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Music and Culture Areas of Native California

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Music and Culture Areas of Native California UC Merced Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology Title Music and Culture Areas of Native California Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5rz0w7qg Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 14(2) ISSN 0191-3557 Author Keeling, Richard Publication Date 1992-07-01 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 14, No. 2. pp. 146-158 (1992). Music and Culture Areas of Native California RICHARD KEELING, Dept. of Ethnomusicology and Systematic Musicology, Univ. of California, Los Angeles, CA 90024. IJ ROM the standpoint of ethnomusicology, the music or the performance contexts of public California has been described as a neglected singing are noted throughout. field of research (Wallace 1978:648) and one of The focus is on vocal music, and instru­ the least well-known areas in all of North mental music is discussed mainly in relation to America (Vennum 1979:349). In fact, however, these styles, as a more complete account would thousands of recordings have been collected in pose a new set of comparative problems and the area, and there is a fairly extensive literature entail different descriptive strategies. More­ providing song-texts, translations, and other in­ over, except for the section which follows, this formation concerning the performance contexts paper deals with public performance styles of and functions of native music. For many tribes music and dance that are still being performed or localities, the music itself has been notated today or for which there are recordings which and analyzed in considerable detail. Only a indicate the musical texture and other char­ small portion of this data is considered in Bruno acteristics of ensemble singing. Usually, this Nettl's widely accepted synopsis of the "Cali­ means fairly recent tape recordings, because fornia-Yuman" music area (1954:18-21), and a earlier collectors, confined to disc phonographs more accurate and balanced overview now or the older cylinder equipment, mainly record­ seems possible. ed solo singing or speech in an interview This paper sketches the principal music and setting. culture areas of native California and identifies There remain some important gaps in the general characteristics that distinguish the region record—areas in which indigenous musical tradi­ in the overall sphere of Native American music. tions have become extinct and for which ade­ Rather than provide notations or detailed analy­ quate documentation may not exist or further ses I describe the music according to a set of research is necessary. For these regions I shall general parameters that I have found useful in only try to describe the evidence that exists, previous comparative research. The following suggest some probabilities, and assess the elements are considered: (1) vocal quality or prospects for future research. timbre; (2) presence of words or vocables, ANIMAL-SPEECH SONGS AND THEIR text-setting, and repetition of text; (3) musical HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE organization or texture; (4) musical form or structure, including phrase-length; (5) melodic As George Herzog once observed (1935:24), range or ambitus; (6) melodic contour or direc­ Native American musical repertories are not tion; (7) scale, particularly number of tones in usually homogeneous but generally include scale; (8) rhythm, especially meter; and (9) "foreign" elements and "survivals" as well as other notable tendencies. For readers who want songs in the dominant public style or styles. more detailed information, sources describing While this paper follows established procedure MUSIC AND CULTURE AREAS OF NATIVE CALIFORNIA 147 in focusing on the latter, it seems important at expressed by Herzog, who called these "animal the outset to discuss a certain genre or type of songs" as a sort of generic label (1935:30-31). song that is likely to be excluded from standard My own study of over 100 such songs (Keeling comparative studies but has considerable sig­ 1992a) leads me to agree with Herzog. The nificance from an historical perspective. basic characteristics of this type of song can be The earliest wax cylinder recordings of listed as follows. native Californians were collected by Alfred L. 1. The vocal delivery is speech-like, but Kroeber shortly after 1900 among Yurok besides having more pitch inflection it usually Indians along the lower Klamath River. Many differs from normal speech through presence of of these were of spoken texts, but the collection nasality, glottalization, or other mannerisms which signify the speech of spirit- persons or also included songs with titles such as the animals. following: money medicine song, deer hunting 2. The songs usually have words rather than song, song used in boat when water is rough, vocables, and the setting of the text is syllabic. medicine song from Buzzard for stomach sick­ 3. This is basically a soloistic genre (though certain styles of group singing fit the same ness, lucky song for gathering acorns, medicine general profile). song to dissolve anger, song for doctoring a sick 4. The song usually consists of one or two dog, and so on (Keeling 1991). Far from being brief phrases that are repeated several times (ten an artform or a means of entertainment, this or more on most recordings). 5. The melodic range is very narrow (a fifth type of Yurok song was magical in function, or less). used to wish for something or bring about some 6. The melodic contour is level or undulat­ specific result. A great diversity existed, as ing. these songs touched on nearly every aspect of 7. Songs in which pitches can be discerned have simple scales with only two, three, or four native culture in its aboriginal forms. notes (though exceptions occur). These personal "medicine" songs were 8. Simple meters (for example 2/4 or 3/4) usually simple and repetitive in character: in tend to be most common, but there is much variety in this respect, and irregular or complex most cases one or two melodic phrases were meters are also frequently heard; the tempo is repeated over and over for as long as the singer usually moderate or slow. wished. Most often the song was considered to 9. The songs have a simple and repetitive be an imitation of something that a spirit-person character, giving the clear impression of an incantation rather than a "song" as such. or animal said or did in the mythic time before human beings existed, and in many cases the These songs are hardly ever heard today, song was quite speech-like, though always with but I mention them first because so many have certain mannerisms that distinguished it from been collected in the California region as a normal human speech. whole. This may be due in part to the fact that This general type of song has been collected Indians of the northern and Sierra Nevada all over North America, among various Inuit regions were among the last in North America and Yupik cultures of the Arctic region, and to be influenced by contact with Euro-Amer­ even among the indigenous peoples of Siberia icans. The elderly singers whom Kroeber inter­ and elsewhere in northeastern Asia. Because of viewed along the Klamath River at the turn of this huge distribution and the relatively simple the century could remember songs as they ex­ character of these songs, some believe that they isted before most Indians in that area had ever represent an ancient form of Native American even seen a white person. Native Americans of singing and perhaps even the basic style from most other regions had by this time been af­ which all others developed. This is an idea first fected by contact with whites for hundreds of 148 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY years. This is one reason why California Indian group) and the syncopated solo part that is sung music can be said to have a particularly ancient by a lead singer. heritage. With this in mind, let us proceed to a This type of counterpoint is very rare in summary showing the major areas in which pre­ Native American music, but some form of it dominant public styles can be distinguished. occurs in nearly all types of group singing from this area. In fact, there are several general NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA characteristics that hold for all northwestern A very unique and relatively self-contained California ceremonial singing (except in Flower civilization developed in this area. It was Dance songs), and the same basic style is heard centered among the Yurok, Karok, and Hupa in gambling songs. These basic traits can be tribes but was shared to a lesser extent by listed as follows. neighboring Indian groups in northwestern Cali­ 1. The solo part often has a "sobbing" fornia and southern Oregon. While in some quality, and there is much tension, pulsation, respects (First Salmon Ceremony, importance of nasality, and glissando. 2. The song-texts most often consist of status and wealth, etc.) these cultures can be vocables rather than words, and the setting is viewed as belonging to the Pacific Northwest melismatic. culture area, their ritual systems and music are 3. The musical texture features a solo part distinctively Califomian and without close plus some type of bass part sung by the group. 4. The melodic form is typically strophic or parallels elsewhere. through-composed, and songs usually include a Two of the most important northwestern contrasting phrase or groups of phrases sung at California ceremonies are the White Deerskin a higher pitch level than the opening melodic phrases. Dance and the Jump Dance. These are compar­ 5. The melodic range is extremely wide able to New Year celebrations, but they are (usually an octave or more, and often as wide as deeply religious in character as their purpose is a twelfth).
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