudecaseră formula de împărţire a francez, respectiv britanic. Din punct de vede- „moştenirii” din Orientul Mijlociu. Aceasta re teritorial, „Mandatul pentru Mesopotamia” viza instituirea controlului francez asupra te- viza fostele provincii otomane, Basra, Bagdad

Faisal bin Hussein pe timpul Conferinţei de pace de la Paris. Printre membrii delegaţiei sale se număra şi colonelul T.E.Lawrence, cunoscut sub numele de „Lawrence al Arabiei”. 124  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor şi Mosul. Asupra acesteia din urmă, interesul lul acestor poziţii determină reacţia britanică francez fusese compensat printr-un Acord17 care se concretizează în dislocarea de efective franco-britanic privind petrolul, încheiat cu suplimentare din Iran, inclusiv componente de acelaşi prilej. aviaţie. Prin intermediul acestora, se reuşeşte În mod previzibil, deciziile vizând intro- cu eforturi considerabile înăbuşirea Revol- ducerea acestei formule de tutelă nu au fost tei (octombrie 1920). Bilanţul s-a dovedit a fi bine primite la nivelul populaţiei arabe. În unul extrem de costisitor, numărului mare de cazul Siriei, emirul Faisal, prezent la lucrări- victime (aprox. 6.000 irakieni şi 500 de trupe le Conferinţei de pace a încercat să se opună britanice şi indiene) adăugându-se şi costuri- unui astfel de deznodământ, solicitând res- le financiare ale intervenţiei (40 milioane lire pectarea angajamentelor asumate de statele sterline)18. aliate faţă de shariful Hussein, în sensul pro- Violenţa cu care au erupt nemulţumirile clamării independenţei arabe după terminarea faţă de sistemul de guvernare postbelic, du- războiului. Refuzul statelor vest-europene de a blată de costurile extrem de mari reprezentau da curs solicitării a generat o turnură diferită principalele provocări la adresa viitorului pre- a evenimentelor. În acest context, s-a plasat zenţei britanice în zonă. Nevoia unor schim- decizia Congresului Naţional Sirian de procla- bări era cu atât mai pronunţată în condiţiile în mare, în martie 1920, la Damasc, a lui Faisal ca care situaţia din alte puncte de pe harta Orien- rege al Siriei. Actul a fost urmat de intervenţia tului Mijlociu nu ofereau perspective optimis- trupelor franceze care, în urma Bătăliei de la te în ceea ce priveşte acceptarea introducerii Maysalun (iulie 1920), îl forţează pe Faisal să sistemului mandatelor. Pe aceste coordonate părăsească teritoriul sirian. se înscriau evoluţiile defavorabile din Palestina În mod similar cu evoluţiile din Siria, pre- legate de opoziţia arabă faţă de introducerea zenţa britanică din nou-proclamatul Mandat mandatului britanic. De asemenea, situaţia din al Mesopotamiei avea să fie puternic zdrunci- Siria ameninţa să se degenereze în condiţii- nată de izbucnirea, în iulie 1920, unei revolte le în care Abdullah bin Hussein (1882-1951), îndreptată împotriva ocupaţiei britanice. Por- fratele fostului rege sirian Faisal se arăta decis nită, iniţial, la Bagdad, ca o formulă de protest să atace trupele franceze din Siria. Sub aceste faţă de politicile administraţiei britanice pro- auspicii tensionate, diplomaţia britanică, prin vizorii, revolta a depăşit rapid sectarianismul intermediul noului Secretar Colonial, Win- caracteristic acestui perimetru angrenând pe ston Churchill (1874-1965), iniţiază un proces aceleaşi coordonate aproape toate comunită- rapid de compensare. Primele măsuri adopta- ţile existente. De asemenea, sunt consemnate te au vizat încetarea administraţiei militare a forme de cooperare şi coordonare între cele Mandatului pentru Mesopotamia şi desemna- două comunităţi principale – sunni şi shia. rea primului Înalt Comisar britanic la Bagdad, Trebuie menţionat faptul că derularea revol- în persoana lui Percy Cox (1864-1937). Acesta tei a beneficiat şi de sprijinul voluntarilor care ajunge la Bagdad în octombrie 1920, trecând serviseră în cadrul forţelor conduse de emirul la implementarea unui unei noi strategii al că- Faisal în timpul Revoltei Arabe din timpul răz- rei obiectiv principal viza reducerea drastică a boiului. Intervenţia franceză în Siria urmată de cheltuielilor asociate menţinerii Mandatului. detronarea lui Faisal a determinat întoarcerea În acest sens, Cox a optat pentru consolidarea acestora contribuind, de asemenea, la accentu- formulelor de guvernare în care sunt impli- area sentimentelor de antipatie faţă de prezen- cate comunităţile locale, abordare dublată de ţa străină din regiune. menţinerea, într-o ipostază adaptată, a unui Curând după declanşarea primelor inci- rol semnificativ al prezenţei britanice. Formula dente amploarea confruntărilor depăşeşte ca- instituţională embrionară s-a regăsit, curând pacitatea garnizoanelor britanice de a gestiona după sosirea lui Cox, sub forma unui Consiliu situaţia. Rebelii reuşesc să preia controlul te- alcătuit din reprezentanţi ai principalelor co- ritoriul adiacent cursului mediu al Eufratului munităţi. Acesta va servi în perioada imediat ameninţând să se extindă spre sudul teritoriu- următoare ca unică interfaţă în relaţia cu auto- lui aflat sub mandat. Riscul de a pierde contro- rităţile britanice.  Revista de istorie militară  125 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor În paralel cu acţiunile Înaltului Comisar, di- ţinerea controlului asupra rutelor către India plomaţia britanică a adoptat iniţiativa lansării precum şi asupra exploatărilor petrolifere din unui proces de analiză exhaustiv a evoluţiilor Iran. Toate acestea reclamând, însă, prezenţa din Orientul Mijlociu în vederea identificării unui număr adecvat de forţe. unor soluţii eficiente şi, mai ales economice, În antiteză cu această abordare se pla- care să răspundă noilor realităţi generate prin sa varianta controlului indirect, susţinută de introducerea sistemului mandatelor. Pe aceste T.E.Lawrence şi Gertrude Bell, cât şi de repre- coordonate, Churchill organizează la Cairo o zentanţii segmentului militar reticenţi faţă de Conferinţă (12-23 martie 1920) la care parti- posibilitatea menţinerii, la costuri reduse, a cipă principalii reprezentanţi ai administra- unei prezenţe militare semnificative. Acestei ţiei britanice din Orientul Mijlociu. Printre dezbateri i se suprapunea necesitatea acomo- aceştia se numărau şi principalii experţi bri- dării angajamentelor asumate de Marea Brita- tanici în problemele lumii arabe printre care nie în timpul războiului faţă de populaţia ara- T.E.Lawrence şi, nu în ultimul rând, Gertrude bă, în particular în relaţia cu shariful Hussein Bell (1868-1926). Conferinţa a reprezentat pri- şi familia Haşemită. Rezultatul dezbaterilor ma oportunitate majoră de dezbatere asupra s-a dovedit a fi unul favorabil celei de-a doua cursului politicii britanice din Orientul Mij- opţiuni, fiind decisă, astfel, crearea Regatului lociu, subiectul Mandatului din Mesopotamia Irak şi plasarea pe tronul acestuia a lui Faisal fiind principalul punct al agendei. Dezbaterile bin Hussein. În acelaşi timp, se decidea crearea au relevat existenţa a două curente majore de Emiratului Transiordania sub conducerea lui opinie. Beneficiind de susţinerea Oficiului Co- Abdullah bin Hussein. Relevant pentru abor- lonial una dintre opţiuni viza instituirea unui darea care a dominat întâlnirea din Cairo, în control britanic direct centrat pe formula actu- urma discuţiilor se stabilea reducerea la jumă- ală în cadrul căreia principalul instrument era tate a forţelor britanice din Irak. reprezentat de Înaltul Comisar. Această vari- Deciziile Conferinţei au beneficiat de acor- antă ar fi oferit garanţii suficiente pentru men- dul cabinetului britanic, ceea ce a permis organizarea unui referendum în teritoriul atribuit prin mandat. În urma desfăşurării acestuia opiniile populaţiei s-au plasat în favoarea po- sibilităţii ca Faisal să devină rege. Pornind de la rezultatele înregistrate, la 23 august 1921 Faisal este încoronat rege al Irakului act a cărui prin- cipală semnificaţie consta în apariţia unui nou stat pe harta Orientului Mijlociu. Administra- ţia Mandatului britanic se va menţine până la 3 octombrie 1932 când în baza Tratatului anglo- irakian semnat cu doi ani mai devreme, Irakul devine independent.

***

În mod evident, apariţia Irakului a fost strâns legată de evoluţiile înregistrate în Ori- entul Mijlociu după Primul Război Mondial. Deşi beneficiind de auspicii comune cu celelalte procese de implementare a noilor aranja- mente de guvernare din Siria şi Palestina, crearea statului irakian s-a plasat pe coordonate semnificativ diferite. Particularităţile între- Artizani ai noului stat, Gertrude Bell gului proces ce a culminat cu încoronarea lui şi T.E. Lawrence Faisal au fost generate, într-o măsură determi- 126  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Conferinţa de la Cairo (martie 1921)

nantă, de opţiunile externe spaţiului în cauză. nale la nivelul diferitelor comunităţi existente Nu se poate exclude din acest context, însă, un în Irak care au favorizat, în mod evident, crea- anumit nivel de maturizare a opţiunilor naţio- rea unei formule statale în acest perimetru ge-

Ceremonia de încoronare a regelui Faisal pe tronul Irakului (august 1921)  Revista de istorie militară  127 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ografic. Unitatea de acţiune realizată în timpul În cazul teritoriului corespunzând statului ira- Revoltei derulată în a doua jumătate a anului kian de astăzi, mamelucii întemeiază o adevă- 1920 reprezintă o dovadă suplimentară a unei rată dinastie care exercită controlul cvasitotal astfel de concluzii. recunoscând, totuşi autoritatea sultanului. Apariţia statului irakian se constituie, de 3 Tanzimat (reorganizare), derulată între asemenea, ca un element de bilanţ al imple- 1839-1876, a reprezentat principala perioadă mentării Sistemului Mandatelor în Orientul de reformă a Imperiului Otoman. Obiecti- Mijlociu. Din această perspectivă, Irakul repre- vul acesteia a vizat, în esenţă, modernizarea zintă, dincolo de orice îndoială, un experiment statului otoman pe coordonatede inspiraţie reuşit, fiind primul stat arab care a dobândit vest-europeană. Cu toate acestea, una dintre independenţa în noua logică instituţională ce componentele de bază ale acestui program de a guvernat perioada dintre cele două războa- reforme a vizat consolidarea unităţii interne, ie mondiale. Deşi generată extern, ca element sub stindardul „otomanismului” adoptat ca de garantare a noii formule statale, domnia lui mijloc de contrabalansare a mişcărilor naţio- Faisal a reprezentat o perioadă de maximă afir- naliste din cadrul imperiului. mare internaţională a noului stat, dublată de 4 Introducerea reformelor Tanzimatului nu iniţierea unui amplu proces de modernizare. s-a derulat în mod facil, Mahmud al II-lea con- Cu toate acestea, evoluţia ulterioară a sta- fruntându-se cu opoziția a diferitelor segmentului irakian a relevat, totuşi, fragilitatea aceste dintre care cea mai puternică s-a dovedit cea tei construcţii, perioada în care Faisal s-a aflat a trupelor de ieniceri. Divergențele înregistrate pe tronul irakian fiind marcată de puternice în relația cu elita armatei otomane au generat contradicţii între principalele comunităţi. Ele- o serie de represalii în urma cărora numeroși mentul comun al acestor convulsii, care au lideri ai acestora au fost executați, culminând culminat adeseori cu exprimări violente, a fost cu desființarea corpului de ieniceri (1826). În reprezentat de rivalitatea dintre principalele urma acestor măsuri procesul de reformă s-a comunităţi, pe fondul consolidării unui relativ putut derula în condiții mult mai favorabile monopol al minorităţii sunni la conducerea dar efectele dispariției ienicerilor se vor regăsi statului. Toate aceste tensiuni, dublate de fra- în scăderea semnificativă a capacității militare gilitatea instituţională a statului irakian, se vor a Imperiului Otoman. releva cu acuitate în perioada interbelică, mo- 5 Excepţia notabilă o constituie guverna- narhia irakiană confruntându-se cu o serie de torul Midhat Paşa (1869-1872) care reuşeşte provocări majore la adresa propriei existenţe. să introducă o serie de reforme în Bagdad. Cu Unul dintre punctele culminante se va înre- toate acestea, absolutismul politicii promovate gistra în aprilie 1941 când monarhia haşemită de sultanul Abdul Hamid al II-lea (1876-1908) este înlăturată tenporar de la conducerea sta- determină înlocuirea sa din funcţia de guver- tului în urma unei lovituri de stat organizată nator şi anularea, în mare parte, a progreselor de un segment militar. În iulie 1958, o nouă lo- înregistrate. vitură de stat se finalizează cu uciderea majori- 6 Gökhan Çetinsaya. Ottoman Adminis- tăţii membrilor familiei regale. În urma acestor tration of Iraq, 1890-1908, Routledge, Oxon – tragice evenimente, monarhia irakiană este în- New York, p. 12-14. locuită prin proclamarea Republicii Irak. 7 În decembrie 1881 se adoptă Decretul Muharrem prin intermediul căruia sistemul NOTE financiar otoman, aflat în incapacitate de plată 1 Regiune antică situată între fluviile Tigru a datoriilor este plasat sub controlul marilor şi Eufrat, locul de naştere a unor civilizaţii im- puteri europene. portante pentru istoria lumii (civlizaţia akka- 8 Unul dintre principalele proiect de trans- diană, sumeriană, babiloniană,assiriană). port dezvoltate în Imperiul Otoman la începu- 2 Proveneau din rândurile sclavilor eliberaţi tul secolului XX. Construită între 1900-1908 pentru a fi pregătiţi în şcoli speciale. Ulterior, cu sprijinul Germaniei, calea ferată măsura primeau însărcinări în cadrul administraţiei di- 1320 km pe ruta Damasc-Medina. Suplimen- feritelor regiuni din cadrul Imperiului Otoman. tar acestora existau o serie de ramificaţii dintre 128  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor care cea mai importantă era cea dintre Damasc 14 Printre aceştia se număra şi Nuri al-Said şi Haifa (Palestina), în lungime de 100 km. (1888-1958), unul dintre principalii actori ai 9 Pentru detalii Edward, Earle. Turkey, the scenei politice irakiene fiind, totodată, cel mai Great Powers and the Baghdad Railway: a longeviv premier al Irakului. Study in Imperialism, Macmillan, New York 15 Textul integral al Acordului în Walter 1923. Laqueur and Barry Rubin. The Israel–ArabRe - 10 Marian Kent. Oil and Empire: British Po- ader: Documentary History of the Middle East licy and Mesopotamian Oil 1900-1920, Mac- Conflict, Penguin, New York, 1984, p. 12–17. millan, Londra, 1976, p. 16. 16 Conform înţelegerii realizatre la San 11 Pentru detalii privind demersurile brita- Remo, teritoriile care făcuseră parte din Im- nice Stuart A.Cohen. British Policy in Mesopo- periul Otoman făceau parte din Categoria tamia, 1903-1914, Ithaca Press, Reading, 2008. Mandatelor de Tip A. Aceasta presupunea 12 Pentru detalii George Antoninus. The pregătirea, de către statul care îşi asumase Arab Awakening, Simon Publications, Safety responsabilitatea mandatului pentru teritoriul Harbor, 2001. respectiv, a condiţiilor pentru proclamarea in- 13 Esenţa negocierilor se regăseşte în Cores- dependenţei. pondenţa dintre Shariful Hussein din Mecca şi 17 Acesta viza, în esenţă, menţinerea con- Henry McMahon, Înaltul Comisar britanic din trolului britanic asupra întregului areal cu dis- Egipt derulată între iulie 1915- ianuarie 1916. ponibilităţi semnificative în planul rezervelor Cunoscută sub numele de Corespondenţa de ţiţei şi acomodarea intereselor franceze la Hussein-McMahon, aceasta viza problema un nivel de 25% din totalul acestora. Bennett, constituirii unui stat arab în Orientul Mijlociu. H.G. British Foreign Policy during Curzon Pentru detalii privind diversele interpretări ale Period, 1919-1924, Macmillan, Londra, 1995, angajamentelor asumate de Marea Britanie p. 98. prin intermediul acestor scrisori Elie Kedou- 18 Pentru detalii privind costurile Revol- rie. In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth. The McMa- tei din teritoriul aferent Mandatului britanic hon-Husayn Correspondence and its Inter- pentru Mesopotamia Kwasi Kwarteng. Ghosts pretation, 1914-1939, Routledge, Oxon-New of Empire: Britain’s Legacies in the Modern York, 2014. World, Bloomsbury, Londra, 2012, p. 24-25.

 Revista de istorie militară  129 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Istorie universal`

RĂZBOIUL FALKLANDS-MALVINAS Însemnări din Jurnalul unui Observator Diplomatic

Ambasador ELIEZER PALMOR *

Abstract

The article below is the result of the direct observations made by Ambassador Eliezer Palmor, at that time Minister-Counsellor at the embassy of the State of Israel in Argentina, on the unfolding of the conflict between Argentina and Britain for the possession of the Falklands Islands, known as the Falklands War. The text was “forgotten” in one of the drawers of the author’s desk until the summer of 2013, when it was published in Hebrew by the prestigious Israeli magazine „Zmanim”, edited by the University of Tel Aviv.

Keywords: Argentina, United Kingdom, Falklands Islands

La 2 aprilie 1982 Argentina, fără să fi dez- restaurarea suveranităţii sale în insulele Fa- văluit intenţiile sale în prealabil, a debarcat lkland. Spre surpriza generală în guvernul ar- trupe în Insulele Malvinas şi a anunţat restau- gentinean nu s-a găsit nici un factor capabil să rarea suveranităţii sale în teritoriile respective. prevadă cum se va desfăşura evoluţia acestui Marea Britanie respinge categoric legimitatea coflict polico-militar între cele două ţări. acestei acţiuni unilaterale precum şi tentativa În decursul lunii aprilie 1982 creşte trep- de mediere întreprinsă de Statele Unite între tat tensiunea între Agentina şi Marea Britanie; cele două ţări angajate într-un conflict ce se tot în această perioadă a şi fost pregătită forţa agrava pe zi ce trece. Până la urma tentativa militară britanică care a şi fost transportată de mediere va eşua în întregime. Nu trebuia să spre zona unde urma să se producă ciocnirea dispui de capacitatea unei previziuni speciale între ţările beligerante. Tot în luna aprilie s-au ca să desluşeşti care va fi reacţia Marei Brita- produs primele ciocniri între cele două flote şi nii condusă de Margaret Thatcher faţă de ac- primele atacuri ale aviaţiei ambelor ţări. tul agresiv de ocupaţie întreprins de trupele Între 1980-1982 Eliezer Palmor ocupa pos- trimise de Generalul Leopoldo Galtieri; ea nu tul de Ministru-Consilier la Ambasada Statului se va resemna, ci dimpotrivă Marea Britanie Israel în Argentina. În această perioadă el a în- se va angaja într-o luptă fără scrupule pentru ceput să consemneze într-un jurnal personal

* Autorul acestor însemnări, Ambasadorul Eliezer Palmor, a funcţionat între anii 1980-1982 ca Mi- nistru Consilier la Ambasada Statului Israel din Argentina. Ele sunt rezultatul observărilor şi analizelor consemnate urmărind desfăşurarea conflictului între Argentina şi Marea Britanie privitor la posesiunea Insulelor Malvinas. Acest document a „zăcut” mult timp într-un sertar din biroul lui şi a fost publicat în limba ebraică în prestigioasa revistă de istorie „Zmanim”, nr. 123, din vara anului 2013, editată de Univer- sitatea din Tel Aviv. 130  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor evenimente, observaţii şi interpretări politice cu Ministrul de Externe la o întâlnire cu Preşe- relevate în decursul activităţii sale profesi- dintele Republicii, sau să nu vină de loc. onale. În mod firesc el a consemnat în mod Venirea ministrului în situaţia data măr- deosebit elemente legate de desfăşurarea con- turisea fără doar şi poate semnificaţia unei flictului axat pe aspiraţia recuperării suvera- prietenii adevărate şi în timp ce Shoshana su- nităţii râvnite de ambele ţări. Însemnările din praveghea ultimele pregătiri în vederea primrii prezentul jurnal documentează observaţiile, oaspeţilor, noi doi, stimulaţi cum se cuvine, interpretările şi comentariile privind întâm- de un pahar de whisky, am angajat convorbi- plări pe teren militar dar şi în spaţiul politic – rea despre tensiune,despre intenţiile părţilor înregistrate din perspectiva privilegiată oferită angajate în conflict şi despre perspectivele diplomatului de către misiunea lui în cadrul războiului ce se anuţa la orizont. El a spus că ambasadei ţării sale la Buenos Aires Păgânele Argentina este foarte îngrijorată de situaţia ac- de jurnal ce urmează au fost redactate în lunile tuală şi posibilitatea izbucnirii unui război în aprilie-iunie 1982: toată legea împotriva Marei Britanii nu poate fi exclusă. El a explicat că ambele părţi se încăpă- 16 aprilie: ţânează să menţină poziţiile lor şi nu arată nici Recepţia în reşedinţa noastră planificată o înclinare să adopte o atitudine câtuşi de pu- pentru ultima zi a sărbătorii de Paşte mi-a pro- ţin flexibilă. Pentru noi – a spus – importanţa vocat nu puţină bătaie de cap. Am invitat 180 insulelor Malvinas (fără să ignorăm diferenţa de persoane şi numai puţini invitaţi obişnuiesc de dimensiuni) este la fel ca importanţă Gola- să confirme în prelabil acceptarea invitaţiei. Ba nului pentru voi. Nu putem sub nici o formă să revenim dela măsurile luate; demersul făcut mai mult, unii dintre cei ce confirmă participa- de noi a fost de fapt un act de salvare naţională rea lor până la urmă nu vor veni iar alţii dintre guvernul care înainte a fost un „mort-paralizat” cei ce nu au răspuns la invitaţie vor veni totuşi. (referindu-se la marea demonstraţie populară Astfel fiind situaţia este dificil să pregăteşti trei zile înainte de cucerirea insulelor) a reîn- cum se cuvine ingredientele care condiţionea- viat acuma, act confirmat prin consolidarea ză reuşita unei recepţii. În cele din urmă au frontului interior care susţine în prezent gu- sosit 80 de persoane printre care diplomaţi- vernul Baltierez a respins insinuările vânturate colegi, gazetari profesori universitari şi bine în presă referitoare la posibilitatea unei soluţii înţeles personalităţi politice. Dar ceeace m-a de partaj după care Argentina ar primi insulele emoţionat peste măsură s-a întâmplat cam o Malvinas, iar Marea Britanie insulele Georgia jumătate de oră înainte de sosirea invitaţilor, în de Sud şi Sandwich de Sud. El mi-a repetat po- toiul pregătirilor, ínclusiv deplasarea mobilelor ziţia oficială a guvernului său după care Argen- în salon când unul dintre chelneri îmi spune că tina ar fi dipusă să evacueze trupele cu condiţia la poarta se afla o persoană numită Baltierez şi recunoaşterii suveranităţii sale depline inclusiv care cere să fie primit acuma. Mi-a luat câteva dreptul înălţării steagului argentinean în capi- secunde să-mi revin din emoţia ce m-a cople- tala insulelor, Puerto Argentino (în versiunea şit căci numele persoanei le poartă era identic engleză: Port Stanley) şi de a instala acolo ad- cu numele Ministrului de Informaţii în guver- ministraţia lor civilă. nul argentinian şi totodată a fost ambasador în La întrebarea mea care este adevărul în ţara noastră, Rodolfo Baltierez. zvonurile care circulă privind, chipurile ames- În mod firesc, am cerut chelnerului să-i tecul sovietic în cele ce se întâmpla în zonă, deschidă poarta. Rodolfo Baltierez era un băr- mi-a desvăluit un „super secret” şi anume că bat corpolent şi înzestrat de maniere alese. S-a Generalul Galtieri a refuzat ieri să asiste la scuzat că soseşte la recepţia oferită înainte de meciul de footbal între Argentina şi Uniunea ora prevăzută dar faţă de situaţia politică în- Sovietică (jucat în cadrul preliminariilor Cam- cordată, obligaţiile sale ministeriale care îl re- pionatului mondial care se va desfăşura în ţin la masa de lucru până la o oră târzie noap- luna iunie în Spania), deşi unii dintre membri tea nu i-a rămas altă alternativă decât să vină la guvernului au fost de părere că s-ar cuveni să noi acum, aflându-se pe drum dela o întâlnire asiste. Recunosc că venirea lui Baltierez la re-  Revista de istorie militară  131 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor cepţia noastră în condiţiile prezente a fost un vestit de el în munca de lămurire desfăşurată gest care m-a impresionat şi i-am mulţumit cu în ultimele două săptămâni convingând în fe- multă căldură. lul acesta colegii săi să participe la recepţie. Pe de altă parte ambasadorul nostru a pretins că 30 aprilie: fenomenul acestei prezenţe remarcabile este Festivităţile în cinstea sărbătorii noastre rodul relaţiilor sale intense şi intime cu cadrele naţionale (aniversarea zilei independenţei superioare ale armatei. În orice caz fapt este noastre) s-au desfăşurat fără probleme. Ţinând că prezenţa numeroasă, impresionantă şi va- seama de tensiunea ce se agrava treptat am riată a invitaţilor la recepţia noastră a trezit hotărât, de accord cu conducerea comunităţii admiraţia elogioasă a publicului prezent care a evreieşti, să anulăm adunarea populară centra- apreciat evenimentul ca un frumos succes ob- lă care în mod tradiţional se întrunea în anii ţinut într-o ţară aflată în prag de război. precedenţi la Buenos Aires şi tot odată adună- Între timp situaţia se agravează în conti rile populare regionale prevăzute să aibă loc nuare. În dimineaţa Zilei de Independenţă în oraşele Cordova, Bahia Blanca, Santa Fe şi apare declaraţia Ministrului de Externe Nica- Rosario. nor Costa Mendez avertizând populaţia ca un La recepţia oferită în saloanele ambasadei război contra Angliei va izbucni în 24-48 ore. noastre în amiaza zilei a participat anul acesta Cotidianul Conviccion consacra azi dimineaţa un public numeros inclusiv membri corpului prima sa pagina unui atac dur acuzând Statele diplomatic, ofiţeri în uniformă – ataşaţi mili- Unite că trădează America Latină şi Argentina. tari şi ofiţeri argentinieni, iar dintre membri De aici până la implicarea noastră şi a evreilor guvernului – Ministrul Economiei, Roberto în general, în vâltoarea asmuţirii declanşate, ca Alemann. Acesta, un bărbat înalt de tot, de vinovaţi în crearea situaţiei dificile, distanţa nu parcă ar fi fost un jucător de basket, depăşea este mare. De fapt instigări cu caracter anti- înălţimea tuturor invitaţilor şi a rămas în ciu- semit s-au produs deja şi printre ele cea mai da situaţiei tensionate la ambasadă mai mult gravă a fost interwiul acordat de Colonelul Es- de o oră. Când a crescut afluenţa ofiţerilor în teban Solis, însărcinatul cu relaţiile publice ale uniformă ataşatul nostru militar mi s-a lăudat trupelor staţionate în zona de sud a ţării care că această prezenţă numeroasă se datorează a avertizat că Marea Britanie este capabilă să activităţii sale susţinute şi efortului special in- utilizeze în războiul contra Argentinei gaze to-

Distrugatorul britanic HMS Sheffield, avariat la 4 mai de catre fortele argentiniene 132  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor xice. El a adăogat că Britania a fost prima ţara avariat în mod serios una dintre cele două nave care a utilizat acest fel de gaze în primul răz- portavion britanice. În schimb, duminică bri- boi mondial (şi nu, precum se ştie, germanii la tanicii au scufundat unicul vas contra-torpilor Ypres) profitând de descoperirea acestui pro- în seviciul marinei militare argentiniene numit dus chimic de către „un evreu englez numit Dr. „General Belgrano” deşi naviga în afara zonei Vaisman (sic!) care a devenit mai târziu primul de interdicţie impusă de britanici la periferia preşedinte al Statului Israel”. apelor teritoriale în jurul insulei Malvinas: va- Atacul brutal împotriva Statelor Unite as- sul avea la bord peste 1000 de militari. Însă, tăzi se datorează ştirilor privind comunicarea argentinienii au recunoscut scufundarea navei, Secretarului de Stat american Alexander Haig dar numai în ziua de marţi. (Duminică, ei au adresată părţilor angajate în conflict că el con- admis doar că contratorpilorul, – un fost vas sideră terminat rolul său ca „trimis special în american ancorat la Pearl Harbor când por- virtutea bunelor oficii”, dar a şi de ocazia să tul a fost atacat de japonezi), – a suferit avarii. adaoge lămurirea că Statele Unite împărtăşesc Ştirea despre scufundarea vasului a provocat poziţia Marei Britanii în conflict. stupoare şi groază faţă de impresia iniţială că Celelate ziare nu au urmat exemplul coti a pierit totalitatea trupelor aflate pe bord, însă dianului Conviccion şi până în prezent nu au acţiunea de salvare desfăşurată timp de două atacat atitudinea Statelor Unite. Dar cine poa- zile a permis extragerea a 700 de personae din te să prezică ce surprize pregăteşte ziua de apele Oceanului Pacific. Tot în ziua de marţi o mâine, în special când se cunoaşte că există un altă ştire a anunţat că un avion argentinean a avertisment grav referitor la o ciocnire gene- scufundat o navă-torpilor britanică. Britanicii ralizată între cei doi adversari ca posibilitate au recunoscut această pierdere şi e posibil că imediată? au procedat astfel sperând să modereze impresia gravă provocată de scufundarea vasului 4 mai: „General Belgrano” asupra opiniei publice din Astăzi războiul nu mai este numai un aver- ţările apusene. tisment posibil ci o realitate teribilă ce creşte În Buenos Aires circulă zvonuri cu privire şi se desvoltă în mod treptat. Britanicii se în- la pierderi grele suferite de trupele argentini- căpăţânează şi susţin în mediile de informaţii ene. Zvonurile, se înţelege, nu sunt confirmate că ei nu au deslănţuit ostilităţile ci numai au în mod oficial şi populaţia încă nu a perceput iniţiat reacţii defensive în răspuns la agresiu- care sunt repercusiunile unui război. Viaţa în nea Argetinei care a invadat un teritoriu ce nu oraş decurge în mod normal ca şi cum ţară nu îi aparţine. Sâmbăta trecută britanicii au bom- s-ar afla în regim de urgenţă. Sălile de cine- bardat Port Stanley, (Puerto Argentino în ver- ma sunt arhipline şi funcţionează la fel ca în siunea argentineană) care este capitala grupu- timp de pace: la afişul Operei figurează Tosca lui de insule şi de asemenea Port Darwin, două de Puccini cu artiştii – în rolurile principale – localităţi situate în insulele Soledad şi se pare Placido Domingo (tenorul care a debutat şi a că au şi avut intenţia să debarce şi aici unităţi cântat timp de doi ani pe scena Operei din Tel de infanterie. Scriu „se pare că”, întrucât ambe- Aviv) şi excelenta soprană maghiară Eva Mar- le părţi păstrează cu rigurozitate rezerve în ce ton şi toate biletele sunt, bine înţeles, epuizate. priveşte comunicatele lor oficiale şi nu publi- Partidele de fotbal incită pasiunea (astă seară că detalii privind pierderile umane proprii. În Argentina joacă împotriva Bulgariei) şi restau- schimb, ambele părţi sunt foarte generoase în rantele sunt pline până la refuz. Programele de a da publicităţii pierderile umane ale adversa- radio şi televiziune abundă în lozinci de luptă rului. În plus, Argentina a impus cenzura asu- şi tonuri patriotice. Însă, această stare de spirit pra presei obligând-o să respecte interzicerea se va schimba desigur, când familiile vor înce- publicării ştirilor din surse străine, căci „aceste pe să primească anunţuri despre cei căzuţi pe ştiri risca să subminezeze efortul militar”. câmpul de onoare. Când se va produce această Conform versiunii argentineane, în decur- schimbare cetăţeanul naiv va înceta să priveas- sul bombardării celor două localităţi anterior că războiul actual ca pe un film de război care amintite ei au doborât 11 avioane inamice şi au povesteşte istoria unui conflict ce se desfăşoa-  Revista de istorie militară  133 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ră dincolo de ţări şi mari; acuma vor simţi pe Între timp creşte şi se dezvoltă o adevărată propria lor piele care sunt consecinţele trage- campanie de propagandă virulentă împotriva diei cumplite ce se performeaza cu participa- Statelor Unite. Primul ziar angajat pe această rea lor. cale a fost, cum am semnalat deja, cotidianul Generalul Galtieri este prizionerul unei Conviccion care, în ediţia de sâmbătă diminea- situaţii politice dificile. Nu numai datorită si- ţă relatează că muncitorii din portul Buenos tuaţiei deteroriate prin războiul în care se afla Aires au refuzat să descarce cargoul de pe un ţara ci şi din motive personale. Hotărârea de a vapor american ancorat în port. În plus, du- recuceri insulele a fost adoptată pe baza unui minică s-a zvonit că Ambasadă Statelor Uni- lanţ de analize eronate. Argentina a crezut că te a început să întocmească liste de cetăţeni Consiliul de Securitate al ONU nu va adopta o americani activi în economia locală în vederea hotărâre care să fie incomodă privind politica evacuării lor din Argentina, dar zvonul acesta lor. Însă la sfârşit de dezbateri în Consiliul de a fost desminţit mai târziu în toiul zilei. Securitate ţările nealienate nu au votat contra Campania de denigrare declanşată contra rezoluţiei britanice, iar Uniunea Sovietică şi Statelor Unite crescând în amploare stârneşte China nu au acţionat dreptul lor de veto. Auto- grija şi în rândurile noastre. Copiii pesonalului rităţile argentiniene nu au crezut că Marea Bri- nostru studiază la şcoala medie americană şi tanie se va angaja să lupte pentru recuperarea se ştie că atunci când se taie lemne aşchiile pot unor insule aflate la o distanţă de 12000 de km să ajungă uneori departe, pacurgând distanţe de casele lor. Ei nu au evaluat în mod corect şi producând efecte ce nu pot fi prevăzute. nici care va fi la o adică atitudinea Statelor Uni- te. Ieri am aflat că Galtieri a luat hotărârea de 7 mai: a invada insulele după ce a primit o telegramă În şedinţa săptămânală a corpului nostru dela Ataşatul Militar la Washington pretinzând diplomatic am fost informaţi că Statele Unite că americanii nu se vor opune invaziunii. Ori, au decis să evacueze numai personalul care aceasta pretenţie nu era verosimilă, îndeosebi nu este indispensabil funcţionarii normale a după ce misiunea de mediere întreprinsă de ambasadei. De asemenea fiecare diplomat este Alexander Haig a eşuat şi, Statele Unite a op- autorizat să adopte hotărârea considerată de el tat în favoarea poziţiei Marei Britanii. Ataşatul convenabilă cu privire la evacuarea tempora- Militar a pur şi simplu greşit şi în consecinţă ră a membrilor familiei sale – la Montevideo informaţia transmisă de el a fost şi ea greşită. sau la Washington. În schimb, ambasadorul Viitorul politic al generalului Galtieri, de- american este de părere că prudenţa Departa- pinde de rezultatele ce se vor obţine în con- mentului de Stat este exagerată întrucât el este fruntarea cu Marea Britanie. El se va menţine de părere că securitatea cetăţenilor americani la putere dacă va reuşi să obţină realizarea sco- rezidenţi în Buenos Aires nu este ameninţată. pului maximalist urmărit cu încăpăţânare prin El consideră de asemenea că regimul militar confruntarea militară (recuperarea suveranită- nu este interesat în agravarea relaţiilor cu Sta- ţii naţionale în insule). tele Unite şi de aceea va lua măsuri să frâneze, Ieri am fost invitat la masă de doi gazetari dacă se vor produce, tulburări populare. Însă, reprezentând cotidianul Los Angeles Times, în decurs de câteva ore, ambasadorul ameri- Kennet Freed şi Dial Torgerson. can şi-a schimbat părerea şi în consecinţă, nu Este pentru prima oară, (la Buenos Aires) numai că jumătate din personalul ambasadei că sunt invitat de gazetari la masă într-un re- sale a părăsit oraşul dar ne a sfătuit şi pe noi să staurant. Ei mi-au spus, pe baza conversaţiilor procedăm la fel. avute cu diplomaţi americani, că zilele lui Gal- Astăzi am primit vizita cosilierului britanic tieri la putere sunt numărate. Pe de altă parte, David Joy. Date fiind circumstanţele actuale, unul dintre conducătorii Comunităţii Evreieşti el a devenit devenit Chage d’Affaires al Marei Gregorio Feigon, mi-a spus ieri că a aflat din Britanii în Argentina (sub tutela Ambasadei surse militare demne de încredere că o grupă Elveţiei). Joy a caracterizat venirea lui drept de generali se organizează deja să înlăture pe vizită de curtoazie amânată, căci de fapt a so- Galtieri dela putere. sit (din Varşovia) la Buenos Aires cam cu două 134  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Prizonieri de razboi argentinieni in Stanley, capitala Insulelor Falkland

luni înainte să se fi produs criza politico-mili- gentinei. Ele propun o încetare imediată a os- tară actuală. Contrar explicaţiei oferite ziua de tilităţilor, retragerea trupelor argentiniene din miercuri în cadrul mesei corpului diplomatic insule, retragerea flotei britanice din apropierea şi anume, că situaţia militară pe terenul de lup- insulelor aflate în dispută, iniţierea imediată a tă apare ca şi cum părţile combatante au ajuns negocierilor, anularea sancţiunilor economice la o stare de egalitate ceea ce crează o poziţie împotriva Argentinei (din partea celor zece ţări ideală pentru iniţierea negocierilor, acum cre- europene şi Statele Unite) şi măsuri interme- de Joy că probabil Marea Britanie urmăreşte diare din partea ONU, promovând instalarea să livreze încă o lovitură zdrobitoare împo- administraţiei onusiene în insulele Malvinas triva trupelor argentiniene înainte de a iniţia pe timpul cât durează negocierile. Este de re- o negociere serioasă pentru reglementarea marcat şi faptul semnificativ că ideile nu cu- conflictului. prind nici o aluzie la problema suveranităţii în Această analiză apare verosimilă la lumi- insulele Malvinas, ori Argentina a ieşit să lup- na informaţiei pe care am obţinut ieri şi care te, provocând criza actuală, tocmai invocând atestă, că atât Argentina cât şi Marea Britanie „principiul sfânt al suveranităţii sale în aceste au reacţionat pozitiv la ideile cuprinse într- insule”. Poziţia Argentinei proclamată răspi- un plan de aranjament propus de Secretarul cat de pe toate acoperişurile lumii, preciză că General al ONU. În acest plan, interesant este toate subiectele sunt accesibile negocierilor cu faptul că el se aseamănă în mare măsură cu condiţia să fie recunoscut în prealabil dreptul propunerile făcute de către secretarul de stat Argentinei la suveranitate în insule. american Haig şi preşedintele peruan Fernan- Reacţia pozitivă a Argentinei la propune- do Belaunde Terry, care a fost însă respins ca- rile făcute de secretarul general ONU deno- tă o anumită doză de flexibilitate (dar tocmai tegoric şi fără argumente de către Argentina. de aceea cronicarul cotidianului „La Prensa” Prezintă interes şi faptul că ideile cuprinse în Manfred Schonfeld i-a rezervat în coloana lui plan se aseamănă mai mult cu poziţia Marei de astăzi o analiză critică dură). În schimb am Britanii decât cu pretenţiile declarate ale Ar-  Revista de istorie militară  135 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor întâlnit semne de flexibilitate şi în poziţia lui Ieri avioane argentiniene au atacat două David Joy pretinzând că Marea Britanie ar fi vase britanice. Argentina recunoaşte că a pier- dispusă să renunţe la suveranitate în insule, dut două avioane şi a admis, după o primă chiar şi dacă nu în mod imediat. Această pre- versiune, că au scufundat un vas britanic, dar tenţie costitue o formulă care permite preve- după a doua versiune au recunoscut doar că au derea transferului suveranităţii în posesiunea avariat vasul. Argentinei, peste trei sau cinci ani după ce s-a Ministerul nostru de Externe ne întreabă retras din insule – şi ar putea astfel schiţa o care este adevărul privind rumoarea cum că soluţie acceptabilă de către Marea Britanie. În 14 victime evreieşti căzuţi pe frontul din Mal- acelaşi timp, această formulă ar fi în măsură să vinas au fost înmormântaţi la Buenos Aires? satisfacă ambele părţi, căci ambele părţi ar pu- Investigările noastre au revelat că întradevăr tea să pretindă că au obţinut, parţial, victorie. au circulat câteva rumori de genul acesta, dar Joy a mai spus că de când s-au înterupt întreprinderea funerară a comunităţii nu a relaţiile diplomatice cu Argentina nu au fost confimat veracitatea lor. lezate nici o instituţie sau firmă britanică in- Trei rabini tineri aparţinând de comuni- stalate în această ţară. Clădirea ambasadei este tăţi distincte în Buenos Aires şi anume Baruch protejată de către o unitate specială a poliţiei. Plavnik, Zwi Grunblatt şi Ephraim Dines au Argentinienii s-au comportat ca gentlemeni primit autorizaţia autorităţilor să se deplase- adevăraţi faţă de ostaşii britanici căzuţi pri- ze la unităţile militare care luptă în zona de zioneri; un aviator englez căzut în Malvinas a sud cu scopul de a le oferi, în calitate de rabini fost înmormântat cu onoruri militare depline militari, asistenţă spirituală. Iniţiativa acestei în conformitate cu prevederile protocolului. acţiuni aparţine rabinului Baruch Plavnik care În ce priveşte colonia britanică rezidentă în a venit la mine, am analizat împreună formu- Buenos Aires majoritatea acestora au exerci- la imaginată de el şi după ce l-am convins şi tat presiuni în favoarea organizării unei ma- pe Mario Gorenstein, Preşedintele Asociaţiei nifestări de solidaritate cu ţara-gazdă. Joy nu Organizaţiilor Evreieşti din Argentina (DAIA) numai că a manifestat înţelegere faţă de acest acţiunea noastră a obţinut până la sfârşit avizul fenomen dar i-a şi încurajat să procedeze după favorabil al autorităţilor. cum cred ei de cuviinţă. El a susţinut că intere- În altă ordine de idei, un număr de gazetari sele britanicilor rezidenţi în Argentina îi obli- britanici şi americani au fost răpiţi în amiaza gă să se comporte în felul acesta. La întrebarea mea cât timp este Marea Britanie în stare să zilei pe stradă, la câţiva metri de Palatul San menţină armada care inspiră frică şi menţine Martin, reşedinţa Ministerului de Externe. blocada în jurul insulelor şi graniţei maritime a Răpitorii au ameninţat gazetarii cu moartea, Argentinei – în apele furtunoase ale Oceanului interogându-i în acelaşi timp dacă cineva este Atlantic de Sud în iarna ce se apropie, Joy mi-a dispus să-i răscumpere contra 10.000 dolari. dat un răspuns laconic de trei cuvinte: luni de Însă după trei ore gazetarii au fost eliberaţi, o zile. Nu a specificat câte luni şi dacă analiza parte au fost puşi în libertate în oraş şi restul în lui este corectă, chiar şi atunci desfăşurarea afara oraşului, dar cu toţii desbrăcaţi complect evenimentelor nu depinde numai de norocul goi puşcă ca în ziua naşterii, dar fără leziuni armelor şi nici numai de calitatea şi forţa tru- corporale. Autorităţile au investit mari eforturi pelor angajate în luptă. în acţiuni de „perierea” sensibilităţii seches- traţilor: Însuşi Generalul Galtieri i-a primit şi 14 mai: le a acordat un interview exclusiv, iar Minis- În timp ce încărcarea pe frontul de luptă a trul de Interne le a oferit o cină copioasă. Şi în luat proporţii, din New York, unde se tergiver- timp ce toată lumea se întreabă care a fost sen- sează o negociere lipsită de entuziasm, s-au sul sechestrării şi cine a fost iniţiatorul actului primit indicaţii cu privire la un anumit progres şi executanţii lui, doi gazetari norvegieni sunt în discuţii, ba chiar şi complectată cu speran- expulsaţi din Argentina fiindcă „coreponden- ţa exprimată de Secretarul General al ONU că ţele lor primejduiesc securitatea statului”. negocierea se va termina până la sfârşitul săp- În toiul nopţii au explodat bombe puternice tămânii cu un rezultat pozitiv. ataşate de pereţii a două filiale ale Băncii „Bank 136  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor of Boston” şi explozia a fost atât de puternică razboiul. La fel, în ce priveşte navele britanice încât zgomotul produs s-a auzit până şi la noi scufundate sau avariate după comunicatele ilu- deşi locuinţa noastră se afla la aproximativ 20 zorii şi megalomane ale armatei argentiniene. kilometri de bancă. Totuşi la sfârşit de săptămână Argentina Şi încă odată apare evident că Argentina a admis că trupe britanice au debarcat deja pierde poziţii importante în bătălia pentru cu- în zona San Carlos din insula Soledad – in- cerirea opiniei publice occidentale. În războiul sula principală din grupul Malvinas. Ceea ce propriu zis pierderile Argentinei sunt foarte înseamnă că britanicii au deschis poarta de grele şi în confruntarea diplomatică ambele intrare posterioara în insula situată vizavi de partide se pare că manifestă semne de flexibi- capitala insulelor, Port Stanley (Puerto Argen- lizarea poziţiilor. Şi totuşi până la ora actuală tino). Înainte de publicarea acestui comunicat nu se pot nici măcar întrezări semne clare care argentinienii au difuzat pretenţia, că încerca- ar indica că se apropie sfârşitul războiului. rea britanică de a debarca o forţă de 400 militari „a fost respinsă şi continuă să fie respinsă”. 25 mai: Colegul meu chilian Ministrul-Consilier Rao- Astăzi se sărbătoreşte Ziua Naţională a ul Schmidt Dusaillant mi-a povestit aseară ca Argentinei. Data de 25 mai comemorează ini- argentinienii au informat Ataşatul lor Militar ţierea revoluţiei din anul 1810, când cetăţenii că expediţia militară britanică număra 2000 din regiunea Rio de la Plata s-au răsculat îm- persoane. El a mai adăogat că după părerea lor potriva ocupantului spaniol. Răsculaţii erau bătălia decisiva va avea loc până la sfârşit de descendenţi ai primilor colonişti spanioli şi această săptămână şi ea se va termina cu o în- emigranţi de naţionalitate diverse care s-au frângere totală a armelor argentiniene. răzvrătit împotriva trupelor de ocupaţie şi Re- Între timp la Buenos Aires nu se notează prezentantul Rezident al Coroanei Spaniole. nici o aluzie la o eventuală pregătire a popu- Pe străzile Capitalei însă nu se văd semne laţiei în vederea posibilităţii că pe front s-ar de sărbătoare; dimpotrivă pretutindeni dom- crea o situaţie extrem de dificilă. Şi dacă până neşte atmosfera obişnuită a zilelor de lucru. la urmă posibilitatea va deveni reală, oare cum Nici drapelele atârnate pe străzi şi afişate în vi- şi care va fi reacţia poporului? trine nu inspiră senzaţia că ar exista un motiv Ziaristul Luis Pan redactor la cotidianul festiv, deoarece ele se afla expuse încă din ziua „La Prensa” a venit astăzi să mă vadă şi mi-a de 2 aprilie, o nouă zi de sărbătoare stabilită spus, că el crede că în caz de catastrofa milta- pentru comemorarea suveranităţii argentinie- ră Junta Militară, parţial sau total va fi trasă la ne recuperate în insulele Malvinas. Nici mă- răspundere. S-ar putea ca cel ce va fi chemat car steguleţele naţionale ataşate de cetăţeni de să dea socoteală va fi Generalul Galtieri singur, reverurile vestoanelor, nici ele nu reprezintă o înfierat ca ţap ispăşitor, sau Galtieri şi încă un noutate întrucât acest gest a devenit un fapt membru al Juntei, sau alţi doi membri (fără trivial odată cu iniţierea demersurilor care au Galtieri) din triumviratul care compune Junta condus la războiul care bântuie acuma departe Militară. Dacă acest scenariu se realizează pu- în sudul ţării. terea politică în ţara se va transfera în mâinile Şi războiul nu este o joacă – el provoacă unei caste de ofiţeri şi mai de dreapta decât victime şi încă numeroase! Marele Stat Major Junta aflată la putere. În schimb, colegul meu argentinian publică la interval de câteva ore Raoul crede că, în cazul acesta, se va genera comunicate despre situaţia militară pe câmpul un proces politic care va conduce la formarea de luptă. Ele exagerează pierderile trupelor unui guvern civil de stânga. Raoul nici nu şi-a britanice şi minimalizează pierderile „forţelor dat silinţa să ascundă faptul că Chile este inte- patriotice”, adică pierderile proprii. Dacă cine- resată în catastrofă militară a Argentinei, dar va ar face calculul adunând cantitatea de avi- asta se înţelege de la sine. oane britanice doborâte de comunicatele mi- Harta operaţiunilor militare sugerează că litare argentiniene ar ajunge la un număr care Marea Britanie urmăreşte să obţină victoria depăşeşte totaliatea avioanelor aflate pe nave- militară şi capitularea Argentinei. Manevrările le britanice sosite în zona unde se desfăşoară politicii britanice, inclusiv în cadrul Naţiunilor  Revista de istorie militară  137 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Unite reflecta percepţia că, situaţia militară în- putea să beneficieze de sprijinul şi asocierea clina deja în favoarea ei. Britania urmăreşte în- unor ţări ca Brazilia ,Uruguai şi Chile. frângerea armatei argentiniene nu din dorinţa Am întrebat colegul meu Chilian care este de a răzbuna umilirea orgoliului britanic prin adevărul în impresia creată recent de ziare din invadarea Insulelor Falkland, nici din cauza Buenos Aires cum că s-ar fi produs un progres răspunderii pentru bunăstarea populaţiei din dramatic în negocierea privind Canalul Bea- insule care sunt cetăţeni britanici şi nu vor să gle (Strâmtoarea Magellan) ca o consecinţă a treacă sub tutela Argentinei şi nici din moti- discursului rostit de Papa spre sfârşitul lunii vul opoziţiei principiale la politică de utiliza- Aprilie, făcând apel la încheierea unui pact de rea forţei ca metoda unilaterală de rezolvarea prietenie între Argentina şi Chile în cadrul că- conflictelor ci din toate aceste motive laolaltă ruia părţile respective s-ar angaja să renunţe la şi mai presus de ele din cauza importanţei stra- utilizarea forţei pentru soluţionarea conflictu- tegice a insulelor ca bază de apărare a căilor lui actual şi orice alt conflict viitor. Raoul a răs- de navigaţie spre Antartica şi mai ales accesul puns că este vorba de o rumoare lipsită total la calea ce înconjoară continentul sud-ameri- de adevăr adăugând că de când Argentina l-a can (pasajul Drake), un acces iremplasabil dacă numit pe Carlos Ortiz de Rosas ambasador dintr-un motiv oarecare canalul Panama este pentru negocierea privind Canalul Beagle el „a blocat. Dela un timp încoace este relevat as- făcut multă vâlvă”, dar când s-a ajuns la abor- pectul strategic al conflictului până şi în des- darea aspectelor practice el s-a eschivat de a baterile publice. Gazetarul Iglesias Rouco co- discuta în mod practic până şi primul paragraf mentează astăzi acest aspect în cronica lui în din acordul propus de Papa. cotidianul „La Prensa”. Britania, ba şi Statele Unite nu consideră că 7 iunie: Argentina ar fi demnă de încredere şi capabilă Fundaţia Profesor Alfredo Givre conferă în să asigure funcţia de paznic al spaţiului de na- fiecare an un premiu unei personalităţi latino- vigaţie atât de vital precum accesul între cele americane demnă de a primi aceasta distincţie două oceane. Lipsa aceasta de încredere are ca răsplată pentru merite speciale obţinute în motive istorice şi actuale. Pe deoparte, regimul domeniul său de activitate. Anul acesta pre- militar la putere în Argentina are o stabilitate miul a fost atribuit jurnalistei Magdalena Ruiz îndoielnică şi pe de altă parte, amintirea fap- Guinazu (o prietenă sinceră), care ea singură tului istoric petrecut în cel de al doilea război asigura emisiunea de ştiri, care durează timp mondial când Argentina a adoptat o politică de trei ore începând la ora 7 dimineaţa la Radio de spectator faţă de lupta sângeroasă susţinută Continental. Pe lângă Magdalena care a primit de armatele aliate şi s-a alăturat alianţei ţărilor premiul principal anul acesta au fost atribuite democratice numai în pragul înfrângerii Ger- diplome de distincţie unor gazetari din Argen- maniei naziste şi a Japoniei; mai mult chiar, în tina, Uruguay, Mexico, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Pa- perioada postbelică Argentina a integrat Orga- raguay şi Haiti. nizaţia Ţărilor Nealiniate şi nu s-a afiliat gru- Gazetarii din Argentina care au luat cuvân- pului de ţări conduse de Statele Unite care au tul au vorbit pe scurt şi nu au ignorat situaţia impus boicotul Uniunii Sovietice ca penalizare dificilă în care se afla ţara şi nici vicisitudini- pentru invazia Afganistanului. La această listă le războiului ce bântuie în Insulele Malvinas. de păcate ziaristul Luis Pan a mai adăugat una: Nu au rostit lozinci patriotice bombastice. Argentina, deşi a fost solicitată, s-a abţinut de a Dimpotrivă, ei au menţionat băieţii instalaţi în trimite o unitate să integreze misiunea naţiuni- tranşeele de apărare din jurul oraşului Puerto lor unite de supraveghere a păcii în Peninsula Argentino (Port Stanley) şi au vorbit despre Sinai. condiţiile fizice dificile şi de frigul intens în În situaţia astfel creată unica soluţie posi- anotimpul actual acolo. Ei au avertizat – unii bilă este restituirea insulelor în posesia Marii făcând numai aluzii, alţii exprimându-se în cu- Britanii şi-aşa cum a dat de înţeles şi Iglesias vinte clare – şi anume, când luptătorii se vor Rouco – instalarea în Malvinas de baze mili- întoarce de pe front ei nu vor accepta că situa- tare americane şi britanice. Această soluţie ar ţia în ţara să revină la starea în care se afla îna- 138  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor inte de 2 aprilie, ziua invaziei în insule. Ei vor a primit informaţia au şi cucerit oraşul. El este prezenta factura – unul dintre oratori a evocat de părere că Argentina va avea de plătit un preţ gazetarii sechestraţi împreună cu masele de important pentru hotărârea pripită de a cuceri cetăţeni dispăruţi în urma răscoalei militare – insulele aflate în posesia Marii Britanii. Auto- şi nu se vor mulţumi cu mai puţin decât insta- ritatea care a luat această decizie nu a evaluat urarea unui regim democratic în Argentina. O corect situaţia politică şi nici care va fi reacţia singură excepţie la expresia consensuală a vor- britanică şi poziţia Statelor Unite fata de inva- bitorilor a fost cuvântul adresat de un gazetar darea insulelor. Preţul ce urmează să fie plătit din Patagonia, de fapt un refugiat originar din va avea o componentă economică şi alta de Uniunea Sovietică, pavoazat cu lozinci patrio- politică internă. Responsabilii pentru acţiunea tice stridente. El a oferit Magdalenei şi Profe- pornită la 2 aprilie vor avea de dat socoteală sorului Givre săculeţe umplute cu pământ din şi vor fi traşi la răspundere. Spre deosebire de Malvinas drept „mărturia dragostei ce purtăm alţii, Muchnik nu crede că numai Generalul pentru surioara noastră pierdută”, „la herma- Galtieri va avea de plătit preţul eşecului şi în nita perdida”, precum numele insulelor în cân- adaos nici trupele de infanterie nu mai executa tecul nostalgic difuzat zilele acestea pe toate fără obiecţii ordinele lui. Generalul Trimarca, undele radiofonice de poetul şi cântăreţul Yu- comandantul trupelor staţionate în garnizoana panki Atahualpa. din Rosario, pregăteşte planuri în tovărăşie cu Generalul Horatio Thomas Liendo şi partiza- 14 iunie: nii politicianului Arturo Frondizi. Generalul Contrar evaluărilor afirmând că forţele (pensionar) Antonio Domingo Bussi, cunos- britanice vor amâna ultima bătălie destinată cut pentru înclinările sale profasciste trage şi cuceririi capitalei Port Stanley din cauza vi- el sforile într-o direcţie diferită. Generalul Co- zitei Papei la Buenos Aires şi a dorinţei de a mandant al aviaţiei militare Basilio Lami Dozo nu deturna atenţia concentrată asupra acestui nutreşte aspiraţii politice şi întreţine relaţii cu eveniment, unităţi britanice de elită au proce- toate grupările politice. dat în mod diferit şi deja în ziua de sâmbătă Sursa mea este de părere că unica soluţie au declanşat atacul decisiv fără a lua în seama care ar permite ieşirea din încurcătura actuală euforia generală care a inundat populaţia ţării ar fi constituirea unui regim civico-militar cu drept urmare a prezenţei şefului bisericii cato- tendinţe populiste. Militarii însă nu vor re- lice în Argentina. Primul comunicat oficial al nunţa la putere şi nu vor accepta să se întoarcă Comandamentului militar suprem a recunos- în cazărmi şi să livreze frânele conducerii în cut că „mercenarii coloniali britanici” au reu- mâinile politicienilor. Un astfel de scenariu va şit să înainteze puţin dar a pretins în schimb fi realizabil în viitor, dar probabil numai după că „o unitate patriotică de apărare” a reuşit să 4-5 ani. blocheze înaintarea. Comunicatul a menţionat de asemenea că inamicul încearcă să cucereas- 18 iunie: că ultima fortăreaţă a rezistenţei argentiniene Ieri la amiază s-a aflat că Generalul Galti- folosind forţe superioare înzestrate cu echipa- eri (Preşedintele Juntei) a revenit pentru puţin ment de calitate şi în cantităţi ce lipsesc defen- timp la Casa Rosada (reşedinţa preşedintelui sorilor. republicii) şi apoi s-a întors la reşedinţa co- Eu desluşesc în acest comunicat o intenţie mandantului suprem al forţelor de infanterie de a pregăti opinia publică în vederea capitula- situată în garnizoana Campo de Mayo. S-a mai rii ce se anunţă. aflat de asemenea că şedinţa juntei programată De fapt, nimeni în Buenos Aires nu se în- să se ţină ieri la amiază s-a anulat. Această in- doieşte că dezastrul ar fi aproape. David Mu- formaţie stârneşte curiozitate. chnik un gazetar care dispune de surse de Spre seară la radio s-a difuzat ştirea că informaţii demne de încredere mi-a povestit Galtieri a demisionat din funcţia de coman- astăzi că trupele britanice au ajuns la o distan- dant suprem al forţelor de infaterie. Comen- ţă de patru kilometri de capitala Port Stanley tatori politici au interpretat ştirea că demisia şi s-ar putea ca în răstimpul parcurs de când anunţată înseamnă şi renunţare la preşedinţia  Revista de istorie militară  139 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor republicii. În acelaşi timp s-a mai anunţat că Cine va fi numit preşedintele republicii? Al Generalul Cristino Nicolaides, comandantul patrulea, în cei doi ani trecuţi de când am sosit corpului întâi a fost numit comandantul forţe- în această ţară privată de viziune politică, adi- lor de infanterie. Ministrul de Interne Alfredo că după Videla, Viola şi Galtieri? Saint Jean a fost numit locţiitorul presdintelui republicii. Noul preşedinte va fi numit de junta 22 iunie: noua (complectată prin Generalul Nicolaides) După cum am spus deja, Galtieri a plătit în decurs de 72 ore dela întrunirea ei. preţul „aventurii întreprinse în vederea elibe- Galtieri aşadar a plătit preţul politic al în- rării insulelor Malvinas” şi a fost destituit. Însă frângerii. înlăturarea responzabilului principal pentru În reuniunea generalilor convocată în con- eşecul ruşinos, (cel puţin din punct de vede- tinuare Galtieri este acuzat că hotărârea lui de re al ierarhiei), nu a produs soldarea facturii a declanşa campania pentru recucerirea Insu- înfrângerii. Junta noua constituită după desti- lelor Malvinas a fost greşită, conducerea ei ne- tuirea lui Galtieri nu reuşeşte să ajungă la un reuşită, iar atacul deşănţat în discursul anun- acord privind identitatea noului preşedinte. ţând înfrângerea, împotriva Statelor Unite a Nicolaides a aspirat la moştenirea lui Galtieri fost insuportabil. Galtieri nu a cedat acuzărilor, inclusiv şi fotoliul presidential, dar a eşuat. ba dimpotrivă, a atacat din nou Statele Unite în Lami Dozo care nu a obţinut sprijin pentru mod grosolan şi a acuzat comandanţii de pe candidatura sa deşi a beneficiat de votul cole- front că lipsa lor de profesionism manifestată gului său, Generalul Jorge Anaya, a propus pe în comanda trupelor pe câmpul de luptă a fost generalul de aviaţie Jose Miret, însă după ce factorul care l-a obligat să accepte capitularea. Nicolaides s-a opus categoric la aceasta candi- Generalii în reuniune nu a trecut cu vederea datură el a propus doi candidaţi civili şi anume comportamentul agresiv al lui Galtieri şi au pe Ministrul de Externe Costa Mendes şi am- insistat să demisioneze. La care, Galtieri a răs- basadorul la Caracas Canari. Văzând însă opo- puns că fiecare din membri forului reunit (14 ziţia categorica a lui Nicolaides şi insistenţa lui la număr) au 24 de ore ca să-şi exprime părerea să se aleagă unul din cei doi candidaţi propuşi referitor la demisia cerută şi a închis şedinţa, de el, Lami Dozo şi Anaya ameninţa că se vor dar peste câteva minute toţi generalii au reve- abţine de a sprijini guvernul ce se constituie, nit şi au cerut lui Galtieri să redeschidă şedinţa dacă într-adevăr se va constitui. şi odată şedinţa redeschisă generalii au votat în Dificultatea în numirea unui sucesor lui unanimitate în favoarea demisiei lui Galtieri. Galtieri reflectă existenţa unei crize în regimul Ieri politicianul Francisco Manrique a trimis care a cucerit puterea în anul 1976. Dacă până o scrisoare generalului Galtieri publicată astăzi la urmă nu se va găsi repede o formulă de so- cerându-i să demisioneze. Argumentele invo- luţionare a crizei s-ar putea să se producă un cate de Manrique au specificaturmătoarele: proces de descompunere, care va fi, probabil, „… tu nu eşti demn să ţi se încredinţeze dificil de dominat. această sarcină (de a restabili republica) deoa- Între timp odată cu începutul întoarcerii rece ţi-ai încălcat promisiunile şi în mare mă- acasă a răniţilor şi parţial a prizonierilor elibe- sură porţi răspunderea evaluării eronate a îm- raţi de britanici încep să se audă din ce în ce prejurărilor, condiţiilor şi a posibilităţilor poli- mai pronunţate voci critice. Aceştia reclamă în tice, diplomatice şi militare şi pentru lipsa de plus şi demisia lui Lami Dozo şi a lui Anaya informaţii corecte la timpul potrivit şi pe dea- pentru că au fost părtaşi la eşecul suferit de supra eşti principalul responzabil al catastrofei Galtieri. Sunt unii care reclamă să se judece, militare care totuşi cinsteşte bărbăţia ostaşilor în cadrul tribunalelor militare, comandanţii noştri şi ei se aşteaptă dela cine i-a condus să unităţilor pe câmpul de luptă care nu au co- manifeste faţă de ei respect şi mărinimie, căci respuns aşteptărilor şi au eşuat în îndeplinirea ţara are nevoie de ei ca model şi ca exemplu”. misiunilor. În rezumat aceste cuvinte reflecta situaţia Şi în vâltoarea agitaţiei generale de dimen- actuală în întregime. siuni necunoscute s-a produs un act surprin- 140  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor zător: Comandantul şef al Poliţiei Generalul vor integra guvernul lui Bignone. Oare conţine Luis Santiago Martela s-a deplasat ieri la Bahia poziţia respectivă un semn care prefigurează Blanca să primească un lot de prizonieri repa- încăierări pentru cucerirea puterii în cadrul triaţi pe o navă britanică. El a nutrit speranţa instituţiei militare care risca să degenereze în că fiul său care a participat la luptele din Mal- confruntări între grupări militare sau până şi vinas se afla printre militarii repatriaţi. Numai între comandanţii corpurilor de forţe armate? când a ajuns la destinaţie şi stând de vorbă cu În orice caz armata terestră s-a angajat să ostaşii reîntorşi a aflat că fiul său nu se va în- respecte hotărârea juntei adoptată înainte de toarce vreodată – el a căzut într-una din lupte- descompunerea ei şi anume, ca puterea în mâi- le crâncene împotriva trupelor britanice. Dacă nile sale este atribuită pentru o perioadă inte- numai pe această cale a aflat comandantul po- rimară şi anume până în anul 1984, data prea- liţie care a fost soarta fiului său, cum au putut labil stabilită să semnifice sfârşitul „procesului să primească cetăţeni de rând amănunte des- de restaurarea democraţiei” (cu alte cuvinte, pre soarta tragica care a devorat copiii lor? sfârşitul regimului militar). Oare regimul generalului Bignone va res- 23 iunie: pecta acest angajament? Cu alte cuvinte, oare În cele din urmă următorul preşedinte generalul Nicolaides, un ofiţer cunoscut penal Argentinei va fi Generalul (rez) Reynaldo tru ideile sale politice de dreapta şi antidemo- Bignone, candidatul trupelor terestre şi al ge- cratice, va respecta – drept obligatorie – ultima neralului Nicolaides. Această alegere simbo- hotărâre a juntei şi regimul creat pe principiile lizează sfârşitul regimului unde putere era în mâinile unei junte compusă din comandanţii constitutive ale acesteia? celor trei arme ale forţelor armate Asta data Perioada de nestabilitate care se anunţa membrii juntei nu au ajuns la alegerea can- acuma este şi ea fructul amar al catastrofei didatului propus prin vot unanim. Generalul provenită din campania pentru recucerirea in- Bignone a fost ales numai de către armata te- sulelor Malvinas şi acest rezultat este fără doar restră, reprezentanţii celorlalte două arme au şi poate „negativ privind interesele comunităţii declarat deschis că se opun alegerii lui şi că evreieşti”. Orice situaţie de nestabilitate gene- abandonează junta, nu din cauza opoziţiei la rează primejdii cu privire la situaţia evreilor în persoana candidatului ci pentru opoziţia prin- societate – oare evreii din Argentina vor asi- cipială la numirea unui general din armata te- mila situaţia stabilită şi vor trage în consecinţă restră. Deocamdată nu este clară semnificaţia concluziile apropiate? practică a acestei poziţii în afară de faptul că Mă îndoiesc. reprezentaţii forţelor maritime şi aeriene nu Îndoielile mele se sprijină pe baze solide.

 Revista de istorie militară  141 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Opinii

Rebeliunea islamistă din Siria

ALEXANDRU VOICU *

Abstract

The paper below attempts to dispel some of the myths surrounding the Syrian Civil War, which soon will enter its fifth year. Much like their Libyan counterparts – and contrary to the claims of Western governments and media –, the Syrian rebels employed from the very beginning the brutal tactics patented by Al Qaeda in Iraq under the command of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi: hostage takings, beheadings, suicide bombings, car bombings, mass killings of civilians (especially those belonging to the Shia minority) and of government workers, mutilation of bodies, desecration of cemeteries and houses of worship belonging to religious minorities, etc. In the eyes of Sunni fun- damentalists, Bashar al-Assad is guilty of two capital crimes, one worse than the other: not only he represents the secular state instituted by his father, Hafez al-Assad, but he also belongs to the Alawite minority (a branch of Shia Islam), thus being a kafir (infidel), against whom the forces of jihad must unite.

Keywords: Syria, Bashar al-Assad, Hafez al-Assad, Free Syrian Army, Muslim Brotherhood, Hama, Damascus, Aleppo, Barack Obama, media, Al Jazeera, Qatar, Saudi Arabia

Pe 14 iunie 2013, presa internaţională in- drept „minciuni” şi „înscenări” şi amintind că forma că, după lungi deliberări, preşedinte- guvernul sirian a fost cel care a cerut o investi- le american Barack Obama a decis să acorde gaţie asupra folosirii de către rebeli a armelor „ajutor militar direct [s.a.]” rebelilor din Siria1, chimice4. Surprinzător, poziţia guvernului siri- acest pas venind în completarea sprijinului an îşi găsise deja o confirmare în declaraţiile „non-letal” anunţat cu doar trei luni înainte, pe fostului procuror de pe lângă Tribunalul Penal 20 aprilie 2013, în valoare de 250 milioane de Internaţional pentru fosta Iugoslavie şi actual dolari2. Pentru a-şi motiva acest ultim gest, ur- membru al Comisiei Independente Internaţi- mând exemplul dat deja de Franţa, Casa Albă a onale de Anchetă privind Siria din cadrul Na- invocat că deţine dovezi de necontestat că re- ţiunilor Unite, Carla del Ponte, care, pe 5 mai gimul lui Bashar al-Assad a folosit, în cel puţin 2013, afirmase că „investigaţia noastră trebuie patru ocazii şi „la scară mică”, arme chimice aprofundată, mai avem de verificat şi de con- împotriva rebelilor3. Răspunsul autorităţilor de firmat constatările prin mărturii noi, dar, după la Damasc a fost prompt, catalogând acuzaţii- cât am stabilit până în acest moment, oponen- le formulate de francezi, britanici şi americani ţii regimului sunt cei care folosesc gaz sarin”5.

* Cercetător ştiinţific gr. III, Institutul pentru Studii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie Militară. 142  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Aşadar, concluziile Casei Albe intrau într-o apropiere avea loc – un detaliu deloc nesem- contradicţie severă cu constatările Comisiei nificativ – o manifestaţie pro-guvernamenta- ONU, ceea ce ridică serioase îndoieli asupra lă. Moartea lui Gilles Jacquier – prima dintr-o metodologiei şi a surselor utilizate, iar faptele lungă serie de atacuri împotriva jurnaliştilor rebelilor – mai mult sau mai puţin cunoscute din Siria – a stârnit un cor de condamnări, fide publicul larg din Occident – nu fac decât să ind imediat atribuită armatei siriene. Ulterior, sporească semnele de întrebare. însă, investigaţiile conduse de ziarul Le Figa- ro şi de Ministerul Apărării francez au ajuns Atrocităţi şi înscenări comise de rebelii la concluzia că, de fapt, atacul în care Gilles din Siria Jacquier şi-a pierdut viaţa a fost înfăptuit nu de Adoptând o tactică brevetată şi folosită cu forţele guvernamentale, ci de rebeli8. succes de rebelii libieni în timpul războiului Beneficiind de o presă occidentală mai mult 6 civil din 2011 , rebelii din Siria au comis ne- decât favorabilă – şi de o presă arabă dominată numărate masacre şi atrocităţi pe care le-au de canalul qatariot Al Jazeera, în condiţiile în prezentat ca fiind opera regimului lui Bashar care Qatarul este unul dintre principalii sus- al-Assad. În Occident, unul din primele sem- ţinători şi finanţatori ai taberei anti-guverna- nale de alarmă în acest sens a fost mărturia jur- mentale –, rebelii din Siria au fost exoneraţi de nalistului britanic Alex Thomson (de la Chan- atrocităţi şi mai mari. Astfel, pe 2 august 2011, nel 4), care, aflat la marginea oraşului Qusair, postul american de televiziune CNN a difuzat a fost lăsat intenţionat de către rebeli în prima imagini – preluate de la „activişti” sirieni – linie pentru a fi omorât în schimbul de focuri care ar fi prezentat atrocităţi comise de forţele cu forţele guvernamentale. În propriile lui cu- loiale lui Bashar al-Assad9. În scurtul videoclip, vinte, „îmi este cât se poate de limpede că re- un grup de bărbaţi – unii înarmaţi – descarcă belii ne-au indus deliberat în eroare ca să fim mai multe cadavre însângerate dintr-o camio- împuşcaţi de armata siriană”, adăugând că „jur- netă staţionată pe un pod de mari dimensiuni, naliştii morţi reprezintă veşti proaste pentru pe care le aruncă apoi în râul de mai jos. Auto- 7 Damasc” . Din fericire, Alex Thomson a scăpat rii discută între ei, dar reportajul CNN nu ofe- cu viaţă, fiind salvat, în cele din urmă, de tru- ră o traducere completă, motivul fiind simplu: pele guvernamentale. Jurnalistul francez Gilles făptaşii se referă la victimele aruncate în apă Jacquier nu a fost, însă, la fel de norocos. Aflat ca la „câinii de soldaţi”. Cu alte cuvinte, soldaţi în Homs (nu departe de Qusair) pentru tele- guvernamentali. viziunea publică franceză, acesta şi-a pierdut Din august 2011 până în prezent, nenumă- viaţa în urma exploziei unui obuz, în timp ce în rate înregistrări macabre din Siria au inundat

Rebeli din Siria pregatindu-se sa execute sapte ostatici  Revista de istorie militară  143 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Soldaţi sirieni executaţi sumar de rebeli

internetul, cele mai multe fiind ignorate de formată din suniţi. Zeci de membri ai unei fa- presa internaţională, mai ales când identitatea milii extinse care se convertise de la sunism la autorilor era evidentă. Câteva episoade, însă, şiism au fost ucişi. Mai mulţi membri ai famili- au reuşit să capteze atenţia. Dintre acestea, ei Shomaliya, o familie alawită, au fost, de ase- probabil cel mai mediatizat a fost „masacrul menea, omorâţi, precum şi familia unui parla- din Houla” din mai 2012, în care şi-au pierdut mentar sunit acuzat de colaborare cu regimul. viaţa aproximativ o sută de persoane, printre Imediat după masacru, atacatorii au filmat care şi mulţi copii. Prezentat ca dovadă incon- cadavrele şi le-au prezentat ca victime sunite testabilă a brutalităţii unui regim tot mai dis- în videoclipuri încărcate pe internet”12. După perat, episodul respectiv era de natură să sen- succesul înregistrat cu această punere în scenă sibilizeze comunitatea internaţională pentru – şi anume izolarea diplomatică cvasi-totală a acţiona mai hotărât împotriva autorităţilor a regimului lui Bashar al-Assad – , nu este de de la Damasc. Ceea ce s-a şi întâmplat, ţinând mirare că, în zilele şi în lunile care au urmat, cont că, în scurt timp, mai multe ţări occiden- presa internaţională a raportat numeroase ma- tale şi nu numai – printre care Statele Unite, sacre urmând acelaşi tipar, toate având loc în Canada, Marea Britanie, Australia, Franţa, zonele controlate de rebeli, iar victimele – de Germania, Italia, Spania, Bulgaria şi Olanda – multe ori mutilate şi prezentând urme de tor- i-au expulzat pe diplomaţii sirieni de pe lângă tură – fiind întotdeauna „descoperite” de aceş- ambasade10. Totuşi, nu toate vocile din presa tia imediat după comiterea faptelor. internaţională au preluat versiunea prezentată Într-o altă punere în scenă la fel de maca- de rebeli. Astfel, Rainer Hermann, corespon- bră, un videoclip încărcat pe internet de „acti- dentul pe Orientul Mijlociu al ziarului german vişti” sirieni prezintă 16 prizonieri – prezen- Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung şi unul din taţi drept shabiha13 – capturaţi de forţele re- puţinii jurnalişti occidentali care au investigat bele. Pierdut printre alte zeci – sau poate chiar incidentul, a prezentat o cu totul altă versiune sute – de înregistrări similare14, imaginile nu a evenimentelor, conform căreia nu forţele gu- ies cu nimic în evidenţă. Cu toate acestea, o vernamentale, ci rebelii au fost cei care au ucis bună parte din cei 16 prizonieri pot fi identifi- mai multe familii extinse – al Sayyid, Abdarra- caţi cu uşurinţă – după haine şi după trăsătu- zzaq şi Shomaliya, dar şi rude ale parlamenta- rile faciale – într-o altă înregistrare încărcată rului sunit Abdalmuti Mashlab – pentru că au de „activişti” sirieni, de această dată cu gâturile refuzat să li se alăture11. „Victimele se trăgeau tăiate şi prezentaţi ca victime ale regimului lui aproape exclusiv din familiile care aparţineau Bashar al-Assad15. minorităţilor alawite şi şiite din oraşul Houla. În afară de punerile în scenă pentru ex- Peste 90% din populaţia oraşului Houla este port – menite să sensibilizeze opinia publică 144  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor internaţională, pe de o parte, şi să recruteze dului internaţional: atentatele sinucigaşe. Doar noi adepţi şi finanţatori între radicalii suniţi, în primii doi ani ai rebeliunii, mai precis din pe de altă parte –, internetul abundă de atro- primăvara lui 2011 până în vara lui 2013, în cităţi comise şi asumate de rebeli, din care câ- Siria au avut loc cel puţin 70 de atentate si- teva au fost preluate şi de presa internaţiona- nucigaşe22, marea majoritate vizând trupele lă. Astfel, la mijlocului lui august 2012, într-o guvernamentale, dar şi cartierele şiite şi creş- înregistrare difuzată de mai toate posturile tine din oraşele mari23. Pe 10 mai 2012, într- internaţionale de ştiri, mai mulţi rebeli siri- un singur astfel de atentat, care amintea prin eni pot fi văzuţi cum aruncă de pe acoperişul proporţii şi metodă de conflictul sângeros din poştei din localitatea Al-Bab (în apropiere de învecinatul Irak, 55 de persoane au fost ucise oraşul Alep) cadavrele unor lucrători poştali, şi peste patru sute rănite prin detonarea de că- care se izbesc de asfalt în uralele unui grup de tre atentatori sinucigaşi a două camioane în- privitori16. Trei luni mai târziu, în noiembrie cărcate cu explozibili lângă o bază militară din 2012, o altă înregistrare face înconjurul lumii, Damasc24, iar presa internaţională, în absenţa de această data prezentând execuţia în masă a oricărei probe sau logici, nu a ezitat să difuzeze unui grup de prizonieri17. În mai 2013, o altă versiunea oferită de rebeli, conform căreia în înregistrare şocantă îl arăta pe un comandant spatele atentatului s-ar fi aflat chiar forţele lui rebel cum mutilează cadavrul unui susţinător Bashar al-Assad25. Într-un reportaj difuzat de al regimului, scoţându-i inima şi muşcând din BBC în august 2012 – şi ulterior scos de pe site ea, nu înainte de a declara în faţa camerei de fără nicio explicaţie din partea corporaţiei –, filmat „Jur în faţa lui Dumnezeu că vă vom aflăm că, în Siria, există şi atentatori sinucigaşi mânca inimile, soldaţi alawiţi [s.a.] ai câine- fără voie, prizonierii fiind folosiţi ca bombe vii. lui de Bashar”18. Comandantul în cauză, Kha- Tactica este simplă: rebelii mimează că elibe- led al-Hamad, a oferit şi un interviu celor de rează ostatici, cărora le este oferită o maşină la revista Time, în care îşi justifica acţiunile. încărcată în prealabil cu explozibil ce urmează Aflăm că victima avea în memoria telefonului a fi detonată de la distanţă lângă o ţintă aflată „o înregistrare video cu o femeie şi cele două pe traseul victimei26. fiice ale sale, dezbrăcate, iar el [victima – n.a.] Pe măsură ce atentatele sinucigaşe deve- le umilea”19. Fireşte, nicio astfel de înregistrare neau parte din cotidian, un nume a început nu a fost prezentată reporterului de la Time – să fie vehiculat tot mai des: Frontul al-Nusra, şi nici cerută de acesta –, dar, pentru moment, mişcare care a revendicat 57 din cele 70 de susţinătorii occidentali ai rebelilor din Siria atentate sinucigaşe îndreptate împotriva ţinte- puteau respira uşuraţi. Versiunea lui Khaled lor militare ale regimului, dar şi a minorităţilor al-Hamad a fost preluată şi difuzată de toate religioase din Siria (şiiţi, alawiţi şi creştini)27. canalele de presă fără a fi chestionată. Aşadar, Pe 11 decembrie 2012, Statele Unite au adău- era vorba un act de justiţie, poate prea brutal, gat Frontul al-Nusra pe lista mişcărilor teroris- dar care pălea în faţa presupuselor atrocităţilor te, acuzându-l că a orchestrat peste şase sute comise de susţinătorii lui Bashar al-Assad. Ac- de atacuri în care numeroşi civili şi-au pierdut tul lui Khaled al-Hamad nu este singular, însă. viaţa28. Victoria Nuland, purtătorul de cuvânt Zeci de înregistrări video care prezintă profa- al Departamentului de Stat al Statelor Unite, a narea cadavrelor presupuşilor susţinători ai lui declarat că „prin aceste atacuri, Al-Nusra a că- Bashar al-Assad pot fi găsite pe youtube.com şi utat să se prezinte ca parte integrală a opoziţiei pe site-urile simpatizanţilor rebeliunii. Într-o legitime siriene, dar este, de fapt, o încercare astfel de înregistrare – cu nimic mai brutală a Al Qaeda din Irak de a deturna lupta popo- decât altele –, mai multe cadavre cu gâturile rului sirian pentru a-şi urmări scopurile ma- tăiate sunt zdrobite de un tractor20. În alta, doi lefice”. Aşadar, deşi Statele Unite recunoşteau prizonieri sunt decapitaţi în plină stradă, iar proliferarea unor grupări extremiste în cadrul copilul unui rebel ia parte la atrocitate21. „opoziţiei siriene”, publicul larg era asigurat că Dincolo de actele de o brutalitate extremă acestea reprezentau doar periferia unei miş- rezumate în rândurile anterioare, arsenalul cări legitime şi moderate. Una dintre aceste rebelilor include încă o tactică specifică jiha- facţiuni moderate – beneficiară, de altfel, a  Revista de istorie militară  145 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor ajutoarelor occidentale29 – este Armata Siriană ra lui 2011, aceleaşi forţe care, ulterior, au şi Liberă (FSA), condusă de generalul de brigadă preluat puterea în Tunisia, Egipt şi Libia. Ma- Salim Idris şi găzduită de Turcia. Revelatoare rii câştigători ai schimbărilor din 2011 au fost este opinia generalului Idris cu privire la Fron- forţele islamiste, inspirate în mare măsură de tul al-Nusra: „Sincer, trebuie să vă spun câteva Frăţia Musulmană. Cele patru regimuri, deşi lucruri despre luptătorii Frontului al-Nusra. autoritare (în grade diferite), erau, pentru aş- Merg la luptă în primele rânduri, luptă cu vi- teptările islamiste, prea laice. Referindu-se la tejie, plătind cu sânge şi cu martiri. Iar când cazul libian, John Rosenthal, un analist atent bătălia e încheiată, nu iau pradă de război şi al schimbărilor din lumea arabă, observa pe se retrag. Ei îşi au propriile lor surse de apro- bună dreptate că „au existat de la bun început vizionare... Ale noastre, însă, sunt slabe. Fron- dovezi clare că oponenţii cei mai fervenţi ai lui tul al-Nusra are mijloace financiare solide, noi Gaddafi nu respingeau regimul acestuia ca fi- nu avem”30. Aşadar, cuvinte de laudă la adresa ind nedemocratic, ci, mai presus de toate, ca unei mişcări care are la activ zeci de atentate fiind ne-islamic”33, observaţie ce poate fi apli- sinucigaşe şi execuţii sumare, venite din partea cată şi celorlalte cazuri, dacă luăm în conside- unui „moderat” sprijinit de Statele Unite, An- rare noua direcţie politică a forţelor recent in- glia şi Franţa. stalate la putere. Regimul lui Bashar al-Assad, Odată cunoscut modus operandi al rebeli- preluat de la tatăl său, Hafez al-Assad, nu făcea lor din Siria, întrebarea care se pune este: îm- excepţie. potriva cui luptă? Născut într-o familie alawită săracă, Hafez al-Assad s-a alăturat partidului Baas în timpul Regimul lui Bashar al-Assad studenţiei, în 1946. Navigând printre intrigile Retrospectiv, valul de revolte care a cuprins politicii siriene într-o perioadă tumultoasă – treptat o bună parte a lumii arabe în iarna şi marcată de evenimente importante precum primăvara lui 2011, botezat binevoitor de pre- crearea Republicii Arabe Unite dintre Siria sa occidentală drept „primăvara arabă”, nu avea şi Egipt (1958-1961) şi Războiul de Şase Zile cum să ocolească Siria. Regimurile autoritare (1967), în urma căruia Siria a pierdut Înălţimi- ale lui Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (Tunisia), Hos- le Golan – Hafez al-Assad ajunge prim-minis- ni Mubarak (Egipt), Muammar Gaddafi (Libia) tru al Siriei în 1970 şi, un an mai târziu, preşe- şi Ali Abdullah Saleh (Yemen) s-au prăbuşit dinte. În cuvintele lui Daniel Pipes, preluarea rând pe rând, fie printr-o tranziţie relativ paş- puterii de către un alawit echivala cu „un paria nică – în cazul Tunisiei, Egiptului şi parţial al devenit maharajah în India sau un evreu deve- Yemenului31 –, fie prin violenţă – Libia –, de nit ţar în Rusia – un eveniment fără precedent această dată cu un semnificativ ajutor militar care a şocat majoritatea sunită, învăţată să mo- extern. Totuşi, aceste regimuri nu reprezentau nopolozize puterea secole la rând”34. Conştient singurele dictaturi32 din lumea arabă – şi, în de statutul său de minoritar – în condiţiile în contextul deficitului cronic de democraţie din care, de-a lungul istoriei, alawiţii au fost văzuţi Orientul Mijlociu şi Nordul Africii, nici măcar ca eretici şi persecutaţi de către majoritatea nu îmbrăcau forme extreme. Mai mult, cele sunită –, Hafez al-Assad a încercat să nu-i alie- patru regimuri cooperau strâns cu Occidentul neze pe aceştia din urmă, astfel încât, pe dura- în aşa-numitul „război împotriva terorismului” ta mandatului de prim-ministru (1970-1971), declanşat de administraţia lui G.W. Bush după toţi miniştrii săi erau suniţi35. Atât dintr-un atentatele de la 11 septembrie 2001, aşadar ne- calcul politic, cât şi din convingeri ideologi- reprezentând un pericol la adresa securităţii ce, guvernarea lui Hafez al-Assad a încercat să internaţionale. Întrebarea care se pune este, depăşească graniţele confesionale, astfel încât, deci, ce aveau aceste regimuri în comun, în în 1973, mai multe modificări aduse constitu- afară de o anumită doză de autoritarism, atât ţiei introduceau drepturi egale pentru femei şi de comună în această parte a lumii? Răspun- permiteau ne-musulmanilor să ocupe chiar şi sul este la îndemână, fiind suficient să vedem postul de preşedinte36, această din urmă prece forţe ale spectrului politic au reprezentat vedere fiind ulterior abrogată în faţa opoziţi- avangarda contestărilor din iarna şi primăva- ei îndârjite a Frăţiei Musulmane. Minorităţile 146  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor religioase – şiiţi (inclusiv alawiţi), creştini şi astfel, primul şi – până în prezent – singurul druzi, care, însumat, reprezintă puţin peste o şef de stat musulman care a primit o astfel de pătrime din populaţie37 – s-au bucurat de pro- distincţie41. Turismul a cunoscut o dezvoltare tecţia statului, fiind încurajat dialogul inter- rapidă42, graţie moştenirii istorice impresio- confesional. Crăciunul – atât după calendarul nante a Siriei, dar şi a uşoarei deschideri din gregorian (Stil Vechi), cât şi după cel iulian (Stil ultimul deceniu. Nou) – a devenit una dintre cele cinci sărbători În 2011, însă, pe fondul succeselor înre- religioase naţionale, alături de Eid al-Adha, Eid gistrate de islamişti în Tunisia, Egipt şi Libia, al-Fitr, Anul Nou islamic şi naşterea Profetului venise momentul revanşei. Rebeliunea din Si- Mahomed38. Nici relaţiile externe nu au scăpat ria – prezentată ca pro-democratică de presa acestui tip de abordare: pe de o parte, Hafez şi de liderii occidentali în pofida tuturor indi- al-Assad a întărit legăturile cu Iranul şiit şi a ciilor de pe teren – a reprezentat reculul de- finanţat gruparea şiită Hezbollah din Libanul ceniilor de toleranţă religioasă, ţinta fiind, în învecinat, în ciuda diferenţelor ideologice ma- egală măsură, atât regimul lui Bashar al-Assad, jore, şi, pe de altă parte, nu a ratat momentele cât şi minorităţile religioase. Nici liderii suniţi cheie de a face pe plac monarhiilor sunite din moderaţi nu au scăpat mâniei islamiste. Pe regiune, Siria participând, alături de Emiratele 21 martie 2013, Mohamed Said Ramadan Al- Unite Arabe, Arabia Saudită şi Qatar, la coaliţia Bouti, poate cel mai cunoscut cleric sunit din condusă de Statele Unite împotriva Irakului, în Siria şi un susţinător al regimului, a fost asasi- timpul Primului Război din Golf. Reformele nat într-un atentat sinucigaş în timp ce ţinea o sociale introduse de Hafez al-Assad şi laiciza- prelegere într-o moschee din Damasc, în atac rea forţată a statului au creat nemulţumiri în pierzându-şi viaţa alte 41 de persoane43. Nici rândurile radicalilor suniţi, care, la sfârşitul clericii creştini nu au fost scutiţi, fiind, de ase- anilor ’70, au luat forma unei revolte islamiste menea, ţinta asasinatelor. Într-un ultim astfel ce a culminat cu rebeliunea armată din oraşul de episod, pe 21 iunie 2013, părintele catolic Hama, în 1982. După un asediu care a durat Francois Murad a fost decapitat de o grupare a 27 de zile, armata siriană a preluat controlul rebelilor afiliată Frontului al-Nusra44. În zonele asupra oraşului, cu pierderi importante pen- „eliberate” de către rebeli a fost imediat intro- tru ambele tabere, dar şi în rândul populaţiei dusă sharia (legea islamică), una din primele civile39. Deşi Hafez al-Assad a ieşit învingător victime fiind un copil 14 ani, acuzat că a luat în din confruntare, ruptura dintre acesta şi miş- derâdere numele profetului45. cările islamiste – în special Frăţia Musulmană De fapt, ofensiva islamistă din Siria se în- – devenise ireconciliabilă. În ochii radicalilor scrie războiului mai larg declarat şiiţilor de suniţi, Hafez al-Assad se făcea vinovat de două către adepţii wahhabismului (ramura ultra- păcate capitale: nu numai că era alawit – şi, conservatoare a sunismului). Din Siria până în implicit, eretic –, dar era şi secularist, adică Indonezia46 – trecând prin Irak47 şi Pakistan48 –, anti-islamic. După moartea lui Hafez al-Assad şiiţii au constituit, în ultimul deceniu, ţinta pre- în 2000, Bashar al-Assad a devenit, astfel, nu dilectă a extremiştilor suniţi, aceştia din urmă numai moştenitorul frâielor puterii, ci şi con- beneficiind de largheţea monarhiilor din Golf. tinuatorul acestei rupturi. După preluarea puterii, Bashar al-Assad a Susţinătorii rebeliunii din Siria iniţiat o serie de reforme sociale şi economi- Pe 24 februarie 2012, în Tunisia, avea loc ce, etichetate drept timide de către criticii oc- prima întâlnire – din cele patru, până în pre- cidentali. Cu toate acestea, în timpul primilor zent – a autointitulaţilor „Prieteni ai Siriei”, săi ani de guvernare, Siria a fost racordată la mai precis a ţărilor care urmăreau să sporească internet, iar anumite sectoare ale economiei ajutorul internaţional pentru rebelii din Siria în – în special cel bancar – au fost privatizate40. afara cadrului oferit de Naţiunile Unite (Rusia Urmând modelul tatălui său, Bashar al-Assad şi China blocaseră în Consiliul de Securitate o a continuat să încurajeze dialogul interconfesi- rezoluţie care condamna regimul lui Bashar al- onal, fiind decorat de Papa Ioan Paul al II-lea, Assad). Botezat de Hillary Clinton, pe atunci în 2004, cu Medalia Benemerenti, devenind, secretar de stat al Statelor Unite, drept „Prie-  Revista de istorie militară  147 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor tenii Siriei Democratice [s.a.]”49, grupul ad-hoc Qatar rebelilor din Siria nu este doar de natură includea nu mai puţin de unsprezece ţări: Sta- financiară: conform Stockholm International tele Unite, Marea Britanie, Franţa, Germania, Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), în perioada Italia, Egipt, Iordania, Turcia, Qatar, Arabia Sa- ianuarie 2012 – martie 2013, Qatarul a efec- udită şi Emiratele Arabe Unite. Paradoxal, şase tuat peste 90 de zboruri de marfă către Turcia, din aceste unsprezece state – reprezentând, încărcătura constând în arme pentru rebeli63. deci, o majoritate simplă – nu se califică drept Nici Arabia Saudită nu s-a lăsat mai prejos. „ţări libere”50, iar patru – mai precis Iordania, Aceasta a intermediat, în decembrie 2012, un Qatar, Arabia Saudită şi Emiratele Arabe Unite larg transport de arme – estimat la 3.500 de – sunt, conform estimărilor anuale făcute de tone64 – din Croaţia către rebelii din Siria65. Freedom House51, printre cele mai puţin libere Mai trebuie menţionat că, la acea vreme, Uni- state din comunitatea internaţională. Conform unea Europeană impusese un embargo asupra punctajului acordat de Freedom House pe anul armelor cu destinaţia Siria, iar Croaţia, ca ţară 2012, Arabia Saudită – unul din principalii candidată la aderare, era obligată să îl respecte. susţinători ai cauzei rebelilor – este la fel de Poate că nu a facut-o, însă, dezinteresat: prin- puţin liberă precum Siria lui Bashar al-Assad52. tr-o coincidenţă stranie, în noiembrie 2012 – Aşadar, ce fel de democraţie poate exporta în cu doar o lună înainte de derularea propriu- Siria Arabia Saudită – o monarhie absolutistă zisă a transferului de arme –, Tribunalul Penal care, între 2007 şi 2010, a executat public prin pentru Fosta Iugoslavie i-a achitat pe generalii decapitare nu mai puţin de 345 de persoane53 croaţi Ante Gotovina şi Mladen Markač, care, şi în care o importantă minoritate şiită, repre- cu nici doi ani înainte, mai precis în aprilie zentând aproximativ 15% din populaţie, nu a 2011, fuseseră găsiţi vinovaţi – de acelaşi tri- obţinut niciodată un post de ministru54? Nici bunal – de crime de război şi condamnaţi la 24 Qatar, o altă monarhie absolutistă, nu stă mai şi, respectiv, 18 ani de închisoare66. bine. Deşi deţine principalul canal de ştiri din Rebelii din Siria au mai primit şi un altfel de lumea arabă – Al Jazeera –, libertatea presei sprijin, de această dată de la „jihadiştii de profe- este inexistentă55, partidele politice sunt inter- sie”. La apelurile clericilor extremişti – cum ar zise56 iar actualul emir, Hamad bin Khalifa Al fi, de exemplu, egipteanul Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Thani, a preluat puterea printr-o lovitură de stat gazda unei emisiuni foarte populare la postul îndreptată împotriva propriului său tată57. Lista qatariot Al Jazeera, cu o audienţă estimată la nu se opreşte aici, însă. Emiratele Arabe Unite 60 de milioane, care a cerut „fiecărui sunit apt sunt a treia monarhie absolutistă – mai precis, de luptă să se alăture rebelilor [s.a.]”67 –, mii de federaţie de monarhii absolutiste – prietenă a luptători străini, atât din lumea musulmană68, „Siriei democratice”. După modelul primelor cât şi din Europa69 şi Statele Unite70, au sosit două, partidele politice sunt interzise58, presa în zonele ocupate de rebeli pentru a lupta îm- este controlată strict59 iar orice critică la adresa potriva regimului de la Damasc. De asemenea, liderilor este pedepsită cu închisoarea60. veteranii jihadului – precum libianul Abdelha- Contrar aparenţelor, cele trei monarhii kim Belhadj, fostul „emir” al Grupului Islamic absolutiste din Golf nu fac simplă figuraţie în de Luptă din Libia (LIFG), organizaţie care a grupul „prietenilor Siriei”, ci reprezintă nu- „fuzionat” cu Al-Qaeda în 200771, şi personaj cleul activ al acestuia. Conform unei analize cheie în rebeliunea care l-a răsturnat şi, în cele întocmite de Financial Times, doar Qatarul din urmă, ucis pe Muammar Gaddafi în 2011 a „donat” aproximativ trei miliarde de dolari – şi-au folosit influenţa şi noile conexiuni pen- rebelilor din Siria61, oferind, în acelaşi timp, tru a-şi ajuta partenerii ideologici din Siria72. „pachete” în valoare de până la 50.000 de do- Cu toate acestea, după mai bine de doi ani lari dezertorilor din armata guvernamentală62. de război, regimul lui Bashar al-Assad rezis- În faţa acestor cifre, ajutorul american de 250 tă în continuare, ba chiar a reuşit recent să milioane de dolari începe să pară o sumă de înregistreze şi câteva succese pe teren73, ceva consolare, un alt indiciu că, măcar în cazul de imposibil pentru un regim bazat exclusiv pe faţă, nu Qatarul este prins la remorca america- teroare, complet nepăsător faţă de soarta civi- nă, ci viceversa. Mai mult, asistenţa oferită de lilor prinşi în zonele de conflict, aşa cum presa 148  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor occidentală l-a zugrăvit de la începutul rebe- Abdul Rahman, musulman sunit77 pe numele liunii până în prezent. Supravieţuirea acestuia său adevărat Osama Suleiman78, şi-a descope- nu poate fi explicată decât prin sprijinul unei rit conştiinţa politică, episod nu lipsit de un importante părţi a populaţiei, inclusiv al mo- anumit substrat sectar: „Primul contact cu po- deraţilor suniţi, care se văd mai ameninţaţi de litica a avut loc pe când avea 7 ani, a declarat forţele rebele decât de cele guvernamentale. acesta, după ce proprietarul apartamentului în care locuia cu familia i-a lovit surorile pen- Numărul victimelor tru că se urcaseră pe acoperiş. Vecinii care au În ciuda absenţei observatorilor internaţio- văzut altercaţia au refuzat să depună mărturie nali pe teren, presa occidentală abundă în cifre deoarece proprietarul era alawit [s.a.] şi avea de o precizie cutremurătoare cu privire la nu- un frate care lucra în serviciul de informaţii al mărul victimelor: la un ultim astfel de bilanţ, armatei”79. Informaţiile nu se opresc aici, însă. prezentat publicului larg pe 26 iunie 2013 şi mai aflăm că omul care a numărat de unul difuzat de cvasi-totalitatea canalelor de presă, singur cele peste 200 00080 de victime ale răz- aflăm că, până în prezent, în războiul din Siria boiului din Siria – număr preluat de presa oc- şi-au pierdut viaţa 100.191 de persoane, între cidentală fără să fie câtuşi de puţin chestionat care peste 5.000 de copii sub vârsta de 16 ani şi – îşi împarte timpul între Observator şi mica peste 3.000 de femei74. Aşa cum a fost şi cazul sa afacere din care îşi câştigă existenţa – două bilanţurilor precedente, unica sursă invocată magazine de haine din Coventry, Anglia81. Din de presa internaţională a fost Observatorul Si- acelaşi articol, aflăm că activitatea lui Osama rian pentru Drepturile Omului (SOHR)75, or- Suleiman din cadrul Observatoului este încu- ganizaţie al cărei nume a fost vehiculat zilnic rajată şi răsplătită, primind „mici subsidii de la în peste cei doi ani de război pentru a denunţa Uniunea Europeană şi de la o ţară europeană crimele comise de regimul lui Bashar al-Assad al cărei nume refuză să îl dezvăluie”82. Semnele împotriva civililor sirieni. O simplă căutare pe de întrebare nu se opresc aici. La 14 mai 2013, google a numelui organizaţiei („Syrian Obser- de exemplu, Observatorul anunţa că numărul vatory for Human Rights”) oferă nu mai puţin victimelor a ajuns la 94.000, din care 41.000 de 436.000 de răspunsuri, dovadă a mediatiză- – adică aproape 44 de procente – au fost în- rii extraordinare de care s-a bucurat Observa- registrate în rândul minorităţii alawite83. Cum torul, devenit, peste noapte, principala sursă se explică, deci, că o minoritate religioasă care de informaţii cu privire la derularea luptelor reprezintă mai puţin de 16 procente din popu- în Siria. În ciuda recunoaşterii internaţionale laţia Siriei84 şi care – prin loialitatea sa faţă de şi a preciziei cifrelor oferite publicului larg, Bashar al-Assad, la rândul său alawit – a fost detaliile privitoare la modul de funcţionare a frecvent acuzată că reprezintă coloana verte- Observatorul Sirian pentru Drepturile Omului brală a aparatului represiv îndreptat împotriva rămân învăluite în mister, iar puţinele infor- majoritarilor suniţi este, chiar şi după cifrele maţii disponibile sunt mai degrabă de natură oferite Observator, mult suprareprezentată în să ridice serioase semne de întrebare. Astfel, rândul victimelor? Nu cumva avem de-a face într-o scurtă prezentare făcută de The New cu o confuzie între victime şi agresori, dacă York Times pe 9 aprilie 2013, aflăm că „în ciu- luăm în calcul războiul global declarat şiiţilor da rolului central pe care îl joacă în brutalul de către extremiştii suniţi? război civil, în spatele impozantului nume de Observator Sirian pentru Drepturile Omu- Concluzii lui se află un singur om [s.a.]. Fondatorul său, Rebeliunea din Siria este, contrar tezei pro- Rami Abdul Rahman, de 42 de ani, care a pă- puse de de aliaţii occidentali şi de monarhiile răsit Siria în urmă cu treisprezece ani, conduce absolutiste din Golf, produsul jihadului global. operaţiile dintr-o casă de cărămidă aflată într- Deşi autoritar, regimul lui Hafez al-Assad şi al un cartier de locuinţe din acest oraş industrial fiului său, Bashar al-Assad, şi-a propus – şi a anost [Coventry, Anglia – n.a.]”76. Acelaşi ar- reuşit, într-o măsură deloc neglijabilă – să de- ticol menţionează şi momentul în care Rami păşească vechile linii confesionale. Războiul  Revista de istorie militară  149 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor declarat de islamişti nu are ca ţintă aspectele Menit să impulsioneze susţinerea americană reprehensibile ale regimului, ci exact latura pentru rebelii din Siria, mesajul conţine o ame- modernizatoare, mai precis secularismul şi to- ninţare cât se poate de explicită, chiar dacă e leranţa religioasă. pusă sub semnul condiţionalului. Atentatele Experienţa libiană slujeşte ca bun exem- din Benghazi şi Boston demonstrează, însă, cu plu. Atacul împotriva ambasadei americane totul altceva. Pentru jihadul global, nu există din Benghazi – câtuşi de puţin singular, ţinând reconciliere cu Occidentul, iar rebeliunea din cont că ambasadele Marii Britanii, Franţei şi Siria, învingătoare sau nu, nu şi-a spus ultimul Italiei au avut o soartă similară, chiar dacă fără cuvânt. pierderi de vieţi85 – este cât se poate de grăitor din acest punct de vedere. În ciuda ajutorului NOTE militar direct oferit de Statele Unite şi de euro- 1 peni, ţinta finală a jihadiştilor libieni a rămas BBC News, US says it will give military aid to Syria rebels, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us- Occidentul. Pornind de la acest exemplu, Sta- canada-22899289. tele Unite au primit deja o primă „avertizare”: 2 The Washington Post, U.S. pledges to double Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, unul din autorii atenta- nonlethal aid to Syrian rebels as opposition backers tului terorist de la Boston, era un simpatizant reach consensus, http://articles.washingtonpost. al rebelilor din Siria86. Asta nu l-a împiedicat, com/2013-04-20/world/38686830_1_opposition- însă, să-şi ducă planul la îndeplinire, deşi se coalition-al-nusra-qatar. afla pe aceleaşi „baricade” cu ţara gazdă în ceea 3 The Telegraph, Syria: What is the US evidence ce priveşte Siria. on Assad’s use of chemical weapons?, http://www. În cuvintele senatorului american John telegraph.co.uk/news/10121425/Syria-What-is- the-US-evidence-on-Assads-use-of-chemical-wea- McCain, care i-a vizitat pe rebelii din Siria în pons.html mai 2013 şi care, la rândul lui, a reprodus pen- 4 CNN, Syria: U.S. manipulating chemical wea- tru publicul american mesajul primit de la „o pons evidence, like it did with Iraq, http://edition. 87 învăţătoare” în timpul scurtei vizite , copiii cnn.com/2013/04/26/world/meast/syria-civil-war. sirieni „vor dori să se răzbune pe cei care au 5 The Telegraph, UN accuses Syrian rebels of refuzat să-i ajute [adică pe americani – n.a.]”88. chemical weapons use, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/

Senatorul american John McCain alături de Salim Idris (centru) şi doi dintre răpitorii unui grup de unsprezece pelerini libanezi: Abu Youseff (al doilea din stânga) şi Muhammad Nour (dreapta) 150  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10039672/UN- 16 Russia Today, Syrian atrocity: Bodies of postal accuses-Syrian-rebels-of-chemical-weapons-use. workers thrown from roof (GRAPHIC VIDEO), http:// html. rt.com/news/syria-aleppo-post-video-476/. Vezi şi 6 Vezi Alexandru Voicu, „Intervenţia militară în Herald Sun, Grisly Syria video ‘shows bodies thrown Libia. Alianţe de moment”, în Revista de Istorie Mi- from roof’, http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/ litară nr. 3-4/2013. world/grisly-syria-video-shows-bodies-thrown- 7 The Telegraph, Channel 4 journalist Alex from-roof/story-fnd134gw-1226449643648. Thomson says Syria rebels led me into death trap, 17 BBC, Syria conflict: Rebels may have commit- http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/mi- ted war crime – UN, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ ddleeast/syria/9321068/Channel-4-journalist-Alex- world-middle-east-20177384. Thomson-says-Syria-rebels-led-me-into-death- 18 The Telegraph, Syrian rebel defends ea- trap.html. Mărturia lui Alex Thomson este cu atât ting dead soldier’s organs as revenge, http://www. mai notabilă cu cât articolele lui precedente erau cât telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/ se poate de laudative la adresa rebelilor. syria/10057420/Syrian-rebel-defends-eating-dead- 8 Le Figaro, Jacquier: l’enquête française po- soldiers-organs-as-revenge.html. inte les rebelles syriens, http://www.lefigaro.fr/ 19 Ibidem. international/2012/07/17/01003-20120717ART- 20 FIG00525-jacquier-l-enquete-francaise-pointe-les- Atenţie, imaginile sunt de o violenţă extremă: rebelles-syriens.php. http://www.youtube.com/watch? v= CPpbQ1hC4- 9 XE. CNN, Video shows bodies dumped in Sy- 21 ria, http://edition.cnn.com/video/data/2.0/video/ Atenţie, imaginile sunt de o violenţă extremă: world/2011/08/02/damon.syria.bridge.youtube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SOo6VlG- cnn.html. xE&bpctr=1372409274. 22 10 The Star, Canada, U.S. join world in expelling Lista parţială a atentatelor poate fi găsită aici: Syrian diplomats over Houla massacre, http://www. List of bombings during the Syrian civil war, http:// thestar.com/news/canada/2012/05/29/canada_us_ en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bombings_during_ join_world_in_expelling_syrian_diplomats_over_ the_Syrian_civil_war. houla_massacre.html. 23 Al Arabiya, Suicide bomber strikes, aid groups 11 Rainer Hermann, „Neue Erkenntnisse zu Ge- lament Syria crisis, http://english.alarabiya.net/en/ töteten von Hula. Abermals Massaker in Syrien“, News/middle-east/2013/06/27/Suicide-bombing- în Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, http://www. in-Damascus-Christian-area-kills-4-.html. faz.net/aktuell/politik/neue-erkenntnisse-zu-ge- 24 BBC News, Syria unrest: UN condemns Da- toeteten-von-hula-abermals-massaker-in-syrien- mascus ‘suicide blasts’, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ 11776496.html; Rainer Hermann, „Eine Auslösc- world-middle-east-18030110. hung“, în Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, http:// 25 The Guardian,Syria suffers worst terror attack www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/naher-osten/ since start of uprising, http://www.guardian.co.uk/ syrien-eine-ausloeschung-11784434.html. 12 world/2012/may/10/syria-worst-terror-attack- Ibidem. Vezi şi John Rosenthal, Report: Re- uprising?newsfeed=true. bels Responsible for Houla Massacre, National 26 O copie a reportajului poate fi găsită aici: Review Online, http://www.nationalreview.com/ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ufSCb77Iuo. corner/302261/report-rebels-responsible-houla- 27 Al-Nusra Front, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ massacre-john-rosenthal Al_Nusra_Front 13 Shabiha – ce poate fi tradus prin „fantomă” 28 Al Jazeera, US blacklists Syrian rebel group al- sau „apariţie” – este termenul folosit de rebeli Nusra, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast pentru a-i desemna pe susţinătorii regimului care /2012/12/2012121117048117723.html. operează în haine civile. În practică, termenul îi de- 29 semnează pe indezirabili – de cele mai multe ori din CNN, Obama authorized covert support motive confesionale, ţintele fiind în special alawiţii for Syrian rebels, sources say, http://edition.cnn. şi şiiţii –, iar acuzaţia a de a fi shabiha echivalează com/2012/08/01/us/syria-rebels-us-aid. 30 cu o condamnare la moarte. O copie a înregistrării video poate fi găsită 14 O simpla căutare după termenul „shabiha” pe aici:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OwOo5 youtube.com şi pe site-uri similare este edificatoare mmnVg4. 31 în acest sens. Ali Abdullah Saleh a fost ţinta unei încercări 15 Atenţie, imaginile sunt de o violenţă extremă. de asasinat în urma căreia a fost rănit grav, iar patru O comparaţie a celor două înregistrări poate fi găsi- gărzi de corp şi-au pierdut viaţa. În ultimii ani, Ye- tă aici: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= WWn- menul s-a dovedit un teren fertil pentru Al Qaeda, kZ9DKtb0 sau http://www.youtube.com/watch ?v= dovadă fiind atentatul din 2008 asupra ambasadei Wy_XmN1NoY0. americane din Sana’a, soldat cu 19 morţi şi 16 răniţi.  Revista de istorie militară  151 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor 32 Rămâne discutabil dacă regimul lui Hosni pe 1 iulie 2013: BBC News, Suicide bomber targets Mubarak poate fi calificat drept dictatură, în con- Iraq Shia mosque killing 22, http://www.bbc.co.uk/ diţiile în care aveau loc alegeri parlamentare relativ news/world-middle-east-23139975. libere şi chiar şi Frăţia Musulmană, organizaţie in- 48 Vezi, de exemplu, February 2012 Kohistan terzisă prin lege, reuşea să aibă câţiva reprezentanţi Shia Massacre, http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki în parlament deghizaţi ca independenţi. February_2012_Kohistan_Shia_Massacre; August 33 John Rosenthal, The Jihadist Plot: the Untold 2012 Mansehra Shia Massacre, http://en.wikipedia. Story of Al-Qaeda and the Libyan Rebellion, En- org/wiki/August_2012_Mansehra_Shia_Massacre. counter Digital, 2013. 49 The Guardian, Clinton calls for ‘friends of de- 34 Daniel Pipes, Greater Syria. The History of an mocratic Syria’ to unite against Bashar al-Assad, Ambition, Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 175. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/feb/05/hil- 35 Hafez al-Assad, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ lary-clinton-syria-assad-un. Hafez_Al_Assad. 50 Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2012, 36 Ibidem. http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/ 37 Syria. International Religious Freedom Report inline_images/FIW%202012%20Booklet--Final.pdf. 2006, U.S. Department of State, http://www.state. 51 Ibidem. gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71432.htm. 52 Ibidem. Trebuie spus că nici raportul Free- 38 Ibidem. dom House nu a scăpat unei anumite contaminări 39 Numărul victimelor din ambele tabere varia- ideologice. În ciuda reformelor – mai mult sau mai ză enorm de la o sursă la alta. Unele estimări vor- puţin autentice – din ultimii doi ani întreprinse de besc de 1000 de morţi, altele ajung până la 40000. regimul de la Damasc – între care abrogarea rolului Vezi Hama massacre, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ conducător al partidului Baas şi organizarea de ale- Hama_massacre#Fatality_estimates. geri –, punctajul obţinut de Siria în 2012 este mai 40 Bashar al-Assad, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba- slab decât cel din 2011. Chiar şi în aceste condiţii, shar_Al_Assad. este de notat că unul din principalii susţinători ai 41 Arabic News, President al-Assad - Duke and rebelilor – financiar şi diplomatic – obţine note Duchess of Calabria, http://www.arabicnews.com/ identice la toate capitolele. ansub/Daily/Day/040322/2004032205.html. Bene- 53 Capital punishment in Saudi Arabia, http:// merenti Medal, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bene- en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_penalty_in_Saudi_ merenti_medal#Awarded_by_Pope_John_Paul_II. Arabia. 42 Arab News, Tourism boom boosts Syria’s fla- 54 Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia, http://en. wikipe- gging economy, http://www.arabnews.com/node /34 dia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Saudi_Arabia. 6894. 55 Freedom House, op. cit. 43 Huffington Post, Sheikh Mohammad Said 56 Hugh Eakin, The Strange Power of Qatar, Ramadan Al Buti, Syrian Pro-Assad Cleric, Killed The New York Review of Books, 2011, http://www. In Damascus Bombing, http://www.huffingtonpost. nybooks.com/articles/archives/2011/oct/27/stran- com/2013/03/21/sheikh-mohammad-said-rama- ge-power-qatar/?pagination=false. dan-al-buti-killed_n_2925898.html. 57 Qatar, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar. 44 BBC News, Catholic priest beheaded in Syria 58 Politics of the United Arab Emirates, http:// monastery attack, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/wor- en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_ ld-middle-east-23138679. Arab_Emirates. 45 The Telegraph, Syria: ‘I saw rebels execu- 59 Freedom House, op. cit. te my boy for no more than a joke’, http://www. 60 The Telgraph, United Arab Emirates se- telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/ curity court jails blogger, http://www.telegraph. syria/10135823/Syria-I-saw-rebels-execute-my- co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/unitedara boy-for-no-more-than-a-joke.html. bemirates/8918868/United-Arab-Emirates-securi- 46 Vezi, de exemplu, BBC News, Shia Muslims: ty-court-jails-blogger.html. Indonesian villages burned down, http://www.bbc. 61 Financial Times, Qatar bankrolls Syrian re- co.uk/news/world-asia-20843259. volt with cash and arms, http://www.ft.com/intl/ 47 De la invazia americană din 2003, Irakul a fost cms/s/0/86e3f28e-be3a-11e2-bb35-00144feab7de. cuprins de un conflict inter-confesional în care şi-au html#axzz2XyBXfKkr. pierdut viaţa sute de mii de oameni. Deşi minoritari, 62 Ibidem. suniţii irakieni au pornit o ofensivă sângeroasă îm- 63 Reuters, Qatar, allies tighten coordination potriva conaţionalilor lor şiiţi, nenumărate atentate of arms flows to Syria, http://www.reuters.com/ sinucigaşe vizând, aproape săptămânal, moscheile article/2013/05/14/us-syria-qatar-support-idUS- şi procesiunile şiite. Cel mai recent atac a avut loc BRE94D0GT20130514. Vezi şi New York Times, 152  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor An Arms Pipeline to the Syrian Rebels, http://www. cean/libya/8919057/Leading-Libyan-Islamist-met- nytimes.com/interactive/2013/03/25/world/mi- Free-Syrian-Army-opposition-group.html. ddleeast/an-arms-pipeline-to-the-syrian-rebels. 73 Reuters, Syrian forces capture final rebel html?_r=0. stronghold in Qusair region, http://uk.reuters. 64 The Telegraph, Syria: 3,500 tons of weapons com/article/2013/06/08/uk-syria-crisis-idUK- already sent to rebels, says Lord Ashdown, http:// BRE9560TN20130608. www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middle- 74 The Telegraph, Syria death toll tops 100,000, east/syria/10153629/Syria-3500-tons-of-weapons- http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/ already-sent-to-rebels-says-Lord-Ashdown.html. middleeast/syria/10142892/Syria-death-toll-tops- 65 New York Times, Saudis Step Up Help for 100000.html; Reuters, Syria death toll tops 100,000, Rebels in Syria With Croatian Arms, http://www. rebels lose border town, http://www.reuters.com/ nytimes.com/2013/02/26/world/middleeast/ article/2013/06/26/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE95- in-shift-saudis-are-said-to-arm-rebels-in-syria. O0LQ20130626 html?pagewanted=all. 75 Ibidem. 66 The Telegraph, Croatian hero Ante Gotovi- 76 The New York Times, A Very Busy Man Be- na acquitted of war crimes, http://www.telegraph. hind the Syrian Civil War’s Casualty Count, http:// co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/croatia/9682855/ www.nytimes.com/2013/04/10/world/middleeast/ Croatian-hero-Ante-Gotovina-acquitted-of-war- the-man-behind-the-casualty-figures-in-syria. crimes.html. html?pagewanted=all&_r=1&. 67 BBC News, Syria conflict: Cleric Qaradawi 77 Reuters, Coventry - an unlikely home to urges Sunnis to join rebels, http://www.bbc.co.uk/ prominent Syria activist, http://uk.reuters.com/ news/world-middle-east-22741588. article/2011/12/08/uk-britain-syria-idUKTRE7- 68 Nu este niciun secret că forţele rebele includ B71XG20111208. multe „brigăzi” străine, sosite din toate colţurile lu- 78 The New York Times, op.cit. mii musulmane: libieni, tunisieni, ceceni, irakieni, 79 Ibidem. yemeniţi, afgani, tadjici, saudiţi, turci şi alţii. Vezi, 80 Casualties of the Syrian Civil War, http:// de exemplu: CNN, Libya rebels move onto Syrian en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_ battlefield, http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/28/ Civil_War. world/meast/syria-libya-fighters); Redio Free Eu- 81 The New York Times, op.cit. rope/Radio Liberty, How Many Chechens Are Fi- 82 Ibidem. ghting In Syria?, http://www.rferl.org/content/ 83 Reuters, Syria Death Toll Likely As High As chechen-syria-fighting-kadyrov/25022321.html; 120,000, Group Says, http://www.reuters.com/ The Guardian, Syria: the foreign fighters joining the article/2013/05/14/us-syria-crisis-deaths-idUS- war against Bashar al-Assad, http://www.guardian. BRE94D0L420130514. co.uk/world/2012/sep/23/syria-foreign-fighters- 84 The World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/ joining-war. library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ 69 The Guardian, Syria conflict drawing hun- sy.html. dreds of jihadists from Europe, says report, http:// 85 Alexandru Voicu, op.cit. www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/apr/03/syria- 86 The Telegraph, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev: Boston hundreds-jihadists-europe. bomb suspect profile, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ 70 Fox News, American who fought with Al Qae- news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/10006814/ da against Syria’s Assad arrested in Virginia, http:// Dzhokhar-Tsarnaev-Boston-bomb-suspect-profile. www.foxnews.com/world/2013/03/28/american- html. who-fought-with-al-qaeda-against-syria-assad-ar- 87 La scurt timp, presa libaneză l-a acuzat pe rested-in-virginia/. senatorul McCain că s-a întâlnit, de fapt, cu rebeli 71 M. Khayat, The Salafi-Jihadi Challenge in Lib- implicaţi în răpirea a unsprezece şiiţi libanezi. Vezi ya Part II: The Role of the LIFG and Its Former Com- The Telegraph, John McCain denies he knowingly mander ‘Abd Al-Hakim Belhadj, The Middle East posed with with ‘rebel kidnappers’ in Syria, http:// Media Research Institute (MEMRI), http://www. www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/ memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/5598.htm,via syria/10089697/John-McCain-denies-he-knowin- John Rosenthal, Al-Qaeda Takes Tripoli, Gatestone gly-posed-with-with-rebel-kidnappers-in-Syria. Institute,http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/2409/ html. al-qaeda-takes-tripoli. 88 CNN, McCain: ‘Angry and bitter’ Syrians 72 The Telegraph, Leading Libyan Islamist met need America’s help, http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn. Free Syrian Army opposition group, http://www.te- com/2013/04/28/mccain-angry-and-bitter-syrians- legraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindiano- need-americas-help/.  Revista de istorie militară  153 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Recenzii, prezent`ri de c`r]i

România între prieteni şi duşmani

actual, cu deosebire pe ascensiunea şi declinul grupării prototip Al Qaeda. În volumul de faţă, C. Barna realizează o punere pe hartă a României, spre a pune in evidenţă ecuaţia „prieten-duşman”, fundamen- tală în studiile de securitate, la fel ca şi în şti- inţa politică atunci când vorbim de formare şi menţinerea unor comunităţi umane coerente. Folosind ca metode de lucru cercetarea com- parativ-istorică, analiza de conţinut, metoda scenariilor şi metoda prioritizării, el îşi con- firmă pregătirea de sociolog, testând cu succes ipotezele şi aplicând grile cantitativiste necesare. In mod special metoda scenariilor, apli- cată de CIA (National Intelligence Council) permite o anumită anticipare a viitorului sub influenţa unor variabile de tip ipotetic, ceea ce duce la lanţuri de cauzalitate şi conturează mai multe tpuri de „viitor plauzibil distinct”, proba- bilistic. Scenariile de tip prescriptiv, preferate de Barna, au avantajul că permit vizualizarea consecinţelor unei anumite acţiuni umane. După ce prezintă noul univers geopolitic dominat de reţelele teroriste transnaţionale şi de globalizarea capitalului şi tehnologiilor la scară planetară, Barna încadrează România ca actor important in regiunea extinsă a Mării Negre, ca Cristian Barna – România între prieteni „ranforsare” a rimland-ului ponto-baltic. şi duşmani. Decupaje geopolitice şi hărţi El identifică corect marea problema geo- imagologice, Editura Militară, Bucureşti, strategică ridicată de acţiunile Federaţiei Ruse: 2014, 235 pagini competiţia pentru controlul vecinătăţilor intre Moscova şi UE imbracă în ochii planificato- Autorul acestui volum dedicat identificării rilor ruşi aspectul unei lupte pentru contro- marilor riscuri şi ameninţări la adresa securi- lul „rimland-ului” ponto-baltic, situat relativ tăţii naţionale a României este cunoscut înde- aproape de „heartland-ul” rusesc. Moscova obşte de către comunitatea experţilor in secu- depune toate eforturile imaginabile spre a se ritate de la noi ca un fin expert in combatarea asigura ca UE şi NATO nu se vor extinde şi in terorismului de sorginte islmică. A scris mai acest spaţiu, mai ales că intervine problema multe monografii axate pe fenomenul terorist esenţială a schimbării regimului politic. Mo- 154  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor delul democratic occidental poate fi contagios Aşadar se pune problema cursei înarmă- şi pentru cetăţenii ruşi, din care mulţi sunt să- rilor nucleare şi a faptului că Rusia consideră tui de dictatura putinistă, camuflată în haine ca ţinte legitime instalaţiile aferente scutului republicane. Cristian Barna imbrăţişează mai antirachetă din state precum România şi Polo- degrabă perspectiva autorilor neorealişti occi- nia. Lăudabil este efortul autorului de a inves- dentali, de tip John J. Mearsheimer şi Stephen tiga multiple puncte de vedere asupra utilităţii Walt, arătând că Rusia e agresivă cu vecinii din respectiv a riscurilor generate de „scut”, fiind teamă, din nesiguranţă („aceste mutaţii în plan vorba inclusiv de numeroş experţi şi factori geostrategic fac ca Federaţia Rusă să se simtă politici din Rusia, aceasta in condiţiile in care „asediată”, determinând-o să acţioneze în sco- mulţi analişti explică doar punctele de vedere pul „smulgerii” acestei nou-create componente vest-europene şi americane. Ostilitatea ruşilor a rimland-ului de sub influenţa euro-atlantistă faţă de acest proiect care le poate anula avan- şi „atragerii” în sfera de influenţă eurasiatică.”(p. tajul strategiei de deterrence este clară şi nee- 169) Cu alte cuvinte nu lăcomia lui Putin de chivocă iar replicile experţilor de la Moscova teritorii şi glorie, ci teama ca Occidentul să nu sunt tăioase, in ciuda caracterului uneori hilar: ajungă să includă şi statele ex-sovietice aflate „deşi scutul antirachetă din Europa este un aproape de inima Rusiei, ar fi cauza majoră a şarpe anaconda care vrea să sugrume ursul rus, acestui comportament. De precizat că apariţia ursul va face scutul bucăţi şi-l va mânca”! (p. volumului a avut loc înainte de agresiunea rusă 103). Spre a se asigura imparţialitatea analizei, contra Ucrainei. Ucraina şi Georgia, în mod sunt apoi enumerate şi părerile experţilor oc- special, sunt percepute – pe bună dreptate - ca cidentali – pe de-o parte cei care susţin ideea apărării antirachetă pe motiv că poate descu- fiind de un interes major pentru securitatea raja state agresive şi „iraţionale”, că joacă un rol Rusiei, din cauza accesului la mare şi a bazelor defensiv şi nu ameninţă capacitatea de descu- militare ruseşti amplasate strategic. De aceea, rajare nucleară a Rusiei, pe de altă parte opinii sugerează autorul, intre dorinţa României de a conformă cărora scutul va fi o provocare inuti- asigura stabilitatea în Regiunea extinsă a Mă- lă la adresa Rusiei şi „va împinge comunitatea rii Negre mai ales prin propagarea valorilor şi internaţională spre o nouă cursă a înarmării”. loialităţilor euroatlantice şi dorinţa Rusiei de a O urmă de incertitudine sau anxietate apa- controla acest areal geopolitic şi finalmente de re în cazul cititorului român mai puţin avizat, a îl transforma in periferia spaţiului economic atunci când se menţionează declaraţii ale unor şi politic eurasiatic există o contradicţie aproa- oficiali ruşi că Moscova ar putea lovi preventiv pe imposibil de soluţionat. baza militară Deveselu, spre a evita să îi fie ani- Este menţionată în trecere şi tentativa lideri- hilate capabilităţile nucleare, sau că în realitate lor statelor membre ale NATO de a transforma „SUA nu au de gând să apere România şi Polonia Rusia într-un partener de cooperare în cadrul ci doar să le folosească spre a amplasa elemen- proiectului apărării europene antirachetă, invite ale scutului anti-rachetă...”. Desigur, aceste taţia fiind adresată Rusiei în 2010 la summit-ul afirmaţii fac parte din războiul propagandistic Alianţei de la Lisabona. În cele din urmă, cu dus de Moscova contra Occidentului, şi doar toate că negociatorii germani, de pildă, au de- o bună educaţie de securitate poate determina pus mari eforturi spre a accepta cererile delega- populaţia să îşi păstreze calmul, în condiţiile in ţiei ruse (condusă de generalul Valeri Gherasi- care România este stat NATO, beneficiind de mov, şeful Statului Major General), proiectul a garanţiile de securitate aferente articolului 5 eşuat deoarece unele state aliate nu concep ca din tratatul fondator. Trecând in revistă suita decizii vitale pentru securitatea lor să fie la la- de argumente şi contra-argumente legate de titudinea votului rusesc, iar Rusia nu a acceptat scut, Cristian Barna ajunge la concluzia că în să nu aibă drept de vot. Se precizează că Fede- prezent suntem feriţi de riscul unei agresiuni raţia Rusă a solicitat garanţii juridice din partea directe din partea Rusiei, din cauza garanţiilor SUA că acest scut nu va fi folosit contra sa, însă de securitate oferite de SUA şi NATO. Congresul nu a fost dornic să le ofere, spre a nu O altă categorie de riscuri la adresa secu- diminua eficienţa proiectului aliat. rităţii naţionale sunt atacurile teroriste, iar  Revista de istorie militară  155 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor România poate fi atacată din trei direcţii sau re) au prioritizat riscurile şi ameninţările din „perspective”: ca stat membru al UE şi NATO, lista aferentă documentelor oficiale, rezultând ca ţară ce face parte din civilizaţia occidentală o agendă mai apropiată de nevoile şi percepţii- şi „ca ţară situată în vecinătatea faliei musul- le cetăţeanului simplu, ceea ce e extrem de util mane din zona Mării Negre şi a Balcanilor” dar pentru decident într-un sistem politic demo- şi din cauză că a participat la coaliţie interna- cratic! Proiecţiile şi prognozele au fost plasate ţională contra terorismului, după anul 2001. la nivelul anului 2020. Grupările teroriste anti-israeliene, cele asoci- Lucrarea este bine documentată, asezona- ate separatismului kurd, formaţiunile islamiste tă cu o bibliografie destul de diversificată, be- şi cele generate de luptele din Afganistan sunt neficiază de anexe extrem de utile ce denotă cele mai probabile surse de atacuri teroriste muncă de analiză sociologică aprofundată. De potenţiale, fiind enumerate măsuri de contra- asemenea, există un Cuvânt-înainte semnat de carare. In final, autorul îşi propune să identifi- profesorul universitar clujean Vasile Dâncu. ce riscurile şi ameninţările la adresa României În ciuda existenţei unor pasaje insuficient dintr-un unghi sociologic. Orice strategie de dezvoltate şi a trecerii uneori cam bruşte de la securitate trebuie să se bazeze pe prioritizarea un tip de risc la altul, pe paliere diferite, sau a riscurilor şi ameninţărilor, dar factorii de de- unor afirmaţii discutabile (de pilda ideea că R.P cizie au adesea tendinţa să raţioneze folosind China nu pare că doreşte să „angajeze resurse” din plin şi „decupajele geopolitice” şi „hărţile în zona României, „lăsând-o parcă în seama imagologice”, spre a îşi putea figura realitatea Federaţiei Ruse din punct de vedere geostrate- internaţională aflată mereu în proces de trans- gic” - p. 173), considerăm că acest volum, scris formare. Plecând de la analiza de conţinut cu rigoarea omului de ştiinţă, este unul extrem asupra documentelor oficiale de securitate şi de util mediului academic din domeniul studi- apărare ale României, Barna a recurs la metoda ilor de securitate dar şi decidenţilor şi planifi- chestionarelor, sondând opinia publică şi obţi- catorilor politico-militari. nând o listă adiţională de riscuri şi ameninţări. In plus, respondenţii (aleşi dintre studenţii programelor masterale de securitate şi apăra- Dr. ŞERBAN FILIP CIOCULESCU *

* Cercetător ştiinţific gr. II, Institutul pentru Studii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie Militară. 156  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Am primit la redac]ie

 Revista de istorie militară  157 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor 158  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Via]a [tiin]ific`

Masa rotundă „Românii la începutul Marelui Război” 25 septembrie 2014, Cercul Militar Naţional – Sala Ştefan cel Mare –

În ziua de 25 septembrie 2014, la Cercul Primii vorbitori, d-nii dr. Şerban Cioculescu Militar Naţional, Sala Ştefan cel Mare, Institu- şi dr. Silviu Petre au avut o abordare psiho-so- tul pentru Studii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie cială a leadership-ului german, al cărui expo- Militară a organizat masa rotundă cu tema: nent principal în acea perioadă a fost împăratul „Românii la începutul Marelui Război”. Mani- german, Wilhelm al II-lea, cel care a şi condus festarea ştiinţifică s-a înscris în cadrul activi- Armata a 5-a germană până în 1916. Studiul tăţilor comemorative consacrate Centenarului dimensiunii psiho-cognitive ale marilor perso- Primului Război Mondial. La ea au participat nalitaţi istorice reprezintă o direcţie de cerce- atât specialişti ai instituţiei organizatoare cât tare proaspătă şi inedită, în cazul de faţă legă- şi istorici, cercetători, cadre universitare, ar- tura dintre complexitatea personalităţii omu- hivişti, muzeografi etc din instituţii militare şi lui de stat, a liderului politic şi tentaţia ideii civile. Evenimentul a fost deschis de Dumitru de expansiune dincolo de fruntariile geofizice Pufu, şeful Direcţiei Cooperare Internaţională şi geostrategice ale statului, idee manifestată în Domeniul Apărării şi de gl. mr. (r) dr. Mihail de altfel şi în cercurile politice şi intelectuale E. Ionescu, directorul Institutului pentru Stu- germane. dii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie Militară, care Doamna dr. Daniela Buşă, a descris atmo- au relevat semnificaţia europeană şi naţională sfera încordată, controversată, în rândul clasei a izbucnirii Primului Război Mondial, impac- politice, privitoare la rolul şi poziţia României tul acestuia asupra societăţii şi individului în faţă de război. Sunt cunoscute cele două ori- ansamblul lor şi au evidenţiat preocuparea ge- entări majore pentru care autorităţile române nerală manifestată pe plan mondial de a come- trebuiau să se decidă cât mai rapid: cu Puterile mora cei 100 de ani de la Prima conflagraţie Centrale sau cu Antanta, cu argumentele nuan- mondială. ţate în favoarea sau defavoarea fiecărei părţi. Tematica discuţiilor a fost amplă şi intere- General mr. (r) dr. Mihail E. Ionescu a in- santă şi a cuprins o paletă largă şi variată a pro- vestigat impactul pe care l-a avut asupra pozi- blematicii legate de izbucnirea Primului Război ţiei de neutralitate a României deciziile luate Mondial. Fiind vorba de începutul acesteia, s-a de autorităţile italiene. Ca şi România, Italia insistat asupra identificării cauzelor şi respon- era aliată a Germaniei şi Austro-Ungariei şi sabilităţii decidenţilor, care au dus la declan- a rămas neutră la începutul conflictului până şarea conflagraţiei în anul 1914 dar şi asupra în aprilie 2015, când a fost semnat Pactul de situaţiei clasei politice, armatei sau societăţii la Londra, ce punea capăt negocierilor cu pu- româneşti la nord şi sud de Carpaţi. terile Antantei. Această înţelegere recunoştea  Revista de istorie militară  159 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor dreptul Italiei de a recupera teritoriile locuite D-na Bianca Mărmureanu (Părvulescu) de de italieni aflate sub controlul Austro-Ungari- la Arhivele Naţionale ale României, în comuni- ei, dar şi dreptul de a ocupa coloniile germane carea sa despre aspecte ale vieţii de pe front are din Africa şi teritorii din Balcani, astfel că Ita- o abordare preponderent psihologică şi socio- lia s-a alăturat Antantei în războiul împotriva umană, principalele surse de analiză fiind cele Austro-Ungariei şi Germaniei, înaintea Româ- memorialistice, ale militarilor obişnuiţi aflaţi pe niei. În perioada următoare guvernele român câmpul de luptă. Aspectele predilecte urmărite şi italian au semnat acordurile din septembrie sunt: legătura cu familiile; legătura cu camara- 1914 şi februarie 1915. zii de arme; modul de îngrijire a răniţilor şi bol- Col. (r) dr. Petre Otu a analizat argumen- navilor; modul de receptare a morţii etc. taţia oferită de ofiţeri şi generali de rang înalt Prof. Univ.dr. Sorin Cristescu (Universitatea referitoare la poziţia ce trebuia să o adopte „Spiru Haret”), într-o comunicare interesantă România faţă de izbucnirea conflagraţiei mon- şi inedită relevă starea de spirit a suveranului diale. Lipsa de pregătire a armatei de la acea român, Carol I , în ultimile sale zile de viaţă, dată a obligat corpul ofiţeresc român să se fie reflectată în corespondenţa lui Ottokar von de acord cu neutralitatea şi, în cazul necesi- Czernin, ambasadorul Austro-Ungariei la Bu- tăţii intrării României în război, aceştia s-au cureşti. Autorul a scos în evidenţă momentele pronunţat în mare majoritate pentru o acţiune dramatice şi zbuciumul sufletesc al lui Carol alături de Antantă, ce-i promitea, în schimb, I, loial convingerilor sale de a intra în război eliberarea Transilvaniei. alături de Puterile Centrale, prins între datoria Prof. Univ. dr. Ion Giurcă (Universitatea faţă de aliaţii săi tradiţionali şi opinia unanimă „Hiperion”) a adus în discuţie problema spi- a clasei politice şi a societăţii româneşti de a noasă a nivelului de pregătire şi înzestrare a rămâne în neutralitate. La sfârşitul tragic al armatei române la debutul conflagraţiei. Pro- suveranului român au contribuit şi presiunile cesul de reorganizare al armatei ce a urmat permanente la care Czernin l-a supus pe Carol războiului balcanic din 1913, era în desfăşu- I în încercarea de a-l atrage în război de partea rare, astfel că la izbucnirea războiului în 1914, Puterilor Centrale. acestea erau departe de finalizare. Ca urmare Organizatorii şi-au manifestat intenţia de a decizia factorilor politici ca România să ră- publica toate comunicările prezentate într-un mână în neutralitate are la bază şi insuficienta număr viitor al Revistei de Istorie Militară. pregătire a armatei pentru un război de o asemenea anvergură. CERASELA MOLDOVEANU *

* Cercetător ştiinţific gr. III, Institutul pentru Studii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie Militară. 160  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Via]a [tiin]ific`

Al doilea simpozion ştiinţific internaţional „Zilele lui Iustinian I”, Skopje, 17-18 octombrie 2014

În zilele de 17-18 octombrie 2014 am par- menţinându-se însă doar în domeniul istoriei ticipat la simpozionul internaţional organizat medievale. Au participat istorici din Republica de Euro-Balkan University din Skopje. Această Macedonia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croaţia, Polonia, universitate aparţine Institutului Euro-balca- Italia, Grecia, SUA, Liban, România, iar Uni- nic fondat în 1998, care are scopul de a promo- versitatea din Bologna a fost coorganizator. va valorile europene în Republica Macedonia. Rectorul universităţii, profesor Mitko Panov, a Pe lângă şcoala de vară de la Ohrid, la care sunt fost şi cel care a coordonat conferinţa, el fiind invitaţi să conferenţieze prestigioşi oameni de specialist în istorie medievală. La deschidere ştiinţă din toată lumea, începând din 2013 au ţinut discursuri ministrul culturii şi amba- universitatea organizează şi simpozioane, sub sadorul Italiei. titlul generic „Zilele lui Iustinian I”. În acest Eu am prezentat comunicarea Vlach mili- an, conferinţa a fost dedicată în principal co- tary units in the Byzantine army, fiind şi mode- memorării a 1000 de ani de la moartea ţarului rator la una dintre secţiuni. Dintre celelalte, am bulgar Samuel, care în Macedonia este consi- reţinut ca fiind mai interesante: The Bulgarian derat fondatorul unui stat macedonean. Comu- Tsardom, 10th-11th Centuries. State Traditi- nicările au fost însă foarte variate ca subiecte, ons and Change (Georgi Nikolov, Sofia);Medi -

Cetatea din Skopje, amplasată în partea cea mai înaltă a oraşului, este în forma actuală o fortificaţie otomană din a doua jumătate a secolului al XV-lea. Ea este însă doar ultima dintr-o succesiune de fortificaţii. Cea romană Scupi, distrusă de cutremurul din 518, a fost refăcută în timpul lui Iustinian. În secolele XI-XIII a fost din nou utilizată, ca o fortificaţie a Imperiului Bizantin şi apoi a ţaratului româno-bulgar. În prezent se efectuează cercetări arheologice şi lucrări de restaurare.  Revista de istorie militară  161 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Porta Macedonia este locul unde s-a desfăşurat conferinţa. Este un arc triumfal construit în 2011, pentru a marca aniversarea a 20 de ani de independenţă a Republicii Macedonia. Este înalt de 21 m, iar sălile din interior sunt folosite pentru diverse manifestări culturale.

eval imagining of “we” and “the “others” at the Comunicările vor fi publicate într-un vo- time of Samuel’s state and their reflections in lum, ca şi cele din anul 2013. contemporary constructions of ethnic and na- Participarea la conferinţă a fost un prilej tional identities (Rubin Zemon, Skopje); Legio de a vizita numeroase monumente şi locuri cu V Macedonica: a perspective through the years semnificaţie istorică din Skopje şi Ohrid, inclu- (43 BC – AD 637 (Miguel Sancho Gomez, siv de natură militară (fortificaţiile medievale Murcia – comunicarea acestuia fiind citită în din cele două oraşe). absenţa sa). ALEXANDRU MADGEARU *

* Cercetător ştiinţific gr. I, Institutul pentru Studii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie Militară. 162  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Via]a [tiin]ific`

Din activitatea Institutului pentru Studii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie Militară în anul 2014

Pentru Institutul pentru Studii Politice de Varna (Bulgaria), 04-06.09.2014. Organizatori: Apărare şi Istorie Militară (ISPAIM), anul 2014 Comisia Internaţională de Istorie Militară şi a fost bogat în activităţi ştiinţifice, desfăşurate Comisia Bulgară de Istorie Militară. Partici- atât în România cât şi în străinătate. Enume- panţi din partea ISPAIM: general-maior (r) răm mai jos câteva din evenimentele cele mai Mihail E. Ionescu şi cc.şt. Petre Otu. Comuni- importante. care: „Criza din iulie-august 1914 şi opţiunile României. Analiza unei decizii”, de general- Manifestări ştiinţifice organizate de ISPAIM: maior (r) Mihail E. Ionescu; • Masa rotundă: „Memoire et commemo- • Masa rotundă: „Romania-NATO. Zece ani ration de la Grande Guerre: France-Roumanie”, împreună”, Bucureşti, Cercul Militar Naţional, 19.09.2014. Organizator: Universitatea Bucu- 01.04.2014; reşti, Facultatea de Ştiinţe Politice. Participant: cc.şt. Şerban Pavelescu; • Cea de a XVI-a Conferinţă anuală a Con- • Simpozion „Zilele lui Justinian I”, Skopje sorţiului PfP al Academiilor de apărare şi in- (Macedonia), 17-18.10.2014. Organizator: stitutelor de studii de securitate şi a reuniunii Universitatea din Skopje. Participant: cc.şt. grupului de lucru pe dezvoltarea educaţiei Alexandru Madgearu cu comunicarea „Uni- (Education Development W.G.), Bucureşti, 24- tăţi militare de vlahi în armata bizantină (sec. 28.06.2014; X-XII)”. • Masa rotundă: „Românii la începutul «Marelui Război»”, Cercul Militar Naţional, Târguri de carte 25.09.2014. • Participarea la salonul de carte “Polemos” Manifestări ştiinţifice cu participarea cer- (15-18.10.2014); cetătorilor din ISPAIM: • Participarea la cea de-a XVIII-a ediţie a Salonului de carte juridica, poliţistă, civi- • Seminar: „Schimburi de vederi privind că al Ministerului Afacerilor Interne. (25- percepţiile asupra securităţii”, Ungaria, 27- 28.11.2014). 28.02.2014. Organizator: Centrul pentru studii strategice şi de apărare, Budapesta. Participant Lucrări din partea ISPAIM: cc.şt. Şerban Cioculescu; • Al XL-lea Congres Internaţional de Isto- • „The Munich Conference (September rie Militară cu tema: „Primul Război Mondial”, 1938) The Path Towards the Destructuring  Revista de istorie militară  163 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor of Democracy in Europe”, Military Publishing • „Al Doilea Război Balcanic (1913)”, Editu- House, editată împreună cu Institutul de Is- ra Militară, Bucureşti, 2014. Coordonatori: ge- torie al Academiei de Ştiinţe al Republicii Ce- neral maior (r) Mihail E. Ionescu, prof.univ. dr. hia. Coordonatori: general maior (r) Mihail E. Nicolae-Șerban Tanaşoca. Lucrare finanţată de Ionescu, dr. Eva Semotanová. Lucrare finanţa- Administraţia Fondului Cultural Naţional; tă de Ministerul Educaţiei Naţionale (Agenţia • „Asăneştii. Istoria politico-militară a sta- Naţională de Cercetare Ştiinţifică); tului dinastiei Assan (1185-1280)”, autor: cc.şt. • „Românii la începutul «Marelui Război». Alexandru Madgearu; De la atentatul de la Sarajevo la moartea regelui • „Orientul Mijlociu în tumultul schimbă- Carol”, Editura Militară, Bucureşti, 2014. Co- rii”, autor: cc.şt. Carmen Rîjnoveanu. Lucrare ordonator: general maior (r) Mihail E. Ionescu. Lucrare finanţată de Administraţia Fondului finanţată de Administrația Fondului Cultural Cultural Naţional; Naţional. ALEXANDRU VOICU *

A XVI-a Conferinţă anuală a Consorţiului PfP al Academiilor de apărare şi institutelor de studii de securitate

România NATO Zece ani împreuna

* Cercetător ştiinţific gr. III, Institutul pentru Studii Politice de Apărare şi Istorie Militară. 164  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor Centenarului Primului Mondial septembrie 2014

 Revista de istorie militară  165 PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor 166  Revista de istorie militară  PDF compression, OCR, web optimization using a watermarked evaluation copy of CVISION PDFCompressor