Vol. III No. 2

A journal of civil-military humanitarian relief collaborations

Also in this issue: Iraq: Doing the Right Thing for the Wrong Reasons Building Effective C4 in Contingency Operations Civilian Police U.S. and Vietnam medical exchange yields insight Issues in Peacekeeping 6 Book Reviews including Vol. III, Number 2 A publication by the Center of Excellence Rumblings across the in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Civil-Military Divide Director Gerard Bradford, III s we mark Ghazi Yawar’s appointment to interim President of Iraq and anticipate Editor an Iraqi transitional government’s emergence on June 30, there are as many ques- Robin Hayden tions as answers about the military’s role in promoting a secure and prosperous Senior Advisor Gerard Bradford, III Iraqi society. How events in Iraq and Afghanistan will impact the international A Art Director relief community over the long haul also remains to be seen. Recent violent events in Kosovo A Brian Miyamoto and Haiti, places thought to be in successful transition after substantial investment of blood Designer and treasure, remind us that the recovery process ahead will be long, uneven, unpredictable Eric Papayoanou and complex. Reflecting on recent trends, many who pay attention to the nature and evolution of civil-military relations, as they concern NGOs, are seriously worried. This pessimism Please direct all inquiries to appears to have begun with the military’s first simultaneous combat and relief operations in The Center of Excellence in Disaster Afghan-istan and then in Iraq where, in both cases, Clauswitz’s notion of war as ‘an exten- Management & Humanitarian Assistance sion of politics by other means’ seemed to be turned on its head. So many decades after the c/o Tripler Army Medical Center Marshall Plan, and with Bosnia and Kosovo still fresh memories, civil politics and political 1 Jarrett White Road (MCPA-DM) action seem again rediscovered as critical extensions of combat operations in efforts toward Tripler AMC, HI 96859-5000 sustainable peace. In these conflicts and the broader global war on terrorism, politics (and Phone 808-433-7035 humanitarian action) have now become ‘an extension of war by other means.’ Fax 808-433-1757 Some humanitarians, observing behaviors around reconstruction projects in Basra and Email [email protected] Herat, express concern about the direction civil-military relations already seem to have taken. At the same time, they recognize their views of current events as mere snapshots in a Website http://coe-dmha.org much bigger dynamic (Jurisic). Others lament their lack of success in efforts to inform deci- sion makers about the constructive role humanitarian agencies can play in transition before our recent military interventions began. They also worry how effective education of the mil- itary will be accomplished in the future (Bishop, Jurisic). Another dimension of concern, one strongly shared by military leaders, is the civil-military relationship between combat forces and those in whose interests they fight. To roughly quote one relief worker in Afghanistan, “the military does not have its finger on the pulse of local communities, even though they think they do.” Perhaps this problem is less attributable to our military culture than our North American culture. ISSN 1527-7208 The Liaison, a publication of the Center of Excellence, serves The humanitarian community is understandably asking “What now?” Animated dis- to inform its diverse constituent audience of timely and cussion and focused research are well underway to address these issues (Bishop). The Carnegie relevant issues—the stories and the people—in the field of international humanitarian disaster management, in order Endowment for International Peace, the US Institute for Peace, and other institutions have to facilitate cooperation between civilian and military raised the importance of civil-military relations in emergencies where combat and nation disaster responders and relief pro viders. The Liaison building must occur simultaneously. Even the US Congress is getting into the act, literally, provides an open forum for stimulating discussion, exchange of ideas and lessons learned—both philosophical through its Stabilization and Reconstruction Civilian Management Act, introduced by and pragmatic—and invites active participation from its Senator Richard Lugar (R-IN) and now under debate. The legislation proposes to develop readers, with the end in mind of creating a communication network for organizations engaged in similar pursuits. a comprehensive plan for the U.S. to carry out nation building in a more systematic fashion. The authors are entirely responsible for opinions ex pressed in As currently designed, the U.S. Department of State would take the lead in implementation, articles appearing in The Liaison; these opi nions are not to be rather than the U.S. Department of Defense, no doubt in recognition of the key role others construed as official or reflecting the views or policies of any of the Center of Excel lence partners or the U.S. Government. in the international community must play to achieve success. Nation building, in the words of Senator Lugar, is the hope against terrorism. Replacing one relatively stable regime, however reprehensible, with another relatively stable regime, however benign, requires the coordinated efforts of the full range of U.S. civil and military capabilities, in concert with diverse appendages of many other nation-states, the United Nations and many other institutions. It also re- Continued on page 81

A COLLABORATING CENTER FOR EDUCATION, TRAINING AND RESEARCH Contents Features The Finer Points of Building Effective C4 in Contingency Ops 2 By Brian Michael Morrison 34 Civilian Police Issues in Peacekeeping 6 An Interview with Michael O’ Rielly | By Robin Hayden

Vietnam/U.S. Medical Exchange Yields Insight on Non-Traditional Medicine 13 By Heather Paynter 6 One Mzungu’ s Adventure 15 An African journal | By Dr. Elizabeth Blalock

Humanitarianism in a Post-Soviet World 21 The Czech Republic and The People in Need Foundation By Dr. Thomas F. Ditzler and Maj. Richard Deleon

1 25 Preserving and Protecting the Human Bridges Over the Chasms of Conflict 25 By Roy Thomas with George Oehring

Doing the Right Thing for the Wrong Reason 34 The invasion of Iraq and what can be learned from it | By Brien Hallett

Is the Humanitarian-Military Relationship Moving in Reverse? 40 An Analysis Based on Two Snapshots: Iraq and Afghanistan | By Andjela Jurisic

War in Afghanistan and Iraq 48 Aberration, or the Shape of Things to Come? | By James Bishop

Special Report: United States Response to the Earthquake in Bam, Iran 51 By William J. Garvelink Book Reviews Author Profiles 80

Patronage or Partnership: Local Capacity Building in Humanitarian Crises 55 Reviewed by Mariko Oshiro

Acts of God: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in America 56 Reviewed by Jeanne Johnston 63 Hunger and Shame: Child Malnutrition and Poverty on Mount Kilimanjaro 59 Reviewed by Lise Martel

Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind 61 Reviewed by Dawn Nekorchuk

Another Day in Paradise: International Humanitarian Workers Tell Their Stories 63 Reviewed by Roy Brennen

Emergency Relief Operations 65 Reviewed by David Vinjamuri 40 The Finer Points of Building Effective C4 2 in Contingency Operations ()Command, Control, Cooperation and Coordination By Michael Brian Morrison

he key to any successful multinational, civil-mil- 1. Good Basic Communications are at the Core of itary peace support operation is in achieving Effective Command and Control. not only efficient command and control within a military coalition, but also effective coopera- Passage of information is important – ensuring all tion and coordination between the military and recipients understand the message is the overriding aTll the civilian agencies involved. consideration. A single-issue peace support operations game-seminar, held 9-13 December 2002 in Bangkok, Thailand with repre- Comprehension of key messages is essential if dire sentatives of 23 nations present, highlighted this fundamen- consequences from unnecessary misunderstandings tal idea. The focus of this jointly sponsored United are to be avoided. Nations/United States Pacific Command event, hosted by the Kingdom of Thailand, was the detailed examination of The audience is diverse – own forces, parties to the the critical “C4” issue. conflict, local population, national audience, interna- Participants identified a number of important observa- tional community, etc. Effective means of communi- tions, which are certainly worthy of note for anyone cating with all parties must be established. involved with planning and executing future peace support operations. The purpose of this article is to share their Effective communications generates trust. observations so that a broader audience may benefit from their work. 2. Comprehension of Commander’s Guidance is Paramount in Achieving Effective Command and Military Command and Control Control. The Military Commander’s Concept of The primarily military audience first examined estab- Operations and Intent must be effectively communicated lishing effective military command and control within a to everyone at all levels. Communication itself is not coalition. The following eight observations were considered enough to ensure success – it needs to be effective com- significant aspects of that process: munication. Action must also be taken to ensure that everyone understands the Commander’s Guidance. The Commander, Headquarters staff and sub- Who is Important in Theatre? There ordinate leaders all play an important role will be lots of people from a wide vari- in this process. Personal involvement of ety of organizations who will want to the commander, confirming comprehen- communicate with military com- sion at all levels of the military structure, manders and their principle staff offi- is a critical component of this process. cers. Only a few of these people will be keys to effective action within the 3. Leaders play a Key Role in the Command peace support theatre of operation. It and Control Process and Need-Specific is essential that those personnel are Skills. First and foremost all leaders need quickly identified and that a good pro- to be good communicators. Leaders must fessional working relationship is devel- also possess the ability to generate under- oped with them as soon as possible – standing. The leadership at all levels needs they do not have to be your friends. to be willing to be educated by those working with them and for them – they Are there Other Key Points of 3 possess critical knowledge which is vital to Contact? In the United Nations, lead- leaders in making the right decision at the nation and contributing nations to a appropriate time. All leaders must be military coalition, there will be key capable of using their subordinates effec- contacts with decision making author- tively if a sound command and control ity who you may need to reach quickly structure is to be generated. in critical situations. It is vital that you identify them ahead of time and estab- 4. Commonly used War-fighting lish a clear communications link for Coordination Mechanisms are Effective future use if an emergency situation in Peace Support Operations. Exchanging develops which would involve them. liaison officers or teams, developing stan- dard operating procedures, regular formal 6. Well-crafted Training can be a Command briefings, use of both formal and informal and Control Enabler. Good Basic communication means and other com- Communications mon war-fighting command and control Key command and control issues are at the Core of techniques are well suited to peace sup- should be introduced early in the Effective port operations. They have application training program. Command and not only within a multi-national military force but also at the civil-military inter- Comprehension of all aspects of the Control. face. There it is critical that the military UN mission, specific tasks for the does not attempt to force military solu- military force and standard operat- tions on their civilian partners. Military ing procedures should be a key train- commanders and staff should always care- ing objective. fully analyze the circumstances found in their unique theatre of operations and Training to ensure comprehension attempt to develop mutually acceptable of Rules of Engagement and Use of coordination and cooperation mecha- Force issues can enhance the effec- nisms with their civilian partners. tiveness of the military component initially and throughout the mis- 5. It is Essential to Identify the Key sion. Communication Links within all Agencies and Nurture the Capabilities to Cultural sensitivity and awareness use them for the Required Purposes at can be developed in training ses- the Appropriate Time. sions before an operation.

Courtesy of Michael Morrison Involvement of the Force Commander is essential to Developing a mutual understanding of the legitimate achieve command and control training success. tasks, capabilities and limitations of all the partners involved with the peace support operation is an essential 7. Positive Utilization of the Power of Media. One of the process. most powerful communication tools available for use in a peace support operation are the media. The media are Realizing that some support to civil components needs not a peacekeeping partner in the manner in which you can be a major force multiplier in achieving primary would look at the military or a humanitarian organiza- military objectives which are normally security related. tion. However, the media will certainly always be a player at critical times and can have a significant impact on the Understanding that military commanders will need to ultimate success or failure of any peace support opera- make informed decisions on all civil-military matters if tion. Military commanders and spokespersons must the military are to effectively contribute to overall mis- develop the skills necessary to use the power of the press sion success. in a positive manner – making them a force multiplier in 4 peace operations. Comprehending that in most circumstances the mission will not be able to accomplish all the military and civil- 8. The Importance of Effective Briefings. A good briefing ian tasks imposed by the mandate in the desired time can be invaluable developing understanding not only frame. within a multi-national force but also with the people and organizations surrounding it. Good briefings are an Establishing priorities for appropriate military involve- effective means of educating both subordinates and ment in civilian-led activities will be a key process. superiors and are an ideal conduit to provide the rationale for a decision already made or perhaps more important- Mission Transition - A Critical C4 Period ly for a decision or action about to be taken. The effects The seminar-game scenario utilized a United Nations- of poor briefings on critical issues can be catastrophic. sanctioned, lead-nation, multinational military force struc- ture that operated parallel to an existing UN mission, ala Coordination and Cooperation of Civilian Agencies Afghanistan circa 2002. This structure was used to allow the The eight principles above, identified as being vital to problem of military transition to a United Nations generat- establishing effective military command and control, are ed, led and funded force to be examined in detail. Seminar also applicable - with minor modification - in achieving participants highlighted the following as C4 issues needing efficient cooperation and coordination between all civilian attention during such a transition period: agencies involved with a peace support operation. It goes without saying that these principles also apply in the The operational environment will change – a new mis- process of creating and operating a civil-military interface sion mandate and military tasks must be carefully devel- that will work well. oped to ensure they are appropriate for the new opera- tional setting. Creating an Effective Civil-Military Interface Throughout the seminar, considerable discussion took Effective early planning requires key assumptions be place on the vital issue of generating and maintaining an made. effective civil-military interface. From the military perspec- tive, in order to generate a cooperative civil military envi- Suitable C4 arrangements and associated communica- ronment, and one that would result in a well-coordinated tion mechanisms need to be established early. overall effort of all the agencies involved with a peace sup- port operation, the following considerations were thought Continuous coordination between the new Force, the to be paramount: Multi-National Force in place, the United Nations and all the nations involved is essential during this period. Recognizing that diplomatic and other civilian efforts may be as important, if not more important, than the Re-evaluation of the need for a Chapter VI or VII man- military effort in achieving overall mission success. date is a critical factor. Courtesy of Michael Morrison

Changes to Use of Force regulations must be Keys to Successful C4 in Peace Support Operations carefully considered. After a week of detailed examination of command, con- trol, coordination and cooperation issues in peace support Rules of Engagement issues can be a difficult part operations, seminar participants unanimously agreed that of transition. C4 plays a central and vital role in achieving success at every stage in the evolution of a United Nations mission. Support arrangements (logistics, finance, personnel, etc) Communicating effectively in the broadest sense was will all be different in a UN-led force. clearly the core element to achieving effective C4. In order to communicate effectively, the right C4 mechanisms for Some key Multi-National Force staff should remain in the situation at hand need to be in place. Establishing effec- place for a period of time in order to provide continuity tive C4 in any United Nations peace support operation will in critical areas. be dependent on open and continuous dialogue with all parties, careful and continuous analysis of the operating The Multi-National Force Commander should not stay. environment, thorough comprehension of the roles and tasks of all agencies, detailed planning, effective training, Command and control relationships are critical to suc- transparency of intent and execution and effective leader- cess. In a United Nations-led Force these may be under- ship at all levels. stood differently and may need to be renegotiated.

Transfer of authority must be carefully managed.

A greater degree of internationalization will occur in the new United Nations-led force.

Training standards, interoperability, communications and language may be problems.

A reconnaissance of the mission area is essential for new United Nations military leaders and key staff members.

Detailed briefings from in-place military leaders and staff are essential. Civilian Police IsBy sRobuin Heaydsen in Peacekeeping: An Interview with Michael O’Rielly

6 n the early 1960s, civilian police were mer Yugoslavia from 1992 through 1994. deployed to ONUC, the United Nations Prior to his UN experience, O’Rielly Operation in the Congo. And for over served 37 years with the Royal Canadian 25 years, they have been part of the UN Mounted Police, retiring at the Chief Force in Cyprus. Starting with the UN Superintendent level after having worked I his way up the ranks from corporal. Each mission in Namibia in 1988, civilian police have become an increasingly important position brought with it different aspect of UN peacekeeping. By mid-2000, responsibilities, management challenges over 7,000 civilian police from more than and training. 70 countries were participating in 10 UN Since his retirement, O’Rielly has served missions. as a human rights trainer with the UN As part of the Department of High Commissioner for Human Rights and Peacekeeping Operations, the UN Civilian the International Committee of the Red Police Division was set up in October 2000 Cross, at the UN Peace Keeping Training with a staff of experienced police officers Center in Turin, Italy, and in Southern and from contributing countries. The Division Central Africa. He has also facilitated edu- is mandated to plan and support the work cation and training activities for the Lester of United Nations Civilian Police officers in B. Pearson Peacekeeping Training Centre in UN peacekeeping operations. Its goals are Canada. In 1995, O’Rielly led the effort to to enhance planning capacity for police establish the International Police Transition components of UN operations; assist as Team for Bosnia Herzegovina, and coordi- appropriate in strengthening the perform- nated the evaluation of the training pro- ance, effectiveness and efficiency of local gram there in 1997. Also in Bosnia criminal justice systems, including police Herzegovina and in Kosovo, he performed and corrections; enhance ability to deploy human rights training and established rapidly a functional police component; and police special units. O’Rielly serves as a role improve quality representation in the field. player and subject matter expert on civilian Michael O’Rielly has served in two UN police in peacekeeping. missions, as District Field Commander for UNTAG in Namibia from 1989 through Robin Hayden: How did you get involved 1990, and as the Commissioner of the UN in UN Peacekeeping? civilian police force for UNPROFOR in for- Michael O’Rielly: In 1989, the UN asked Canada to send police officers to serve work in a developing country because, in the UN Mission in Namibia believe it or not, I always looked for- (UNTAG), so we sent one hundred offi- ward to serving in some kind of mis- cers. This was the first time Canadian sionary work after I retired. A UN police were involved in UN peacekeep- peacekeeping mission allowed me that ing missions. I was Superintendent at experience while organizing other the time. police officers to help people – sort of I arrived before elections to establish missionary police work! an emergency communications center Uniformed police work in any for the entire country. In November country is, for the most part, social 1989, I was transferred to tribal home- work. Any day of the week a police land on the Angola border. People were officer spends 98% of the time helping trying to discourage elections from people and only about 2% of the time occurring, so I spent four months there arresting people. Why? Because you 7 helping to maintain law and order. don’t arrest people unless they commit In 1992, the Civil Police a crime and you have to have reason to Commissioner selected me to be the believe they committed it. The job is Commander in the former Yugoslavia mostly about helping people and giv- for UNPROFOR, but upon arrival, I was ing them advice. also appointed the Chief of Staff to the Civilian Police Organization. This time RH: Is that how you were trained in Canada sent fifty police officers. After Canada to think about policing? nine months the Civil Police Commissioner left the mission and I MO: Yes. was appointed to that post. RH: Do you find that policing philosophy RH: Who makes these selections? translates well across countries and communities? MO: The Special Representative to the Secretary-General, plus the Under MO: It does. I think police for the most part Secretary. The Secretary-General are trained to serve the public and approved the selection, which is part of uphold the law of the land. According the UN political process. The UN in to the rule of law, the police officer is turn had to get approval from Canada. there to enforce the law and no one Representing Canada entails its own should be above it. That’s what I process, one that I was apart from. believe, that no one is above the law, whether you are a police officer or a RH: Your service in these missions was politician. Michael O’ Rielly voluntary? RH: How do you apply that perspective in MO: Yes, all missions are voluntary. a Namibia, Yugoslavia or Iraq?

RH: Why did you volunteer? MO: While a police officer’s main purpose is to serve the public, there are times MO: Well, it was something different and I when people do not want to be assist- was looking for a challenge. I always ed by their local police officers. In thought it would be interesting to many countries, for many reasons, Because the guidance is general, imagination and training experience are important.

civilian police do not have legiti- police or any one in authority is detention center when they could macy. So, as a UN officer, you not going to abuse or violate have been separated, that’s a viola- have to establish legitimacy, and human rights when the police tion of their human rights and of show that you are there to help. are present. international humanitarian law. By thinking that way, you are Perhaps someone has been impartial. You are there to help RH: What then is the difference charged with an offense, but has- people live in accordance with between the UN civilian police n’t been brought before a judge their law or whichever law you are and human rights observers? for 48 hours or is denied a lawyer enforcing. You avoid pointing fin- – these are also violations of gers because then you seem to be MO: Civilian police conduct their human rights. 8 taking sides. inquiries in accordance with Human rights observers inves- When we were in Namibia international law, their own tigate incidents that have and Yugoslavia, we did not ride in national laws, and their experi- occurred. The police are con- the same car or associate much ence and training. If they observe cerned with what’s going on today. with the local police. We had our a human rights violation, they That is a law and order issue. In own vehicles. If they were going to will identify it as such and report missions with a human rights a crime scene, we followed behind it so that an intervention can take component, the non-indigenous them. We were not sure how peo- place. In a country in conflict, civilian police share information ple saw them. We had to be very recording the event and taking on investigations. Civilian police careful to not demonstrate in any pictures results in the indigenous will only be in a UN mission way that we were working with police assisting because recording maybe six months to a year, but the local police because they may the event causes worldwide atten- someone has to be able to retain not be trusted. tion they don’t really want. records. The human rights com- But we could cooperate, visit Human rights observers are ponent has permanent retention and negotiate with local police, usually lawyers or members of an responsibility, so it’s a practical especially those times that they NGO who are hired by the human matter, as they can use the files for did not want to respond because rights body of the mission. Their a trial. If a person is brought of ethnic rivalries. They did not job is to conduct inquiries with before court, that information want to investigate a crime on the people who complain that their could be used if it makes reference opposing side, so we had to per- rights have been abused. to political interference resulting suade them that is was important I am not talking about crimi- in human rights violations. It is to the law and for the good of the nal rights. If a person is shot or information that could be used in people that the investigation was assaulted, that is a criminal and the prosecution of war crimes. conducted and conducted properly. not a human rights matter. The The UN mission mandate to human rights matter occurs RH: Will a UN mission include train- civilian police is very general: when, for example, your property ing for the new civilian police force? monitor the local police to insure is taken from you. Property rights that they are working according to were the biggest problem in MO: If you mean for the indigenous international standards for Yugoslavia. police force, then yes. We have human rights. Because the guid- People in prison also have cer- prime examples in Bosnia, Kosovo ance is general, imagination, tain rights. Perhaps they have and East Timor where the UN training and experience are been denied a certain standard of civilian police trained the new important. The job is to insure living, or, in the case of a female police forces. Kosovo’s training one way or the other that the or child who are put into a male mission included training, gradu- An airman, supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom, maintains a vigilant eye and tight security at his designated post.

Officers helping to build a police force in another country have to recognize, accept and respect the differences.

ation, and use of the non-indige- cers deal with their own people, it good governance. Of course, good nous police as mentors to work is according to their own law. governance is the goal. with the new indigenous force in When they go to another country, the field. It is a different approach they have to understand the host RH: Where does the justice system fit in? because police officers from all country constitution and the type over the world are helping the local of laws enforced. They get this MO: The justice system is comprised of force to be better police officers. information the first week they the police, the courts and the serve in the mission, as part of an penile system, which all work RH: Do civilian police serving in a mis- introduction. together in support of law and sion receive training from the UN? Many countries now have two order. If you do not have judges to three month-long courses on and courts sitting, and prisons MO: Typically police officers partici- different types of law. The degree established, the system fails. pating in UN missions are senior of preparation is improving all After an arrest, the next step officers in their home countries. the time. People in positions of in the justice system is the court, When they go to a mission they authority in the UN are realizing and if the court is not sitting you bring a wide range of experience. that in order to establish a peace- can’t let the prisoner lie in a cell There are different types of laws: ful country, the next step toward or hold them in a building. That’s civil, common, and Sharia law are good governance is for the civilian a violation of their rights. On the examples. All have different police mission to provide law and other hand, if you release them, approaches towards the conduct order. Conversely, law and order people will not respect the law, of civil society. When police offi- will not survive over time without and anarchy will result. In one past mission, the court was cations of that? You will have vigilante suppose to be established by an inter- justice, which is not right because peo- national team but they didn’t arrive in ple suffer. The people you should be The military have time, and without courts, the civilian concerned about are those who have no rules of engage- police had to let prisoners go. In anoth- authority. ment, whereas the er case, those arrested were held for a police officer has month in a makeshift prison. The pris- RH: Can you tell me about police training oners complained that their rights were culture and its relevance? the use of force in violated. accordance with I think these experiences show that MO: Police are trained to enforce the law of and stipulated by all of the steps should be planned for, the land. And after a while they obtain a the law. mindset that they are there to Courtesy of DefenseLINK help. If they see someone break- 10 ing the law they are going to do something about it – it could be a warning, a reminder that you broke the law – or it could be a force of action through arrest or other means available to them. Police officers are trained to think individually and are held accountable for any decisions they make. They are trained to use force with a soft approach. The taking of a life is a last resort. Officers are trained to carry a weapon and to use it most effectively, which means to incapacitate a person. If they shoot a gun, for the most part it would be fatal. While it might be stylish to shoot to wound, Soldiers uncoil two rows of even before the military operation there is a chance of killing an innocent concertina wire to maintain begins. Law and order should be a part of bystander. crowd control as residents the process, whether it’s a UN mission or An officer carries a weapon to pro- of Vitina, Kosovo observe. a coalition operation, otherwise the end tect the public. The last use of the result will be a law and order vacuum. weapon is to protect his or her own life If this happens, a judge is not going if it is in danger. If a police officer shoots to sit in court because they will fear for someone in most countries, especially their lives. They will only sit in court if those that observe common law, a crim- they feel secure. People may be crying inal investigation is conducted, usually for justice, but unless the judges, the by an outside police force. lawyers and all the people that make up Many police statutes, acts or edicts the justice system are in place, nothing address the use of force. Use of force will happen. could be if someone’s arm is broken In many such cases, people will while arresting them, or if their hand- organize themselves. What are the impli- cuffs are on too tightly, or a dog bites while under the control of the dog mas- get to the people who need it, but crimi- ter. That’s assuming the police force has nal activity is encouraged. Contingencies deadly force they can use. have to be in place in the initial plan- Officers helping to build a police ning stages. Civilian police could help. force in another country have to recog- nize, accept and respect the differences. RH: What are the challenges to reestablishing That’s not necessarily true of the military law and order? force that does its job and then leaves. In the use of force, the military cul- MO: Even when lightly armed, police protect ture is very different. Military think in the public and themselves. Key is estab- groups because of the way they are lishing communications with the indige- organized. The military have rules of nous people in order to be accepted and engagement, whereas the police officer received. The police have to have the has the use of force in accordance with people on their side. Influencing people 11 and stipulated by the law. can only be done through credibility The military spend a lot of time and trust. planning for action against an enemy, In Iraq, for example, police were and practice the plans in place every day. there before the military operation. Police officers do not plan because the Immediately after the invasion, there The police have to event happens now. They plan as they was a law and order vacuum. If you have the people go, while conducting the investigation decide to use the uniformed police, they on their side. into the incident. Generally, police have should not have been involved in cor- plans in place for probable emergency ruption. For the most part, the police Influencing peo- situations, like bank holdups and officer walking the street is not going to ple can only be hostage taking. But the plan gets imple- be involved in corruption or political done through mented after the bank is held up or the situations. Regular police officers credibility and hostage is taken, after the fact. It’s a reac- enforce traffic and minor laws, and are trust. tion to an incident. directed on what to do. Because the reg- Let’s look at another example. ular officer is trained to look after peo- U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Humanitarian relief will not move until ple, he has a special relationship with Guard, U.S. Air Force, security is in place. The military may be the average person. and numerous civilian rescue teams assist in the qualified and appropriate to escort It is important in a country like Iraq search and rescue efforts humanitarian aid to a certain area, but of a downed plane. the point of distribution has to be organized. Otherwise there will be chaos. If there is no one at the distribu- tion end to get the aid off of the trucks, people will storm in and take all they can. It isn’t a matter of just taking a sack of grain and going home because that’s all they need. Some people are entrepre- neurs; they will set up a black market and start selling. If a local criminal group is in control, the aid will go into the hands of rebels and whoever else. Criminal gangs see it as a means of set- ting up a business. It not only doesn’t

Courtesy of DefenseLINK It’s very critical to understand respect. This is how to establish and order one step at a time. Any trust. officer who has worked in major Customs must be respected. city can do it. That’s not a process that has to be created. If civilian police officers are allowed to set or Afghanistan to determine who forever. Build for the day when an up their own small stations, it the police officers were and what indigenous police force enforces should be done layer by layer. they were doing prior to the mili- the law. This begins with recruit- The idea is to be patrolling. If tary intervention. These officers ing. Invite back the old police people feel safe in their environ- know the nuances of the people, force to see who was good at their ment, they will be at peace at the community and the culture. jobs, respected, and want to be home. They will believe this They know the law. Corrupt offi- officers under a new establish- police force will take action if cers would likely have been part ment. New people from all walks something happens. If the people of a secret, special police force of life will apply too. Establish a do not believe that the police are 12 aligned with the government, new force through training, like in there to help them then they will working with the secret service or Kosovo. Within a year there will say, ‘It’s no better than the last the internal security forces of the be some semblance of a police group,’ or, ‘We were better off before.’ country. They are not uniformed organization. It is a big task that Secret police are different. police. They are plain-clothes offi- has to be carefully planned with Nobody knows who they are. cers and are trained differently. an understanding of the culture. That’s why they’re referred to as Not knowing the language is a When I said earlier that police the secret police. Uniformed disadvantage. If there’s a bar fight officers think independently, I was police have seen them, but they in progress, the police officer’s job generalizing. Some returning accept them with the understand- is to stop it. He has no idea what’s police officers may not be use to ing that that’s the way it is, or going on. One person has a gun the idea of working on their own. preferably was. But they are a part and is waving it around. The inter- Not all police forces allow officers of the history that needs to be preter ducks down and the officer to think for themselves. understood. is left standing alone. This situa- Knowledge of the history of tion has happened. RH: In a place like Iraq, what might be people in Iraq is important, espe- A priority should be to done early to restore law and order? cially now that the pressure of a remove weapons. Establish a no- dictator has been lifted. guns-and-weapons law. Anyone MO: Iraq likely had a federal and a Understand the country, the cul- found carrying a weapon would general police force. Every city ture, tribal differences and tribal have it taken away. It is very diffi- would have its own small force, relationships. People have been cult, but it can and has been done. probably all reporting through a relating, possibly intermarrying, UN civilian police can’t stay rank structure up to the Minister peacefully for some time. When of the Interior, or someone the pressure is off they usually fall similar. Approach the prob- apart and may go back to tribal lem city by city. The rural warfare. It’s a good possibility that areas may need only a small if the dictator is gone they will go group of people. Baghdad back to tribal arrangements. You needs a larger group that is have to be very aware of these seen on the streets. possibilities and work with them. A major city of five It is feasible that a police force million people would have to could overlap with a tribal system. be broken up into segments Look at the culture’s history in the and precincts to establish law Continued on page 67

A Military Police squad crosses a bridge in Sevce, Kosovo, where several hundred Kosovar Serbs were blocking the road. Vietnam/U.S. Medical Exchange Yields Insight on Non-Traditional Medicine By Heather Payntner

Asian black bears were caged in the garden,” Sutherland said. “Every six months or so, the animals are anesthetized and their gall bladders aspirated under ultrasound guidance - the bile is used to treat a variety of illnesses.” The bears are at this medical facility as the hospital hous- 13 urrounded by the lush es its own manufacturing facility for herbal medications to countryside dissected by hundreds of eventually be used in hospitals throughout the country. S When communicating with local physicians, as the rivers and speckled with attractions, Tripler group did at the hospital and during the conference, Hanoi streets are filled with the busy hum of the language barrier proved challenging in some respects thousands of people. In a quieter setting, tucked but did not greatly hamper the Vietnamese or American inside the Vietnamese Military Medical Academy, doctors’ ability to learn and understand. Sutherland, who it was also the site for the Vietnam/U.S. Military has lived in Vietnam and learned basic Vietnamese as a child, spoke it often on the trip in a social capacity but Medical Science Exchange attended by several “conversations would quickly escalate beyond my ability to Tripler Army Medical Center physicians and keep up.” nurses for one week in March. For medical concepts and discussions, he and the others Conference Organizers, each from Tripler, Col. (Dr.) relied on one of the many interpreters and translators avail- Benjamin Berg, director of internal medicine residency and able to them. Methods, new and old, traditional and unfa- Lt. Col. (Dr.) Ronald Sutherland, urology program director, miliar were discussed and presented by the Tripler doctors were presented with the opportunity to learn about chal- and translated into Vietnamese. Vietnamese physicians also lenges facing the military medical community. Berg found it supplied presentations on a number of topics. particularly enlightening to share ideas with other doctors “The conference generated a tremendous amount of in the language of medicine. interest and enthusiasm from the Vietnamese military “I was able to realize that the language of medicine is pretty universal,” he said. “We are focused on relations with the patients and the advancement of knowledge - we’re doing the same things in different places.” The exchange was an opportunity to open doors for future cooperation, to see how the country’s medical system works, to view firsthand how Vietnamese physicians are trained and to witness the illnesses they deal with. It also allowed Tripler physicians and nurses the opportunity to experience a variety of medical techniques and to visit a tra- ditional medicine hospital. Sutherland said the traditional medicine hospital “had a very different feel” complete with a peaceful garden and pond – and something extra for medicinal purposes. “Two

The Vietnamese medical facility came complete with a lush garden and tranquil pond.

Courtesy of Thomas Crabtree “The language of medicine is pretty universal. We are focused on rela- tions with the patients and the advancement of knowledge - we’re doing the same things in different places.”

Courtesy of Thomas Crabtree Clockwise from above: Frog skin was a cata- lyst for healing burn victims, LTC Crabtree and General Webb conversing with local staff, scene from one of the sessions.

health providers,” Sutherland said. “There was ample time are used, but physicians rely heavily on the use of topical for discussion after the presentations and many questions herbal remedies and animal skin. were asked on both sides.” Sutherland and Berg noted that traditional remedies are Studies focused on similarities and differences. a large part of every aspect of healthcare in Vietnam. Some “(Vietnam) has a long history of traditional methods famil- of the differences in the system were noted as quite distinc- iar to us, such as acupuncture,” Berg said. Acupuncture may tive, one of which being that many countries are willing to be used in surgeries, sometimes as the sole source of anes- help by offering medical technology and equipment. thesia, but more often in conjunction with intravenous Contrary to care in the U.S., Vietnamese nurses are given medication. little or no responsibility other than basic bedside care. To “They also have (treatments) that are unfamiliar to us represent the point of view of western nurses, Director of such as herbal treatments and the use of traditional plant Surgical Nursing Lt. Col. Suzan Denny and Chief, materials,” he said. Anesthesia Nursing Col. Patricia Cordts spoke about their Some of these methods are used at the National Institute roles at Tripler. of Burns, the premier burn facility in Vietnam. Treatment Denny said the Tripler group was pleased to discover for burns at the institute incorporates the use of native that all of the presentations in both languages, including plant products and also the use of frog skin as a natural pictures and graphs, were published in a major military dressing to keep the wounds moist. medical journal. According to Sutherland, burns are a malady prevalent Tripler healthcare professionals welcomed the exposure in Vietnam and that although these are military hospitals, to new ideas and methods while widening the possibility for the National Burn Center’s primary focus is civilians and future opportunities and coordination. “We are hoping to children. “Burns are very common in Vietnam, mostly from continue to work together and build on the relationship we domestic accidents involving hot water, cooking oil and fuel have established,” Sutherland said. oil,” he said. Doctors working at the institute are very skilled with many receiving their training overseas. Modern techniques One Mzungu’s Adventure An African journal []Article and photos by Dr. Elizabeth Blalock

n the fall of 2001 I reassessed my priorities, as did Fortunately, it was well stocked with a miniature medical many Americans. I had always planned to retire early library of books left by those who came before, as well as from the only job I ever had, as neurologist at Kaiser tips on getting around and having fun. 15 Permanente in southern California in the U.S.A., to After a couple days of orientation and biologic clock serve a more needy population. With my patients retraining, I was introduced to the team of residents I was Iwith AIDS springing back to health on anti-retroviral drugs, to teach. It was immediately clear that they were at least as Ithere was no question in my mind where the greatest need much the teachers as I. Suddenly I, who half-joked at home was. So, I began my search on the web for opportunities to when shown a rash, ‘I only do brains,” was trying to help work in Africa. It was a search that greatly informed but care for every sick organ in the body. I was quickly trans- also frustrated me, as it led nowhere with regard to work for ported back in years to medical school, where the whole a neurologist new to medicine in the developing world. As human system was my domain and CAT scans were still in it turned out, the usual formula for success in such ventures development. is through FOAF’s – ‘friends of a friend’ – and serendipity. I My days were busy on wards, in lectures, in the library; mentioned my plight to a friend in New York who is not in nights were largely for pouring over textbooks of tropical medicine, who, incensed that I was having such bad fortune medicine and sharing the day’s events with my housemates. in finding placement, put me in touch with the dentist Excerpts follow from several letters I sent home to father of a friend she met at a wedding a year earlier. She friends and colleagues, because my October and November thought he had gone somewhere in South America to oper- were so different as from theirs, and because they were so ate on cleft palates. I called. He was the first person in a year different from any other I had spent before. of searching to be encouraging. He happened to know some- one at Health Volunteers Overseas and was happy to make an introduction. Under their auspices, I taught neurology at Makerere University in Kampala, the capital of Uganda. Dear All, Having prepared myself by reading about Uganda, tak- It’s Sunday afternoon, my second in Kampala. I had all ing course work in tropical and emergency medicine, and my chores done by noon, a unique and very pleasant feeling I talking to physicians who had preceded me, I arrived in will miss terribly when I come home and find the garden still Kampala in October 2002 for a 2-month stint and immedi- begging for my attention, the garage and rear deck wanting ately knew that I was sorely unprepared. How does one pre- rebuilding, and the myriad chores that never end. It makes pare to work in a hospital overflowing with deathly ill peo- one think of divesting, of renting. But of course, I won’t. ple who will die for the lack of $20 for an antimicrobial, It rained hard all night, as it often does here, and with a where the MRI I depended on is 800 miles and 2 years’ tin roof it makes quite a racket, but the day is as usual, wages away, and where an 18-year war continues to deplete warm and still. The weather is just to my liking. the funds that should go to public health? One just steels Yesterday a friend and I went to Jinja, a small town on oneself, hunkers down and does the best one can. the edge of Lake Victoria about 1.5 hours and 2,500 Uganda Health Volunteers Overseas had arranged for me to stay shillings (US$1.50) by bus. That’s where John Speke ‘discov- in the guesthouse reserved for visiting health care workers. ered’ the source of the Nile in the 1860’s. Folks here will point out that when he arrived he asked the fishermen in you?’ which is usually the limit of their English, and shake the river what their name for the river was, so they say he hands with us. The digital camera evokes a lot of amaze- was just the first to make a picture of the place, nothing ment and broad smiles from all who see themselves cap- more. But, there’s a monument to him anyhow, as he was a tured there. Some will ask for money for their photos, brave and determined man. The lake is the second largest in which they think we will sell at home. After convincing the world, and lovely to look at, but full of crocodiles, hip- them I am no commercial photographer, they pose for free, pos, and snails that carry shistosomiasis, so swimming is ill except those who fear the power of the camera, and there advised. The lake is overgrown with water hyacinths, which are many, so one must ask permission first. locals collect and feed to the pigs, or use to fertilize the The week has been very full. When I don’t have a lecture fields. When I told our guide that I pay $1USD a plant for to give or attend, or medical students to teach, I join rounds them at home he was quite amazed, and I’m sure started with the senior residents and their attending physicians, thinking of the possibilities. contributing when I can, which is pretty often with all the We stopped for lunch at the Jinja Sailing Club – no sail- encephalopathy cases on the ward. There’s even a case of 16 boats, no membership, but enjoyed wonderful fried Talapia, “sleeping sickness” - trypanosomiasis, caused by a parasite fresh from the lake, and then returned to town via bicycle passed by the bite of the Tsetse fly. There was an epidemic taxi. There are hoards of young men who provide lifts for a early this century that killed two-thirds of the population at living wherever you go, with bikes fitted with padded seats the shore of Lake Victoria, but there are only a few hundred over the rear tire. On arrival in town 10 minutes later, they cases yearly now. The current problem is getting the appro- wanted 15,000 shillings each! They thought they had a cou- priate drugs for patients, as the manufacturers are less ple of country bumpkins. After a good-natured discussion, enthusiastic, the demand being low. They are still searching they laughed and left with 1,000 each. for a supply for this man. Isn’t it funny how if you name a Town looks a bit like Dodge City: broad dusty roads and disease ‘sleeping sickness’ and a bug ‘tsetse,’ we storefronts opening out on covered porches on which ven- will remember it? dors and tailors work at pedal-powered sewing machines. I have learned my way around the wards. I know where Most of the children greet us enthusiastically with ‘how are the working loo is, where I can get a hearty lunch of Matooke, rice, goat meat, Talapia, soup, millet, how to

From left to right: Child on find current literature in the pediatric ward, a medical library - journals from 1900 to ward at Makerere University the 1980’s are on the shelves, Hospital, another child at and anything newer is kept Jinja orphanage. secure. I recognize many of the staff by name, and have had visits from a few. My Luganda remains limited to ‘webale nyo’ or ‘thank you very much,’ but I have purchased a phrase book and have hopes. With warm thoughts of home, and remaining hopeful for a future for Africa,

Love, Elizabeth My dear friends, and tie, or a long straight white muslin gown over slacks. I It’s Thursday evening have seen no begging. and as I sit on the screened- Being a physician allows one a more intimate view of a in front porch of my little society. Many male patients are polygamous. I saw a man yellow house watching the with a stroke who was presented to me by the resident as rain clouds come and go “Mr. ___ from _____ of the ____ tribe who has 11 wives over the corrugated tin and 35 children was admitted with ____,” etc. Not a beat fence, while the monkeys was skipped. None of the 11 was at his bedside whenever I play in the yard, I miss home. An occasional rainstorm performed rounds, but that was unusual. At times there comes of an afternoon and is a welcome drama in other- were two or three wives tending to a patient, and sharing wise consistently balmy days. the chores amicably, it seemed. Time is flying by. I have been here for four weeks and it In pediatric neurology clinic one might see a beautiful feels like days. But I know my way around, know folks by baby all dressed in a frilly dress and hat, and only discover name and they me, and I have finally found a computer on doing a thorough exam that it’s a boy baby. They just 17 that works, at least first thing in the morning, at least most like dressing up their babies till they’re two or so. Speaking of the time, though it’s expensive: 3,000 Ugandan Shillings of gender matters, men walk hand in hand here. Just per hour ($1.75USD). It’s quite interesting how one’s per- because they are friends. It’s nice to see. spective of cost and value adjusts to local standards. What is A different view of society is initially a great deal becomes highway robbery as soon as gleaned through the newspa- you know you can get it for much less at the shops for pers. There are two here, most locals. When a taxi driver asks for 5,000 when a trip should of the time: the government- cost 4,000, one argues, though it’s not about the difference, run New Vision and the inde- of course: it’s about being accepted, being ‘in’. pendent, The Monitor. The lat- Other things have changed too. I haven’t worn black and ter was closed for a week and my thighs have not seen the light of day since I arrived. its offices ransacked by the gov- Ugandan women do not bare their legs from the knees up, ernment because they reported so neither do I, though in the hospital they will strip to the that rebels in the north shot waist without a second thought. Yesterday in clinic I saw a down a government military Sudanese refugee with von Recklinghausen’s disease. In a helicopter. The government small room with three physicians and at least as many didn’t say exactly that it didn’t patients, she removed her blouse without a moment’s hesi- happen, but that the report tation to show me the lesions. I was the only one uncom- undermined national security. fortable. Imagine what they would think of our huge preoc- The Monitor is back open. cupation with the mammary glands, which I guess we’d Someone reported that helicop- get over if we made as much use of them as the women ter parts were seen being here do. trucked off in a pickup truck, And I haven’t danced once, had a drop of tequila, coffee but the government said that or tea – a holdover from the British, who also left very was ridiculous. Those parts English manners. People are very cordial. They don’t say wouldn’t fit in a pickup truck. ‘Hi’. It’s ‘Good morning madam,’ or ‘Good evening’. When The war is presented as a you present yourself at an office they say, “You are wel- conflict among thugs called the come.” It’s nice, genteel. Lord’s Resistance Army, led by a Despite the poverty, people dress up. Many women wear madman. They are said to have no political or religious a traditional Ugandan blouse with peaked sleeves over an platform, and have no uniforms, making it hard to identify, ankle length full skirt in colorful patterned cloth, often with kill or capture them. The daily front page reads like the a brocade sash. Nothing seems too dressy for daytime. Or sports page – how many of which side were killed by the Muslim women wear long flowing scarves. Men are in shirt other. Often the killings, by the LRA at least, seem random From left to right: Boy I passed on my way to hospital each morning (his sisters would say 'hi mzungu' but he just stared), baby in orphanage clinic, baby and staff member sharing a laugh.

or retaliatory, and don’t charge. As a matter of fact, they don’t pay us any mind the victims just vil- at all. We trekked for about 3 hours up the mountains of lage people. It’s the Bwindi Impenetrable Rain Forest and found two senseless, and females and a five-month old lounging in the bushes. everyone seems to The trip there, a long nine hours, half of which on wind- think so. ing and potholed dirt roads, is through beautiful country- There’s also lots side. The hills are terraced and every inch is planted in of coverage about patches of millet, tea, sweet potatoes, and banana and spot- graft: millions of ted with small mud one-room houses with thatched roofs. shillings missing At night candle light glows in the windows, and it seems so from this account or that. Today it was 396 million missing serene. Everyone totes something: water, firewood, bananas, from the coffers of the hospital where I teach, where and furniture on heads, backs, and back seats of bicycles. patients who can’t afford medicines die, and many would Children barely three carry littler ones. And all along the 18 not be ill if there was money for medicine and immuniza- route the children notice the Muzungus, or Caucasians, in tions. One of my patients last week was going home to sell the van and run along waving and smiling with such happi- his farm so he could get an MRI in hopes of recovering the ness with what seems a great novelty. I felt a bit like the use of his legs. queen waving from her carriage. The ‘jungle junk cyber café’ is closing and I am off to see the gorillas in the morning, so more on my return. Elizabeth

Hello my good friends and relations, I started out this afternoon to attend three African movies at the National Theatre downtown. I arrived to find the electricity down, so I walked toward the British Embassy to drop in on a friend. But the sky opened up without much warning, and finding myself between the Web City Cafe and the Catholic Cathedral, I chose the former, and here we are, dry and cozy. Things here rarely happen just when and how they are planned. It is called ‘African time’. It has been another eventful week for me. I went off for the weekend to see the mountain gorillas, and see them I did. There are a few groups in the mountains in the southwest of Uganda and neigh- boring Rwanda. Three groups in Uganda have been ‘habituated,’ which means they have spent sufficient time with the trackers that they are no longer threat- ened by their upright brethren, and Second excitement has been the arrival of The Twins. Perhaps you heard. Last October a peasant woman from a small vil- lage in the north delivered a set of con- joined twins there. They were transferred here to Mulago Hospital, and after some considerable arranging, were taken to the States by one of the other HVO volunteer physicians here at the time. They were suc- cessfully separated and have thrived. They returned this week with the doctor, their physical therapist, and a crew of news folks from Dateline and NBC who recorded their every squeal. They are healthy and absolute- ly charming. After a week of making the rounds of the Ministry of Health, and per- forming at press conferences and dinner parties, they are safely back in their village, the faces of the stewards for confidence, and found none. and life here is hum-drum again. With nothing more to do I wished only for the miles to fly Work at the hospital remains challenging, intellectually literally and figuratively by. And they did. It was a tipsy ride: and emotionally. I have learned a great deal, and find myself too-fast descent, depressurization, the heat off the desert, becoming a better teacher and enjoying it more. and the jangled nerves of the pilot, but we landed safely. There had been ‘acrid smoke’ in the cockpit, the captain My love to you all, told us later, and they had had to use oxygen masks, dump Elizabeth fuel, and land as quickly as possible. Luckily we were just at the edge of the Sahara. If we had been farther along we might have found out how 767s land on sand dunes. We were five hours on the ground, stuck on the plane looking 20-11-02, a palindrome at the Khartoum skyline, and putting our hearts back in our Greetings from Khartoum, The Sudan. And as flat and chests and quietly rejoicing at still being whole, while the dry and brown as it is, I am happier to be here than any- engine was repaired. where I have ever been in my life. I left Kampala for London So now, a day later, I return to the States a bit more this morning with a book to finish, my knitting, stories and affected by my trip to Uganda than I expected to be. reflections to compose to you, and, serendipitously, a woman I had met in Bwindi trekking the gorillas was my Love, Elizabeth seatmate. We bonded, and had quite a lively chat going when the chief steward interrupted all conversation and deflated everyone’s mood, except the children who kept up their cheery play, by announcing ‘We are having a mechan- 1 December 2002 ical problem and will be landing in Khartoum. Please put As whenever I have been away for sometime, I had for- on your seat belts...’ Nothing more. I thought I heard a gotten how beautiful Laguna and the canyon are. And the nervous quake in his voice. winds have blown the smog out to sea leaving the sky as The next twenty minutes were each one’s personal hell. blue as it is meant to be, and the clouds as white and bil- The Ugandan woman to my left prayed. I left the praying to lowy as in Africa. Friends welcomed me back with an equal those more practiced than I, figuring no god would be measure of “Oh, I missed you so much” and “Back so happy to hear from me only when in dire straits. The view, soon?” with lots of affection and curiosity. As anticipated, port and starboard, was only sand, and the Nile. I looked to the mending, the rickety second step on the front porch and Boys in tea field on road to Jinjame. Below: Me on far left with other volunteers.

the loose Several friends have asked me for information on oppor- doorknobs tunities to contribute to the care of the people of Uganda. were just as I Here are a couple I think are very worthwhile because 100% left them. of the funds go directly to life saving efforts. There is a fund It took me at the Mulago Hospital, which is used entirely by house offi- a few days to cers to pay for medicines or imaging studies for inpatients get into my who cannot afford them. There is also a non-profit organi- car and drive, zation, “The Meeting Point Kampala,” which helps to edu- the flat tire cate, feed, and support orphans in a day program, or and dead bat- arrange for their care in boarding schools. tery notwith- The routine of the past 28 years begins again tomorrow standing, opt- morning at 9 a.m. – three consults, three returns, lunch, ing to walk to repeat as above; repeat daily times 5; weekly times years. 20 town and Don’t pass ‘go’. Get a gold watch. I am looking forward to back. Though the home stretch. there were no I wish you all good fortune, good health, the love of monkeys, friends and family, and very happy holidays. And I thank roosters, nor long horn cattle en route, I did finally meet the you from the bottom of my heart for all your kindnesses old woman who lives behind the boarded up, tarpaulin- and encouragement. roofed antique store that I have passed for years wondering With much love, Elizabeth who lived there. She was sweeping the walkway out front and paused for a chat we never would have had had I driv- en. Maybe I will meet some more of my neighbors I have missed over the past 20 years if they will walk too. In telling the stories of my Uganda adventure, I focus on the beauty of the lush green hills, cultivated to the peaks; the elegant, handsome faces with coal black skin and bright smiles; the pleasures of teaching, and studying; the wonder- ful fruits and vegetables, and great Indian restaurant food. I edit out the tragedies that were, and are, on the wards at Mulago Hospital everyday, year in and out. They are more stark and painful from a distance. When you are in the midst of a calamity and have a job to do you steel yourself, accept limitations, do what can be done. But from a dis- tance, from the comfort of home, the immensity of the impact of the AIDS epidemic is undeniable, and you even wonder if your efforts made any difference at all. Today happens to be World AIDS Day. I am not sure Epilogue what or who to commemorate. The scientists striving to It is now a nearly a year later, and I have retired from my develop therapies and perhaps a cure, the philanthropists first world job. After a few months dedicated to those who try to right the wrong of inequitable access to treat- chores and pleasures, I have been too busy for too long: ment; the educators trying to stem the spread of a disease with the garden, books, and friends neglected, I will head caught when making love, giving birth, breast feeding; or back to Uganda. I’ll be better prepared this time with the those who have died with AIDS or who have been left right books, paper for copying, laptop, lectures prepared. behind infected, in poverty, orphaned, or all three. It is But I don’t think I will ever be prepared for the tragedy that not a day for celebration, and if there is a protest I has befallen the men, women and children of Africa, and haven’t heard about it. the stark contrast between their daily struggles and ours. Humanitarianism in Feature A Post-Soviet World: The Czech Republic and The People in Need Foundation By Dr. Thomas F. Ditzler and Maj. Richard De Leon

Recent History of the Czech Republic and the Czech people soon responded with $80,000 for the effort. With the money, Pánek and his team bought food, With the end of Soviet blankets, and clothing; the relief package was augmented by domination in 1989, Czechoslovakia medicines contributed by Czech hospitals. Pánek persuaded 21 underwent profound changes in virtually the manager of Prague’s largest supermarket to provide all of its social and political systems including the “Velvet storage and enlisted the support of the Soviet embassy to Revolution” of January, 1993 in which independent Czech make available an Aeroflot a plane to move the supplies to and Slovak Republics were brought into being. By 1995 the Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, where a convoy of trucks Czech Republic had reorganized much of its economic sys- transported the cargo to tem and became the first former communist nation to re- the earthquake victims. establish a foreign aid program. At the same time, a number With the completion of Czech nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) initiated of the earthquake independent fund raising and became active in Central and response, Pánek Eastern Europe. Among the most effective and widely known returned to his life as a of these is the People in Need Foundation (PINF). In October human rights activist, of 2003, the authors visited the Czech Republic to interview but his timely and members of the senior leadership of PINF to gain a greater innovative response to understanding of PINF projects and the role of humanitarian the Armenian disaster aid from the perspective of a re-emergent nation. was to become a tem- plate for action that Courtesy of Richard De Leon The People In Need Foundation would change the face of Czech humanitarian aid. In 1992, The People in Need Foundation is a non-profit, non- Jaromir Stetina, a Czech journalist working in Russia, called governmental organization whose stated mission is “to Pánek to express his concerns about the escalating conflict inspire a largeness of spirit in Czech society by helping oth- between Armenians of the Nagorny-Karabakh enclave and ers in need, and to promote democratic freedoms for all.” the government of Azerbaijan. Once again Pánek turned to The origins of the organization can be traced to 1988 and the airwaves to raise money for victims; it was to be the the efforts of Simon Pánek, a then 21-year-old biology beginning of a remarkable career. The next year, Panek’s undergraduate student from Prague. Pánek and some newly formed People In Need Foundation began its first friends learned of the major earthquake that had struck major fundraising campaign to aid victims of the Balkan Armenia, killing 25,000 and leaving half a million homeless. conflict, “SOS Sarajevo.” Once again the media played an Pánek was a student activist with a strong commitment to important role, and by 1994 PINF formally affiliated with humanitarianism and the scope of the disaster in Armenia Czech TV, the country’s public service television network. impelled him to take action. Using his contacts and experi- As a partner in the organization, Czech TV provides materi- ence as a student activist, Pánek organized an innovative al assistance, access to information, and the means for PINF public fundraising campaign dubbed “SOS Karabakh.” The to reach a large audience. In addition, PINF later partnered initiative used television and radio spots to appeal for funds with the Czech Ministries of Foreign Affairs and the Interior. The Foundation leadership acknowledges the rela- Previous page: Celebration and dancing at the local festivals. From left to right: Maj. Deleon posing on a cobble stone street, river scene in the city, an evening stroll with Dr. Ditzler. Next page: Building with red tiled roof.

nalists also benefit from the foundation’s contribution of cameras, Dictaphones, and computers. In Belarus, PINF supports democratic forces including the independent media, youth groups and NGOs; Belarusian lawyers, jour- nalists, economists and teachers benefit from material sup- port and training.

Domestic Programs PINF is also active at home. In addition to providing humanitarian aid in natural disasters such as the summer Courtesy of Thomas Ditzler floods of 2002, PINF works actively in the Czech Republic tionship has had its share of challenges, but the shift to encourage a spirit of tolerance and multicultural open- towards more effective collaboration between humanitarian ness through projects in support of multicultural educa- 22 organizations and the Czech government has continued to tion, coexistence, and anti-racism campaigns. One of the yield positive results.1 Since its founding in 1992, PINF has most effective is the Terrain Social Work Project, intended provided more than $30 million U.S. dollars for relief and to improve relations between the Czech majority and disen- related assistance in 27 countries and regions and has franchised minority groups, including the Czech Republic’s served the Czech populace as a domestic resource as well. largest minority, the Roma (Gypsies). Since 1998, the proj- Public and institutional confidence in PINF is reflected ect has provided social workers that partner with individual in the selection of PINF as the first NGO from Central and clients in their home environments to serve as “change Eastern Europe to become an implementing partner of agents” in supportive relationships. The focus of the efforts UNICEF; it is now an accepted partner of the UN High addresses social problems such as violence, low school Commissioner for Refugees, World Health Organization, attendance, drug and alcohol abuse and sexually transmit- International Committee of the Red Cross, the World Food ted diseases including HIV-AIDS. The goal of the program Programme, the City of Prague, the Open Society Fund, is to improve the educational and social environments of Foundation for Civil Society (PHARE), the Charles S. Mott socially excluded citizens in ways that increase individual Foundation, and the U.S. National Endowment for social literacy and self-reliance. The Terrain-Roma project Democracy. enjoys support from the Civil Society Development Foundation (funded by the EU Phare program), the Open Foreign Programs Society Fund, and the Via Foundation. In a related pro- PINF’s foreign missions have provided relief and reha- gram, The Varianty Project focuses on the development of bilitation for a number of the worlds most problematic intercultural curricula and education activities for primary humanitarian crises — Afghanistan, Burma, Chechnya / and secondary Ingushetia, Cuba, Kosovo, Kazakhstan, Serbia, Ukraine and schools and universi- others.The range of services are as diverse as the affected ties throughout the populations and their problems: refugee transport; school Czech Republic. In and home reconstruction; teaching materials distribution addition, the project (in concert with the UN Back To School campaign); emer- is home to a social gency food distribution; and health care aid, including research initiative medicines, clinic reconstruction, and a “Mobile Clinic” to that has explored the help with individual evacuations. relationships People in Need complements its direct relief works between neighbors through vigorous human rights advocacy. In Cuba, PINF and the perception has been involved in the long-term support of Cuban dissi- of different cultural dents and independent journalists. The foundation’s co- qualities in Czech operators distribute medicines and finances to the sick, and society. to the families of those in prison. Cuba’s independent jour- PINF extends the

Courtesy of Richard De Leon reach of humanitarianism to the creative arts. PINF Co- six top teams from each country progress to the Third founder Czech TV, sponsors the One World Film Festival, Round that in 2004 will be held for the first time outside of one of the largest and most prestigious human rights film the Czech Republic at the military academy in Wroclaw, festivals in Europe. This year, the April event featured 15 Poland. Finalists will be randomly re-organized into 14 six- full-length documentaries, numerous speakers and work- member international teams to provide a more realistic shops. The Festival is the forum for the presentation of the multi-national problem-solving environment. The competi- Homo Homini Award given annually by the People in Need tion involves not only academic projects, but rigorous phys- Foundation to “persons with outstanding merits in promot- ical and psychological components. According to Kalman,

ing human rights, democracy, and the non-violent resolu- success is determined “primarily on participants ability to tion of political conflicts.” This yˆ ear’s recipient was Serbian co-operate at an international level under severe condi- human rights campaigner Natasa Kandic . The 2004 Festival tions.” Fittingly, the prizes are as international as the com- marked the founding of the Human Rights Film Network petition; this year’s top three teams will win a ten-day inter- (HRFN), designed to bring together representative of estab- national trip that includes visits to: NATO Headquarters in lished and new partners in human rights film festivals from Brussels; Headquarters for Multinational Regiment for around the world. Defence against Weapons of Another example of PINF's creative outreach and com- Mass Destruction in Liberec, munity engagement is illustrated through its association Czech Republic; NAMSA Agency with the Information Center on NATO. Although not (coordinates the armament of directly affiliated with NATO, this combined Czech/Polish NATO member states), NGO’s mission is “to increase the general public's knowl- Luxembourg; NATO AWACS edge of NATO affairs,” according to Mr. Zoltan Kalman, reconnaissance aircraft base, Project Manager. With a primary academic focus geared Germany; and the Royal Navy toward college professors and students, the Center conducts Base, Portsmouth, United frequent lectures, seminars, and classes on creating coopera- Kingdom. tive interaction between NGOs and government agencies The NATO Information and fostering civil-military collaboration. Center believes this unique com- Of particular note is their groundbreaking youth-orient- petition to be an invaluable tool ed Aliante Program, which was begun in 2000 as a hands- in the development of collabora- on International Affairs competition for intermediate, high tive civil societies. The stated goal school, and college students from the Czech Republic, of the effort is to raise conscious- Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia. ness and embed core values of The Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs, NATO, and the stu- international cooperation, dent competitors themselves fund the effort. understanding, and peaceful co- According to Kalman, the program’s goal is to existence into the social fabric of help young people expand their definition of future generations. Further infor- “international security” to include more than mation on the Aliante Project just military strength. Aliante engages dozens can be obtained at their website, of teams in a three-tiered competition. The www.project-aliante.org. First Round is conducted on-line and consists of 20 questions on international affairs and Issues of Accountability current events. Teams that correctly answer Part of PINF’s hard-won success derives from the orga- 15 of the 20 questions move on to the Second nization’s highly evolved resourcefulness, transparency and Round that involves written responses to 35 accountability. The Foundation publishes annual reports on international affairs and civil-military opera- all PINF activities and provides highly detailed, publicly tions related questions. Each response must available audits and project reports that discuss the efficacy have its sources cited and is judged by an of domestic and international projects. The two-pronged international team of political scientists. The approach sends the unmistakable message that they hold themselves accountable to their donors and their beneficiaries. A few Impressions During discussions with PINF leadership, the authors The People in Need Foundation is well positioned in explored the Foundation’s views on for another form of Prague. Released from decades of communist repression, accountability: the potentially thorny issues of aid worker the Czech people have enthusiastically embraced a clear sustainment and mental health support for its staff. commitment to humanitarian principles of sovereignty: Executive Director Tomas Pojar explained that the organi- democracy, pluralism, voluntarism, universal human rights, zation’s commitment to its workers’ well being is viewed as and transparent governance. Much of the energy for this a very important matter for which the organization has a commitment reflects the spirit of idealism that fueled the characteristically straightforward plan of action. All engines of change during the period of transition from employment applicants are thoroughly screened through soviet satellite to re-emergent center of learning and biographical interviews, which are supported by psycholog- humanity. PINF Executive Director Pojar says in the ical evaluations and performed by a credentialed provider. Foundation’s mission statement: “We believe that only by Existing field workers are given detailed background infor- systematically informing and educating the general pub- 24 mation on working environments prior to deployment. In lic—particularly younger generations—about the globalized addition, worker deployments are limited to 1-year con- world and the fundamental values of open, democratic tracts and total worker field time to a maximum of 5 years; societies can the Czech Republic fully accept its share of senior field workers return to PINF Headquarters to pro- global responsibility…This means not only informing and educating ‘from above’—by representatives of the state and political figures—but also ‘from below’—from the level of civil society.” In an interview with TIME Magazine, Founder Simon Panek remarked on his own motivation for his work with typical pragmatism saying he was not driven by chari- ty. I am angry with the injustices which keep happening around the world.” 2 The point was brought home clearly to the authors who, at the end of the interview were hurriedly asked to excuse the senior staff from the premises. Said Pojar: “I’m sorry, but we have to go now…we’re meeting our colleagues at the Cuban Embassy to protest human rights abuses…”

NOTE: The authors wish to thank the following people for their time and energy in support of this effort: From the People In Need Foundation: Tomas Pojar, Executive Director; Jan Plesinger, International Liaison Officer and Jiri Velensky, Desk Officer for Iraq. From the Information Center On NATO: Zoltan Kalman, Project Manager. From the VIA Foundation: Jiri Barta, Director; Carol Hockman, (Friends of VIA, US).

1. Hancilova, B. Czech humanitarian assistance, 1993-1998. The Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, October1, 2000 2. International Velvet. TIME Europe. April 28, 2003. Vol. 161 No. 17 Courtesy of Richard De Leon vide oversight of operations. Pojar pointed out that fielding small, closely-knit teams of 3-5 workers provides cohesion and minimizes some of the security threats that can attend to large-scale operations. PINF leadership also works with staff to foster a deep respect for their consumers that is reflected in the Foundation’s strong commitment to the development of self-sustaining resources and institutions for those they serve. Courtesy of Don Haisell

25

Preserving and Protecting the Human Bridges Over the Chasms of Conflict By Roy Thomas with George Oehring

Temporary replacement for Mostar Bridge.

rmies advancing or retreat- may separate soldiers from success, the need to identify, protect and ing know all about the chasms of religious or ethnic or lin- develop those individuals who serve importance of bridges. guistic or economic differences can as human bridges between commu- Physical bridges can be the keep communities apart and prevent nities in conflict. keys for the movement of successful resolution of conflict. Apersonnel and material needed for mil- Moreover, the gaps that separate Who are the human bridges? itary victory. History abounds with groups of people cannot be traversed There are several types: Concealed, examples. “A Bridge Too Far” and by expedient bridging as easily as the Genetic, Occupational, Symbolic, “Bridge at Remagen,” titles of books Egyptians passed over the Suez Canal Undeveloped, Young Adult. There is made into films, provide popular World in 1973! All of the partners in the also the situation where human War II illustrations of the strategic process of attempting to bring peace bridges, or the potential for them, importance of bridges. Just as water to a war-torn region must be alert to may simply be absent. Concealed Bridges. Many people hide mixed parentage must almost always make their potential to be bridges between com- a choice between flight and picking a side munities. This potential is usually based on in order to survive. Otherwise, the warring a relationship, whether by blood or affec- parties tend to see them as potential trai- tion. Such individuals may be like the for- tors, making them probable “human Some persons, by virtue of their occupation, wi bridges between communities, whether they chose

26 mer Bosnian Muslim university student bridges” only if they can be protected and who, in midst of shelling in 1993, asks encouraged to remain in the conflict area. about a Bosnian Serb girl on the other side Again, these people will often be found of the trenches who was a classmate at working for international organizations in Sarajevo’s University. He is already open to an effort to avoid clashing with relatives on suggestion that the “other side” are not all one side or the other, and thus will be “devils.” Personal desire to survive and/or known to expatriate workers. to protect others in or affected by the rela- Occupational Bridges. Some persons, by tionship may have forced many to hide virtue of their occupation, will be bridges their potential as human bridges and between communities, whether they chose adhere to a belligerent stance. An intelligent to be or not. On the top of such a list “intelligence” plan to discover such per- would be personnel engaged in medical sons, without endangering them, should be professions, many of whom will treat the developed. Many of these individuals have injuries of people from all sides, whether intentionally selected employment or live encouraged to or not, particularly if the in situations that permit them to avoid tak- wounded or injured are brought to the ing part in the fighting or direct confronta- facility where they are working. tions. International agencies provide not Convincing doctors, dentists, nurses or only an opportunity to earn money but midwives to go into a village or district of also to escape the difficulties inherent in the “other side” is far more challenging. taking sides. Expatriates working for any of There are courageous models. One of the the peace partners are likely to encounter real “heroes” of Gorazde in 1994 was a such possible human bridges between UNHCR-hired Sarajevo doctor with a Serb belligerents. name who went into that isolated pocket to Genetic Bridges. There will be a propor- treat primarily Muslim casualties while tion of affected people whose parentage is a Mladic was leading a Bosnian Serb assault mixture of the parties at war. Two of the on the enclave. most highly regarded interpreters in Mechanics are also highly valued, espe- Sarajevo working for the UN military cially in the reconstruction phase. People observer organization not only had excel- with a mechanic’s skills are in short supply lent command of the English language, but and thus accepted by all sides anxious to were the offspring of a self-identified have machinery repaired. Probably the “Croatian” and “Serb” parents. Unfortunately, same could be said about veterinarians, as war intensifies, people descended from whose specialized knowledge is in a field ll be to be or not.

27

Courtesy of Janel Schroeder

Doctors are often human bridges between communities. Courtesy of George Oehring

Kenyan Checkpoint in Sector South providing security. Next page: Acting Commander Sector South meets Croatian lady called the "Commander in Chief" for persuading 17 women and three men to stay in their destroyed village, Vehicle patrols may have to substitute for a permanent presence.

that is key to immediate survival and long-term economic recovery. Foreign agencies working in a war- torn region are often initially the main employers of a critical number of local individuals whose skill-sets are utilized by all the warring factions. These indi- viduals may not necessarily have the best attitude to be bridge-makers, but they may be the only persons from the opposing side readily acceptable to a community prejudiced by the horrors these few survivors of the “other” close to the edge of the river, they’ll 28 of recent conflict. Unfortunately, crim- groups are often targets of increasingly never bridge it. It is wiser to bridge inals all too often seem quite able to hostile acts. In 1993, the Canadian the small stream than the raging river bridge religious, ethnic and economic Battalion in Sector South in UNPRO- swollen by the prejudice of war. gaps, and often are providing the best FOR protected the Croat villagers of Young Adult Bridges. A special model of working co-operation Rodalici while the Czech battalion group ready for challenges to their as between warring or formerly warring protected Croats in the village of yet undeveloped or developing preju- groups, but unfortunately not for pur- Podlapaca in hopes of stopping com- dices is older youth. Attitude change, poses that benefit the society in posi- plete ethnic cleansing of these hamlets. in the view of Hofstede, who studied tive ways. The impact of saving the Croat minor- intercultural relations in the business Symbolic Bridges. Some people ity on the overall reconciliation efforts world, is more difficult to achieve than surviving conflict are less proactive but being attempted by NATO’s SFOR providing knowledge or teaching skills. still serve as bridges. These are the remains to be studied. However, older youth provides a symbolic bridges of reconciliation, Undeveloped Bridges. Children glimpse of hope. Scott Peck suggests much like the medieval Mostar Bridge. who have not been taught who the that at some point offspring reject or As with the famed Mostar Bridge, they enemy is, or have not yet acquired question the concepts and principles are not useful for heavy traffic, but are the prejudices of their elders, have of their elders. Universities as institu- needed to connect communities in less the potential to be human bridges. tions may offer an environment where tangible but as important ways. The Loyalty to the myths of the past may attitude can be changed by providing last Muslim, the last Croat, and the not yet have taken hold in their thought-provoking stimuli not only in only Serb in a village are symbols of forming mindsets. the classroom but also in contact with the former ethnic and religious diver- Children admire their peers for a students from other communities at a sity touted by a once-unified society. variety of reasons. Proficiency in time when these students themselves Ethnic cleansing must not be allowed sports through healthy competition are questioning the views of their par- to succeed! To once again restore some often generates respect among young ents and elders. Moreover, this point in semblance of the ethnic or religious children, even before they can be life – young adulthood – is a time diversity to a particular village in the engaged in activities that teach them to when people are thought to be at their future it is important that at least one hate. For older youth, offering skills most idealistic, and therefore capable member of the “other” community or that provide job opportunities may be of the sacrifices necessary to achieve communities have survived to be the a useful strategy that brings diverse an ideological or aesthetic goal. symbol of what used to be and what groups together. Expatriates, based on The mixing of former belligerents can be once again. their knowledge of the local commu- in post-secondary educational settings Usually the symbolic bridges are nity in which they work, can develop should thus be supported by all agen- much easier to find than their more strategies that will bring children cies involved in the peace process practical brethren. This is because together. If people aren’t ever brought whether financially, or volunteering to provide lecturers, or simply by encour- some tactics that can afford protection these bridge-makers. Unfortunately agement of individuals in the field during and after conflict. the impact of this woman’s survival with whatever resources are at hand. Without Weapons, Tactic 1. UN was lost in the subsequent turmoil Absent Bridges. When internation- military observers almost without unleashed by Operation Storm. It is an al agencies view a region or area where exception are unarmed, which is also example that should be tracked and there seem to be no individuals who the case for relief workers, develop- studied for its potential. could contribute as bridge-makers, ment aid workers and most other part- Without Weapons, Tactic II. except in a symbolic way, then the ners attempting to bring peace to strife Sometimes different tactics must be peace process will, indeed, be in diffi- torn areas. However, the presence used by the unarmed. Again in 1993, culty. The lasting reconstruction and alone of foreigners can deter violence but this time in the Bosnian govern- rebuilding of a cohesive society and ethnic cleansing. Korenica in the ment held area of Sarajevo, some requires some form of reconciliation. UNPROFOR Sector South in 1993 Bosnian Serb interpreters were taken Otherwise, the situation can be com- provides an example. One lone Croat at gunpoint after leaving the UNPRO- pared to living next to a live volcano, woman, still living in the village at that FOR Sector Headquarters. The un- 29 where the threat of impending erup- time, was much threatened and very armed UN military observers present, tions and doom are ever present, par- vulnerable to local thugs, not to men- unable to resist this hostage-taking ticularly where scientific study of the tion Serbs displaced from elsewhere. with force, simply followed the phenomena is lacking. The Serb neighbours who hitherto had hostage-takers, who were the local An armistice, a cease-fire, a pause is protected her were no longer able to police, right into their police station. like the period when the volcano lies do so. A Russian UN military observer Eventually these interpreters were dormant but an eruption can occur based in this town took it upon him- released as the UN observers gave again. Thus the suspected presence of self to preserve this single person who every indication of staying indefinitely human bridge-makers is important to represented the prevention of com- with their interpreters unless prevent- those who must make policy decisions plete ethnic cleansing! His tactic was ed from doing so by force. Interpreters, about intervention, whether militarily to rent part of her house to serve as as outlined in a previous article in The or with humanitarian assistance. both the UN military observer office Liaison, are not only possible bridges Volcanic activity cannot be stopped. and to meet accommodation needs, between communities because they are More research is needed to determine thus ensuring that a UN flag would exposed to more sides of the dispute if real peace is possible when there is no apparent bridge between communities.

How can human bridges be protected? All self-respecting armies have special procedures in place for ensuring bridge security in the event of withdrawal or retreat, and special tactics for Courtesy of George Oehring Courtesy of Don Haisell seizing bridges in the offense. All partners in the peace process must give careful considera- appear over the roof and that he or than most, but also because they are tion to protection of those whom they one of his colleagues would be contin- more vulnerable, thus requiring pro- think are possible human bridges over uously present. Any international tection even by their employers who the gaps that the mind creates between organization, by judicious selection of are unarmed. warring factions, communities and accommodation or office space, might With Limited Rules of Engagement even countries. We will now examine contribute to the protection of one of (ROE). Many UN, OSCE, KFOR or other international military or civilian police security elements are reduced in size or are personnel deployed on missions find that withdrawn. It is the same dilemma that relief their ROE do not cover use of deadly force; and development workers face regarding that using their weapons to protect locals protection of aid either in convoys or when from attack by other locals is not permitted. distributing food or material. Creative positioning is thus necessary to use Post-Mission Protection of Individuals. armed internationalized military personnel Considerable attention must be devoted to or expatriate civilian police to protect planning for the protection of bridge-makers bridge-makers. after the international community downsizes Another incident from Sector South illus- its expatriate presence, particularly security trates a tactic that can be used in situations elements. One can be hopeful and plan for with limited ROE. In the village of Matasi, an protection by the indigenous police forces elderly Croat woman was living in isolation through education and training, but the 30 from other surviving Croats in the village. In fanatics among the belligerent groups and addition, her Serb neighbors were having the so-called “spoilers” will target such indi- trouble protecting her from hungry Serb sol- viduals once external protection disappears. diers. Her survival over the winter would The disappearance of Kosovo Verification depend on keeping her last cow. To protect Mission interpreters suspected to have been her and her cow, the Kenyan battalion placed killed by either Serb security forces or the a section of soldiers around her house in Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) because of such a way that the only way ethnic cleansers their knowledge of both sides of the story or robbers could reach her was by posing a only demonstrates the latent potential for threat to one of these Kenyan soldiers. Their tragedy that exists if this aspect is over- ROE did permit them to use force if they looked. There must be a strategy in place to themselves were threatened. To would-be ensure survival of bridge-makers without perpetrators of violence against protected foreign support. people, it makes little difference whether the Protection Via Bridge-Making UN soldier or civilian police officer is there Institutions. Those organizations involved in

Children who have not been taught who the enemy is, or have not yet acquired the prejudices of their elders, have the potential to be human bridges.

to protect himself or the minority people. the development of learned attitudes such as With Robust ROE. When ROE permit schools must be protected from organized use of deadly force to intervene and halt vio- ethnic cleansing of a different kind. For lence between local inhabitants, such as was example, the principal of a secondary school the case in Haiti in both UNMIH and in Sarajevo, a Bosnian Serb woman, lost her UNSMIH, then those empowered to use job because she was not a Muslim. In addi- weapons can be directly assigned to the tion, this school was not prepared to accept a defence of bridge-makers. However, the use former student of mixed Croatian/Serb of force for this specific purpose does raise parentage. The schools of Sarajevo in 1994, the question of what happens when the UN and still today, are the beneficiary of foreign 31

Courtesy of Don Haisell Children such as these in Gorazde are the future human bridges. support. Unfortunately the prevailing the business of creating or maintaining must bridge-makers be protected but separate ethnic school systems do not institutions that are multi-ethnic or also the existing forums in which such serve to expose students to persons of multi-lingual or both, such as police bridge-makers are effective in this role the other religious/ethnic groups that monitors. A foreign aid agency must be protected or kept in place if at exist in Bosnia. Moreover, agencies employing locals may become an insti- all possible. funding schools can influence policies, tution that brings people of different not to mention curriculum, and some communities together. Thus with- How can human bridges perhaps do so adversely, such as when drawal of such an organization from be developed? a religious-based NGO is involved. an area may deprive a region of its sole Any military engineer will advise Some expatriates may, in fact, be in bridge-making institution. Not only that even the most expedient of bridg- ing requires firm founda- tions. Protecting bridge- makers is analogous to pro- 32 The aim of any peace process viding relief while develop- is to bring an end to conflict ing bridge-makers is just or at least develop mechanisms for that, development! coping, without resorting to violence. However, firm foundations

Courtesy of Janel Schroeder for human bridge-making must be a firm, serious, consideration for those involved in both relief and development work, not to mention security when in the field on peace support operations. Use International Models. Expatriates can present models of reconciliation when work- ing in areas rife with local dissension and conflict. For example, in Sarajevo in 1993, a golden opportunity to advertise how bel- ligerents can work together was missed. Former Falkland foes, an Argentine marine and a British marine came to know and like each other. Their parting gift to each other was a plaque made by joining the halves of their respective Marine Corps plaques in a unique symbol of their respect for one another. This symbol, in the wider picture, illustrated Courtesy of Don Haisell the possibility of reconciliation among those who had once fought each other. This bridge over the Teams working in the field in peace sup- offered to the faction that appears to lack Miljacka joins two Sarajevo neighbourhoods but people port operations, usually by chance, provide qualified English speakers. The international must join the communities. one or more models of individuals from bel- agencies’ work environment for local Previous page: Bihac UNMO ligerent parties working together. The model- employees should always be a forum in team provides model of differ- ing process can be assisted by deliberately which bridge-makers work. Initially, the ent services and different races selecting teams not on the basis of “national” bridge-makers may be outside models, working together. quotas but on the basis of “models of recon- although as already suggested, individuals ciliation.” Another area in which expatriates from the region with a propensity toward can provide a model is in sports. Most expa- reconciliation may very well seek employ- triate recreational teams generally have a ment with international agencies. “We want wide mix of nationalities represented, as was people to work for us who can work togeth- the case with teams of foreigners in Kabul in er” is the message. 1989. The flip side of this process is that Create Forums for Bridge-Makers. Just as those expatriates who demonstrate preju- planning must take place to identify and pro- dices must not be employed in field situa- tect possible bridge-makers, so too must tions where their behaviour can uncon- planning take place to create opportunities sciously and insidiously set back attempts at for bridge-makers to work. The working local reconciliation. environment of an external aid agency can Hire Locals. Simultaneously, local serve as one such forum. A medium to employees, as much as skill sets permit, encourage travel and improve trade, such as should be hired to bring former belligerents the bus line connecting various diverse com- together. When skills appear to favour one munities in Bosnia, is another. Sports, as community over another, such as possessing already cited, are a great forum, when prop- more English-speakers suitable for inter- erly managed, in which skill rather than eth- preter work, then an opportunity has arisen nic label is the most important factor on and for development of possible bridge-makers. For example, courses in English can be Continued on page 69 Doing the Right Thing for the Wrong Reason The invasion of Iraq and what can be learned from it By Brien Hallett

eorge W. Bush is having trouble explaining Our fears have centered on terrorist attacks since 11 why he ordered the 19 March 2003 invasion September 2001 and the homicidal effects of “weapons of of Iraq. It’s bad enough that the American mass destruction” since 6 August 1945. Knowing our fears, and British forces were not greeted as libera- every effort was made to play on them, first, by linking tors--visions of ecstatic Baghdadi waving Saddam Hussein to Osama bin Laden and, then, by telling Gflags and kissing grimy grunts replaced by the joyless reality us that Saddam possessed great quantities of chemical and of a sullen population, massive looting, and persistent biological agents, with a hint that an attempt was made to ambushes. The White House keeps reminding us that purchase yellow-cake uranium from Niger, which fore “nation building” is hard enough without carping on the spoke nuclear devastation. The documents relating to the reasons why Iraq has to be built, or, more accurately, re- yellow cake have proved to be forgeries, and, more impor- built. Shouldn’t we all be concentrating on the future of tant, were known to have been forgeries. The great quanti- Iraq, not its sad past? ties of chemical and biological agents cannot be found, as True, the future of Iraq is important, not just for the one would expect. For surely the United Nations weapons Iraqi, but for the whole region. More, rebuilding Iraq has inspectors were busy doing something besides drinking gin now become a moral imperative for the United States, if not and tonics in their hotel bars during all those years. As for for the rest of the world. Still, lessons need to be learned. Osama bin Laden’s link to Saddam, it was never credible War and armed conflict are a serious business, as Clausewitz that Islam’s most fundamental fundamentalist could have famously observed, but George W. Bush and his White anything in common with the Arab world’s most secular House staff treated this invasion with less seriousness than modernizer. Osama stood for every thing Saddam opposed; it deserved. They played on the emotions of Americans and Saddam stood for everything Osama abhorred. How could hyped our worst fears, instead of talking straight and trusting they possibly cooperate, even against the Great Satan? us with the good and solid reasons for the invasion, as Upon reflection, the hype was never credible; yet, it was Thomas Friedman kept saying over and over again in the New effective because it was repeated often, with authority, to York Times. people whose busy lives allow little time for reflection, but Left: The son of the Ur Temple curator leads Americans up the temple steps in southern Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Below: A Marine working with a nuclear biological and chemical team, examines an Al Samawa local's eye in Al Samawa, Iraq.

whose fears were real. and Mao killed and oppressed far candidate for “regime change:” He If the stated reasons for the inva- more people for very much longer made the mistake of invading, not sion lacked seriousness, nonetheless, than Hitler ever did. Yet, both died one, but two neighboring countries, serious reason did exist. They were and peacefully in their beds after long Iran 1980-88 and Kuwait 1990-91. As are of two types: moral and legal. The reigns of the cruelest horrors. Why? long as they oppress only their own moral reasons concern the oppression Because they were smart enough to people, dictators have only to fear their of the Iraqi people. Who can deny that murder and oppress only their own own people. Neither the United States Saddam’s massive violation of his peo- people. Hitler made the mistake of nor the international community will ple’s rights fully justified “regime invading other countries, murdering bother them. change?” George W. Bush has, of and oppressing other people. This In the end then, the moral reason course, frequently mentioned the “lib- made him dangerous. This, the inter- for invading Iraq – to liberate the Iraqi eration of the Iraqi people” as a reason national community agreed, had to be people – has a fatal flaw. It is vitiated for the invasion; yet, it was never the by the extreme cynicism of the inter- main reason. It was never trumpeted, national community. It is a good rea- 35 although it was always present, rustling son; indeed, the best of reasons, but it in the background. This moral reason, rings hollow. This brings us to the however, was defective from the White legal reasons. House’s perspective. It was just too The legal reasons are also excellent, moral; it lacked the emotional punch and, as an added bonus, they lack the of terrorism and “weapons of mass obvious cynicism of the moral reasons. destruction.” More important though, But they are bloodless, purely analyti- this morally solid reason has a fatal cal and unable to evoke even the flaw. Someone will immediately object: smallest emotion, which is why the “Why Iraq? Dozens of other dictators spinmeisters in the White House never around the world oppress their people. invoked them. Their only official Many are worse than Saddam; all are expression is found in an obscure bad enough. Why Saddam? Why not response by the British Attorney the others?” General, Lord Goldsmith, to a parlia- This standard objection is an mentary question from the Baroness example of the better driving out the Ramsay of Cartvale on 17 March 2003.1 good. The proper response to it is to Despite its lack of emotional punch, Courtesy of DefenseLINK note that prudence dictates only selec- Lord Goldsmith’s legal reasoning tive “regime changes,” since no one stopped. Not the oppression of the opens up the way for putting the 2003 possesses the power to right every German people, but the violation of invasion of Iraq into perspective and wrong. Unfortunately though, this international borders and the destruc- deriving useful lessons about the con- proper response quickly leads to the tion of sovereign nations. The sad and duct – or, more pointedly, misconduct blackest cynicism. For, as soon as one cynical truth of international relations – of an armed conflict. begins to investigate how tyrants are to is that, as long as the abuse is kept Baroness Ramsay had asked the be selected for “regime change,” one within the family, so to speak, it is Attorney General for his “view of the discovers that the relevant criterion is ignorable, if not fully excusable. legal basis for the use of force against the violation of the dictators’ iron law In 1990, George H. Bush remarked Iraq.” In response, Lord Goldsmith of survival: oppress only your own that Saddam was like Hitler. The point produced a nine-point argument people; never venture outside of your of the comparison was not that both based upon Security Council own borders. As long as tyrants stay Saddam and Hitler oppressed their Resolutions 678, 687, and 1441. All within their own borders, sovereignty own people, but that both had taken three resolutions were adopted under and international indifference will their oppression outside of the family. Chapter VII of the UN Charter, the protect them. For example, both Stalin This, then, is why Saddam became a chapter under which peace enforce- A Seabee with a Naval Mobile Construction Battalion, guards his fellow Seabees as they rebuild the Sarabadi bridge on the Tigris River near Al Hillah, Iraq.

ment missions (also known as armed Resolution 1441 explicitly found. In conflicts) are authorized. Resolution addition, Lord Goldsmith argued, 678 (1990) is the original resolution because Resolution 1441 does not call that authorizes the “use of all neces- explicitly for an additional decision by sary means” to liberate Kuwait. the Security Council with respect to Resolution 687 (1991) confirms the Security Council’s acceptance of the cease-fire negotiated by General As long as tyrants stay within their own Norman Schwarzkoph that committed Iraq to account for and destroy all of sovereignty its nuclear, biologic, and chemical the use of force, only for reporting indifference will (NBC) capabilities. Resolution 1441 and discussion, no further action by (2002) determines that Iraq is “in the Security Council is needed to 36 material breach” of its commitments revive the full force of Resolution 678. under Resolution 687 and provides This last point is intensely controver- one last chance for her to come into sial, especially by France and invasion depends, first, upon the gen- compliance. Germany. The text of Resolution 1441 eral acceptance of the soundness of the The legal logic of these three reso- is creatively ambiguous; yet, Lord Security Council’s 1990 decision to lutions is that the cease-fire held only Goldsmith’s interpretation is hardly restore Kuwaiti sovereignty and, sec- so long as Iraq was not “in material fanciful. The text does support it. The ond, upon the determination that Iraq breach” of its commitments to destroy 2003 invasion of Iraq is, therefore, is in material breach of its cease-fire its NBC capabilities. Consequently, legally sanctioned by the failure of Iraq commitments. Assuming the validity “the authority to use force under reso- to meet the conditions of the cease of these two conditions, no legal lution 678 [is] revived” as soon as Iraq fire, which annuls said cease fire and objection to the invasion is possible, in is found to be “in material breach” of revivifies Resolution 678 (1990). More Lord Goldsmith’s estimation. her commitments, which is what fully, the legal justification for the 2003 The first implication of Attorney General’s legal reasoning is that the 2003 invasion cannot be justified, Soldiers in firing positions during an much less understood, unless one enemy approach on their position at objective RAMA, in Southern Iraq. begins with the events of 1990 and 1991. This is the crucial point that the White House failed to make. George W. Bush spoke of the invasion as if new events – al Qaeda terrorism and an imminent threat from Iraq’s NBC capabilities – were the compelling rea- sons for the invasion. While this line of argument possesses compelling emo- tional impact, it entirely misrepresents the facts on the ground. The easiest way to see this error is to switch from a legal to a strategic analysis. On 2 August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. On 17 January 1991, George H. Bush launched the air campaign, followed on 24 February 1991 by the ground campaign, which rolled over

Courtesy of DefenseLINK campaign was mounted over Iraq, objective of the anti-war protestors – altogether making a mockery of the “Stop the war,” “No More War.” The cease-fire. Bizarrely though, the fiction confusion lies in the fact that neither that the cease-fire was still in place he nor the protestors were clear about and holding was maintained. which armed conflict they were talking Throughout the Clinton about. Was the “war” to be stopped the Administration, this fictitious cease- one his father had started? Or, was it borders, fire competed with punishing eco- some new, unrelated “war?” Perhaps, nomic sanctions and a very real air one related to al Qaeda terrorism and and international and naval campaign to produce a dev- Iraq’s “weapons of mass destruction” protect them. astating stalemate – devastating for capabilities. Both George W. Bush and the Iraqi people, the children in par- the protestors spoke as if they were ticular. In an effort to end this twelve- talking about this new armed conflict, Courtesy of DefenseLINK year stalemate, George W. Bush when the facts on the ground in Iraq 37 obtained a Security Council told the story of the old 1991 stale- the Iraqi forces in Kuwait and restored Resolution 1441, officially finding Iraq mate. Had George W. Bush chosen to Kuwaiti sovereignty in accordance in material breach of Resolution 687 speak about ending the old armed with Resolution 678. At the end of this and initiated a ground campaign on conflict, the one begun by his father naval, air, and ground campaign, a 19 March 2003 under the authority of and neglected by Bill Clinton, he cease-fire was negotiated, which was a “revivified” Resolution 678. By sup- would not be plagued with the unsub- confirmed in Resolution 687. The plying the missing ground component stantiated hollowness of his claims cease-fire however was extremely tenu- to the twelve-year-old air campaign about undocumented purchases of ous. It was violated almost from the and naval blockade, he finally achieved yellow cake, the dangers of non-exis- beginning by both sides. As a result, “regime change,” which brought the tent “weapons of mass destruction,” or between 1991 and 2003, in addition to armed conflict begun by his father so incredible links to al Qaeda. True, the the UN weapons inspectors in Iraq, many years before to an end. White House would have lost the emo- the naval blockade to enforce econom- Notice the great confusion and tional punch of these claims, which ic sanctions continued around Iraq, greater irony. The irony lies in the fact might have made it more difficult to while an exceptionally one sided air that George W. Bush achieved the convince people that the old armed

Some Iraqi children try to sell cigarettes off the side of a highway to a Marine convoy in the city of Ash Shumali, Iraq. Exchanging hype, irony, and confusion for Soldiers prepare to raid a a more serious view, it is possible to derive Kirkuk, Iraq, schoolhouse where anti-coalition forces a few useful lessons about armed conflict. may have hidden mortar rounds to use against coalition troops. Opposite: A hospital corps- man examines an Iraqi baby during a humanitarian visit to a village near Three Rivers.

Courtesy of DefenseLINK conflict could be stopped with a new nisms for monitoring the cease-fire. was not responsible for the impasse, he ground offensive. Yet, there was a Burdening the 1991 cease-fire with was responsible for resolving it. Not trade-off. A more serious presentation terms suitable only for a peace treaty, insignificantly, he failed to live up to of the consequence of the strategic such as a commitment by Iraq to this responsibility. As Newsweek facts on the ground, including the dif- account for and destroy its NBC capa- observed in March 2003, “America has, ficult alternatives that followed from bilities, is simply a recipe for disaster. in effect, been at war with Saddam for those facts, would have paid dividends Had a nice, clean cease-fire agreement 12 years, ever since it drove the Iraqi both during ground campaign and in been negotiated and had the over- dictator from Kuwait in 1991 and its aftermath, as we can now see. throw of Saddam not been one of the imposed a ‘no fly’ zone over two thirds Exchanging hype, irony, and confu- unofficial political purposes, then the of his country. The CIA has tried, off sion for a more serious view, it is pos- negotiations for a treaty of peace and on again, to get rid of Saddam, sible to derive a few useful lessons between Iraq and Kuwait could have and ‘regime change’ in Iraq has been about armed conflict. The lessons all the official policy of the United States center on the troubles that a lack of government since 1998 [The Iraq 39 clarity causes. To begin at the begin- Liberation Act, Pub. L.105-337]. But ning, the troubles all began when despite occasional volleys of cruise George H. Bush failed to achieve clari- missiles and periodic spasms of deter- ty over the political purpose of the mined talk, the war against Saddam 1991 armed conflict: Was it to restore was, until September 11, 2001 a phony Kuwaiti sovereignty? Was it to oust war, an exercise in wishful thinking, Saddam Hussein? Or was it both? buck-passing, denial and equivocation. Officially it was to restore Kuwaiti sov- For much of that time Saddam was ereignty. This official goal is reflected able to declare victory and probably in Resolution 678. Unofficially, it was believe it himself” (p. 58).2 both, the hope being that Saddam’s Waging a “phony war” may have massive defeat in Kuwait would trigger been good domestic politics for the his overthrow by the Iraqi themselves. Clinton Administration, but the costs The uprising against Saddam did, of to the Iraqi people were clearly out of course, occur, but it was successfully all proportion. The “phony war” need- put down with absolutely horrendous ed to end, the sooner the better. consequences for the Shia and Kurds Saddam’s continued rule complicated of Iraq. The lives of thousands could Courtesy of DefenseLINK any resolution enormously, however. have been saved if only George H. The options were either a new ground Bush had said clearly that the one and progressed in a rather straightforward campaign to effect “regime change” or only purpose of the 1991 campaign manner. But, without clarity of pur- an end to the air campaign and the was to restore Kuwait sovereignty, as pose and by burdening the cease-fire naval blockade, which would also end the Security Council said it should be. agreement with terms that would have the punishing economic sanctions. Be this as it may, his lack of clarity cas- been clearly unacceptable even in a Neither option was palatable, but caded down the years to stir up all the peace treaty – what other country either was more acceptable than the subsequent confusion. would accept similar terms? – an irre- continued deaths and impoverishment The second lesson to be learned solvable impasse was created by of Iraq in a “phony war.” Armed con- concerns the writing of cease-fire George H. Bush. flict is deplorable, but “phony wars” agreements. A cease-fire agreement is The third lesson to be learned is are dishonest. not a peace treaty. It is only an agree- that when confronted with an irresolv- The last lesson to be learned is that ment to cease fire, that is, to stop able impasse that is killing innocent George W. Bush should have been the shooting. Consequently, it should con- civilians and destroying a country, it hero of this sad tale. When he came tain only the times, places, and mecha- cannot be ignored. While Bill Clinton Continued on page 72 Is the Humanitarian-Military Relationship Moving in Reverse? An Analysis Based on Two Snapshots: Iraq and Afghanistan Article and photos by Andjela Jurisic

he conflicts of the 1990s are often viewed as Following each is a discussion of how they were ignored or departures of state dominated interests in favor were relearned in Afghanistan and Iraq. Although a signifi- of national or other interests and thus have cant effort has been made to improve civil-military rela- been called “new,” “post-modern” or “residue” tions during the past decade, it is the contention of the 40 as distinct from the conflicts of the Cold War author that this relationship has take two steps back eTra.1 The most recent conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq rep- because of growing negativity about a relationship, continu- resent another departure in at least two interconnected ing lack of security, and frustration over the lack of progress ways: first, the supra-nationalist or religious interests of in what are thought to be “lessons learned.” Third, based on non-state actors are challenging the dominant world sys- experience in Afghanistan and Iraq, at least two emergent tem.2 For the United States government, at least, this has issues or “lessons” are discussed. Finally, a conclusion is pre- resulted in renewed activism around the world in an effort sented suggesting steps for improving interaction between to combat terrorism. Second, the relationship between the humanitarians and military personnel. military and humanitarians has been affected by this activism, most notably in Afghanistan and Iraq. This second The Context of Afghanistan and Iraq departure is the focus of this paper. Before reviewing the situation in each country, it is In its present form, the high degree of interaction worth discussing the wider setting. There has been enor- between militaries, in particular the U.S. and British mili- mous change since the attacks of September 11th. Many taries, and humanitarians is only slightly more than a fields including economics and international relations have decade old.3 On the one hand, the relationship has been for- been altered in profound ways. Economic downturn and malized through various coordination mechanisms, doc- renewed U.S. activism overseas serve as clear examples.4 trine, frequent correspondence and the establishment of Yet many of the same trends, modalities and lessons centers and institutes. On the other, the interventions in learned of the past decade remain the same. For the mili- Afghanistan and Iraq raise doubts about the cohesiveness of tary, and the U.S. military in particular, the structure, the relationship and further questions any advancement organization and mission are virtually unchanged, save its that may be claimed during the 1990s. more active deployment schedule. The strategies and tactics This paper sets out to address two questions: What are are consistent with many past missions. Most military the broad previous lessons learned about the interactions forces continue to conduct operations as they would have between military and humanitarian actors? How were these prior to the end of the Cold War. lessons “relearned” during the recent operations in For humanitarians, much too has remained the same. In Afghanistan and Iraq? This paper does not add to theory, a background paper titled “Humanitarian Action in an Age nor delve deeply into the contentious debate over the of Terrorism,” Minear articulates three elements that have appropriateness of humanitarian intervention or military remained constant.5 First among these are the difficulties humanitarianism. Rather, it makes a deliberate effort to add faced by humanitarians, which include gaining safe access to the discourse that has emerged between and among to beneficiaries, mobilizing resources, and making pro- humanitarians, the military, and scholars. grams sustainable. Minear writes “those challenges have not The first part of this article presents background context changed as a result of the prevailing constructs through of the recent operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. Next, an which geo-political events have been understood.”6 One overview is provided of five broad previous lessons learned. particularly vexing problem is the politicization of humani- tarian efforts, brought about in part by outside intervening Following the liberation of Kabul in early December 41 forces, including the military forces under the control of 2001, the Coalition Joint Civil-Military Operations Task other nations. If the military enjoyed increase hegemonic Force (CJCMOTF) was established for strategic command control of civil-military relations, as explained by Pugh, in of Civil Affairs assets. At the tactical level, following the Somalia and Kosovo, then the evolution of this trend can be deployment of Special Forces operational detachments in seen as complete in Afghanistan and Iraq.7 key areas, the Coalition deployed Coalitional Humanitarian Second, world events are changing the paradigm faster Liaison Centers or Cells (CHLCs – pronounced “chicklets”) than political, military and humanitarian institutions can in several urban areas around Afghanistan. The CHLCs in keep pace. Indeed, many models used today, both in deliv- many ways functioned as Civil-Military Operation Centers ering aid and in fighting asymmetric wars, were developed (CMOCs) but did not open “store front” offices, as was during previous conflicts, such as Vietnam. Afghanistan was common practice in, for example, the Balkans. The CHLCs itself a recipient of massive aid projects with the Soviets often operated in civilian clothes and supported The U.S. dominating in the north with dams and agriculture, and Agency for International Development (USAID) by provid- with and the Americans in the south with airports and ing logistics and security.8 The CHLCs performed a variety other projects. Iraq, under Saddam Hussein, was a U.S. Cold of tasks including assessments, information sharing, con- War ally that received heavy military support prior to its tracting projects and support of combat operations. invasion of Kuwait in 1991. Depending on their mandate and mentality, some humani- Finally, many of the countries, including Afghanistan tarians cooperated with the CHLCs, while others kept them and Iraq, that are at the top of the terrorism “agenda” are at an arm’s length.9 those that also received aid and military assistance in In the summer of 2002, as the mission changed from decades past. Minear notes, “What has been transformed is combat to one of supporting stability, the U.S. government the optic through which the terrain and the prevailing launched a combined civil-military teams called Provincial objectives of outside intervenors are viewed.” This historical Reconstruction Teams (PRTs).10 These teams, comprised of perspective makes for an untenable situation that seems several different military and civilian government staff who most difficult to resolve. work for the U.S. Department of Defense were first estab- lished in Gardez and expanded to select cities, although, as Afghanistan of the time of this writing, none in the south and west of The initial phase of Coalition operations in Afghanistan the country. In many ways, the PRTs serve as a stopgap may be seen in retrospect as a huge victory for combined, measure in areas where the International Security joint special operations methods and strategy. Support of Assistance Force (ISAF)11 has not deployed and where the the Northern Alliance by special operations forces and air nascent Afghan transitional government fails to hold sway. assets made a huge military difference. The groundwork The PRTs’ presence is thought to add to security, but the was laid for renewed hope for Afghans in less than three teams are largely preoccupied with their own security with months following the September 11th attacks. the hope that the embryonic Afghan National Army will There is a long history of humanitarian involvement in Afghanistan stretching back to the 1950s and 1960s through the duration of Taliban regime and up to today. The structures of coordination were fairly for- malized through various means, such as the Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief (ACBAR), active for as many as twenty years. There are also large numbers of Afghan relief and reconstruction organizations, although assume more responsibility. the lines between them and the commercial From the Coalition’s perspective, the sector are not always clear. PRTs have been a success. As U.S. During the war, there were different 42 Ambassador Robert Finn says it, “not many access points for both military and humani- initiatives have been as successful in reaching tarians, including Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan’s population with the direct and Uzbekistan. InterAction, a consortium of immediate impact of the many projects car- North American NGOs, seconded a staff ried out by the civil affairs teams associated member to CENTCOM in Tampa to share with the Coalition Joint Civil-Military NGO views and opinions. As areas opened Operations Task Force (CJCMOTF).”12 This following hostilities, humanitarians moved statement was backed up by U.S. Secretary of their activities and offices into Afghanistan, Defense Donald Rumsfeld, who said, “I, per- sometimes after years of exile. In certain sonally, and our country, our government, areas they continue to wait for a declaration are very encouraged about these provincial from the coalition forces that the area is reconstruction teams, the so-called PRTs,”13 secure. If made, such a declaration would be although there seems to be some misunder- discussed among NGOs. standing about what they are supposed to Despite the immediate military success, do. “The mission is to help the interim gov- there are lessons to be learned from a mili- ernment establish effective control over the tary-political point of view and perhaps country. The teams operate in environments none are more compelling than that securing where nongovernmental organizations won't.” peace is more difficult than winning war. But they are in fact in permissive places like Many feel, especially inside Afghanistan, that Bamiyan and Kunduz and not, as mentioned, the stability is patchy, reconstruction slow, in the western or southern region.14 and the dividends of change less than expect- Humanitarians and many Afghans hardly ed. With the death of two Afghan humani- share this positive view of the PRTs in tarians, continued factional Afghanistan. The PRTs have been criticized fighting,16 and pervading war- for their mission, structure, and, now that lordism, the strategic goal of they are in place, their lack of effectiveness. securing a peace that lends itself Commenting on the PRTs’ work, a humani- to development in Afghanistan tarian said they “have failed to tap local is yet incomplete. resources and have botched construction 15 Previous page, left to right: projects.” Overall, there have been rather Iraq Centre of Nasiriya where negative feelings on the part of humanitari- If the Coalition operation in the Italian military have ans toward the Coalition’s efforts based on a Afghanistan was an achieve- been attacked, a burned out hospital near Al-Amara, number of issues, which are addressed in the ment of specialized warfare, the Afghan solider in Farah next section of this paper. offensive in Iraq was a reaffir- province, Western region. Above: Andjela with field staff in March 2003. mation of conventional military power. The similar, but on a more limited scale.19 U.S. Administration’s mission of regime The civil-military structure in Iraq is change in Iraq is widely known. Rather than somewhat unique for its scope but follows trying to stitch together a devastated tribal established doctrine closer than in society as in Afghanistan, the Coalition must Afghanistan.20 At the strategic level, the “de-Baath” an educated, oil rich state, Coalitional Provisional Authority (CPA) has although it is true that tribal influences are established the Iraq Assistance Center (IAC) present in Iraq as well.17 While both coun- in Baghdad to coordinate humanitarian and tries are ethnically divided and prone to cor- reconstruction efforts. At the operational ruption, the level of complexity in Iraq is level, three Humanitarian Assistance Coor- higher. Yet, it is still too early, with almost dination Centers (HACCs) have been set up: daily attacks against Coalition forces, to one each in Baghdad, Jordan and Kuwait. assess the extent in which a military success In addition to command and control, will be translated into a durable peace. various tasks have been accomplished at the 43 During combat, U.S. Army Civil affairs strategic and operational level including (CA) units assumed a role supporting conven- compiling lists of active organizations and tional forces in reducing civilian interference Iraqi contractors. Sharing information is also of the combat operations, liaising with civilian a key function, particularly with many agencies, and helping displaced persons as humanitarian organizations based in the needed. These units also played a role in find- capital. Initially, there were eleven daily, and ing civilian resources for military use.18 Iraq is at times redundant, “coordination” meetings somewhat unique in that the United Nations conducted by Coalition forces in Baghdad. agencies do not have a major presence. For By July, this number was reduced and com- these reasons, the Coalition fills an important bined to a handful of meetings.21 role in organizing coordination meetings, At the tactical level, there are twenty-one identifying needs and sharing information. Civil-Military Operation Centers (CMOCs); Once Baghdad had fallen, they also imple- half are located in Baghdad and the rest are mented their own rehabilitation and humani- scattered throughout Iraq. These CMOCs tarian projects, usually through local contrac- provide CA with an on-the-ground presence tors. But sometimes their projects compete and allow them to directly support brigade directly, as they do in Afghanistan, with combat teams. Unlike many of the peace From left to right: Man sit- humanitarian organizations. Unlike operations of the past decade, CMOCs are ting in front of his street Afghanistan, however, CA had prior experi- located within fortified areas, with about half shop, school children sitting on ence working along side conventional forces of them being co-located with headquarter the floor curiously listening in Iraq. Their role in the first Gulf War was units. This arrangement meets force protec- to the teacher, medical staff in a run-down hospital in Bala Murghab. tion measures but represents a trade-off of Previous Lessons Learned reduced access to civilians. Problems can always be expected, but For the time being, it does not appear as what frustrates smooth interaction above if PRTs deployed in Afghanistan will be all is the repeat of lessons that should have used as a model as the situation develops in been learned from past experience. This is Iraq. The local context, with its educated not a new experience. Fitz-Gerald and Neal and urban population and natural resource write, “Numerous examples of evaluation base, requires a different solution. There are recommendations can be found that are plans for civilianizing the CMOCs, through repeated from operation to operation year recruiting and training of Iraqis in its func- after year with no apparent progress being tions, and turning them over to district made.”23 Minear notes this issue as well: advisory councils. “problems encountered both within the For humanitarians in Iraq, the challenge humanitarian enterprise and external to it 44 is somewhat different from other recent crisis. have frustrated the implementation of well- Unlike Afghanistan, the presence of identified lessons from earlier crises….”24 humanitarian activity is relatively new. Five broad problems or lessons learned,25 Many fewer humanitarians have the depth which are obstacles to effective interaction, of experience in Iraq that they possess in are discussed here as they relate to recent Afghanistan. Further, while fairly devastat- experience in Afghanistan and Iraq: ed by war and bad governance, Iraq’s infra- structure is relatively developed, negating 1. Roles and missions may be at odds the need for many types of humanitarian One point agreed upon by both the mil- projects, but not eliminating room for itary and humanitarians are the core mis- long-term development projects.22 While sions of each: respectively, to win wars and there are certainly significant needs, Iraq is to help alleviate human suffering. While not currently experiencing a complex these two roles may seem to be at odds, emergency, leaving many crisis-centered there are not entirely incompatible and organizations at a point of questioning there are examples where military resources whether to stay in country at all. The sui- have made a critical humanitarian impact.26 cide bombing of the United Nations head- In insecure environments, an important quarters on August 19th 2003 and contin- military mission carried out by CA and a ued violence in other parts of the country few other units is to create goodwill toward such as Basra has led to a perception that the military, resulting in improved force the Coalition is failing in its basic responsi- protection. Humanitarians have a funda- bility of providing a safe humanitarian space. mental need for the military to open, and From left to right: Teacher in his class, a little girl in a keep open, access routes and thereby create of the war further muddied the water as hospital near Al-Amara, safe spaces. The lack of providing active many humanitarians took a strong stance Andjela in Chakcharan, protection of civilian populations has been against military intervention. While the Central Afghanistan. Opposite page, left to noted as “one of the biggest obstacles in the military has made strides in its attitudes 45 right: Shop owners in way of cordial civil-military relationships.”27 towards “civilians on the battlefield,” many Farah province, an Afghan The lack of political will to extend ISAF early meetings between humanitarians and working in his shop. beyond Kabul has led to an insecure envi- the military were sometimes touchy.30 The ronment in Afghanistan. To many humani- covert campaign to undermine the tarians, the military has somewhat or even Coalition and the Provisional Authority completely failed to create a safe environ- efforts to improve conditions in which ment for even its own personnel to oper- humanitarians have become a target has ate within. been shown as a failure by some to under- In Afghanistan, humanitarians banded stand the complexity of the situation. together to forward concrete recommenda- tions to the Coalition. The resulting policy 2. Humanitarian activities must brief outlined a reemphasis of military be independent activities, such as arms collection and Not completely understood or imple- demobilization. Where CA wanted to carry mented, independence of action and iden- out civic-action projects on schools and tity is an imperative principle for humani- health clinics, humanitarians often suggest- tarians to maintain. Yet, this is has been a ed they concentrate on security and fixing contentious issue. The aid industry relies those things that were destroyed by the on the donor marketplace for its existence Coalition in battle.28 The brief also recom- and many humanitarian agencies rely heav- mended a de-emphasis on humanitarian ily, sometimes exclusively, on donor gov- activities by the Coalition: “The military ernments that may be party to the conflict. should not engage in assistance work Experience in Kosovo and other post-con- except in those rare circumstances where flict countries are illustrative. As Duffield emergency needs exist and civilian assis- observes, a “new aid paradigm” came about tance workers are unable to meet those in permanent emergencies where aid is needs due to lack of logistical capacity or often used by donor countries, in lieu of levels of insecurity on the ground. … All political action, and NGOs are simply con- such work should fall under civilian leader- tractors for government interests.31 This is a ship.”29 For a variety of reasons, including a struggle that does not affect military per- lack of donor and political will, these rec- sonnel, who are state actors. ommendations have not been adopted. A manifestation of this issue is the blur- In Iraq, following the experience of ring of the lines of distinction between Afghanistan, the debate about the justness humanitarians and the military. While this has proven to be less of an issue where con- stood. As Beauregard observes, “military per- ventional troops have been the main com- sonnel find it confusing to seek structure batants, in Afghanistan it has been a hotly analogous to military command among civil- debated issue. Objections to soldiers wearing ian agencies – that structure simply doesn’t 46 civilian clothing were loudly raised in vari- exist,” among the humanitarians.33 In both ous capitals. One letter from humanitarians Afghanistan and Iraq, those humanitarians noted: “By pretending to be aid workers, who sought out Coalition CA officers did armed forces are trying to have it both ways, not always find it easy to do because of the to benefit from the protections accorded different levels of command. Outside of the non-combatants [under international capital cities, it was somewhat easier but humanitarian law] while themselves remain- complicated by force protection issues or ing combatants.”32 The type of vehicle is also competing activities, such as supporting a practical operational issue with some units combat operations. Further, emphasis on using civilian four-wheel drive vehicles. force protection means that many humani- tarians cannot readily gain access to the mili- 3. Military and humanitarian personnel tary even when they want to achieve a mutu- operate differently al objective. There appear to be continuing problems at Third, communication difficulties exist the most basic level with mistrust and appre- on two levels. On one level, different terms hension on the side of the humanitarians and impede communications. The military has its fundamental misunderstanding about the own acronym-filled jargon, just as humani- capabilities and purpose of humanitarians by tarians do. CA personnel are taught one defi- the military, and in particular, by the U.S. mil- nition for “refugee” while there is a different itary. Here are some illustrative examples. definition common among humanitarians.34 First, there is mutual misunderstanding of Humanitarians who arrived in Afghanistan, how organizations are organized and funded. for example, familiar with CMOCs from U.S. government officials talked of “predeploy- other conflicts, were confronted with ing assets” prior to the invasion of Iraq. This CHLCs. On another level, physical commu- seems to show a lack of understanding at a nication systems differ.35 Maps are not com- fairly basic level. Humanitarians for their part mon and humanitarians rely on satellite can misunderstand force mix and composi- phones and e-mail, which CMOCs do not tion among the military, thinking that skills necessarily have.36 and resources can be used for tasks they are not intended for by military commanders. 4. More “coordination” is needed Second, even when distribution, coordi- The call for more or better coordination nation, and similar type structures exist, it has been wide spread. Rather than simply does not mean they are easily used or under- mandating more coordination and training, past recommendations focused on increasing ing barriers to effective interaction. These familiarity between the military and humani- differences are widely known but worth tarians through everything from exchanges reviewing. The decision-making process in to joint manuals. But what is clear from the the military, for example, is largely vertical in recent Coalition operations in Afghanistan and structure with well-established command Iraq is that a deeper examination is needed. and control, while humanitarian organiza- The loose structure of humanitarian tions are organized more or less horizontally, organizations and they way they operate, and and decisions are made on a consensual their very ethos, does not lend itself to being basis. Humanitarian operations tend to be strongly coordinated. Military forces and assembled on an “as needed” basis, whereas humanitarians most often try to gain con- the military relies on planning and prepara- sensus through persuasion.37 This is not a tion. Humanitarian organizations strive to be foolproof system, as the aforementioned uni- transparent and accountable to their donors, form issue in Afghanistan demonstrates. while the military values a positive public 47 Recommendations for models like combined image, particularly in a democratic state, but CMOC and humanitarian information cen- must control information to ensure opera- ter structures have not been implemented in tional security. Most fundamentally, the either Afghanistan or Iraq.38 mandates differ so vastly between the mili- Regarding coordination during the con- tary and humanitarians that interaction, let flict phase in Iraq, one relief worker alone cooperation, makes them strange allies remarked, “It’s been the normal zoo.”39 In the in a conflict. post-conflict phase as well, humanitarians To be sure, major distinctions exist at the felt there were simply too many meetings in organizational level. Pugh notes, “The NGO Baghdad without substance and so atten- world is a fractured, fractious zoo full of dance dropped. To their credit, CA at the weird and wonderful animals.” 41 Humanitarian operational level adjusted their efforts and organizations are hardly unified in their provided more easily understood security stance toward Coalition activities, whether information, and developed a comprehensive military in nature or not. This can show itself contact directory. through indirect support, tacit acknowledge- While sharing of information and assess- ment, or open opposition. Among the mili- ments are noted as a key CA function by the tary there has been an emphasis on com- military,40 it is unclear how often humanitari- bined and joint activities, but each branch Opposite, left to right: Iraqi ans use this information or if the assessments and even unit has its own way of achiev- Shiite woman at a border were done in parallel with other organiza- ing results. crossing town near Kuwait, Herat City in Afghanistan. tions. A common feeling among Afghans in Profound differences exist at the individ- Below: Street shop and a many parts of that country was “assessment Continued on page 72 tailor in Nasiriya. fatigue,” a term used to describe when village elders were tired of questions from outsiders and wanted instead to see results. A major function then became “de-conflicting” activi- ties between humanitarians and the military.

5. Cultural differences contribute to poor relations Much has been written about the inher- ent differences between the military and humanitarian organizations, and the result- Coincidently during the same decade, several senior U.S. military commanders became vocal advocates of coopera- tion with humanitarian workers, based on their favorable experiences working alongside NGOs in northern Iraq, Somalia, and eastern Zaire during the same period. They had learned that NGOs, in responding to the needs of the civilian War in populations in their areas of responsibility, would facilitate the achievement of their humanitarian and peacekeeping Afghanista objectives. Some came to appreciate that radical difference in dress, hairstyles, and work styles overlay significant similari- n and Iraq: ties. Like members of the armed forces, NGO employees were willing to endure family separation, physical discomfort, and Aberration, or the personal danger in pursuit of ideals. 48 These symbiotic interests prompted frequent requests for Shape of Things InterAction to provide speakers at military schools, confer- to Come? ences and seminars, as well as invitations to role-play NGOs in command post exercises. In addition, InterAction staff By James K. Bishop members were occasionally asked to draft or edit chapters in military publications describing the roles of humanitarian organizations in disaster response. The demand for speakers so far exceeded the number of available staff and alliance members that InterAction produced a 40-minute video/DVD to give its "cultural exchange" program even greater reach.* I. The 1990s witnessed a coincidence II. Educational efforts and hard-won experience is of tactical-level viewpoints eclipsed by a confusion of roles and a lack of com- InterAction, an alliance of munication Today InterAction continues its educational programs U.S. based humanitarian and with the U.S. military, but with less conviction that they will development NGOs working around the achieve the objectives previously described. Beginning with Kosovo, and now in Afghanistan and Iraq, U.S. NGOs have world, has been actively engaged for more found themselves for the first time since the war in Vietnam than a decade in assisting the U.S. military dealing in a significant way with belligerent U.S. military to prepare for humanitarian and peace- forces, and in Iraq for the first time with U.S. servicemen and servicewomen who are participants in a military occu- keeping missions overseas. InterAction's pation of a foreign country. help has taken the form of educating mili- Resentment has arisen over what many NGOs perceive tary units on the principles that guide as strategic level insensitivity to humanitarian principles and disregard for the safety of humanitarian agencies. humanitarian action, as well as on the cul- In the case of Kosovo, many of the refugee camps shel- ture and operations of relief organizations. tering Kosovars who fled to Macedonia and Albania were InterAction staff and participating members were motivat- constructed and, in some cases, managed by military units ed by the expectation that the U.S. military would be more because several NATO members wanted to emphasize the likely to respect humanitarian values if they knew what they alleged humanitarian motives for their intervention. Many were. It has also been our hope that the U.S. military would NGOs objected to this politicization of humanitarian assis- also appreciate the role of NGOs, including the idea that tance. However, some U.S.-based humanitarian agencies there was no need for them to undertake activities for proved more willing than their European counterparts to which NGO personnel were better prepared. agree that a modicum of military assistance was needed to

* The award-winning video/DVD can be accessed at InterAction’s website at www.interaction.org. A medic checks a baby in her sister’ s arms.

Courtesy of DefenseLINK meet the logistics requirements of pro- has been the restriction of peacekeep- refusal of the retired generals put in viding shelter and other live-saving ing forces, known as the International charge of the Office of Reconstruction services for the one million refugees Security Assistance Force, to the Kabul and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA) who fled across their homeland's bor- area. In fairness to the U.S. military, to even meet with NGOs also waiting ders within just a few weeks after this was a strategic level political deci- in Kuwait to enter Iraq heightened the bombing commenced. sion and therefore beyond their con- alienation that NGOs felt at that time. It is the experience in Afghanistan trol. NGO angst at the absence of ORHA then failed to develop contin- that has been primarily responsible for peacekeepers where they were working gency plans to provide protection an estrangement between some U.S.- in the countryside was to be placated against criminals and looters for hos- based NGOs and the U.S. military. by assignment of U.S. military units pitals, water treatment and waste facil- Anxious to win Afghan hearts and outside the capital, which would create ities, power generating stations, etc., minds while conducting military oper- an "ISAF effect" in their areas of despite pleas by the humanitarian ations, which inevitably resulted in assignment by using "reach back" community for U.S. forces to be pre- 50 civilian casualties, U.S. Army Civil authority to summon coalition combat pared to deal with protection issues. Affairs units undertook humanitarian units to counter violence interrupting The NGOs' subsequent frustration projects more typically implemented humanitarian operations. However, when these facilities were put out of by NGOs. But while trying to make when the first of the Provincial business by looters compounded exist- friends for the U.S. military, a tactic of Reconstruction Teams (PRTs) were ing resentment. war, they dressed in civilian clothes to deployed, they would not deal with III. Where do we go from here? disguise themselves from their ene- "green on green" or intertribal vio- The August 19, 2003 terrorist attack mies, usually with handguns poking lence, had no reach back authority, on United Nations headquarters in out of their pockets for use in case and started up their own humanitari- Baghdad, the subsequent terrorist their opponents recognized them cor- an projects without consultation with attack against the compound of the rectly as combatants. Special Forces the NGOs already operating in the International Committee of the Red units engaged in similar activities in area. Moreover, the world media was Cross in Iraq, and the murder of four similar dress while participating in told by the Pentagon that the PRTs NGO workers outside Mosul in March combat and intelligence missions. would have important roles in super- have provoked fresh concerns about This blurring of military and vision and implementation of recon- the appropriate relations between mili- humanitarian roles outraged many struction projects in addition to their tary forces and humanitarian agencies NGOs, who were rightly apprehensive humanitarian program portfolios. when the military force is being used that Al Qaeda and Taliban operatives The war in Iraq further exacerbated as a belligerent and/or an occupying mistaking them for soldiers in disguise relations between the U.S. military and authority by its government. would target them. Their concern relief agencies. In the run up to the InterAction members are engaging extended beyond their own safety. war, U.S. Central Command (CENT- both within their own coalition and They feared that attacks on aid work- COM) refused to discuss its plans for with other elements of the interna- ers would result in the withdrawal of humanitarian assistance with the NGO tional humanitarian community in an NGO support, leaving many Afghans community. When the U.S. exploration of what relations are without the life-saving services the Department of Defense was assigned appropriate with military forces in NGOs provided. Recent events, which responsibility for post war humanitari- these new contexts. The process will saw eighteen Afghan national employ- an assistance and reconstruction, as require some time, given the diversity ees of NGOs killed within fourteen opposed to U.S. civilian institutions of views characteristic of NGOs. The months, have proven the validity of such as the U.S. Department of State dialogue must include representatives this concern as numerous NGOs have and its humanitarian and develop- of armed forces, and InterAction curtailed their activities in the mental agencies, NGOs felt their need expects its discussions with U.S. mili- provinces involved. to preserve their independence was tary officers and Pentagon officials to Another source of NGO frustration being ignored by U.S. leaders at the broaden as the process unfolds in with the U.S. military in Afghanistan Pentagon and in the White House. The Continued on page 79 United States Response to the Earthquake in Bam, Iran By William J. Garvelink, Deputy Assistant Administrator, Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance, U.S. Agency for International Development Images courtesy of DART

n December 26, 2003, a 6.6 magnitude Medical/Surgical Response Team (IMSuRT) from the earthquake devastated Bam, Iran, located Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). USAID 975 kilometers southeast of Tehran. As with members of the DART included: the team leader, deputy past earthquakes in Iran, the U.S. team leader, security officer, communications officer, logis- Government offered emergency assistance tics officer, information officer, and medical specialist. aOnd Iran accepted relief commodities but not search and Early on the morning of December 27, information 51 rescue teams. This time, however, Iran invited U.S. experts received from the U.N.’s International Search and Rescue along with the relief commodities. The U.S. Agency for Advisory Group (INSARAG) in Geneva, Switzerland sug- International Development’s (USAID) Disaster Assistance gested that a sufficient number of USAR teams were in Bam Response Team (DART) became the first group of or en route, so USAID decided not to deploy the Los Americans officially sent to Iran in 22 years, since the Angeles County USAR team. The FEMA medical compo- release of 52 U.S. hostages from Tehran in January 1981. nent flew out of Boston and the Fairfax County USAR team During the afternoon and late into the evening of and DART leadership departed from the Dover, Delaware December 26, discussions among the National Security Air Force Base. Council (NSC), USAID, and the U.S. Departments of State, The C-17 aircraft carrying the medical team from Defense, and Homeland Security led to the decision to Boston refueled in Germany. The C-5 military transport, mobilize a U.S. Government response under the direction after some mechanical problems and a return to Dover, of a DART. The DART team planned to depart the next day, landed in Spain for refueling. In further discussions with December 27, from three locations within the United States. INSARAG officials, the DART learned that there were suffi- The DART was initially composed of 218 people, includ- cient USAR teams on the ground in Bam but there was a ing two urban search and rescue teams (USAR) of 74 greater need for medical personnel to treat those injured in responders each, one from the Fairfax County (Virginia) the earthquake. Based on this information and in discus- Fire and Rescue Department and the other from the Los sions with Washington, the DART decided to return the Angeles County (California) Fire Department. The DART USAR component of the Fairfax County team to the United also incorporated a 63-person International States but to continue on with Fairfax County’s 11 medical officers. The DART team now consisted of seven individuals from USAID, 11 from Fairfax County, and the 63 person FEMA IMSuRT team, for a total of 81 responders. Two Fairfax County emergency vehicles, medical supplies, and a mobile field hospital were also being transported. The INSARAG office, established by the United States and Switzerland just over a decade ago, proved to be helpful. The accu- rate and up-to-the-minute information we received from INSARAG enabled U.S. decision makers to alter the composition of the DART en route to craft a more appropriate skill mix to best meet the emergency medical needs of the Bam population. Under perfect circumstances we would have liked the assessment earlier, but no disaster response works under perfect circumstances. Due to landing complications at the earthquake site, the DART and its equipment arrived in the Iranian provincial capital of Kerman, 180 kilometers north of Bam. Prior to deployment, we had arranged for U.N. personnel to meet the DART in Bam with sufficient transportation to get to the earthquake site. As the DART leader, I was more than a little concerned that the team was landing in Kerman with no logistical arrangements for the last leg of our trip. The Iranian government reserved the Revolutionary Guard Corps base for the United Nations, the international USAR teams, and the media. By the time we arrived, the international media had set up their cameras and bright lights at one end of the camp and were conducting inter- views almost twenty-four hours a day. More than 44 coun- tries had sent USAR teams. Ten mobile field hospitals were set up and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) constructed a hospital that it will operate for a year before turning the administration over to the Iranian Red Crescent Society. The U.N. Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team provided the We arrived by C-130 military transport in Kerman, Iran overall management of the international response, chaired during the late evening of December 29. Airport officials daily meetings with donors, planned needs assessments, and 53 arranged accommodations at a vacant airport terminal coordinated assessment teams. where blankets and pillows were spread on the floor for our The DART conducted daily needs assessments with the overnight stay. Meals-Ready-to-Eat were distributed to all. U.N. to determine the level of damage and the condition of I asked airport officials if, despite the late hour, we could the local population remaining in Bam. DART members meet with representatives of the governor’s office to discuss received and distributed 12 planeloads of commodities and logistical arrangements. About midnight, a delegation of bolstered the U.N. team by assuming some of its coordina- provincial officials visited the terminal where we were stay- tion responsibilities. The FEMA IMSuRT team erected a ing. I requested air transport for our medical supplies and mobile field hospital and treated patients around the clock. team as well as a military or police escort to accompany our The IMSuRT team was divided in half and worked 12-hour emergency vehicles and mobile hospital on their overland shifts. The medical team treated more than 700 patients, 30 route to Bam. We were assured that this assistance would be percent of whom had earthquake-related injuries, including provided by mid-day on December 30. The Iranian officials surgeries and post-trauma mental health cases. granted our request, and our emergency vehicles arrived by As the DART responded to the immediate needs of the road that night. Bam population, we also planned for the medium term (90- The situation in Bam was catastrophic. The airport, 180 day) requirements. Grants were provided to three non- severely damaged by the earthquake, was congested and governmental organizations (NGOs) and three U.N. agen- overwhelmed by air traffic. In the earthquake zone, 90-95 cies. USAID’s Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance percent of the structures were uninhabitable. Bam’s three hospitals were destroyed and most of the medical staff were killed or injured. More than 26,000 of Bam’s 80,000 resi- dents perished, as most residents slept in non-reinforced mud brick structures that easily collapsed in the pre-dawn temblor. Those injured exceeded 30,000. No businesses sur- vived near the epicenter, downtown Bam. The famous 2,500 year-old Arge-Bam citadel resembled an anthill rather than the imposing structure that it once was. Citizens left home- less by the earthquake gathered in tents in the piercing cold along the streets in front of their homes. They were reluc- tant to leave their possessions and abandon hope for loved ones. At night, small campfires with figures huddled near for warmth could be seen along every street and path. Clean water and latrines were in short supply. Many survivors moved from Bam to live with nearby relatives. (USAID/OFDA) provided funding to Action Against Hunger/U.S.A. to give water and sanitation services to the homeless population and to establish a nutrition surveil- lance system to monitor the health status of the city’s popu- lation. Mercy Corps was funded to manage an internally displaced persons (IDP) camp and to provide primary health care to the camp’s residents. World Vision was fund- ed to distribute emergency relief supplies to those affected. The DART provided the U. N. Development Program (UNDP) with funds to erect temporary shelters for those left homeless by the earthquake, while the U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA) received funding for relief coordination support. The U.N. 54 Children’s Fund (UNICEF) received funding to provide health care, potable water, and latrines for the displaced populations. The DART coordinated the off-loading and distribution of commodities provided by five USAID-fund- ed and seven U.S. Department of Defense-funded aircraft. Continued on page 79 Book Review of: rienced reader in the field of disaster man- Patronage or Partnership: agement and humanitarian aid can apply the Local Capacity Building case examples to consider such questions as: Is the end result more important than the in Humanitarian Crises process? Can outsiders design local capacity- Edited by Ian Smillie building projects? How do politics, time and Bloomfield: Kumarian Press, 2001 budgetary constraints affect capacity-build- Reviewed by Mariko Oshiro ing projects? What is the relationship between civil society and emergency relief atronage or Partnership: Local efforts? Who should bear responsibility for Capacity Building in capacity building? Humanitarian Crises is testimo- Smillie asserts that while capacity build- ny to the shortsightedness and ing is situational and can only be defined by externality that pervade the field the context under which it must occur, all 55 Pof international humanitarian aid. It ques- endeavors ought to share: a clearly defined tions the effectiveness of international aid purpose, or the identification of measurable efforts that provide immediate and life-sav- outcomes of efforts at capacity building; a ing relief but neglect the longer-term respon- clear target, or the recognition of the specific sibility of empowering local agencies to par- sectoral level at which capacity building will ticipate in their own recovery and develop- occur; and the understanding of the local sit- ment processes. Through six case studies on uation and the context in which the change countries at varying stages of emergency and is expected to take place via close coopera- reconstruction, it analyzes the successes and tion with those affected. He ends the book by failures of local capacity building efforts in pulling the case studies into an inclusive dis- Bosnia, Haiti, Guatemala, Mozambique, Sri cussion of the conceptual, operational, politi- Lanka and Sierra Leone. cal and motivational challenges that face The book is rich in constructive criticism humanitarian organizations. It is here that he of past humanitarian assistance efforts, but delves into the significance of civil society, does not intend to preach absolute solutions the constraints of timing and funding, the for successful capacity building. Rather, it political issues of neutrality and impartiality, seeks to foster awareness and provoke and the question of who should commit to thoughtfulness on the conceptual, opera- local capacity building. tional, political and motivational issues of Read for recreation or for study, the book capacity building in humanitarian crises. ingrains within the mind of any reader the Each of the six case studies supplies complexity of the field of humanitarian aid. insight into capacity building efforts of dif- Smillie’s recurring message – that capacity ferent scopes and objectives, at various levels building is much easier said than done – is a and sectors of society. Each author employs reflection of the sobering reality that many his or her extensive fieldwork in each respec- agencies are simply unable or unwilling to tive country to yield local perspectives, and engage in local capacity building. However, precedes each discussion of capacity building his effort to raise awareness of the impor- with a historical overview and summary of tance of forming meaningful partnerships the conflict and current situation. This for- with local organizations offers hope that the mat, combined with Smillie’s comprehensive future of humanitarian aid will see the clos- introduction and conclusion, encourages ing of the chasm that exists between short- critical thinking on the general topic of term relief missions and longer-term efforts humanitarianism. Both the novice and expe- of reconstruction. Summaries of the case studies: Refugee and Returnee Populations address- Reconstructing Bosnia, Constructing es the futility of capacity building without Civil Society: Disjuncture and Convergence understanding the political and social reali- examines the efforts of international agencies ties of a situation. It follows efforts to pro- to partner with local organizations in the mote gender equality among Guatemalans in formation of an NGO foundation to recon- Mexican refugee camps before repatriation, struct Bosnian civil society following the and the failure to sustain the movement after Dayton Peace Accords and at the start of the repatriation. The author warns of the dan- 21st Century. It includes a section that close- gers that international agencies impose upon ly follows CARE’s efforts to establish opera- victims when they assume universal values tions, and illustrates the financial and politi- and fail to understand the framework under cal constraints of capacity building at the which they are operating. donor level. Sierra Leone: Peacebuilding in Purgatory 56 Alternative Food Aid Strategies and is a journal-like personal account of an aid Local Capacity Building in Haiti champions worker who witnesses the patronizing nature the success of Centre canadien d’etude et de of international capacity building efforts. He la cooperation internationale (CECI) in writes of the disproportionate number of encouraging local production for food secu- international agencies to local NGOs and rity following the 1991military coup d’etat. criticizes the former for using the latter as By working directly with the private sector “errand boys” to fulfill their own agendas. and peasant associations to reinforce tradi- tional production and marketing circuits, CECI gave Haitians the primary role in food Book Review of: security and the tools to sustain it. Acts of God: The Unnatural History Rebuilding Local Capacities in of Natural Disaster in America Mozambique: The National Health System By Ted Steinberg and Civil Society addresses whether local Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000 health services can strengthen civil society Reviewed by Jeanne Johnston and legitimatize a state’s local presence among an extremely disengaged civil society. “We do not see our hand in what happens, It emphasizes the importance of understand- so we call certain events melancholy acci- ing the historical, social and political con- dents when they are the inevitabilities of our texts of the situation under which capacity projects.” building will occur, and the significance of — Stanley Cavell traditional culture in emergency situations. Means without End: Humanitarian ed Steinberg is a leading young Assistance in Sri Lanka considers the diffi- environmental historian. culty of providing neutral and impartial According to the Oxford assistance during an ongoing conflict within General Catalog, Steinberg is a well developed civil society. It illustrates known as “one of the most bril- how efforts to help internally displaced per- Tliant, articulate, and provocative of the rising sons in conflict zones are curbed by corrup- generation of environmental historians.”1 He tion and skepticism by the Tigers of Tamil is currently Professor of History and Law at Eelam, and touches upon the challenges of Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, implementing capacity building where there Ohio. Steinberg has written four books and is absolutely no existing infrastructure. over fifteen articles. He has a long-standing Women’s Organizations in Guatemalan interest in legal issues and is presently work- ing on plans for a social history of the death agencies] chosen to see the calamitous effects penalty in post-World War II America. His of weather or geophysical extremes as being book, Acts of God: The Unnatural History of chiefly nature’s fault …?” Steinberg argues Natural Disaster in America, was nominated that this point of view obscures other for a 2000 Pulitzer Prize in the general non- options (p. xix). fiction category. These three issues correspond to three Steinberg has a heartfelt conviction that main disciplines that Steinberg explores: “our culture needs a passionate, critical Environmental history (concerned with the engagement with the past to encounter the interaction between human beings and denial and apathy that inform so many nature), social history (concerned with ques- aspects of the response to natural disasters in tions of power), and cultural history (con- contemporary America.” He affirms that, cerned with issues of meaning and interpre- “This book is openly argumentative” (p. xii). tation) (p. xix). Steinberg utilizes a combination of systemat- The author highlights several disasters 57 ic historical evidence and anecdotal refer- over the course of the book. One of those ences to substantiate his arguments. The examples is the 1906 San Francisco earth- author proceeds in a logical manner, begin- quake. Steinberg recounts the struggle after ning with the late 19th century American the 1906 earthquake between those who religious explanation of calamities of nature sought to capitalize on the event for enter- as that of God’s will, usually to punish way- tainment value and the viewpoint of the ward humans. The trend today, with the California business class. Steinberg’s defini- advent of scientific advancements and secu- tion of business class includes leading mem- larism, is toward demoralization and an bers of the commercial community, as well increase in government involvement in what as their associates in the worlds of law and we now call “natural disaster” (p. xxii). journalism who supported them in boosting The author scrutinizes a century of losses a city’s economic prospects (p. 206-207). At from weather and seismic extremes and least 82 accounts of the earthquake were exposes the fallacy that natural disasters are published in 1906 alone. On the other hand, just random events. He states that natural John Spreckles, the owner of the San calamity is worsened by the decisions of Francisco Call newspaper wrote an editorial business leaders and government officials in which he is quoted as saying: that pave the way for greater losses of life and “The whole world is familiar with our property, especially among the poor, elderly calamity, but is it necessary to harp on the and minorities. These result from lack of subject after it is all over? Why not forget it warnings due to budget cuts, downplaying as soon as possible…If we want to frighten the effects of the disaster in order to support people away from us this is about as good a specific interests, or controlling relief efforts. way as any other” (p. 26). Act of God offers three issues as its main Their catastrophe was not something that focus. Firstly, Steinberg explores the “histori- San Francisco businessmen wanted to share cally contingent nature of these phenomena with the world. This was not the first seismic and the question of human complicity.” activity in San Francisco caused by move- Secondly, he examines the questions: ment in the San Andreas Fault. However, the “Whose definition of normality rules during commercial community blamed the 1906 the recovery process? Whose vision of socie- earthquake damage on the fires that erupted ty is at stake when nature and culture col- as a result of the earthquake and then lide?” (p. xviii) Lastly, he asks, “Why have launched into a campaign of disinformation. they [business interests and governmental The newspapers attempted to downplay and normalize the event. They reminded their rently “derive moral lessons from extremes readers that they must rebuild and “not let of nature.” (p. xxii) Today in the United earthquakes get in the way.” The San States, the government provides money to Francisco Real Estate Board met a week repair public facilities, funds emergency after the quake and agreed that “the calami- housing and offers loans. Steinberg posits ty should be spoken of as ‘the great fire’ that for the most part, “these changes help and not as ‘the great earthquake’” (p. 30- to underwrite increasing development in 32). Senator Francis Newlands (D-Nevada) hazardous areas.” (p. xxii) He feels that dis- played a critical role in securing federal aid asters are no longer acute local problems; in the amount of $2 million dollars for the instead the risk of living in a seismic area, city. The Senator had a major financial for instance, can now be amortized to tax- stake in development in the area. He stated payers across the country. “When the risk that the earthquake was “just a little shake of disaster was detached from the space in 58 in the earth’s crust” and fire was the cause which it occurred, it became much harder of most of the damage (p. 33). to point the finger of blame.” (p. xxii) Some of the scientific community, how- Steinberg continues that as a result, “Ethical ever, disputed that interpretation. John responsibility, not to mention ecological lit- Branner of Stanford University wrote that eracy, suffered in a world where everyone there was scant information on the earth- and thus no one bore the cost of residing in quake due to the efforts of the commercial a hazard zone.” (p. xxii) community’s “deliberate suppression of Steinberg argues that the hardest hit news about earthquakes” in order not to areas in the United States are generally hurt business (p. 33). The only other par- those lower down the socioeconomic lad- ties seeking a full explanation seemed to be der, those who live in mobile home parks the insurance companies. However, since and other lower-income neighborhoods. earthquake damage was not covered and The approach taken by the media, develop- fire damage was, it was in the interest of the ers and policymakers is to promote quick policyholders to claim fire damage. repairs and cosmetic solutions to damaged Steinberg argues that when the “powers” property and thus the fundamental flaws in disaster-stricken cities seek to normalize go unheeded and unsafe practices continue calamity and to restore property values and unquestioned. Evidence is shown that even the economy, they put an emphasis on today, with increased scientific knowledge, “chaotic nature” and not on human eco- imprudent building continues in seismical- nomic forces. Economic forces in this ly active areas and flood-prone littoral country have influenced not only local dis- plains (p. 1).1 aster responses but the entire federal strate- The author’s writing style is provocative gy as well. “Natural disasters are not simply and the book well researched and passion- technical matters in need of more and bet- ate. Steinberg, an avid environmental histo- ter engineering; they are at their core rian, is obviously a controversial individual sociopolitical issues” (p. xx). with an agenda about which he feels strong- In the past, seeing floods, earthquakes, ly. I agree with his assessment of the current and storms as signs of God’s displeasure state of mitigation of natural disaster and was one of the oldest ways of explaining would strongly recommend the book to such events. In 19th century America, natu- anyone interested in disaster management. ral disasters were heavily laden with moral A quote from the introduction is most meaning (p. xxi). According to recent polls, compelling: “The next time the wind kicks about twenty percent of Americans cur- up and the earth starts to roar, what will we tell ourselves? Will we rise up in indigna- ity and integrity of that system” (p. 201). tion at what nature has done to us? Or will Footnotes: we reflect on our own role as architects of 1. Down to earth. (2002, September). Oxford destruction? It is how we answer these general catalog [On-line]. Available questions that will determine the future of http://www.oup-usa.org/isbn/0195140095.html calamity.” (p. xxiii) (2002, September 14). Griffith, S. (2001). In tsunami safety, education and mitiga- tion – my field of interest – I believe that 2. Husing, O. (personal communication, now is the time to address Steinberg’s ques- October 7, 2002) tions. Let us take, for example, the State of Hawaii. The inevitability of a catastrophic tsunami occurring in, whether locally or Book Review of: distantly generated, is unquestioned by sci- Hunger and Shame: entists and governmental agencies. Since 59 tsunamis are rare occurrences, the attitude Child Malnutrition and Poverty seems to be that tourism may be negatively on Mount Kilimanjaro impacted by widespread acknowledgement By Mary Howard and Ann V. Millard of tsunami danger and publicity about New York: Routledge, 1997 tsunami evacuation zones. Other states, Reviewed by Lise Martel such as Oregon, also have tourists along their coastlines. However, they have fos- n Hunger and Shame, Mary tered a “culture of preparedness” among Howard and Ann V. Millard the coastal communities similar to that of describe the shame associated with Japan, according to Onno Husing, Director child hunger on Mount Kilimanjaro of the Oregon Coastal Zone Management in Tanzania. Relationships to the Association.2 Since Hawaii has the advan- Icolonial history, the social and economic tage of foresight, it must address the changes faced by the Chagga people, and issues head-on and seek solutions to the their recent involvement in the global econ- problem, before the next catastrophic omy are explored through Howard’s pro- tsunami, instead of settling for the status longed and repeated ethnographic experi- quo and becoming the “architects of ences on the mountain as a researcher for destruction” (p. xxiii). the Nutrition Rehabilitation Unit (NURU). Steinberg has shown a spotlight on a The Unit was a twenty-year intervention serious topic and exposed a defective sys- funded privately and staffed by doctors tem and economic culture that must be from the United States and Europe. addressed. After reading this book one can NURU’s main goal was to learn about the never again turn a blind eye to the injus- causes of malnutrition on Mount tices of our social system. We can no longer Kilimanjaro and to solve the problem of avoid our duty and blame reoccurring dis- child malnutrition through the nutritional asters on random acts of nature; rather, we education of Chagga mothers. must look into the past and accept moral The book gives a comprehensive responsibility for disaster, realizing that dis- description of the role that foreign institu- aster is not preordained. As Steinberg tions have played in the social and econom- states, “Only by coming to grips with the ic changes of the Chagga people. The colo- injustices and excesses of our social system nial powers converted their traditional soci- can we hope to respond equitably and ety into a cash economy. It transformed effectively to events that threaten the stabil- their self-sufficient diversified agricultural structure into the undiversified cultivation of nutrition and that the problem could be coffee for exportation. Christianity under- solved with the proper education of mothers. mined Chagga religious ideas about ances- NURU failed to recognize the overwhelming tors, weakened lineage ties, undermined tra- effect of factors such as lack of resources, ditional birth control and played a crucial land and work, population growth, and the role in decreasing the amount of time clash of values between the traditional and between consecutive births. As a result, popu- the colonial way of life. Furthermore, despite lation tripled between 1950 and 1990, leaving its allegiance to cultural sensitivity, NURU most of the Chagga people landless, jobless also failed to recognize the stigma and shame and hungry. The erosion of the authority of their service would bring to the life of the the traditional patrilineage that came with women they served. colonization also upset the balance between Through the use of historical facts, vivid rich and poor by replacing the obligation to recollections and retrospective reflection, the 60 kin by the individualistic idea of deserved authors easily convince the reader that, sadly shame and salvation. enough, the NURU staff, the better-off The story of the women with whom Chagga kin and the government officials’ Howard interacted is convincingly presented best intentions only had short-term benefi- through a rich blend of field notes, recollec- cial effects. In the long run, all three groups tions, diary entries, dialogues and stories. of people served to shame impoverished Women suffered greatly from the social and people for their misfortune and divert atten- economic changes which started with the tion from the real causes of poverty and first colonization efforts of Germany in the child malnutrition on Mount Kilimanjaro. late nineteenth century. The capitalist system Hunger and Shame is divided into ten took away women’s traditional economic chapters. Endnotes supplement each chapter. independence and brought them under the The endnotes provide interesting back- subordination of men. Illegal distilling of ground information, and useful explanations alcohol became a common for cultural actions that practice for many poor might have puzzled the women trying to feed their reader and were not starving children, sometimes explained in detail in at the cost of imprisonment. the narrative. The end- The historical informa- notes also include tion provided by Howard quotes and provide enables the reader to under- useful references for stand why the Chagga peo- people interested in ple resisted the help offered furthering their knowl- by NURU. They saw it as edge on the subject. another symbol of the The book ends with socialist system that was appendices of demo- unsuccessfully implemented graphic information, a by Tanzania’s president, glossary of Swahili Niyerere, in the 1960s. The words and expressions, system collapsed in the mid- as well as an extensive 1970s. To make matters bibliography. worse, NURU added to the Chagga mistrust Despite its sound structure, Hunger and by wrongly assuming that poor planning and Shame has a few organizational shortcom- ignorance were the main cause of child mal- ings. Even though the narrative is divided into chapters, topics are often revisited, and would definitely be great topics for rich dis- stories and examples are sometimes retold cussions in graduate seminars in the fields with only a slight change in emphasis. The mentioned above. book lacks a logical or chronological order of events. Historical facts are inserted through- out the narrative in a non-sequential man- Book Review of: ner. Still, attentive readers will be able to Origins of Terrorism: make sense of the succession of events by Psychologies, Ideologies, paying close attention to the numerous dates provided by the authors in the narrative and Theologies, States of Mind in paragraph headers. Edited by Walter Reich, Regardless of its few shortcomings, and Forward by Walter Laquer even if, as many other similar stories, it leaves Woodrow Wilson Center, 1998 the reader with lingering feelings of tragedy Reviewed by Dawn Nekorchuk 61 and hopelessness, Hunger and Shame stands out amidst other ethnographic narratives. rigins of Terrorism: What sets it apart from other books is the Psychologies, Ideologies, candor of its main author, Mary Howard. Theologies, States of Mind Howard does not hesitate to share with us investigates the complex personal experiences that demonstrate her and diverse issues surround- initial naivety and lack of understanding of iOng the causes of terrorism. This compilation the Chagga culture of Mount Kilimanjaro. of essays, edited by Walter Reich, was created She openly acknowledges her own as well as to describe the psychology (broadly defined) other outsiders’ mistakes and shortcomings of terrorism. A reading is well worth the time without trying to excuse them. The book invested for researchers in terrorism, espe- definitely reaches the authors’ goal to con- cially in political violence, however a decent tribute “to the effort to understand child grasp of psychological principles and recent malnutrition on Mt. Kilimanjaro in terms world history and terrorism is highly advised. that are realistic instead of romanticized.” Broken into five sections, the book covers: (XV) But, most importantly, the book goes i) Strategy or psychology?: Origins of terror- beyond the original intent of its authors by ist behavior , ii) Varieties of terrorism: triggering many questions of ethics and Ideological and religious motivations, iii) morality in reference to the complexity of States of mind: How do terrorists think? humanitarian interventions initiated and Which psychological mechanisms enable developed by helping nations lacking the them to do what they do?, iv) Responding to profound cultural understanding necessary Terrorism: Decision making and the pres- to make a meaningful contribution to the sures on leadership and v) The psychology of betterment of the life of poor people around terrorism: What can we know? What must the world. we learn? Hunger and Shame is a must read for Each part contains essays by different those involved in humanitarian work. It is authors, illuminating specific cases and also important for university students inter- examples. The first section, comprised of two ested in the fields of social, community, cul- essays, articulates the debate between terror- tural and cross-cultural psychology as well as ism being a logical, strategic choice versus a social work and anthropology. Its use of lay product of psychological forces. The first language makes it adequate for undergradu- chapter by Crenshaw argues that terrorist ate classes. Yet, the complex issues it raises behavior can be the rational and logical choice made by individuals and groups as tion was tangential to explaining the ori- they examine their potential avenues of gins of terrorism. The two essays focus on action. The second chapter by Post argues hostage taking, specifically the events that the opposite: motivations lie in the psycho- occurred during the Carter and Reagan logical realm. Each author believes that terms, and how these U.S. Presidents re- both modes of thought must be consid- sponded to the situation. Chapter 11 also ered, but at the request of the editor, wrote discussed ways of reducing the stress for from one side. This balance reminds the the president in hostage taking situations, reader that though psychology is mostly which, although interesting, does not con- discussed in the rest of the book, other tribute to the purpose of the book. factors in the origins of terrorism need The fifth section includes questions and to be considered. future directions for the role of psychology The second section examines several in understanding and preventing terrorism. 62 terrorist groups and activities, focusing on Crenshaw appropriately leaves far more their ideological and religious motivations. questions than answers and suggests direc- For a well-rounded approach, all essays in tions for future research. The final chapter this section are useful, however readers may by Reich concludes the book with a warn- prefer to skip to the examples and topics ing on the limits of psychology in describing that hold the most interest. Ferracuti terrorism, but also highlights its potential. describes not only leftist terrorism in Italy, Published in 1998, these essays were but also the strategies used to draw individ- written well before the events of 9/11, a key uals away from terrorism and why these reason for my choice to read it. It seemed worked. Sprinzak focuses on the much useless hysteria was published in the Weathermen in the United States and the aftermath of that event, and I suspected there history and process by which a peace was value to be gleaned from some of the organization evolved into a terrorist group. viewpoints and reasoning on terrorism before Islam is also discussed in other chapters of then. The information it contains seems just this section. as relevant post-9/11, though I think the The third section investigates the psy- emphasis on hostage taking could easily be chological mechanisms that factor into a replaced by suicidal or holy terrorism. person’s decision to become a terrorist and In fact, Merari’s essay states that suicidal how they function as a terrorist. I perceive terrorism is actually quite rare, which is this section to be the strength of this book. quite likely still true, but I think many now Chapter 9 is both the longest essay and the hold the opposite belief. Merari also con- best of the section, if not the entire book. cludes that suicidal terrorism is more of an This chapter, entitled “Mechanisms of individual choice than a group-driven one. Moral Disengagement” by Bandura delves I would be curious what he would write and deeply into the psychological processes and how Reich would recreate this book today. mechanisms that can allow a person to Background knowledge of world polit- commit terrorist attacks, deal with the con- ical and terrorism history of the last half- sequences of those actions, and their per- century, as well as some psychology prin- ceptions of the victims. ciples, are needed to take full advantage The fourth section covers government of this book. However, for serious schol- and official responses to terrorism. The ars of terrorism, it is a wonderful resource likely responses to terrorism are perhaps in its broad coverage of factors from many important as to the reasons why terrorist disciplines that play a role in the origins of actions are taken, or not. However, this sec- terrorism. Book Review of: don’t really give a good sense of each sec- Another Day in Paradise: tion’s significance. The collection of stories International Humanitarian would be better served by allowing the reader to categorize the stories instead of Workers Tell Their Stories attempting to force them into arbitrary cat- Edited by Carol Bergman egories. The editor’s decision to divide the Orbis Books: New York, 2003 work into three parts seems ill chosen. If Reviewed by Roy Brennen the anthology were about humanitarian aid and not humanitarian aid workers, the nd so I confess that I haven’t division would appear less academic. Many been able to abandon entire- would, and can at length, argue that ly my romantic notions of “Fragile Peace” does not yet exist in areas humanitarian work, though like Afghanistan or the Occupied they have been tempered by Territories. The point can also be made that 63 tAhe gritty, real-time stories…” states editor when a re-occurring event, such as a Carol Bergman in the last pages of this drought, ravages a poor population, is it a anthology. Another Day in Paradise is a question of politics, policy, or nature? varied set of humanitarian work essays, Sentimentality is not just limited to many of which are stilted by melodrama or comments by the editor, but also Mr. John are overly romanticized, but there are some Le Carre who supplied the foreword. He enjoyable gems to be found. Unfortunately, states that the “truth is another country – the stories themselves have been showcased the one that is inhabited by those brave with a saccharine preface. Introductions for enough to visit life’s hells on foot instead of each section are vague on the television screen.” Field experience and do not highlight offers excellent insight, but one has to be salient issues or pro- wary of sole truths taken from individuals vide informative, the- who may be too close to the trees to see the oretical backdrops to forest. Just because an individual has been complement the sto- to an area does not make him or her an ries. Ms. Bergman expert, regardless of heroic intent. Mr. Le writes that she “had Carre also requests the reader to “never to develop a callus— confuse them [humanitarian aid workers], like the workers please, with those other so-called relief themselves—in order workers who, thank heaven, aren’t repre- to read the stories day sented here at all and shouldn’t be: the after day.” A reader institutionalized functionaries of global might feel the same disaster.” If this plea is honest and accurate, way about her editori- then the editor should be more circum- al comments. spect of the submissions received. Another Day In The anthology’s strongest point is its Paradise is divided human-interest flavor, as each personal into three parts: Natural Disasters, War, and account provides a glimpse into the life of Fragile Peace. Each section starts with an someone performing a unique and chal- introduction provided by the editor. Yet the lenging job under difficult conditions. themes found among essays in different However, because the book draws on fif- sections overlap enough such that the teen different contributors, the tone and vague, brief introductions to each section quality of the stories vary a great deal. A good example of the degrees of difference ly dramatic incident do not leave a meaning- can be found between the only two essays ful impression simply by having the wildest that were written about the same location: war story, without also providing a larger Afghanistan. Deerenberg’s essay “What is context of the significance of their presence. Beautiful” hits the reader as a highly roman- One exception that was able to successfully ticized account of the author’s perspective of include this sort of drama was Dillon’s “My and experience in Afghanistan. While many Bodyguard.” While not focused around any essays detail personal involvement to one incident, Dillon’s essay featuring his 10- enhance the reader’s understanding, year-old Somalian bodyguard blended drama Deerenberg’s sharing of her love interests and personal tragedy with a deeper sense of and sentimental reflections of the stark beau- how it affected the author beyond simply ty of the place leave us with a Vaseline-coated being a bystander in a uniquely dramatic sit- view of her time there without a lot of uation. Against the backdrop of his adjust- 64 insight into what impact, if any, her work ment to his daily life in Somalia, Dillon unfold- had. On the other hand, Sifton’s “Out of ed a story of a developing relationship with Time” offers an essay that dares to include his young armed guard. His storytelling also some of the author’s own political perspec- enabled the reader to understand how such tive on the situation he worked in. an absurdly inappropriate job for a child had In general, any political critique in the a logic in that time and place, and how it book comes across as daring, because related to Dillon’s work and presence there. although this anthology is about overtly As opposed to high drama or spectacular politicized work, many of the authors’ essays incidents, Heslop’s journal-style essay and the editor’s introductions are ironically “Letters Home” gives a picture of his day-to- lacking in substantive commentary on the day life clearing landmines in Angola. The political nature of the work. Sifton writes reader comes away with a grasp of the nature from a personal perspective that also pro- and import of his work, as well as the atti- vides a critique, sketching a larger view of tude necessary to perform it. This look at the context he’s working in, and his role in daily life imparts us with a personal, yet it. Another striking account that successfully informative, glimpse of his aid work, regard- highlights the issue of personal involvement less of whether it was dealing with illness or is Nguyen’s essay on her work in Vietnam. international celebrities. Working to relieve flooding, Nguyen dis- Overall, the anthology is an excellent win- cusses how being Vietnamese-American dow onto how humanitarian aid workers affects Vietnamese perceptions of her and want to be perceived, but less so of the work the impact this has on her work. She is hon- that they do. Each author has her or his own est about her own insecurity regarding her story that they feel is worth relating. That the perceived identity, and informs us of how telling may be more meaningful to them her image as both an outsider and insider in than to the reader shouldn’t detract from the Vietnam affect the dynamics of the flood enjoyment of the story nor what can be relief work she is trying to perform. learned about life under difficult conditions. One essay-writing approach that backfires To gain a larger view of the daily world as a for a few authors is focusing on one particu- humanitarian aid worker might see it, you larly dramatic episode of their complete should read Another Day in Paradise, but experience, to the exclusion of their role as skip the editorial comments, pick an essay aid workers. Hostage crises and armed con- that looks interesting at the time, and formu- flict are certainly the stuff of high drama. late your own opinion. However, essays revolving around a singular- Book Review of: lem areas will develop into real humanitarian Emergency Relief Operations crises requiring emergency relief. This is a Edited by Kevin M. Cahill, MD laudable goal and the authors develop their arguments carefully. The article is written as New York: Fordham an argument, however, and is more suited University Press, 2003 to a purely academic audience than a pro- Reviewed by David Vinjamuri fessional one. The authors seemed to have confused the pedagogical mission of the t the end of the classic 1960 book with a more political one – support film “The Time Machine” for further research on early warning sys- friends of the scientist who tems – which is valid but beside the point has built a time machine and when one is writing a basic primer. left for the future confront his The second article, “Initial Responses Abookshelf which is missing three volumes to Complex Emergencies and Natural 65 and wonder which books they would take to Disasters” by Ed Tsui seems to be written rebuild a world. to high-level policy makers who are the Until the publication of Emergency only ones in a position to effect the kinds Relief Operations, the question of how to of structural changes that Tsui convincing- prepare to be posted to an overseas disaster ly argues are necessary to approach these area for the first time was no simpler. A crises properly prepared. While his points variety of publications have addressed the are all valid, reading this article from the academic, professional or policy-making standpoint of a new UNDP or CARE community but none were designed as a employee preparing for field deployment primer on the basic issues confronting the might bring on feelings of powerlessness and people on the ground. despair that are contrary to the volume’s Cahill and the Center for International greater purpose. Health and Cooperation are to be commend- Most of Emergency Relief Operations is ed for taking on this broad and complex filled with gems, however: bright shining topic and doing so in a manner addressed jewels of concise, practical, usable advice. not just to the experienced academic, but to Tom Arnold focuses narrowly on water and the layperson as well. Indeed, this book and sanitation and devotes a significant section the companion volume Basics of to excreta disposal, describing in lucid detail Humanitarian Missions (to be reviewed in the proper construction use and mainte- the next issue of The Liaison) are the first nance of sanitary facilities. The brilliance two in a new series of practical primers, here – both of Arnold and Cahill for includ- which will later address such issues as epi- ing the article – is realizing that what is so demics, natural disasters and civil strife. obvious to anyone who has been in an aid When this volume succeeds, it does so camp (or a field military encampment for brilliantly, as with articles by Major General that matter) may not be obvious at all to the Timothy Cross, Judy Benjamin and Tom novice. A simple mistake like locating the Arnold. I would not recommend reading latrines too close to a freshwater source may sequentially, however, as the two articles least condemn thousands to dysentery. well written to the core audience appear at It is in sections like this that the book the front of the volume. shines, when it is offering practical advice to “Early Warning Systems” by Ted Gurr and those who need it and revealing obvious Barbara Harff offers a validated theoretical issues that might not be clear to well educat- model to assess which global potential prob- ed policy generalists dealing with relief oper- ations for the first time. Left at this level the book directly addresses this issue as it relates volume would achieve its mission – as a use- to women and power; Judy Benjamin ful primer for those who need to learn about describes how otherwise functional arrange- the management of emergency relief opera- ments for food, water and sanitation can cre- tions. Several articles go further and make ate disastrous conditions for women: Emergency Relief Operations a true classic. “Because of severe water shortages, Chief among these is Major General women at the Ngara, Tanzania, refugee Timothy Cross’s contribution, camps stood in line for hours both before “Military/NGO Interaction.” Cross calmly dawn and after dark. Many were attacked or and methodically crosses the minefield of forced to provide sex in exchange for water. relationships between professional warriors At the same camp, young girls were raped whose chief concerns are security and stabili- when they visited the latrines. The incidents ty and NGO workers primarily concerned were so frequent that the design and location 66 with health and quality of life. He openly dis- of latrines was changed from large commu- cusses military prejudices towards aid work- nal areas to small, four-family latrines locat- ers and explains the underlying value systems ed nearer residences.” of the two groups and how they lead Benjamin urges NGO workers not to inevitably to conflicting goals. Cross does not accept the status quo of “cultural differences” pull his punches when critiquing either the when dealing with basic human rights and military or aid workers: points to UNHCR guidelines that clearly “While bringing tremendous expertise show where dangerous discriminatory prac- and strengths to bear in their particular tices need to be curbed. None of this may be fields, several NGOs struck me as being very at first visible to a new humanitarian or narrowly focused. A lack of understanding or emergency relief operative posted to a camp acceptance of wider issues can (and did) in a developing country for the first time, so come across as arrogance: indeed, in one or Benjamin’s contribution here is inestimable. two cases as a dogmatic selfishness to their Emergency Relief Operations more than own aims/needs to the detriments of others. succeeds at its task and is a welcome addition Not being comfortable with pragmatism, to the literature. It will undoubtedly become there is a constant fear of losing their integri- a standard teaching text as several other of ty. They are very cagey about being manipu- Cahill’s works already are. More importantly, lated by any side ...” he has significantly contributed to the pro- It is exceptional is that Cross clearly gives fessional literature in this field. Packing your the future aid worker a view from the other bags to go to Africa, Iraq or the Balkans for side while at the same time acknowledging the first time will always be difficult. Now, at the valid fears and pressures that lead to this least, the reading list will be shorter. problem. Aid workers cannot complete their mission without the support of the military, but the military mission may conflict with theirs. Giving a new NGO employee the chance to think through these kinds of issues and discuss them with others in her organi- zation prior to deployment is the key contri- bution of this volume to the literature. The strongest law operating in interna- tional affairs in general is that of unintended consequences. One of the best articles in the very diffi- In a mob situation, the officer no Continued from Civilian Police Issues cult. People longer has a one-on-one relation- last fifty to seventy years…what in a conflict ship, which is key to his success. were they up to at the time the situation dictator came into power? want to know what country you emotionally involved. The inter- Get to know and work with are from because the level of trust preter may believe what the religious and community leaders, depends on how they view people organizer and the mob is saying, NGOs, the International Commit- from that country. It takes a but there’s no guarantee that a tee of the Red Cross, the local Red courageous police officer working non-speaker will get the right Cross or Red Crescent Society and through an interpreter to say ‘we’re picture. In a mob situation, the especially with human rights peo- here to help with looting,’ or ‘put officer no longer has a one-on- ple, all of who have been working back what you have taken, it’s not one relationship, which is key there for many years. Don’t do it yours,’ particularly in a mob situa- to his success. alone. Find out who is the power tion. If mob situations are likely, 67 broker, who does what to whom, In a mob, people are yelling a Gendarmerie or Constabulary, who reacts when something is and screaming in another lan- which consists of police officers said, who are the influencers. guage. The interpreter has to that are military-trained, should Then talk, have meetings, build interpret what he thinks the issue be considered. This version of a a relationship based on trust. is. There’s the chance the inter- paramilitary works with military Achieving trust in a conflict is preter and police officers will get units in small groups. They have

A marine mans an M60 machine gun in a convoy on a road between Mogadishu and Biodoa, Somolia.

Courtesy of Defense Visual Information Center are known. In an unfamiliar In a place where the form of governance is chang- place where you do not ing, police officers are helping people to estab- speak the language, riot con- lish a new way of life. Perhaps now for the first trol is more difficult. time they have the opportunity to live in a democracy, which is imperfect. RH: What advice would you give civilian police offi- cers interested in volunteer- experience doing that. The mili- experts…in short, ing for a UN mission? tary arrive in tanks while the all the needed equipment and Gendarmerie arrive in jeeps. A training. MO: When police officers go abroad, constabulary could move into a Further, a constabulary would they have to realize that they are city alongside a battalion and stay best handle checkpoints, which guests. In no way should they 68 for a time. It could also serve as require greater force. Never put impose their values. The officers an interim between the initial only civilian police officers on a will say, ‘but I’m comfortable military with firepower working checkpoint. If someone comes by doing what I’ve done for 25 years as offensive units and the civilian with bigger guns, a civilian officer and it’s very successful.’ Well, that police who are lightly armed is going to have to let them is the flip side of being a good working as individuals. through. The entire law and order officer and having experience in A constabulary might also be plan will fall back a step because your own country. useful in Iraq because there is a criminals will see that they can get In a place where the form of gap between the military and the away with intimidating or killing governance is changing, police civilians on the ground. Yugoslavia police officers. The person with officers are helping people to was different. The police force the bigger gun is always going to establish a new way of life. trained and worked together for win in situations when trying to Perhaps now for the first time decades. It was possible to move establish a peaceful nation. If they have the opportunity to live to a UN civilian police force more there is no constabulary, then the in a democracy, which is imper- rapidly because there was a well- military has to do the job because fect. Democracy is an ideal that established indigenous force prior the potential risk is too high. people work towards, so recognize to the emergency. In Bosnia, the The police may have to turn that there are likely to be bumps Gendarmerie was used because out in force in the event of a riot. along the way. Bosnia was ethically divided and Riot police are usually regular It’s very critical to understand although UN civilian police were police officers now called upon to respect. This is how to establish there, they were unarmed in some tap into special training and put trust. Customs must be respected. sectors. The Gendarmerie were on riot equipment. However, back Use of certain body language can established after 1995 and served home, they know the riot instiga- be very insulting. When in a as the buffer between NATO mili- tors. They are familiar with what mosque or a religious establish- tary and the local police. They to expect because the professional ment, if a sign says remove your had rules of engagement. The riot organizers and their tactics shoes, don’t question why; take Gendarmerie was used for mob and riot control. If neces- sary a civilian police Policing and law and order should be a part officer would call in the Gendarmerie of the broad recovery plan. It’s a critical part because they have of nation building. Without it, there won’t light armor, explosive be a nation, just a constant emergency. them off. Police officers have to makers in, for example, Bosnia. commitment. have cultural training before they Why not have peewee teams of Develop for the Future. The pri- leave home. three Croatian, three Serbian and three mary focus for development must be If guns are not allowed in an Muslim children formed in leagues? children who represent the future. area, there must be a reason for it. Any past ethnic baggage associated Individuals working in the field can Police officers are not above the law. with “soccer” or “football” could be attempt to supplement the impact of A country should send those avoided. However, if baseball becomes an education system that does not that have a good attitude, know the selected mechanism for promoting serve as forum for bridge-makers by why there are going and what is contacts between communities, then supplementing formal school instruc- expected of them. It is crucial to the goal must be to have teams from tion with ad hoc lessons. Some val- the success of a mission to have the ethnically mixed league eventually ued skills such as languages, sports sound-thinking, educated people. competing in the Little League World skills, driving, automobile mechanics, They shouldn’t come with person- Series, which represents a long-term or even first aid, can be taught to al baggage, or to escape domestic 69 or work problems at home. It isn’t necessary that they have traveled before. Travel could Marines distribute donated food supplies to local Iraqi mean they were on a bus as part citizens in An Nasariyah, Iraq. of an organized tour, but they never interacted with the local people. Police officers cannot vol- unteer to serve for a week. This is not a vacation.

RH: Any last thoughts?

MO: Policing and law and order should be a part of the broad recovery plan. It’s a critical part of nation building. Without it, there won’t be a nation, just a constant emergency.

off the field. Baseball has been suggested by a Canadian judge as an excellent tool for re-habilitation of young offenders because of the patience and team effort required. Baseball, or indeed softball, appears to have less national- istic baggage than soccer, being a pri- marily a sport of the New World, with the exception of Asiatic adherents in Japan and Korea. Thus baseball or softball is perhaps a more suitable mechanism for development of bridge-

Courtesy of Defense Visual Information Center 70

Courtesy of Defense Visual Information Center

classes deliberately formed from mixed assist in development of bridge-mak- individuals who are human bridge- groups. Unfortunately, without institu- ers but their superiors must support makers. Study is also required of tionalizing the work of individuals, the these efforts by making time and those situations in which there are no creation of such forums and mecha- resources available. apparent bridge-makers and the rea- nisms will be temporary. A long-term Further Academic Study and sons for such. Are the people in these commitment is required, which Research. Papers have appeared study- cases doomed to perpetual conflict, or might require handing over responsi- ing the role played by individuals who conversely, is the international com- bility as a secondary duty to one’s act as spoilers in the peace process. munity committed to decades of replacements. Expatriates on longer- Research and academic study are also peace enforcement and peacekeeping? term contracts are ideally placed to required to study the role played by Conclusion More donated food distributed in an organized fashion during Operation Iraqi Freedom.

of such potential bridge-makers should be one of the “Elements of Information” sought by those deciding on intervention. Once identified, these individuals have to survive in-theatre to play a role. Thus, their protection is important and must be considered even after the international communi- ty withdraws or scales down its pres- ence. Finally, a strategy developing these bridge-makers, as well as one for developing environments for such individuals to operate, must be part of any co-ordinated relief and develop- 71 ment plan. Expatriates working in the field will be the best placed to discover the bridge-makers and to recommend forums and environments in which they can best function. Initially, the international agency itself may be the best and safest such forum. Suggestions for development of bridge-makers should also originate from the field. Foreign workers in the field often provide a model of co- operation among former foes and thus are very much part of the process for developing future bridge-makers. Spoilers, the bad news for those involved in peace support operations, attract headlines. The preservation and protection of human bridges deserves equal attention from those in the field, from those who set policy and from those who study both. Crossing the chasms and canyons created by con- The aim of any peace process is to exit to be possible, or even for proper flict is only possible with the aid of bring an end to conflict or at least development to occur. such people bridges. These individuals develop mechanisms for coping, with- Key to a locally supported peace is must be alive to play this role! The out resorting to violence. If such a goal the indigenous individual who can international community has an inter- is only possible with foreign interven- bridge the gap between belligerents, est and a responsibility to ensure the tion then the international community communities, and groups. Identifying survival of human bridges not only for faces the daunting prospect of provid- these individuals should be high on mission success, but also for the good ing an unending presence. The people the list of activities of all the partners of humanity. of a place, region, and country must in the peace process, including the be part of the process for an expatriate local people themselves! The presence trine, by choice; it was “preemptive.” 2. Dickey, Christopher and Donatella Continued from Doing the Right Thing Yet, George W. Bush never had a Lorch. 2003. Iraq’s Most Wanted. into office, one of the biggest foreign choice. His father and Bill Clinton Newsweek 31 March, 48-65. policy messes left over from both his made sure of that. For, how can a father and Bill Clinton was Iraq, a renewed ground campaign in an mess which Bill Clinton had kept bub- armed conflict that has been continu- bling on the back burner for eight ous since 1991 be “preemptive?” The years. The new President also ignored cruel fact of the matter is that George it – until 11 September 2001 – when W. Bush was engaged in an armed Continued from Moving in Reverse the mood of the country shifted and a contest with Iraq, albeit one without ual level as well. Often noted are the military solution suddenly became ground combat, from the minute he dissimilarities of “do-gooder” relief possible. Afghanistan, of course, had to took the oath of office. “Preemption” is workers with hippy lineage or who are be dealt with first. But as soon as that simply not possible after twelve years excess backpackers, versus gung-ho 72 was in hand, he moved deliberately to of armed conflict. and robust military personnel who fol- settle the Iraqi mess. At the end of the day, what George low orders while disregarding need or Unfortunately though, it is very W. Bush did is what the anti-war pro- common sense. These stereotypes bear unlikely that George W. Bush will tester asked him to do: He stopped the little resemblance to reality; some ever get the credit he deserves. For, he “war.” He stopped the armed conflict researchers exaggerate the differences. chose to explain his reasons for the started by his father and left undone A poll of humanitarian managers in 2003 invasion with an appeal to our by Bill Clinton. There was no “pre- either Iraq or Afghanistan might reveal fears, and not with an appeal to our emption.” What he did was to cut the that many have military experience. intelligence and the intractable strate- twelve-year-old Gordian knot by Add to this mix former volunteers of gic facts on the ground. He chose not renewing the ground component to government-sponsored programs (e.g., to trust us with the hard dilemma and the air and naval campaign. Sadly, he Peace Corps in the U.S., or Voluntary painful choices that these unforgiving will get little credit for what he did Service Organization in Britain) who facts created. because he chose to play on our emo- are not intrinsically opposed to the Finally, there is one more irony. tions; he did not trust us to under- military. Generally speaking, military George W. Bush has presented the stand the seriousness of the situation. personnel from Western democracies 2003 invasion of Iraq as the poster boy are educated and exhibit genuine for his doctrine of “preemption.” He Footnotes: humanitarian concerns. Further, 1. For Attorney General Lord Goldsmith’s has depicted it as an armed conflict of reserve civilians make up the majority opinion see: Lords Hansard, V. 646, pt. 5, choice, not necessity. Afghanistan was Written Answers, WA2-3 of 17 March 2003 of CA units, and are in essence, part- necessary. It was provoked, and unfor- or http://www.parliament.the-stationery- time soldiers at home. The degrees of givably provoked by the attacks of 11 office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldhansrd/pdvn/ld differences in culture and the severity September 2001. But the invasion of s03/text/30317w01.htm#30317w01_sbhd3 of the impact of these differences lies Iraq was, according to this new doc- Accessed 11 August 2003 somewhere between the extremes, but the issues remain.

Two “New” Issues There are two addi- tional issues that deserve wider atten-

From left to right: Aid distribution near a hospital near Basra with the US military just a few days after the fall of the regime, children on the street in Nasiriya. Evidence of an earlier operation on a little girl in a hospital near Al-Amara. tion: competition for resources and personnel, when counting all direct training of personnel. These are not and indirect costs, are vastly more exactly new, but they have had a than civilians doing similar jobs.44 As a greater impact on humanitarian-mili- CA officer remarked, “one reason that tary interaction in Afghanistan and some NGOs are upset with the Civil Iraq than in prior missions. Affairs units is that they see us as 1. Competition for Resources rivals, competing with them for relief War and post-conflict situations are funds.”45 A similar issue is the demand low-resource environments and there- for human resources. Potential local fore increased competition among staff are routinely poached by stakeholders is a common characteris- Coalition units because they can offer way to remedy this situation is to reaf- tic. With the Coalition taking a more higher pay, also a classic problem firm the primacy of humanitarianism. active role in sectors normally the between NGOs, embassies and the UN Donor government agencies, who con- domain of humanitarians, clash seems agencies. It is common for highly qual- trol most of the resources that con- 73 inevitable. ified Afghans and Iraqis, including tribute to post-war relief and recon- Humanitarians and the military doctors and other professionals, to struction, should work with both the often perceive that the other has work as translators, administrative military and humanitarians to address resources that outstretch their own. assistants and drivers because of high- this situation. However, analysis shows that humani- er salaries and low employment in tarians have few resources in compari- their own fields. 2. Inadequate Training son with the military. According to A different aspect of this issue Training and preparation are recog- their own figures in Afghanistan, for occurs when military forces receive nized as crucial for the military. Yet, example, “this year they [the Coalition funds from donor agencies that nor- the training received by U.S. CA per- members] have rebuilt 116 schools, 28 mally fund humanitarians. While the sonnel is inadequate and training for clinics and hospitals and 42 well and U.S. Department of Defense has its common soldiers, when given, is irrigation systems. The $10,653 million own humanitarian funding mecha- reduced to a single block of instruc- dollars they have spent has almost nism, the British funding agency tion that is too narrowly focused and gone entirely to these projects: basic, Department for International insufficient in length to properly pre- no frills and essential work, mostly Development provided resources pare them for challenges in the field. channeled into the hands of Afghan directly to military units for recon- For an organization that depends on workers and Afghan companies for the struction projects in Afghanistan. training and preparation, which was benefit of many communities in all Although this is a repeat of Bosnia until the last two years its sole preoc- parts of the country.”42 This work was where DFID (and its predecessor cupation, education and training largely done by local contractors and the Overseas Development Admin- could be better addressed and brings up the issue of cost-effective- istration) funded British forces’ civil improved upon. ness, which considers the ratio of dol- action programs either directly or In fact, the training issue is not lars spent per project. Humanitarians through contractors,46 it is a worrying entirely new. A Cuny Center report on the other hand, implemented thou- trend for humanitarians. Of equal called for better training of uniformed sands of projects across different sec- concern is under-funding.47 While 20% forces to the standards of the profes- tors, from delivering relief supplies to of UN-requested global assistance for sional humanitarian community. “In developing civil society. “Many of the 2002 was requested for Afghanistan addition to enhanced training pro- NGOs are going bankrupt but the mil- alone,48 the commitment has been far grams for DoD staff - including web- itary has lots of funds,” commented below that and it shows in the field. based curricula, DoD should find one humanitarian working in Similarly in Iraq, the recent donor more opportunities to mix armed Afghanistan.43 conference in Madrid secured 33 bil- forces staff with NGOs in their own Military personnel cost far more lion (USD) worth of pledges, far below training. Because NGO staff are few than civilians. The costs of military the 55 billion that was sought. One and have little time for training, it is People in Bala Murghab try to get sufficient water for their daily cleaning and consumption.

ceptible to sophistic projects in the Conclusions and points for field and can cause more harm than further research good. The relationship between humani- At a higher level, the discourse tarians and the military has taken two within the U.S. Army could use steps back following recent experience advancement and refining.51 For exam- in Afghanistan and Iraq. There are ple, how to run a CMOC is rehearsed, three reasons for this situation. rather than improving the way in First, there is growing negativity in which the CMOC operates. More the interactions between the humani- unreasonable to expect NGO staff to specifically, training for Iraq was tarian workers and the military. While attend DoD trainings or exercises in described as a “cluster ____”52 which politically motivated in part, there are any large proportions.”49 Speaking of focused on common tasks. Entering a very legitimate operational concerns, the British military, Gordon noted the combat zone, military common tasks including a blurring of humanitarian 74 challenge “to create a greater degree of are essential survival skills, but principles. Second, there is a failure to expertise and institutional memory.”50 advanced preparation needed for mis- provide basic security in Afghanistan Without adequate understanding of sion success seems to have been and Iraq as witnessed by the continu- their role, NGOs are often seen by ignored. The need for security meant ing unrest in Afghanistan and the most military personnel as assets to be that CA personnel could not prepare August 19th 2003 attack against the used, controlled or coordinated to themselves for the areas in which they UN in Baghdad. Finally, there is frus- complete a mission. The CA enlisted would be deployed. tration over the lack of progress in course provides a narrow understand- Further, while the civilian profes- what are thought to be “lessons ing of NGOs. For example, the train- sional qualifications of U.S. Army learned.” Over time, especially in light ing does not include instruction on reserve CA personnel are frequently of the efforts already made, it is nor- the basic ideas of development. The touted,53 in reality, skills are infre- mal to assume that progress can be reason for this is, perhaps rightly, that quently matched to any effect. further achieved in improving the rela- development is accepted and under- Qualified lawyers and city planners, tionship between humanitarians and stood as an activity that takes place for example, are not necessarily placed the military. As Fitz-Gerald and Neal after CA leaves, or it is properly exe- on government support teams.54 The point out regarding the lessons learned cuted by others, like NGOs. Not pre- reasons for this may be based on “per- of the past decade, “in many cases the senting the broader picture, how the sonnel reasons” where the assumption recommendations require a major pieces fit together, and who does what is that their CA training is the most institutional change before action can and when and for what reasons, only important qualifying factor.55 be taken, but the required change is condemns CA to commit repeated For their part, humanitarian organ- not achieved. The research indicated errors in future missions. The absence izations need to continue to increase that the problem seemed to be the fact of this basic information can result in the training provided to their staff. that people, particularly the more mission creep in the field, whereas This guideline is outlined in the People operational types, were not reading the fully informed and thinking officers in Aid Code, Principle #6.56 Boards of evaluations or, if they were, just put- may be in a position to plan for mis- Directors should mandate training and ting them on the shelves and forget- sion shift. senior managers should further devel- ting about them.”57 This level of training for CA per- op their staff and mobilize adequate But the damage is far from sonnel would not normally be an resources to do so. At the industry irreparable and operations in the near issue, except that development is level, opportunities exist but should be future, perhaps starting with Liberia, exactly the activity they have now expanded and strengthened instead of may represent a new milestone. The become involved with in Afghanistan the ad hoc approach relied upon to this fundamental point is that the onus and Iraq. Their superficial training and point. Donors need to be an integral seems to be on the military to alter the rudimentary understanding of how to part of this process. way they operate when working along- best provide assistance makes CA sus- side humanitarians. Humanitarians, by definition and purpose, must maintain in Afghanistan referring to coalition while others struggle. These units can the principles of independence, neu- soldiers, who went from shooting the also be personality driven to a degree trality and impartiality in helping enemy to fixing schools. Yet, the “blur- higher than expected. This plays out in those in need. For their part, humani- ring of the lines” seems to be part of a the field by some CA units facilitating tarians should be open-minded (to the larger trend in the humanitarian humanitarian work while others might fact, for example, that coalition forces industry and so perhaps humanitari- inadvertently compete with them normally make genuine efforts to bet- ans need to find a way to deal with it.59 while trying to do “something good.” ter the situation) while remaining true At the least, what is needed is fur- Commenting on where to go post-Iraq to their guiding principles, both per- ther dialogue and clarification between for civil affairs, one solider comment- sonal and organizational. the military and humanitarians if the ed, “The best idea might be to scrap The military, on the other hand, cycle of relearning lessons is to end. the whole thing, and contract it out.”63 has a much more singular purpose, For the military, this means a full reex- In conclusion, there are several which is winning wars. Provided that amination of the way they do business, questions to consider for further strategic, operational and tactical leading to real change. And for analysis. At the geo-political level, the 75 objectives are fulfilled, interaction with humanitarians, rather than decreased main question remains: How can the civilians can be carried out in various dialogue, what is needed is a greater military successes in Afghanistan and ways, and not necessarily in its present unity of effort and clarity of both core Iraq be translated into durable peace? form. According to the Cuny Center principles and operational issues. To move the humanitarian-military report, the “DoD can't improve its fit Humanitarians might benefit from relationship again forward, three sig- in humanitarian operations without further codification or guidelines nificant questions deserve close first improving its memory, its record- regarding their relationship with the examination. ing of what its impact was. A chief fail- military.60 To be sure, flexibility is cru- First, what is the best use of ure of DoD's after-action reports to cial and this is the likely reason some- resources? Collective thought should date is that they record the lessons of thing more significant has not been in be devoted to determining results that humanitarian activities using methods place before now. As Barry and Jefferys can be translated into best practices. that are not rigorous, and which do observe, such engagement is “not a This analysis should be comprehensive not take into account the perspectives shift to humanitarian minimalism, and take quality of outcome into of achievement of other actors.”58 purism or isolationism – it is a clear account as well as quantity of output U.S. Army CA units have a value- affirmation of a commitment to the by humanitarians, the military and added, force multiplier, combat sup- principles and values enshrined in the other actors in relief and post-war port role. Their overall mission is first, Geneva Conventions and in the Red reconstruction. If the existing force to help separate or clear civilians away Cross Code of Conduct.”61 structure cannot achieve the mission, from battle areas to increase the effi- Internal change within U.S. Army then why sink so many resources into ciency of military operations, and sec- CA will almost certainly be called for PRTs and other ‘solutions’ that aren’t ond, to build stability once fighting in the after-action reviews of Iraq. working? There is room for the mili- has stopped. In Iraq, and to a lesser Although it is unclear what the results tary to carry out civic action projects degree in Afghanistan, spiraling vio- will be, altering the organization, to gain good will at home while “win- lence and a blurred line between war equipment and structure of CA will ning hearts and minds” in theater, but and peace have complicated this sec- likely be recommended by some. the budgets given to Coalition forces ond mission. This has led to a reluc- There is a need for a larger number of seem to be out of proportion with tance of humanitarians to work closely junior enlisted CA soldiers. “We just these goals, which are not the same as with active combatants. It is the fact don’t have enough people to get things total reconstruction of the infrastruc- that CA’s role spans across the spec- done,” commented one officer.62 Such ture and national institutions. As has trum of conflict into peace that trou- changes may address some of the les- been mentioned, military forces are bles many humanitarians. “How can sons learned outlined in this paper. more expensive to field and it is this combatants be humanitarians?” was a Just like humanitarian organiza- “overhead” that could be used to go frequent refrain among relief workers tions, some CA battalions do well directly to help those in need. Andjela in Farah province in March 2003.

point where the mission is not mov- an Age of Terrorism: Background Paper ing forward for want of the full com- International Expert Conference,” mitment of human resources and accessed 15 July 2003 http://hwproject.tufts.edu/ equipment yet to be fulfilled by UN publications/abstracts/haat.html 1May member states. Therefore the lessons 2002, pp. 3-6. of the past decade are not now without 6 Op Cit. relevance. 7 Pugh, Michael, “Civil-Military Relations in Peace Support Operations: hegemony Footnotes: or emancipation?” London: ODI, 1 See, e.g., Kaldor, Mary New and Old February 2001, p. 2. Wars: Organized Violence in a Global 8 See, e.g., Morris, Tim “Civil-military rela- Second, an important question to Era. Stanford CA: Stanford University tions in Afghanistan” Forced Migration consider for the continuation of this Press, 1999. Review #13, accessed 9 August 2003 discourse is: Do the people on the 2 See, e.g., Chapter 2 of Fred Halliday’s http://www.fmreview.org/1frames.htm, p. Two Hours that Shook the World. ground (e.g. local inhabitants, benefi- 14. This is also based on this author’s 76 London: Saqi Books, 2002. personal observations in Afghanistan. ciaries, host country nationals) care 3 By the military, I mean specifically those 9 Personal observation. In Kunduz, for about the distinctions between from Western democracies and mostly example, the Coalition was “uninvited” to humanitarians and the military? Is it refer to the U.S. Army and others, namely area NGO meetings. In Kabul, the CJC- the case that they often see them as the British Army, in this paper. U.S. MOTF held its own meetings which few one and the same? After all, those of Army Civil Affairs units are discussed NGOs attended and ISAF CIMIC attend- most closely in this article as the main ed UN weekly coordination meetings. the terrorist ilk do not distinguish point of contact for humanitarians in the 10 The PRTs were at first called “provision- between civilians and combatants. field – but other forces are active in their al reconstruction teams.” The way in which the last UN expatri- area including the U.S. Marines. By 11 ISAF of course has its own civil affairs ate was killed in Afghanistan and the humanitarians, I refer primarily to staff (CIMIC) units, which carry out assis- attack on the UN headquarters in of non-governmental organizations (or tance projects and other activities within private voluntary organizations) and their area of responsibility in and around Baghdad serves to illustrate this point. some other organizations like UN agen- Kabul. Yet, the discussion of the relationship cies that implement programs in post- 12 Speech made at a ribbon cutting at the between the Coalition military opera- conflict settings. For the purposes of this Kabul Medical Institute, accessed 17 July tions and humanitarians working in paper, the term humanitarian and “relief 2003, the same area rests firmly in a cosmo- workers” can be used interchangeably. I http://U.S.embassy.state.gov/posts/af1/ww would separate donors, politicos and oth- politan discourse where nuances in whsp021023.html October 23, 2002. ers attached to different international 13 CNN, “Donald Rumsfeld Addresses differences over rights and responsibil- organizations because they are not strict- Reporters,” accessed 17 July 2003 ities matters. In any case, Barry and ly bound to humanitarian principles. http://www.cnn.com/TRAN- Jefferys seem correct in placing the Private companies, acting as contractors SCRIPTS/0304/26/se.02.html, April 26, primacy on the beneficiaries: “the for the management of large bilateral 2003 civil-military debate needs to be rehabilitation efforts, are recipients of big 14 Jim Garamone, “The Alamo in business in both Iraq and Afghanistan. Afghanistan,” American Forces Press realigned to center first and foremost While these business contracts are seen as Service, accessed 5 August 2003, on the people in need in a humanitari- a way to reduce the cost of government http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Jul2003 an response.”64 and efficiently implement reconstruction /n07312003_200307313.html. And Low, Finally, is the association between grants, these actors may lack the princi- Christian, “Nation Building: U.S. Civil development and security becoming pled and community-based approaches Affairs troops are working in post-war humanitarians rely on. While it is a likely more complete? Do the military inter- Afghanistan right now. They’ll soon see a topic debate and ripe for further action in Iraq.” Army Times, 6 June 2003. ventions in Afghanistan and Iraq rep- research, the increased use of contractors Civil Affairs teams, it is noted, “will act as resent a fulfillment of the new hege- may represent a step back to the now middle men--and women--to help get monic paradigm? In some ways, it is debunked “old style” development. contractors in and construction projects still too early to tell, but unless such 4 See, e.g., Jervis, Robert “The Compulsive done for local villages.” massive interventions continue, it Empire,” Foreign Policy, Vol. 137, July- 15 Zeller, Shawn, “Activist attacks U.S. mili- August 2003, pp. 83-87. tary relief effort in Afghanistan,” accessed seems unlikely. Liberia is one case in 5 Minear, Larry, “Humanitarian Action in 17 July 2002 http://www.govexec.com/dai- a068.htm, 13 July 2001. the Interagency Process” Washington: lyfed/0503/051303sz1.htm, May 13, 2003 21 A list of their meetings is available on NDU Press Book, accessed 3 July, 16 This from a 14 August 2003 interview the CPA website. http://www. dodccrp.org/ngoIndex.html, with Dominic Nutt of Christian Aid, BBC 22 Before the recent war, an estimated 60% December 1996. televised interview of Iraqi’s relied on food provided 27 Ibid. Gordon. 17 It is true that Iraq is in many ways a through the UN and its oil-for-food pro- 28 One particular exchange is highlighted tribal society. Scot Ritter provides a brief gram. To operate in Iraq while it was by Larry Minear (Ibid. p. 11) in which a overview in Chapter 3 of his Endgame: under sanctions, U.S.-based humanitari- CA officer asked an operational NGO for Solving the Iraq Crisis, New York: Simon an organizations had to obtain licensed assistance with a project, and the organi- & Schuster, 1999. See also Dunnigan, permission (OFAC) from the U.S. State zation’s manager reaffirmed his view on James, “Winning the Peace in Iraq,” Department. Some organizations were their respective roles. accessed 15 August 2003 active, especially in Kurdish areas, but the 29 It continues, “This is essential to ensure http://www.strategypage. com/dls/arti- coordination structures and level of expe- that (1) it is founded on the knowledge cles/20030307.asp, 4 March 2003. rience among staff is less than found in and experience of the assistance commu- 18 McConnell, Kathryn, Washington File, many other countries. nity in Afghanistan, (2) it integrates “Goal of Army Civil Affairs Unit is 23 Fitz-Gerald, Ann, and Neal, Derrick “A effectively with existing civilian-led assis- Minimal Uprooting of Iraqis,” accessed Strategic Management Framework for tance coordination efforts, and (3) it is 77 15 August 2003, http://usinfo.state.gov/ Improved Aid Delivery” Unpublished driven primarily by the aim of achieving regional/nea/iraq/03031708.htm. See also paper. 2003, p. 7 long-term positive impact for Afghan U.S. Army Field Manual 41-10 Civil 24 Op. Cit., p. 8 communities.” Agency Coordinating Affairs (2000), which details the different 25 Beauregard notes that six principle fac- Body for Afghan Relief. “ACBAR policy tasks which Civil Affairs may undertake, tors have hampered civil-military cooper- brief: NGOs concerns and recommenda- including “dislocated civilian planning” ation and coordination: varying cultures tions on civil-military relations,” accessed in Appendix B in different levels of con- and ideologies, organizational structures, 25 July 2003 http://www.reliefweb.int, 7 flict intensity. communication breakdowns, independ- Dec 2002 19 See, e.g., Nash, Douglas “Civil Affairs in ence of NGOs, impartiality, and use of 30 Unattributable interview with a Civil the Gulf War: Administration of an occu- force. My list is slightly more concise but Affairs officer. 1 August 2003, Baghdad. pied town,” Special Warfare, October concurs with his thesis. Beauregard, 31 Duffield, Mark, “NGO Relief in War 1994 pp.18-27 Andre “Civil Military Relations: Lessons Zones: Toward an Analysis of the New 20 Actually, modern Civil Affairs units from Somalia, the Former Yugoslavia and Aid Paradigm,” Third World Quarterly, trace their lineage to the closing phases of Rwanda” Ploughshares Monitor, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1999, pp. 527-542. the Second World War when massive December 1998, accessed 10 Jul 03 32 These have even been white as observed civilian displacement and reconstruction http://www. ploughshares. by this author in Sierra Leone, among was needed. At that time, entire CA divi- ca/content/MONITOR/ mond98g.html. other places, in March 2003. Editor’s sions were formed and carried out many 26 The post-Gulf War I Operation Provide “Letter Critiques U.S. Military Dress in of the same missions they are tasks with Comfort to assist Kurds where the mili- Afghanistan” accessed 12 August 2003, in Afghanistan and Iraq. For a short his- tary arrived more or less first and provid- http://www.humanitariantimes.org /arti- torical overview see, e.g., Gordon, Stuart, ed much of the direct assistance seems to cle.php?sid=101 ,12 May 2002. “Understanding the priorities for civil- be an exception rather than the rule. See 33 Siegel, Adam, “Civil-Military Marriage military co-operation” The Journal of e.g. Davidson, Lisa, Hayes, Margaret, and Counseling: Can this Union Be Saved?” Humanitarian Assistance, accessed 15 Landon, James “Humanitarian and Peace Special Warfare, December 2002, p. 30 August 2003, http://www.jha.ac/articles/ Operations: NGOs and the Military in 34 Although this may have been corrected,

From left to right: Young and old street vendors in Farah province, man selling automotive supplies in Farah province. A village elder welcomes a marine as he and other members of his unit arrive to monitor food distribution.

Courtesy of Defense Visual Information Center

this was true of the enlisted basic civil 41 Ibid. Pugh, p. 2. per person in Afghanistan has been a affairs course in 2001. 42 U.S. Ambassador Robert Finn Speech fraction of other recent crisis including 35 Ibid. Beauregard made at ribbon cutting at Kabul Medical East Timor and Rwanda. See, e.g., “Not a 36 This was the case in Iraq in August 2003 Institute, accessed 15 July 03 http://usem- Dress Rehearsal,” The Economist, 16 and earlier in Afghanistan. Interestingly, bassy.state.gov/posts/af1/wwwh- August 2003, pp. 41-43. the Coalition provided mobile cellular sp021023.html October 23, 2002 48 Ibid. Minear p. 7 phones at no cost to many humanitarians 43 Ibid. Zeller. 49 Accessed at http://www.thecunycenter.org/ in Baghdad. 44 Ibid. Siegel. See also, the Stimson publications/greaterefficiency.pdf, p. 119 37 The UN official Antonio Donini distin- Center report, http://www.stimson.org, 50 Ibid. Gordon. guishes between three types of coordina- which costs the yearly price of a U.S. sol- 51 Several articles found regarding Civil tion; from strong “by command,” loser dier in Afghanistan at US$215,000 while Affairs at the Center for Army Lessons “by consensus” and “by default.” See his humanitarians usually cost a tenth of this. Learned (available at http://call.army. “The Policies of Mercy: UN 45 Kennedy, Harold “Pentagon Broadens mil/Products) illustrate this point. Coordination in Afghanistan, Duties for its Civil Affairs Teams” 52 This was the sentiment of several per- Mozambique, and Rwanda” Occasional National Defense, http://www.nationalde- sonnel spoken to in Baghdad. Paper #22, Providence, R.I.: Watson fensemagazine.org/article.cfm?Id=1034, 53 Ibid. McConnell. Institute, 1996. February 2003 54 Unattributable interview, 1 Aug 03 38 Recommendation made in August 2000 46 See e.g. Gordon, Stuart, “Understanding Baghdad U.S. Institute of Peace Workshop entitled the priorities for civil-military co-opera- 55 Telephone Interview 26 July 03 “Taking it to the Next Level: Civilian- tion” The Journal of Humanitarian 56 This code is available at www.peo- Military Cooperation in Complex Assistance, http://www.jha.ac/articles/ pleinaid.org.uk Emergencies” accessed 26 August 2003 a068.htm, posted 13 July 2001 57 Ibid. Fitz-Gerald p. 7 www.usip.org/virtualdiplomacy/activi- 47 According to several sources, during the 58 Ibid. p. 118 ties/vdiplo-share/cmcice.html first year of Coalition operations in 59 As noted by David Lewis of the LSE: 39 Unattributable telephone interview with Afghanistan October 2001 to October “There are many blurred lines in this new humanitarian manager dated 6 July 2003. 2002, over $10 billion went to military world – corporates and academics, many 40 See, e.g., Joint Publication 3-07, Joint operations while $1.16 billion was spent aware of funding opportunities and the Doctrine for Military Operations Other on humanitarian relief and $0.37 billion legitimacy conferred by NGO status are Than War, June 1995, p. IV-6 for reconstruction. The dollar amount starting to work as NGOs.” Ensuring the Independence of NGOs in New Funding and earthquake victims alike was their Environments. Accessed 3 Aug 03 appreciation that the DART members http://www.bond.org.uk/futures/inde- The items airlifted to Bam included had relinquished their important holi- pendence.htm#report 13 Dec 1999. 60 Many organizations have forwarded plastic sheeting for emergency shelter, day season to travel to Iran to assist guidelines for the way in which humani- blankets, winterized tents, medical sup- the residents of Bam. tarians coordinate with the military but plies, hygiene kits, kitchen sets, and a there is no single accepted policy. Perhaps forklift to assist with the off-loading of the most widely known is that of the Red the relief supplies. Cross which states that, “we will never Before departing Bam, the field knowingly - or through negligence - allow ourselves, or our employees, to be hospital and medical supplies were Continued from War in Afghanistan used to gather information of a political, donated to the IFRC. The two Fairfax coming months. military or economically sensitive nature County emergency vehicles and por- It is our hope that agreement will for governments or other bodies that may tions of the remaining relief equip- be reached that NGOs and the military serve purposes other than those which ment and supplies were transferred to will respond to crises in ways that are strictly humanitarian, nor will we act 79 as instruments of foreign policy of donor the IFRC for use by the Bam Fire allow those affected to benefit, by both governments,” available at http://www. Department and Iranian Red Crescent the military and NGOs engaging in ifrc.org/ publicat/conduct/code.asp. The Society. In addition, the DART donat- activities in which they have the com- UN drafted the so-called “Oslo ed tents, a vehicle, and various relief parative advantage. The military will Guidelines” in 1994 o establish some supplies to UN OCHA. Between focus on security and NGOs will pro- basis for interaction between UN and government militaries, see “Guidelines on December 31 and January 14, the U.S. vide humanitarian assistance. Military the Use of Military and Civil Defense Government provided experts and participation in relief activities will be Assets in Disaster Relief” Project DPR emergency commodities and funded limited to situations in which this 213/3 MCDA, UNDHA-Geneva, medium-term recovery projects either is an obligation, i.e. when the www.reliefweb.int, May 1994. Some through NGOs and U.N. agencies. The United States occupies foreign territo- bilateral governments have established U.S. Government’s contribution ry and becomes responsible for the their own recommendations including the Australian aid agency ACFOA in totaled more than $10.2 million. welfare of its inhabitants under the 2002, available at http://www.reliefweb. Throughout the DART’s deploy- terms of the fourth Geneva Conven- int/w/lib.nsf/libHome?ReadForm&Query ment, relations with Iranian officials tion, or only the military can reach =libByKeyword_7&cat=Civil+and+Milita were cordial and cooperative. Kerman vulnerable groups because insecurity ry+Cooperation. OXFAM, among others, Provincial officials facilitated our tran- precludes access by NGOs and drafted its own position paper outlining its stance regarding military forces carry- sit to Bam. Contrary to some media other members of the humanitarian ing out what would normally be humani- reports, we were warmly received by community. tarian tasks in Iraq. See “Iraq: the Iranian public. While setting up Programs undertaken by the mili- Humanitarian-Military Relations,” the DART’s camp in Bam, the head of tary to win hearts and minds under Oxfam Briefing Paper 41, available at the Republican Guard stopped by to the guise of humanitarianism would www.oxfam.org.uk/policy/papers/ thank us for our assistance and pre- 41iraq/41iraq.html. come to an end. These programs 61 Barry, Jane and Jefferys, Anna “A bridge sented us with gifts of roses, dates, and would be acknowledged for what they too far: aid agencies and the military in pistachio nuts. On New Year’s Eve, the are, i.e. psychological operations in humanitarian response” Humanitarian governor of Kerman visited our camp support of strategic objectives. And Practice Network, Overseas Development and joined us in welcoming the New instead of handing out rations, the Institute, Jan 2002, p. 15 Year. Senior Iranian representatives military would be constructing ball 62 Unattributable interview. 1 August 2003, Baghdad. from the Foreign Ministry, Health fields and courthouses. 63 Unattributable interview. 30 July 2003, Ministry, Ministry of Transportation, Baghdad. and Ministry of Interior offered and 64 Op. Cit., Barry p. 15 provided assistance to the DART. The thread that ran through the comments of senior Iranian government officials Author Profiles

Colonel Michael Morrison retired Instructor of the Canadian Forces' Peace Support Rights and Humanitarian Affairs. from the Canadian Forces in the sum- Training Centre in Kington. He was part of the mer of 2001 with 37 years of military Center of Excellence's team for 2000/2001 peace William Garvelink's responsibilities service. He is currently an external operations training sessions held in Thailand. since May 2001 include oversight of faculty member of the Pearson Peacekeeping USAID’ s worldwide humanitarian Centre with recent experience facilitating on the Brien Hallett's research and teaching assistance and democracy programs. Peacekeeping Negotiation and Legal Framework of interests are Peace Studies, Offices within the Bureau for Modern Peacekeeping courses, and working as a Humanitarian Assistance, Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance Directing Staff member on a major peacekeeping International Humanitarian Law, and include the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance exercise conducted for the German/Netherlands the Congressional War Powers. He manages a (OFDA), Office of Transition Initiatives (OTI), Office Corps Headquarters. He has also worked as an graduate-level certificate program in Disaster of Food for Peace (FFP), Office of Democracy and instructor on the Enhanced International Peace- Management, Humanitarian Assistance and Governance, Office of Conflict Management and keeping Capabilities Instructor Course conducted Peacekeeping. Hallett’ s most recent book is "The Mitigation (CMM) and the Office of Private and at the Center for Civil-Military Relations, US Navy Lost Art of Declaring War" (University of Illinois Voluntary Cooperation (PVC). Mr. Garvelink is a Post-Graduate School Monterey, California, USA. Press, 1998), and his most recent journal article, member of the Senior Foreign Service. with Ralph Summy, is "Detooling the Language of Prior to this appointment, Mr. Garvelink served Dr. Elizabeth Blalock was raised in the Masters' House" (Peace & Change April 2003) since 1999 as the USAID Mission Director in Eritrea. 80 New York City, and completed her in which he uses an analysis of language to sug- From 1988 to 1999 Mr. Garvelink served in OFDA medical school training in neurology gest new strategies for nuclear abolition. first as the Assistant Director for Response and at Emory University in Atlanta, then as the Deputy Director. While in OFDA, he Georgia. She practiced neurology at Kaiser Andjela Jurisic was born in 1973 in conducted assessments and directed relief opera- Permanente in southern California until her retire- Germany. She studied European tions in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Near East, ment in August 2003. Dr. Blalock is a graduate of Integration at the University of Bonn Europe and in the former Soviet Union. Mr. the 2002 Honolulu Health Emergencies in Large and Development Management at Garvelink led Disaster Assistance Response Teams Populations Course. She took a sabbatical for her the University of Sussex (IDS). She has substantial (DARTs) to Albania, Armenia, Democratic Republic work in Uganda. Since retiring, Dr. Blalock has vol- work experience of civil-military and humanitarian of the Congo, Haiti, northern Iraq, Kenya, Rwanda, unteered her services in community clinics and is affairs gained in the Balkan wars, as well as in Somalia and most recently Bam, Iran. looking forward to additional volunteer activity post-conflict regions, including Iraq, Afghanistan overseas. She currently resides in Honolulu, HI. and Kosovo. Jurisic was involved in public informa- In 1998, Roy Brennen joined the IRC tion campaigning during Operation Allied Force in the former Yugoslavia where he Dr. Thomas Ditzler is Director of with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization worked on a project with the princi- Research for the Department of (NATO) in Brussels, Belgium and the Organization pal goal of community building and Psychiatry at Tripler Army Medical for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) in conflict resolution. After the eruption of the Center and an member of the preparation of the first Parliamentary Elections in “Kosovo Crisis” he designed and supervised water adjunct faculty at the COE. He has completed Kosovo, November 2001. and sanitation programs in Kosovo and many humanitarian aid training missions around Other notable professional assignments Macedonia. From the Balkans, in 2000, Roy moved the world, and consults frequently on terrorism include guest lecturing at West Point Military to Sudan to coordinate emergency operations for issues. He is a contributing author of the recently Academy and the London School of Economics, the IRC as a result of the Eritrean/Ethiopian War. released Understanding Terrorism: Psychosocial conducting research with the United States He moved to Pakistan to work with newly Roots, Consequences and Interventions Institute of Peace (USIP), the European Institute in emerging Afghan refugee camps and to Western (Moghaddam & Marsella, Eds). Dr. Ditzler also Washington DC, the Chicago Tribune, CNN Afghanistan to manage camps of people displaced serves as a UN Peacekeeping Operations Trainer International in Atlanta, and the UN Observer in by three years of drought. After a brief respite, he and is a Senior Fellow at CTR International. New York. Recently, she was assigned as reviewer returned to Afghanistan to work with the Danish and contributor to the 4th e-Symposium with the Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees on agricul- Major Richard De Leon is the Clinical Japan Centre for Conflict Prevention and invited to tural and water development programs and Director of the Tri-Service Addiction present this paper at the 9th Cornwallis workshop drought mitigation activities. Recovery Facility (TRISARF), on Analysis for Stabilization and Counter-Terrorist Roy moved from central Asia to Indonesia to Department of Psychiatry at Tripler Operations organized by the George Mason provide training and support for Mercy Corps Army Medical Center, Honolulu, Hawaii. He is an University, USA. water and sanitation programs. He the COE in July Air Force Biomedical Services Corps Officer. Maj De 2003 as a Training Advisor in the Humanitarian Leon is a graduate of the Air Force Air Command Director for Humanitarian Policy and Practice at Affairs and Practice Unit. and Staff College and a Senior Fellow at CTR InterAction since 1995, James Bishop works with International. the members of the 160-agency NGO coalition on David Vinjamuri is a graduate of the disaster response abroad. He also is a member of Fletcher School of Law & Diplomacy, Roy Thomas is a former Senior UN the management committee of the Sphere Project. has worked in the US State Military Observer, Sector Sarajevo, A retired U.S. Foreign Service Officer, he spent the Department and researched health 1993/94 plus UN tours in Cyprus, the final 14 years of his 33 year career on assignments and nutrition programs in rural India under a Golan, South Lebanon, Afghanistan, as U.S. Ambassador to Niger, Liberia and Somalia Kellogg Foundation grant. He lives in New York. Macedonia, Bosnia and Haiti. His last military and as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for appointment before retirement was as Chief Africa and Deputy Assistant Secretary for Human Editorial Continued quires that these states and institutions are aware and competent enough to perform synchronously the myriad of diverse tasks es- sential for sustainable peace. Not long ago, a highly experienced senior officer from a nation in the Asia Pacific, after many years of involvement in the kinetic aspects of warfare, made an observation that was striking. Speaking of our collective effort in the global war on terrorism he said “our success will not be measured in how many terrorists we kill, but how many come over to our side.” Whatever their role in controlled violence for political means, a significant group and perhaps even a majority of our colleagues in uniform recognize the critical importance of clean water, jobs, schools and a judicial system in attaining sustainable peace. Engaged civilian agencies and militaries share the challenge of sorting out roles and adjusting to this reality. Implicit are the decisions that must be made about levels of support and the division of labor by nations and their armies, non-state actors such as non-governmental organizations and nations acting collectively within the UN system. COE places special importance in its role to promote more effective means to achieve this unity of purpose by bringing significant contributors to the process together. We will continue to do so. As we go to press, competencies are already being improved within the US Department of Defense and other defense related organizations at the strategic, operational and tactical levels. Within the past few months, COE has been working with the Marine Force Pacific staff in an ini- tiative to develop measures of effectiveness in conflict transition, specifically for use by their deployed forces in Iraq. The Marines want to know how to measure their success in supporting transition from war to peace in Iraq. Their design allows for the input of independent observers in a “reach-back” capability to non-military organizations (essentially non-governmental organi- zations). Our Marines understand that reliable feedback will help them adjust their activities to maximize progress toward stability and their own demobilization. At the policy level, the Office of the Undersecretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness published a strategic plan to trans- form training within the department as far back as March 2002. It emphasized, “dynamic, capabilities-based training…across the full spectrum of service, joint, interagency, intergovern- mental and multinational operations.” An implementation plan was published in June 2003, and a series of conferences, symposia and workshops that address various aspects are being held at the National Defense University, all part of the build-up to the development of joint training doctrine that meets new challenges. We at COE take heart in the debate and quality of all of these efforts. We hope the discussion will continue.

Corrections

In the previous issue of The Liaison (Volume III, Number 1, p. 19) in Dr. Frederick E. Machmer's article Reflections of Afghanistan: Humanitarian Aid and Early Civilian-Military Interface in Afghanistan, the sentence, "Problems with the UN bureaucracy of agencies seem endemic in such situations (although UNICEF field leadership stood out, following the intervention of Administrator Natsios and WFP)" should have read, "Problems with the UN bureaucracy of agencies seem endemic in such situations (although UNICEF field leadership stood out, as did, following the intervention of Administrator Natsios, WFP)." "In other words, I meant to say that UNICEF field leadership and WFP field leadership both stood out, although it was Andrew Natsios' intervention that turned around the WFP on this score." – Dr. Machmer. The editor apologizes for the misinterpretation of the original manuscript. C/O Tripler Army Medical Center 1 Jarrett White Road (MCPA-DM) Tripler AMC, HI 96859-5000 PH: 808-433-7035 FAX: 808-433-1757 EMAIL: [email protected] WEB SITE: http://coe-dmha.org d e v r e s e r

s t h g i r

l l A

•

4 0 0 2

©

t h g i r y p o C

•

A H M D

e c n e l l e c x E

f

o

r e

t

n e C