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Pennsylvania Folklife Magazine Pennsylvania Folklife Society Collection
Spring 1970 Pennsylvania Folklife Vol. 19, No. 3 Toni F. Fratto
David C. Winslow
Leslie P. Greenhill
Elizabeth Clarke Kieffer
Don Yoder
See next page for additional authors
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Recommended Citation Fratto, Toni F.; Winslow, David C.; Greenhill, Leslie P.; Kieffer, Elizabeth Clarke; Yoder, Don; and Hollyday, Guy Tilghman, "Pennsylvania Folklife Vol. 19, No. 3" (1970). Pennsylvania Folklife Magazine. 40. https://digitalcommons.ursinus.edu/pafolklifemag/40
This Book is brought to you for free and open access by the Pennsylvania Folklife Society Collection at Digital Commons @ Ursinus College. It has been accepted for inclusion in Pennsylvania Folklife Magazine by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Ursinus College. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Authors Toni F. Fratto, David C. Winslow, Leslie P. Greenhill, Elizabeth Clarke Kieffer, Don Yoder, and Guy Tilghman Hollyday
This book is available at Digital Commons @ Ursinus College: https://digitalcommons.ursinus.edu/pafolklifemag/40 SPRING, 1970 Contributors to this Issue
MRS. TONI F. FRATTO, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on Halloween In Pennsylvania," appeared in the Key is a graduate student in the Folklore and Folklife Pro stone Folklore Quarterly, XIV: 3 (Fall 1969), 122-123. gram at the University of Pennsylvania. Her article on Italian Traditional Cookery in Philadelphia is the ELIZABETH CLARKE KIEFFER, now of Penney first of a new series for Pennsylvania Folklife on Ethnic Farms, Florida, was for many years Reference Librar Cookery in Pennsylvania. ian, Fackenthal Library, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. The author of many articles, DAVID C. WINSLOW, Oswego, New York, teaches lectures, and studies on Pennsylvania German history English and Folklore at the State University of New and genealogy, she has produced the standard biogra York at Oswego, and is finishing his Ph.D. dissertation phy, Henry Harbaugh: Pennsylvania Dutchman (Penn in Folklore and Folklife at the University of Pennsylva sylvania German Society, Volume 55, 1950) . Her nia. His latest published article is "Bishop E. E. Everett article in this issue deals with a hitherto unknown and Some Aspects of Occultism and Folk Religion in chapter in the history of the 18th Century emigration Negro Philadelphia," K eyst one Folklore Quarterly, from the continent of Europe to the British Colonies, XIV: 2 (Summer 1969), 59-80. an official protest by the emigrants over bad treatment by the shipping companies and their captains. DR. LESLIE P. GREENHILL, State College, Penn sylvania, is Vice President for Resident Instruction at DR. GUY TILGHMAN HOLLYDAY, Bryn Mawr, the Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, is a native of Maryland who is teaching Pennsylvania, and Director of the American Archive German at the University of Pennsylvania. His article of the Encyclopaedia Cinematographica, the series in this issue, on the inscriptions of the Fraktur Wall of documentary films issued by the Institute for Sci Charts of the Ephrata Cloister, is one of a series of entific Film at the University of Gottingen in West textual studies of the High German language heritage Germany. An article by Dr. Greenhill, describing one in Pennsylvania which we have been concerned to of the Pennsylvania films in the encyclopedia, "A Film present to the readers of Pennsylvania Folklife. SPRING 1970 Vol. XIX, No.3 ED ITOR: Dr. Don Yoder EOITORI AL COMM ITT EE: D r. Mac E. Barri ck Contents LeRoy Gensler D r. Henry Gl ass ie Dr. John A. Hostetl er 2 Cooking in Red and White David J. Hufford TONI F. FRATTO Dr. Phil Jack Dr. Hilda A. Kring Dr. Mauri ce A. Mook 16 Trade Cards, Catalogs, and Invoice Heads Dr. Earl F. Robacker DAVID C. W INSLOW Dr. Alta Schrock 24 The Encyclopaedia Cinematographica SUBSCR IPTION R ATES: and Folklife Studies LESLIE P. GR EE NHILL $4.00 a year in the United States and Canada. Single copies $1. 50. 27 The Cheese Was Good ELIZAB ET H CLARK E KIEFFER MSS AND PH OTOGRAP HS: The EditOr will be glad to consider 30 Notes and Documents: Eighteenth-Century MSS and photOgraphs sent with a Letters from Germany view to publication. When unsuit Edited by DON YODER able, and if accompanied by return postage, every care will be exer 34 The Ephrata Wall-Charts and Their Inscriptions cised tOward their return, although GUY TILGHM AN H OLLYD AY no responsibility for their safety is assumed. 47 Itinerants: Peddlers, Drovers, Wagoners, Gypsies, Tramps PEN N 5 Y L V A N I A FOLKLIFE, Folk-Cultural Questionnaire No. 15 Spring , 19 70, Vol. 19, No. 3, pub lished quarterly by the Pennsyl Contributors to this Issue vania Folklife Society, Inc., lan (Inside Front Cover) caster, Pennsylvania. Subscriptions and business correspondence: Box Engravings of Pennsylvania Mills 1053, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Edi (Inside Back Cover) torial correspondence: Dr. Don Yoder, College Hall , Box 36, Uni versity of Pennsylvania, Philadel phia, Pennsylvahia 19104. Contents copyrighted. COVER: Pizzelle Irons, used by Italian-Am ericans to bake waffles, combine Entered as second class matter designs of various sorts. This one has the fl em d e lis and a coat ar Lancasrer, Pennsylvania. of arms containing playing card symbolism. Cooking In• RED and
By TONI F. FRATTO
T raditional cookery, it appears, is a fairly tenacious element of culture. The six Italian-Americans who very kindly a ll owed me to take hours of their time in inter views are all highly acculturated people. They live in thoroughl y American homes, dress in modern American fashion, send their children to public or parochial schools (run largely by an Irish clergy, they say) and even to coll ege. Four of the six speak Italian only brokenly, as a secondary language. Yet they remember cooking and- for the majority of dishes-still cook an amazing variety of definitely Italian foods. The changes they have made in the traditional cookery a re fairly obvious: American tastes look down on such things as organ meats, so these are seldom cooked anymore; some things, such as fresh blood or lamb's head are diffi cult to get in American markets and are therefore seld om on the tabl es; in general, Americans prefer slightly bl and foods, so some Italian dishes are now Josie A vellino making Raccala Stew. The salt fish, usually cod, is soaked for three days to remove thE made with less garlic and with light oils rather than salt, then cooked with onions, raisins, olives, and OliVE the rich olive oil ; perhaps most importantly, the chil oil. Stuffed artichokes are co oking in the covered pOI dren demand American foods, so Italian cookery is to the left. Fish dishes are very widespread in ltaliar. reduced to a two-or- three night a week event. cookery, both for everyday cookery and holidays. But the recipes are still alive. No one had to search Christmas Eve, for instance, is a " fish night" wher. their memories for long-forgotten dishes. M ost of these fish specialties are served. foods are cooked today, not as often as they used to be, but quite often enough to remain vital, and those few dishes no longer prepared (for instance, no one makes broth with chicken heads anymore) are remembered vividly and with a vague regret for their absence. All of these foods are traditional. I say this with a fair assurance, because all six informants learned their cooking by direct instruction and example from their mothers, mothers-in-law, and friends. N ot one had, or had ever read, an I tali an cookbook. Their recipes are maintained solely in their memories and in their hands. In fact, onl y one of the six could write or spell in Italian ; none of the others could even indicate the spelling or the I talian (as opposed to dialect ) pronun ciation of their words. These dishes have been handed down orall y and traditionally, without much change, fo r at least several generations, which fact is, I think, a fairly good indicator of their traditional nature. But what level or sector of tradition do they come from? T his is just abou t impossible to establish def initely, as these people's knowledge of their past does not extend back very far. One of the elderly ladies, Mrs. M antone, li ved on a farm in a small vill age which
2 from the older generation, from parents, and onl y sec ondarily from friends. H ow much of the coincidence is due to common influences in America and how much is due to a common culture area in Italy, I can only guess. It is my hypothesis that the general area of main land sou thern Italy (Abruzzi, Calabria, etc.) had a common tradition of cookery.
THE PEOPLE J. Mrs. Florence Esposit o Fratto Mrs. Fratto is a second-generation Italian-American. She learned to cook from her mother, who came from a town called "Basilrigad," some place in Abruzzi (she does not know where and isn't sure of the pronunciation of the town ) when she was a young girl. Mrs. Fratto's childhood, then, was spent entirely in America, and her cooking, admittedly, has been influenced by American tastes and the tastes of other I talian friends. She has grown children, and for them she cooks pasta of some kind once a week, and occasional Italian-style veg etables. Most of the other Italian dishes she must slip in "once in a while" for her husband and herself. H er cooking, she says, has changed quite a lot since the time when she was first married during the D epression. She cooked a lot of Italian food then, as that was what she had learned from her mother and as it was cheap and filling. As her children grew up, however, she began to cook meals that were faster, less work, and more pleasing to their American tastes. 2. Mr. Anthony Fratto Mr. Fratto is also a second-generation Italian American. His parents came from Italy as adults, and, as he has always been interested in food, he could remember quite a bit about what his mother used to Photography by Carter W. Craigie make. She was from the town of Catanzaro in Cala bria, and came to America as a young woman. She cooked Itali an food for her family all her life, and American cooking seems never to have inAuenced her. seems pretty definitely of the peasant culture type, in 3. Mrs. Josephine della Selva A vellino that her famil y grew, raised, and prepared for them Mrs. Avellino is a second-generation Italian-Amer selves practicall y a ll the necessities of life. Mrs. Riali, ican who learned to cook from her mother, who came the other elderl y lady, li ved in the town, in a family from Fraso T errasina (a town near Naples) as a young of small businessmen. The four second-generation woman, and from her mother-in-law, who came as an Itali an-Americans come from families that were def adult from Pompei. All of Mrs. Avellino's formative initely proletarian in this country and village-dwellers years, then, were spent in Ameri ca, but her cooking in the old country, but none have any memory of comes from people who learned in Italy. She says that what kind of li ves their ancestors led. As their fathers she cooked a lot of Italian food as a bride, a great deal all came here as unskill ed and u neducated laborers, I less as her children were growing up, and, interestingly would suggest that they most likely were peasants or enough, an increasing amount now as her grown chil agricultural proletarians in Italy. dren and her husband are becoming re-aware of their It is in teres ting to note that, by and large, the rep Italian heritage and are developing a ta te for the old ertoires of all six pretty much coincid e. I do not think dishes. that this is due to mutual inAu ence because, although 4. Mrs. V irginia Pellicciotti M antone all of these people are acquai ntances or friends of each Mrs. M antone is an elderly lady who came to Amer other, each one stresses that she had learned primarily ica twenty years ago. She lived until th n on a farm
3 in Cieli , near Vasto, in Abruzzi. She learned to cook from her mother and continues cooking, as much as the market wi ll all ow, in the old style. She lives with a married daughter, and her grandchildren are being brought up largely on Italian food. H er cooking has changed to the extent that now she must buy at the store many of the thin g~ they made for themselves on the farm. For instance, in Ci Ii, they made their own cheese, pressed their own oli ves, made their own wine, did their own butchering, raised all their own veg etabl e ; the onl y things they bought were the occas io nal fi h from the nearby sea-town. 5. Mrs. M ill,y Canonic a Giovanetti Mr . Giovanetti is a second-generation Itali an-Amer ican. H er mother died wh il e she was a child, so she learned to cook largely from her mother-in-law, who came to America as a young woman, from Benevento 'in Abruzz i. Mrs. Giovanetti says she cooks Itali an food for her husband and herself three times a week, but, except for their once-a-week pasta, she must cook American food for her children. H er own childhood was spent in America, but her mother-in-Iaw's was The home production of spaghetti. Mrs. Anthony Fratto spent in I taly, where she learned all of her cooking kneading the dough. The dough is rolled into long tongue techniques . Mrs. Giovanetti says her cooki ng has like pieces which are turned into spaghetti on the machine. T he most ancient way was of course to slice it by hand, changed over the years in that she has been making the way a Pennsylvania German housewife makes noodles increasingly less Italian food and in that she has Amer from noodle dough. Then boiled in the pot, it is ready icani zed the food to so me extent (such as substituting for the plate and the sauce. light oils for the oli ve oil. ) 6. Mrs. Florence Petrillo Riali Mrs. Riali is an elderly woman, a first-generation Itali an-American who came to America thirty-five years ago. She came from Foggia in the province of Puglia, near Bari ; most of her cooking is Barese, as her mother, from whom she learned to cook, came from Bari. H er cooking proved to be a bit more lavish and to have rather more variety than the others (for instance, she made a couple of di hes using beef ) be cause her family ran a restaurant in Foggia. However, shc assured me, all her cooking was traditional. She learned from her mother, who had learned from her mother, etc., and never did they use cookbooks. I tend to be convinced of this, because her cooking coincides to a great extent with that of all my other informants. Mrs. Riali lives with a married daughter, and both mother and daughter are intense in their loyalty to thing is mlssmg. They said they could find every I talian food ; nothing else is cooked in their home. thing they needed in their South Philadelphia neigh They feel somewhat possess ive of their recipes and gave borhood Italian markets or, for omething very scarce, them to me only on the co ndition that I u e them "for at Ninth Street, the open-air Italian and J ewish market. education" but not "for publication" ; in fact, they re D aily eating habits have undergone a great deal of fu sed to give me the recipes for the various Christmas accu lturative influence; this is perhaps most obvious cookies they make. This pride and possessiveness is the when laid out in a chart. first I have encountered- the rest of my informants The schedule of meals over the week seems also to were sli ghtly apologetic abou t their traditional foods, have undergone some change. In the old country there and pl eased and surprised that anybody should bother seems, on the whole, to have been no fix ed meal plan to coll ect information about it. and the first generation informants stick to the older MARKETS A 0 M EALS pl an, whereas a ll four of the second generation Italian My two first-generation informants noted that their Ameri cans say that in their childhood and in their cooking had changed somewhat because they couldn't young adulthood (before they began switching to buy a ll of the traditional ingredients. The second Ameri can cooking) there wa a pretty definite weekly generation, however, does not seem aware that any- meal plan.
4 T HE F OOD P ASTA Given below is a list of the various dishes I was I am incl uding here only those pastas that people given. I incl ude the ingredients, but it is impossible made at home. Interestingly, one info rmant (M rs. to give amounts and proportions because everyo ne of Fratto) remarked that pasta was eaten mainly in the my informants cooks "by fee l" ; you put in fl our u ntil win ter. th e dough "is right," you bake "until it's done." ''''here Spaghet ti - eggs, fl our, and water rolled out, then four or five informants have given a recipc, I have sliced in strips or put on the "guitar" (two pieces of a sumed that it is a fairl y well known dish (at least wood with wires stretched between them ) and pressed in the Napl es-Abruzz i-Bari-Calabria part of Italy), and through it and cut. Boil, drain. Serve with white sauce have not cited the sou rce, but where only one or two or any vari ety of red sauce. peopl e mention a dish, I have noted that fact. S paghettini - same as above, bu t in thinner strips. A note about the spelling and pronunciati on would Ravioli - egg a nd fl our dough roll ed out, cut in fl at seem appropriate here. Everyone of the six people I rounds, and fill ed with a mixture of ricotta cheese, talked with speak one or another dialect of Italian ; locatelli cheese, eggs, parsley), then boiled. Serve with not onl y is it diffi cult fo r me (who can understand red sauce. I tali an only where it is li ke Spanish ) to catch what M anicotti - M ake a batter of eggs, fl our, water, and words were being said, but also, I believe it would be a drop of oil ; in a small pan, make pancakes one a t difficult fo r a nati ve Ita li an to understand many of a time with this ba tter. Cool them, and fill with ricotta the e heavily accented words. Therefore, wherever I cheese, eggs, grated mozzarell a cheese. Place in a pan, could puzzle ou t (with the aid of I tali an di alect dic cover with red sauce, and bake. ti onari es) the words, I have given them in their I talian Lasagna - Knead a dough of eggs and flour ; roll spelling. Where I could not identify the words, I have it out and cut in 3" x 10" ribbons. Boil , then cool. In given them in a roughly phonetic approximation to the a pan, layer pas ta with red sauce a nd broken up meat dialect and put them in quotes. Some dishes have balls, rico tta cheese (mixed with locatelli cheese, eggs, neither Itali an nor dialect names, but this is only where and parsley) and mozzarell a cheese. Bake abou t a half my informants did not know or had fo rgotten the old hour. names. This happens in quite a few instances-it is Gnocc hi - T o fl our add mashed potato and egg, mix. interesting that people seem to continue m aking tradi Cut into pieces, roll each pencil-thin, cut into one inch tional dishes long after they have forgotten their tradi lengths. "Cavall" them (this is almost impossibl e to tional names. describe; you roll the piece of dough under your two The two most common ingredients in this cooking fin gers, to form it into a shell. ) Boil. Serve with red are "red sauce" (sauce made with tomatoes or tomato sauce. puree) and "white sauce" (oli ve oil and garlic); for Cavatelli - (pronounced "gavadeel" ) . M ake a dough brevity's sake they will be refer red to by their shortened with very hot wa ter a nd Rour. Proceed as for gnocchi. names throughout the paper. In the same way, "cheese" Fusille (the Abruzzese informants onl y) - fl our and will always refer to the hard locatelli cheese, grated. egg dough, roll ed into strips and wound a round a stick,
:}~.. . --- -4- Mrs. Toni Fratto, the author, inspects a piece of dried fish at Joseph Hippolito's market. He emi grated from Siracusa in Sicily, has owned and operated a fish market in South Philadelphia for many years. Souvenirs of the Old and the New World at Hippolito's Store.
5 then lipped ofT, to form pirals; boiled a nd served with first and second generations of Italian-Americans were red sauce. thrown into a non-agricultural ambience- all of my Taconella (Mrs. M antone only) - flour and egg informants lived in ci ti es and were industrial proletar dough rolled out and cut into squares and boiled. ians or the wives of industri al proletarians- and, with Served with red sauce. the coming of the D epression, the period of rather Fettucelle (Mr . Mantone only) - spaghetti dough defi nite deprivation caused an up wing in pasta con ut in wide strips, boil p, se rved with red sauce. sumption. This very tentative hypothesis (how could Cavatelli e broccoli " di rabe" - Boil the broccoli it b otherwise, with only six informants! ) is some "di rabe" (not the same as American broccoli ) and what strengthened by an observation of Mrs. Mantone's. cavatelli together. Serve with white sau e. Last year she went back to Italy to visit her old village, Pasta e cece (cici) - Any or all kinds of macaroni and was dismayed by the changes she found there and broken up, and boil ed, then heated with chick peas throughout Abruzzi. Everywhere, she said, people have and mixed with red sauce and cheese. abandoned their farms to work as industrial laborers, Past a e fa giuolo ("lazule") - Some as above, but and they have left off eating many of tht' traditional mixed with white or red beans. varieties of foods ; now they eat pasta, every day, and Pasta e peselle ("basile," It. pisello ) - Same as a good deal of chi ken, she observed regretfully. The above, but mixed with peas. subject, I think, ought to be studied further-how do Pasta "lenticchia ("lendik") - Same as above, but social changes affect food habits? mixed with lentils. OTHER STARCHES Pasta jJatane (It. patata) - Same as above, but Polenta - orn-meal mush. This can be served with mix d with diced boiled potatoes. a tomato sauce only, or with tomato sauce and sausage The use of pasta, unexpectedly enough, appears to or peperoni, or with a white sauce with hot pepper. be a reasonably sensitive indicator of culture or eco Mixed with white beans. nomic change. Mrs. M antone and Mrs. Riali agreed Pizza polenta - the polenta is spread in a pan and that it was in no sense the staple food for the people baked, then cut in slices and served under soup or fried on the traditional level of culture (both ountry people peppers. and town peopl e; I have been unable to make much PATANE distinction between the eating habits of the two groups) . Patane (potatoes) can be browned in white sauce Pasta dishes were served in the old country perhaps with onion; tomato sauce, chee e, and water are added; two times a week, or as a mixture for beans or green this is simmered until done. Potato can be peeled and vegetabl es, or on special holidays. When, however, boiled with tomato and celery. Stuffed potato (Mrs. I ta li an got to Ameri ca, their cooking of pas ta, it ap M antone only) - Peel potatoes, carve out the middles; pears, greatly increased. It is my suggestion that the chop the carved-out part, mix with parsley, eggs, cheese,
T he author inspects the calamare at Octo pus and Squid (cala the Italian market. mare), Mediterranean deli cacies, are available at some stores in the Italian sections ot Philadelphia. Imported cheeses stacked at an Italian grocer)l. The big ones are locatelli, a hard, aged cheese which is grated tor use on spaghetti.
6 Modern food tech nology invades the Italian food line. Phil ad e 1ph ia' s Italian American groceries now carry Instant Po Catari lenta, Instant Potato Gnocchi, and other Catari "instant" preparations. Catari
and oi l, then refi ll the cavities with this mixture. Brown M eatballs - made of beef, veal, and pork (nothing in oil , add tomatoes, simmer till done. Eat with bread. else will do). La grano (Mrs. Mantone, Mr. Fratto only) - wheat uBraziole" (It. bracio lette) - beef seasoned with grains, cooked with oil, garlic, hot pepper, and water garlic, parsley, and cheese, then rolled. in a crock in the firepl ace; cooked about two hours, Pork sausage - this is the common use of sausage. then eaten as is. Pig's feet, ears and skin - boil, then make red sauce. Potato cake (Mrs. Giovanetti onl y) - Boil and mash Rabbit - stuffed with bread crumbs. potatoes, mix with cheese, sausage or bacon, put in pot, Lamb head - cleaned and split. put bread crumbs on top, bake. Chicken - makes a light sauce. R ice cakes (Mrs. Giovanetti onl y) - Boil rice, mix Chicken feet and intestines - clean very well, wrap with cheese, eggs, mozzarell a cheese; roll into rolls, intestines around feet, fry, add red sauce. bread, then fry in deep fat. Chicken liver, heart and gizzards, tied to the feet R ice with cabbage (Mrs. Giovanetti onl y) - Boil with a length of intestines . Suco Finto (false sauce, ri ce and cabbage, top with red sauce. imitation meat sauce) - dice fat back, render it and R ice with red sauce and m eatballs (Mrs. Fratto only) fry onion in it, add tomato. Brown sauce (Mrs. Riali only) - brown a piece of PASTA S AUCES lean beef in chopped and rendered fat back, add red Basic red sauce - made by heating garlic in olive oil, wine, diced onions, bay leaf, and simmer ; add water, then adding tomato puree (tomatoes pushed through cook again, serve over spagattini with cheese. a sieve or colander) . Or, one can fry several table Crabs and spaghetti - cook and clean crabs, add in spoons of tomato paste (the recipe for that is given or ou t of shell to basic red sauce. below) in the oil, and then add the puree. Clams and spaghetti - open clams and add to basic uS alsa" (tomato paste) - This thick paste is added red sauce, or to basic white sauce. for fl avor, richness, and thickening to most red sauces; R ed sauce with fish - merluzzo, baccala, or calamar. it is usually added to the oil and fried a bit before White sauce with anchovies. the tomato puree is put in. T o make a large batch White sauce - the ubiquitous oi l and garlic. [or preserving (several month's to a year's supply): crush fresh tomatoes, put through a sieve, hang up SouPs in a cloth to drain . Then spread the thick tomato in Mrs. Mantone and Mrs. Giovanetti emphasized that a large pottery pan and put in bright sun. Stir once soup was fairly scarce because of the expense of meat. in a while and keep in sun until thick, dry, and almost Mrs. Riali said that never did she use chicken for soup black. Preserve in jars. in Italy. Mrs. Avellino, Mrs. Fratto, and Mr. Fratto Variations with m eat - fry with meat in the oil, then expl ained that meat was stretched by first simmering add the tomato puree or paste and puree, and simmer: it to make broth, then roasting and slicing it to serve
7 The dried foods in an Ital ian grocery include i m ported chestnuts (lower left), garlic (upper left), chili peppers, fava beans, cannellini beans (for pasta fazul), and baccala (dried cod), lower l·ight.
it as the meat dish for the meal, or making red sauce was because they ran a restaurant a nd were somewhat with it. richer than most of the town. The major winter meat Basic broth - chicken or pigeon simmered with was pork ; each family bought or butchered a pig in celery, parsley onion. Now everyone uses chicken fl esh, the fall , and prepared the meat to last the winter. but four informants report using the head, feet, and Organ meats seem, after pork, to predominate; they intestines in the old days . are varied by an occasional lamb or veal roast or a Additions to chicken broth chicken, pigeon, or rabbit dish. In no case was the Noodles meat the main dish, as it is with us; meat was always Rice considered a fl avoring or a side dish. Escarolle Pork Products - (in all cases the pork is prepared Tiny meatballs (beef, veal, pork ) and preserved raw) : Beef vegetable soup - shin meat and bones, with a Sausage - the meat is chopped in little pieces, handful each of celery, carrots, parsley, peas, string to which are added hot pepper and fennel seeds beans, corn, turnips, dried beans, barley, tomato. oni on, ("fenoic" ); this is stuffed into an intestine casing (it and whatever else you can get. This seems to be con must be stuffed in very hard, so that there are no air fin ed to second-generation informants living in America. pockets at a ll ; this is why the men make sausage) . Pea so up - bone of prosciutto ham ("brazute") , The sausage is hung in a cold cell ar, and will last there with dried split peas and water, simmered. all winter ; or it is later transferred to a crock of oil, "Cream" of chicken - cook peas, carrots, onions, where it is preserved all winter. This sausage is the celery and potatoes, and strain into chicken broth; major meat food. cook down, strain again, and add pieces of the chicken. Salami - the meat is fin ely ground and mixed with Bean soup (Mrs. Avellino and Mrs. M antone) - a bit of blood, salt and pepper, then kept in the cold Soak white cannell in a beans overnight, boil about three [or a few days; it is then stuffed into a casing of intes hours, add tomato sauce, chopped celery, oregano, tine, dried, and put into a big crock of oil for preserva diced fat back, garlic. Pour over hard bread or pizza tion. pol ento. L iver sausage (Mrs. M antone only) - To chopped Fish soup - fry onion in oil, add parsley, water and liver is added garlic, orange skins, and hot pepper ; merluzzo ("m alu tz" ); the dictionary says it's cod, but this is stuffed into an intestine casing, and must be all four second-generationers call ed it whiting; the two eaten fresh (it can't be preserved ). elderl y ladies couldn't translate it. Capicola ("gabagule" ) - the chine meat is cut into
M EAT-FLESH AND ORGAN big chunks, mixed with fennel seed and salt, stuffed
Apparently, m eat was just not too plentiful, In Italy, into a casing made of the large intestine, and dried or in the America of thirty years ago. Mrs. M antone two to three months. said that they had veal only when a calf got sick and Sanguinacce (blood pudding) (Mrs. M antone and died, and she had almost no recipes for beef. Mrs. Mr. Fratto only) - The blood must be caught as it Riali said her family sometimes had beef, but that comes from the pig, and stirred constantl y. While stir-
8 ring, add bitter chocolate, orange skin, nuts, bread pepper, parsley, and tomato. Fry, simmer with tomato crumbs, wine (which has been boiled down until thick sauce and potatoes. and one third of its original volume), and lard. Cook Baccala con la noce (with walnuts ) - In a pan, this over a very low fire, stirring constantly, until it is layer shredded baccaHi., chopped walnuts, oil , garlic, thick, like a pudding. It is usually served spread on and parsley. Simmer slowly. bread. Calamar (squid ) - Cl ean, cut off eyes ,etc. Cut in M eatballs - chopped or ground veal - pork - beef, pieces, simmer in oil with garlic, onion, tomato, red mixed with eggs, cheese, parsley, garlic, a nd onion, pepper, green pepper. Stuff body with bread crumbs, fri ed in oil. Only Mrs. Mantone used veal mixed with cheese, parsley, and chopped tentacles; brown in oil , lard, garlic, and parsley, and tied with a string before add red sauce and basil , simmer. frying. Steamed mussels - scrub thoroughly, steam in water, Bonzette - breast of veal, stuffed with bread crumbs garlic and oil. Serve with bread to sop up the juices. (and garlic and oil of course), rubbed with lard and Smelts - cl ean, fl our, and fry. roasted. Fragaglie (a tiny fi sh ) - The fish are eaten whole. R ottolo al forno (Mrs. Riali only) - in a round Put them in a dough or crumb crust, sprinkle with pan are layered sliced onion, sliced potato, lamb chops, oil, garlic, bread crumbs, and a few drops of vinegar. tomato, garlic, beaten egg, oil and a bit of water; this Bake. is baked in the oven. Conch (Mrs. Avellino only ) - Boil conches in water, V eal roast - a leg of veal is boned, spread with remove from shells, slice them, and eat cold. cheese, garlic, and sliced hard-boiled eggs, rolled, and Fish stew (Mrs. Avellino only ) - with oil, garlic baked. onion, green pepper and tomato si mmer cleaned and R oast leg or shoulder of lamb or veal (agnello and cut up "scambini" (It. scampi, shrimp), merluzzo, vitell o) - the roast is stuck with garlic slivers and baccala, calamar, and any other fi sh available. rubbed with oil, then roasted. Eel (either the small anguilla, or the larger "caba V eat cutlet (no one once said the word scallopine, done" ) cl ean, flour, fry, put with mint and vinegar in al though they were referring to a very thin cu tlet ) . It a casserole. was cl ear that cutlet was a fairly rare dish. The cutlets "Cabadone" - clean, roast in oven with oil and are sliced very thin, breaded and fried, then layered In garlic. Broil, basting with vinegar, oil, and oregano. a pan with tomato sauce and mozzarella cheese. " S arda" - (I t. sardina, sardine) Flour and fry. Chicken gizzards - fried with onions and eggs. (Mrs. Giovanetti only) - salt in a crock for ten days, Chicken liver - fried with onions. wash, layer with olive oil and hot pepper, bake. " Tucinelle" - calf intestines well-cleaned, boiled, Clams (Mrs. Giovanetti only) - lay clams on a rolled up and baked in lard. bed of bread crumbs, parsley, garlic. "Cirivelle" (It. cervello, brains) - the brains are Fritura mista - all kinds of mixed, fried, fi sh. boiled, then fried with eggs, or sliced, dipped in batter, L efto ver fis h - put in crock with vinegar, garlic, and fried. Mrs. Avellino said you could also add red bay leaf. Set in cold place at least two days, then eat or white beans to this. as a snack. " Zufrete" (It. soffrito) - the "pluck" - the liver, lungs, heart of beef, fried with oil, garlic, hot peppers; VEGETABLES this can be simmered with tomato paste and red sauce, 1. Antipasto - Mrs. Riali says a proper antipasto or fried with beaten eggs. should have only olives, pepper rings, beets, celery, "Cabut zel" (It. Caba de agnello ) - Lamb head, orange slices, and lemon ; everyone else adds lettuce, thoroughly cleaned, then split in half ; bread crumbs, slices of meats, sliced eggs, carrots, tuna fi sh, etc. oil, and garlic put in the brain, and the whole head 2. Biede (a long-leaved green vegetable which may (eyes, tongue, brains, and all roasted slowly). be Swiss chard ) - Boil, add tomato, oil, and garlic; T ripe - (beef, lamb, etc.) Scrub tripe clean (every simmer. one agreed that is a whole day's work ) , boil wtih celery, 3. " Broccoli di rabe" (also know as rabes) - Boil clean again, cut in strips, add to sauce of onion, garlic, Itali an broccoli, drain, pour olive oil on it and serve tomato, celery, and hot peppers, and cook at least two with lemon. and a half hours. 4. "Cavolafi ore" (It. cavolfiore, cauliflower ) Parboil , dip in batter, fry. Parboil, add to red sauce FISH AND SHELLFISH with garlic and onion. Combine mixture with cooked M erluzzo ("malutz", whiting) - Fried in oil, baked thick spaghetti. in red sauce and onion. Boil, cool, serve in salad with 5. Ciccoria (dandelion greens) - Boil in water a oil, garlic, parsley, lemon. bone from prosciutto ham; add sliced fat back, bit Baccala (dried cod ) - Soak (up to three days) and of tomato sauce, chopped onion. boil. Bake in oil with raisins. Cut up and add to salad, Parboil, drain, put in water with prosciutto ham with lemon, oil, and oli ves. Bread and fry in oil. Dip bone, add cannellini beans. Eat with bread. in batter and fry. Simmer in water and oil, with toma Serve raw in a salad, with romaine lettuce, escaroll e, to and black olives. Simmer in oil with onion, green or verza.
9 6. Corn -(Mrs. M antone) The same corn, Mrs. Mantone said, was grown for humans as for animals. Humans apparently ate it seldom, and then always roasted rather than boil ed. 7. "Cupoline" - Only Mrs. Fratto gave this to me, and she didn't know what the American name for it might be. She said it was a bitter vegetable that look cd like little red onions and was served only in the winter time, in stews or salads. 8. EggfJlant (Mrs. Riali said this was just about a staple; it was served at every major meal). Stuffed egg plant - cut vegetabl e in half lengthwise, scoop out the pulp and boil and drain it, mix it with egg, cheese, garlic, parsley, and bread crumbs; put back in shell s, which have been cleaned and parboiled. Put red sauce and cheese over them and bake. Egg plant ball - Make the pulp as above, roll into balls, fry. Eggplant Parmigian - slice, dip in eggs and bread crumbs, and fry. Layer in a pan with red auce and mozzarell a cheese, and bake. 9. M ushrooms (Mr. Fratto only ) - wash lightly and fry. Mr. Fratto said his father used to gather the e wild. H e tested them by putting in a silver coin; if it turned bl ack, they were poi on. 10. Peas - boil peas, fry beaten eggs and cheese and parsley in oil and onion ; add this to the peas. 11. PefJp ers - fried in oil with beaten eggs and cheese. 12 . Salad - of all ki nds of mixed greens, served with oi l and vinegar, or oil and lemon. Besides leafy greens, you can include cold celery, string beans, onion, bro coli , beets, etc. Salads tend to be rare, once a week or less . The view from inside looking out involves festoons of 13. "S carciofele" (It. cariofo, artichoke) - Clean ham (Caruso Brand), assorted salamis and cheeses. in cold water, cut off tips; put oil and bread crumbs at heart and between leaves. Steam in oil and wat r. H. Spinach - Was h and boil fre h spinach, put it in and oi l - garlic - hot red pepper mixture. consid er starchy vegetables, lik e potatoe and rice ) were 15. String beans - Fry bits of veal, add onion, par and are served. Indeed, Mrs. M antone said that on the boil beans, boil ed potatoes, and tomatoes . Simmer. farm, dishes of green and various combinations of Boil , add oil , garlic, ba iI , and steam. beans were the staple food, the m ost common item of 16 . "s hcaroll" (escaroll e) - boil the green, add oil di et. and lots of garli c. Boil , add cooked beans, oil and garlic. BREAD 17. " V edds" (It. Verza) - dark, curly Italian ab Bread is ubiquitous, the ever-present accompaniment bage. Boil , simmer with garlic, lard, and red pepper. to every meal. It is eaten pl ain, with butter, with oil Add cooked beans. and garlic, with blood pudding. I t accompanies soups, Boi l, serve with white sauce. meats and fi h, veg tables and pasta. Interestingly Boil , serve with red auee. enough, howeve r, only Mr . M antone, the farm woman, Boil with pro ciutto ham bone; serve over slices of ever m ade her own. The other five informants all got pol enta pizza. and get their bread at the bakery, and it was generally 18 . Z ucchini - Slice and fry in oil. Cook with of one kind- th cru ty, light Italian bread. pepper, oni on, celery, tomato, and oi l. Fry with green M r. M antone explained that, in the old country, pepper. her dough was made with local ly-ground wheat, water 19. Barbabiedola (beets) - Boil and skin be ts. Slice, and yea t. It was baked, a dozen three-pound loaves mix with sli ced onion, garlic, bay leaf and vmegar. (this wou ld la t about fifteen day ) at a time, in an Serve cold . indoor, coal-heated brick oven which was so large that A note abou t vegetabl es: All SIX informants stre ed it could at the same time a commodate the twelve that a lot of vegetables (aside from what we would loaves and the coals (pushed to on ide) .
10 Cilarchiani (Mrs. Mantone only) - Make a dough with baking powder. Bake like turnover (a folded-over square, or like a jell y- roll ), fill ed with a mixture of boiled down wine (the thick wine which has been boiled down to one third of its ori ginal volume), nuts, bread crumbs, chocolate, and orange rind. "Schartalazzo" (Mrs. Giovanetti only) - M ake an egg dough. Roll and cut as for cavatelli. Fry. Cast ellate (Mrs. RiaIi only) - Make a dough with white wine, shape into rosette, fry, dip in honey, and sprinkled with colored sugar bits. "Cutzubi" (For Easter only ) - M ake a sweet bread dough, shape into fi gures of little men, horses, other animals. Top with hard-boiled eggs. Bake. Canoli - Make a soft dough of fl our, egg, oil, sugar, baking powder, and salt. Knead, then let res t. Roll thin, cut in rectangles, roll these on a stick (about one inch in diameter) and deep fry on stick. Cool, remove from stick and fill with mixture of ricotta cheese, citron, and sugar, or with Italian cream (egg, flour for thicken Even the ceilings are hanging full. ing, sugar, milk, stirred over heat until thick.) Dust with powdered sugar. Pizza dolce (rum cake) - Make a sponge cake with D ESSERTS AN D SWEETS egg yolks, beaten egg whites, sugar, and flour. Bake. My six informants were unanimous in saying that Slice into layers, pour rum over the cake, a nd fill with dessert is of very little importance in I talian cookery. I talian cream (see above). T he most common desse rt is fruit-apples, oranges, Pizzele - Egg, sugar, anise seeds, lemon flavor, flour, apricots, prunes, dates, dried figs and nuts, especiall y shortening, made into a thick batter. Pour the batter walnuts and roasted chestnut. The only confections into the hot "waffl e" iron (this is a special lron, with anyo ne mentioned were confetti (candy-coated almonds fancy designs on it) and bake until done. in pastel colors) and torrone (a kind of almond candy), Foundation cake (Mrs. Giovanetti only) Mix both of which were bought, very rarely, from sweet vanilla, shortening, eggs, milk, flour, and sugar. Bake shops. in large pan, serve plain. Cakes and dough specialties were made, not for Pizza "chiena" ("full pie," the money pie, made dessert, but for special holiday mt'als and, occasionally, onl y for Easter ) - Make a dough of flour, salt, baking just because a woman got the urge to bake. According powder, mel ted lard, eggs, and warm water ; with half ly, all those foods we would call desserts, and some we of it, line an extra large pie pan. Fill this in layers wo uldn't (because they are not sweet), are grouped with sliced salametti (a special hard sausage like pep together below. peroni ) , sliced unsalted "basket" cheese, sliced pros D OUGHS, CAKES, PIES ciutto ham, and sliced boiled eggs (two and a half Z eppole - make a raised dough, cut into strips, bend dozen). Over this pour locatelli cheese mixed with a into pretzel shape, boil a few minutes, then fry in oil. dozen and a half beaten eggs. Put the rest of the dough These can be eaten plain, or sprinkled with powdered on top as a crust. Bake until golden brown. sugar and cinammon, or covered with honey. Ricotta Pie - M ake a dough as for money pie. Line Dough balls - M ake a plain dough, add shredded pie pan. Fill with mixture of ricotta cheese, egg yolks, baccala or anchovies, deep fry. beaten egg whites, sugar, cinammon, salt and citron. "Bischoca" or Tarralla - make a soft yeast dough Top with strips of dough, and bake. with flour and eggs, roll out, shaped like donuts, boil, Fiadone (Mrs. M antone only) - Mix fresh soft un then cool. Slit around the edges. Bake in oven until salted cheese (not ricotta, although like it; Mrs. M an they puff out and brown. Cool. They are generally tone couldn't describe it further ) with beaten eggs. dipped in wine as they are being eaten. Bake in a biscuit pastry made of fl our, eggs, oil, and Calgionetti or calzongelli - Little cakes m ade like sugar. ravioli but fill ed with nuts and dipped in honey or DRINK sugar. Wine was and is the major Italian drink. Its use Circirichiati (honey-balls) - Make a dough of eggs now is confined to dinner, but thirty years ago, it was and flour, roll into little balls. F ry. Boil honey, put the I taIian-American's lunch drink as well, and, as the balls in it, and turn out into a ring-shape. M rs. M antone said, in the old country, at least on the S cripelli - Make a raised dough of mashed potatoes, farms, it was also drunk at breakfast. Four of my six eggs, and yeast. Roll into cylinders, stretch these longer. informants said that wine was made in their childhood Fry until brown. homes; today, however, none of them make it.
11 Giordano's on 9th Street in South Philadelphia, in the Ita/ian market area.
HOLIDAY MEALS Sweet bread CHRIST MAS EVE Fruit and nuts Bischoca or tarralla According to M rs. Mantone, on Christmas Eve you Castellate (Mrs. Riali only ) must eat nine special foods, and nothing else : C alzongelli or calgionetti 1. sliced orange salad 6. verza with w hite sauce Z eppole 2. fi gs 7. pasta with white sauce CHRISTMAS DAY 3. roasted chestnuts and anchovy Antipasto 4. "cabadone" roasted 8. baccala Escarolle SOUl) 5. Cauliflower 9. fragaglie, fried Pasta (even two or three kinds, such as ravioli The other five informants agreed in giving an assort and spaghetti) ment of fish (Mrs. Riali only said that everything for R oast chicken (Mrs. M antone said leg of lamb) Christmas must be fried; nothing goes in the oven ). Salad Greens Antipasto Fruit and nuts (oranges are the big treat on Cabadone - broiled, fried, or baked. Christmas) Fried smelts Calzongelli or calgionetti Fragaglie - fried or in pie Ciciric hiati Salted sardines S cripelli Fritura mista CARNEVALE (Carnival) Baccala - any number of recipes; see above. In general, the food for this last day before Lent is M erluzzo not composed of unusual dishes. The stress, however, S tuffed peppers (Mr. Fratto only) Escarolle is heavil y on meat, as this was the last time before V erza Easter that meat of any kind would be eaten (this no Pasta - with red sauce and fish or with white longer holds true; people no longer fast very seriously sauce and anchovy during Lent).
The window of the "Na poli Bella" grocery bulges with typical Italian food stuffs, some impat·ted, others dom es tic. The home- made advertisements at the bottom of the win dow inform the passerby that "Appetite comes with eating when you eat Auric chio Provolone," and ad vertise Pecorino (sheep) cheese of the Roman Campagna.
12 ~~~~~~~'!!~!II.~~"~ Italian delicacies advertised at Meloni's Butcher Shop in South Philadelphia.
Mrs. Riali said that dinner would be of the kind served to company on a Sunday. Mrs. Giovanetti stressed the rice cakes, "scartalaz," A wine-press, manufac and pas ta with red meat sauce. tured in Italy and im The other listed: pOl·t ed for Italian Chicken American use. Sausage and eggs Soffrito Z eppole H OLY SATU RDAY Up until very recently, Let ended at noon on H oly Saturday, and the feasting began then. The major foods are: Pizza" chiena'> No one could think of any other special foods for "Cutzubin holidays or special days. Apparently, on o. festive day Tarralla one ate the same things, just more of them. Caba de aniella (lamb head ) Soffrit o W E DDINGS R oast lamb Recently (within the last twenty years) Italian EASTER S UN DAY Ameri cans have begun to have catered wedding recep This festive day is marked by a plenitude of things ti ons, but the old custom was to have a big feast at to eat rather than by any markedl y different types of home, very much like a very big Sunday dinner. The foods. The dinner would be much like a company only unusual foods were the cilarchiani and the con Sunday dinner, with a few specialties: fetti - the latter being mixed with money and thrown Antipasto at the bride. Escarolle Soup Pasta F UNERALS AND WAKES R oast Lamb No one could think of any special food served for Pizzza chiena wakes or funerals. Mrs. Rial i stoutly held that nothing Friadone at all was eaten, that people should fast from the time R icotta pie La grana of death until after the funeral, and then go quietly "Cutzubin home and eat alone. Everyone else said that, after the R ice Cake (Mrs. Giovanetti only ) funeral, everyone went to the home of the deceased,
SANTA L UCIA where a light soup and a roast fowl of some kind was Mrs. M antone said that Santa Lucia was a day for served. Today, Italian-Americans go back to the home a big feast and a time when people came from "all of the deceased, where friends or a caterer have pre over" to the big market. Mrs. Giovanetti said it is a pared a meal, or they go to a reserved room at a res day on which you fast, except for eating la grana. No taurant for a catered meal. one else celebrates it. CONCLUSION S BIRTHDAYS AND SAIN T>S DAYS It is difficult to draw definite conclusions about the Celebrating one's birthday was apparently not an cookery traditions of these six Italian-Americans. Their Italian custom ; people do it now to be American, but tradition is definitely still ali ve, although possibly precar did not do it twenty or thirty years ago. What used iously. It is undergoing and has undergone, however, to be celebrated was a perso n's name day; on the day some obvious change. The cooks have added American of your patron saint, you had a festive meal and some foods to their repertoire, and, in most cases, subor times got presents. dinated the Italian foods to them. The unavail ability
13 of some foods has caused their virtual disappearance. The cooks and their families have been somewhat in flu enced by American tastes and have altered their cook ing, in some cases, in the direction of Americanization (witness the decrease in use of olive oil, organ meats, garlic). The general pattern seems to be: 1. The first generation arrives in America. If it arrives to impoverished circumstances or to conditions of certain deprivations (the people may have been poor in Italy, but they may have had ready access to basic foods such as vegetables), as did the p arents of Mrs. Giovanetti, Mrs. A vellino, and Mr. and Mrs. Fratto, it alters its cookery to meet new conditions. If, how ever, it arrives, as did Mrs. Riali and Mrs. M antone, to fairly good or to rapidly bettering conditions, it holds onto a good deal of the full pattern of old ways. Mrs. Riali and Mrs. M antone, for instance, never did change to the great use of pasta and continue to stress The implements for making home-made 1'avioli: left to vegetabl e di shes as the staple. right, fork, cutter, and crimper, and on the right the latest 2. The second generation, who a re born and raised mold or ravioli-stamper. in the United Sta tes, seem, quite reasonably, to absorb cooking techniques as practiced by the first generation at the time the second generation is growing up. They The fact remains that it is changing and has changed. cook in their parents' style as young adults, then grad The value of this paper, if there is any, is that it is a ua ll y, as they become accultura ted even more and in record of traditional Ita lian-American cookery, col tegrated into the American culture, and as their children lected while the tradition is still alive and meaningful grow up and demand American food, they cook in the to the six people who practice it. old way less and less. 3. What the third generation will do with its her A POSTSCRIPT itage remains to be seen. As children they all want I had hoped, belatedly, to do some library research American food and nothing else. When they reach for comparative material. I find, however, that there yo ung adulthood, some go their acculturated ways; is very little available ma terial on the folk cookery of some, however, show a n unexpected awareness of and southern Italy. There is, of course, a plethora of cook desire for their ethnic food, and begin actively cultiva books for Itali an foods, but these are fa r from dealing ting it. H ow actively they cultivate it, how much they with the folk level of culture. The most promising learn to cook it rather than just eat it at their p arents' sources of da ta for further research seem to be: In table, will determine whether or not Italian cooking IS cidental books of travel, anecdotes, or curiosities; books to survive as a live tradition on American soil. by or for folklorists, since these sometimes drop in data
Three pasta machines, of Italian manufacture, for sale in South Philadelphia. These are used in home produc tion of spaghetti. The machine is called a "guitar" by • Italians and is used for making pasta.
14 Pizzelle Irons for making "pizzelle,JJ a kind of Italian waffle. The oldest one, on the left, was of the type made by the local black smith, and belonged to Mr. Pante's grandfather. It was brought from the Old Coun try. The second is also an old model which is heated on the stove-the old peo ple still swear by it, so to speak. The two newer mod els on the right are heated by electricity. Note that the newer models imprint dif ferent designs on top and bottom of the waffle, an obvers e and revers e, so to speak. on cooking; antique cookbooks, which may prove to to have included traditional cookery, or analogues to or sources for it; surveys by organizations interested in economics, diet, nutrition, and agriculture (such as the U.N.), although I have ye t to find such a survey on the regions that concern me. There may be quite a bit of data in these sources, but it is deeply buried, and in minute fragments at that, and I believe it would require at least several months to properly do the re search. All I have done here, accordingly, is to give some indication of what kinds of data various sources make avail able: l. eville, Rolfe E. Naples in the Nineties. London : T he newest style in pizzelle irons Adam and Charl es Black, 1897. This is a "gentleman's involves baking two waffles at once. travel book," which offers glimpses of Neapolitan cook ing in such passages as "If the sportsman is game to tackle the garlic-l aden sausage of South Italy, he can 1963. This is an excellent bibliography, covering near rise to the occasion. If not, he is likely to find South ly a thousand books published from 1475 to 1860, and I taly a starvation country." dealing, not only with cookery per se but also with the 2. Canziani, Estell a. Through the Apennines and rel.ated fi elds of agricul ture, horticulture, wine, com the Lands of the Abruzzi, N.Y.: Houghton Mifflin Co., merce,etc. One would have to know Italian fairly well 1928. This book is a kind of travel or anecdote book to use the references, as nearly all are in that language, fo r the folklorist. H er main concern is not cookery, but I am sure the effort would produce floods of in but she does include a few important references to formation. foods eaten in Abruzzi at the beginning of this century: 5. Facciolo, Emilio. Arte Della Cucina. Milano: cheese, oil , tomato, bread, sausage, chicken, roasted pig Edizioni II Polifilo, 1966. This is a collection, com (I got no reference to this at all ; an interesting inclusion pl etely in Italian, of works on cookery from the 14th especiall y as she says it is the traditional Abruzzese to the 19th Century. It too, I am sure, would yield a dish ), soups, calcionetti, pizzelle, fruit, m acaroni. Much great deal of historical information if carefully searched. of my data is confirmed by her observations. For in 6. Vaughan, Thomas Wright. A View of the Present stance, she lists as Easter foods "cod, bloaters, crowns State of Sicily. London: Gale and Curtis, 1811. This of dried figs, chestnuts, and nuts." is a coll ection of notes and leters by a professor of 3. Douglas, Norman. Old Calabria . London: agriculture and public economy at Palermo (V aughan Martin Secker, 191 5. This is a travel book, with edited it) . It contains very valuable information about opinions and observations about evenly mixed. The Sicily around 1809 and 1810, its economy, agriculture, most important passage I found was a description of population, "morals," character, customs, etc. This is a laborer's major meal of the day (taken at noon, not much help for my study, but it is an example of after a breakfast consisting of coffee and nothing else) : the kinds of things which may be available, tucked away an tipasto, pasta, meat, greens, fried fish, salad, cheese, on a back shelf of some library. peaches for ·dessert. T he research, I think, is possible ; it just requires 4. Olschki, Leo S., ed. H andlist of Italian Cookery months of work and very likely some traveling to get Books. Florence: Biblioteca di Bibliografice Italiana, at rare books.
15 TRADE CARDS~ CATALOGS~ and INVOICE HEADS
By DAVID C. WINSLOW
M any iconographic records, such as book illustra Quite simply, then, the student of folk life is con tions, photographs, paintings, drawings and prints have cerned with the study of every stratuni in the been u ed in connection with historical research in community .. .' E. Estyn Evans has noted that until the 1950's, a spade material aspects of folk-cultural phenomena.' H owever, manufacturing company in County Tyrone, Ireland, there are other sources, more ephemeral and less pre listed in its catalogs some 250 different traditional pat tentious, which have been neglected but which can be terns of spades which were designed with dimensions of great value in such investigations. Three of these and shapes for specific geographic a reas where the soil so urces which will be discussed here are trade catalogs, and terrain differed.' At South Wilbraham, M assachu trade and ad vertising cards (considered together), and setts, the M a rcus Beebe Pl ow and Wheel Barrow Shop invoice and letter heads (also considered together) . I in the late 1830's manufactured plows with wooden have limited the fi eld of discussion to Colonial Amer mould boards for a rural Southern market, long aft er ican a nd United States materi al, although I am aware the archaic wooden part had been replaccd with iron of European and British Isles antecedents. Each cat for the New England farmers.' Such examples of folk egory of iconography wil l be described, suggestions will clements in commercial manufacturing ill ustrate vivid be made on how this material may be applied to folk ly, it seems to me, how such sources of reference can cui tural research, a selected bibliography of studies in illumina te folk-cu ltural studies. the fi eld wi ll be offered, and a list of locations of major co II ections will be included. TRADE CAT ALOeS In a study of this nature it is impossible to deal ex Probably more trade catalogs have been issued in clusively with m aterial totall y "folk" in quality. Items the United States than in any other country. How of materi al culture were ma nufactured on a ll levels of ever, manufacturers in the United States and Colonial society. Some of the items fall closer to the popular America were not the first to circul ate catalogs, for by end of the spectrum while others are a pparently closer the 1780's this type of advertising had advanced to such to the folk end rather than the higher level of culture. a state that metal ma nufacturers of Birmingham and The student of folk-culture should be familiar with Sheffi eld in England, were distributing elaborately il each level of culture if for no other reason than to lustrated brochures to potential customers. Such cat be able to delimit his fi eld of specialization. H owever, alogs usua II y omitted the name of the manufacturer regardless of the point of origin of an obj ect of m aterial but included the names of dealers and agents, probably culture utilized by a folk group, justifi cation for its to prevent customers from ordering directly from the study by the folklorist can be made on purely functional producer. The late L awrence B. Romaine, who was grounds. Furthermore, material of the na ture generall y the leading authority on trade catalogs, has shown that found in trade catalogs, on trade cards, and on invoice the first known trade catalog published on this con and letter heads, fa ll s into the province of the student tinent was printed by Benjamin Franklin in Philadel of folklife in the view of one of the foremost scholars phia in 1744 and was devoted to books. But this cat in the fie ld, Iorwerth C. Peate, who has written: alog was about material manufactured by other persons tha n Franklin. R omaine comments further about this: 'For examples of this research see D on Yoder, "The D omestic Encyclopaedia of 1803-1 804," Pen nsylvania Folklife, XIV: 3 Dr. Franklin's brochure offering his then mirac (Spring 1965 ), 10-27; J ohn Butz Bowman, "Schuylki ll Boat ulous fireplace or stoves is the first in the m an- men and Their Ways," Pennsylvania Folklife, IX : 1 (Winter 1957-58 ) , 18-23; a spec ial Adirondack issue of New York ' ''The Study of Folk Life and its Part in the D efense of Folklore Quarterly, XXII:2 (June 1966 ); WilIiam Murtagh, Civili zati on," Gwerin, II : 3 (June 1959), 99. " H alf Timbering in American Architecture," Pennsylvania 'Irish Folk Ways (New York, 1957), p. 135. Folklife, IX: 1 (Winter 1957-58), 2- 11 ; and Middleborough 'H enry Glassie, Pattern in the M aterial Folk Culture of the Antiquarian, VIII :2 (April 1966). Eastern United States (Philadelphia, 1968 ) , pp. 1 4~15.
16 13~ BOI I. F: HS
ROUND BOILERS & COVERS. BELLIED SAUCEPANS. ur \I. nO IL t-:Jl~ " ITII 1'0\, ":1l---( ('" I t, _ .. a: .._ s • :1 .. • :!'Iu,rt-, "Ia .,. I " " Jl I!.\ \" I'GI,l.o; JI ('O\'P.IUI
I l,jUI , .$ ~I :: \\lTIl D\ I/, 1I,"IJI,rs 3 " l F1'"vn. T ...... -..l " .... 1,.1__ .... :tllu.:r.ru, ~ t :: ~I " L II'~ ASU co n us 3 , " "3 !l " 31 •1 ' G ;!'IU)1t.., •5 " !J' , " II .. 3 • F R() ~T II ,\~DLED 10 " J:! .. SAUCEPANS AND COVERS. lu •. " If;" " :.! 'plnU, S .. ' !'io. 0 .. I ., 01'A L BOILE RS " 'ITH COVER toi. 3 r.'lU .. ro, j .. :! ,I!'1lk·n.. , 7 :1 ••" CIRCULAR HO w II \"DLES, " 8 " I .. !I , .. 10 I piot. . i '1 " II .) .. 12 . : ~ f CI RCCL \!\ 00\\' 1I'-\!-OI.E."I. J " LI PPED SAUCEPANS. ~ '1l,I.1Itfo., 'I .. 1 ....1IU OO, 3 ...... ',1 :: , ' I .. ,"7 .",, .. No. 0, 11) •• ij .. I! " fpin t, , .. 11 " 10 .. II; .. I" I! .. It II
Fig. 1. Sauce pans, boilers, and stew pans, as illustrated in the catalog of N . & G. Taylor, Philadelphia, 1855.
ufacturing field, and was printed in the same year tification of objects which are on hand, trade catalogs, [1744]. I doubt very much that this was the only because they contain identification of objects according one before 1750. I think it is better to say the only one that has been rescued and preserved. I am t.o their familiar contemporary name and use, can help convinced that there were others. Dr. Franklin's in presenting visual witness of objects which have mere have survived because of his prominence and pop ly been named in household inventories, wills, or diaries. ularity. Those issued by Mr. Smith, Mr. Jones, For perso ns interested in the evolution of agricultural and perhaps Mr. White were probably 'considered implements, catalogs of plow manufacturers can be of too ephemeral in valu e to warrant the cost of preserving them.' Becoming one of the greatest help. For example, the Will ard Plow Works, East Avon, Americans of all time, Dr. Franklin's catalogs and New York, was established in 1806. In the firm's 1834 pamphlets were at least saved, and have surely catalog, many of these implements are pictured .• Im proved themselves worth the cost of preservation.' portant woodcuts of other agricultural and horticultural The great preponderance of trade catalogs was printed implements, churns, mills, and other farming equip after 1850. Some of these catalogs were unillustraterl nent may be found in the 1848 and 1852 catalogs of but the great majority of them contain illustrations, the A. B. Allen & Company of New York City. For usually in profusion, making them excellent research persons interested in old tools, ca talogs such as that sources. of the Humason & Beckley Manufacturing Company, One of the chief ways trade catalogs can be of use H artford, Connecticut, 1867, may be of aid. Items to the historical researcher in material folk culture, is such as ox yo ke bow pins are illustrated along with that they can assist in the identification of objects, early types of pliers, pocket knives, hammers and awls which otherwise might remain unknown. As the first (Figs. 2, 3) . example I will cite the 1855 catalog of N . & G. T aylor The chief so urce for research in American trade cat of Philadelphia. In this 147-page record. there are alogs is Lawrence B. Romaine's A Guide to American numerous illustrations of various types of tin and iron Trade Catalogs 1744-1900 (New York, 1960) . This ware (Fig. 1) . In addition to being of aid in the iden- volume is the "Bible" for students of trade catalogs 'Guide to American Trade Catalogs (New York, 1960 ), p. x. and is virtually indispensable for any work in the area.
17 Thou ands of trade catalogs are described and their pelier ; John Carter Brown Library, Providence, Rhode locati ons in librari es, institutions or priva te coll e tions Island ; The Library Company of Philadelphia; M et a re listed. Its organiza ti on make it somewha t clumsy ropolitan Museum of Art, ew York City; the Smith to har..dl e, but with practi ce it becomes easier to use. soni an Institution, W ashington, D . C. ; and the Romaine O ther books of basic intcrest to the research r in trade Collection at the Univer ity of California, anta Bar catalogs are Ruth and Larry Freema n's Cavalcade of bara. Nearly every college or university library, or T oys (N w York, 194·2), whi h is a good reference, local his tori al society have some trade catalogs, but we ll -illustrated from ma ny old catalogs; M argaret Rice's more often tha n not this material has not been cat Sun on the R iver (Conco rd, 1955), commemorating the al gued. Such material presents a cha ll enging untap l Oath annive rsary of the Ba il ey Company with a fine ped source fo r histori al research in material folk pictori al rccord, much from early trade a talogs of culture. 19th Century carriage-making; a nd I-l a rry Weiss' s The Early Fullin a M ills of N ew Jersey (Trenton, 1957), INVOICE, BILL AND LETTERHEADS containing many illu tra tions from early trade catalogs. Pictori al invoices, bills, and letterheads contain much Lawrence R omaine's articles "The American Trade material of value to this kind of research, but these Catalog" in W illiams Alumni R eview (February, 1969) ephemeral so urces are much scarcer than trade cat a nd "Benjamin Fra nklin the Father of the M ail Order alogs or perhaps even than trade cards, to be discussed Catalog and Not M ontgom ry Wa rd" in The American later. There may be some overl apping of the billhead Book Collector XI: 4 (D cember, 1969), 25-28, a re and the trade card, according to George Francis Dow: se minal, as a re his many catalogs of trade catalogs The distinction between the trade card and bill which he offered for sale during hi ca reer as an anti head, accordingly, is not easy to define, but it is clear, that, however elaborate the form may be, quari an bookman. if it contains the wo rds 'Bought of . . .' the shee t M ajor collecti ons of trade catalogs are located at was a billhead and not a true trade card. Both the Amcri can Antiquari an Society, Worcester, M as were advertised by the engravers and both were in sachusetts; New York Public Library ; New York Sta te use a t the same timc.· Histori cal Associa ti on Library, Cooperstown ; Franklin Although the majority of invoices a nd bills is printed I nsti tu te Library, Ph il adelphia; American Philosophical on paper, and thus more easil y destroyed or damaged, Soc iety, Philadelphia; Historical Society of Pennsylva because they comprise receipts for goods ordered and ni a, Philadelphia; V ermont Historical Society, M ont- paid for, or ma terial of business of commercial import ance, they often were saved. On the other hand, trade catalogs often were destroyed when new lines of mer cha ndise were introduced and when models changed. The ephemeral character of this m aterial is underlined Superior Wroug;llt Bull Ring;s \I ,I ~". I), by the fact that I have been unable to locate a single book, pamphlet or article on this subject, while there
·"Trade Cards" Old-T ime New England, XXVI : 4 (April 19 36 ), 116. '
~Q. 2. (.\1J01it. JmJr ~I'W.)
Su;cl. lJl'tI4I!'. (;CJI,ptr :OOlh("r I'Jal~'11 );Q'J. 1 2 :1 I .5 Ii 7 Jncll, 24 ;j - "j 3 - "! :I :H :s Per dozen, $" :;0 5 no (j 00 C iiO 7 110 j :,n R hi) .~ [,0 PRICE LIST Best Ox Yoke Bow Pins. 0'
No,". (I bn SiM!.) No . • .- n lltr.a.lo JIaw(k., Gt:rm~ Sl1'1'tt fJoI,((;r aDd SJ,itld. Drau Lined, T wo Spt,;f m•• let. p~ f« doa.. $8 00. HUMAS'ON & BECKLEY MFG. CO., No. 5.-It'OT1 Ihndlt', OIhrrwi.c ~ltIC all No. 4 Pme Jl""T 01,4.,. t:; ,jO ~o . 2. (Ahout lllllf fliu.•• ) No ..1. ONN. ~ 08. 1 2 nil Steel. - ;j ,I l.ockw()()Il'd Patent. Ptlr do?(:!), S I 50 I no 1 (;0 I ill No. o. (I"'M Slu.) ~o. It-nlfltilo Hawn,., GUlllan ffilt" .. , o.Mt~r .,..,1 :1\'i~! ~ Un."" L:j· 1 Welton's Patent Cattle Leader. SuuU Ptn madt'. l>rico l>tr do:..,~:t :'0. o No.1. (Half $.1:0.) ~ o. 7.-Uuft'aW 1f'JI,11.. , utl'ftwi.o 1141fl(1 as !'\o. 3. Prl<..,- r... ' thl: .. 'II ~t~ '" No •. 1.-C()t{II\ IIl1n ,lIl', irou n.. ,I)l.e t, I,on LinN, Llarg!! SpM\f mao,. 1";U'llt'r.J"L.,$UIII.
0 !,\,,_ 'f_ (Urd(:-::,t.t'.) 00'" .1,:,0~:;1«JG Hano.llt', IroD BOOM', Ir<>n UnM, lipHt 01..d,' Price- r~J
Fig. 2. Bull rings, ox yoke bow pins, and I ;~~: ~~~;:;~r;:r. ..~ln'(g::~ ~~FJ;:' ,~T"ar'~'_h,~rr 1 ~.1 ': Ij ~ cattle leaders, pictured in the catalog of Huma Ko II -1' 18 183 /t~ f/ ~_ NCW-Y:"k, Bought of W~~il~l!t~ ~u.:t~~~l!tD'% , JVo. 20/, 9cftil.=tJtlut, ~lll(;t tj ~a(de1l.=tMle . Fig. 4. Nineteenth Century invoices offer pictorial evidence of American materi41 culture. This one from the 1830's pictures a basket with a divided lid, on hinges. /~_~ c?tdr-IN. e1" ~/7t:cZ9 _ 15'0'y §3ouoT!f o~ li~Wj!;LL <& I:i?BBil'i", Ma!J.W:act1Jll<'~t:a Qf Wbeen J!1l.J(J(QWl! au.d\ B:~l!Itg: S~eijg;l'J:l! o~ a.11, I$:.tnd$. Tl:IUIIL_ :-: ..Ij,,""U. ~ _ ..uu.'t£l) l.!..1' .!..u.i!..:..llU!.1IK.'iT \\ URN" lJE:illUili_ Fig. 6. Invoice of Newell & Sperry, Jordan, New York, 1868, shows Fig. 5. Three different basket patterns, two types of wheelbarrow. from a New York print of the 1830's. - '\ Fig. 7. Wheelbarrow and sled, 1869. is some bibliography for the other sources being de various types of material culture. Persons doing research scribed in this paper. One of the reasons invoices, in types of carpenter's tools might find the cut on the billheads and letter heads are of interest to the folk Wheeler and Ripley invoice useful (Fig. 8). The in lorist is that often smaller and more regional man voice shown in Fig. 9 is interesting in that it shows ufacturers and craftsmen, who could not afford the what a farmer's clothing, including brimmed hat and luxury of an elaborate illu strated ca talog of their goods, long-sleeved shirt, was like during the period. Also, could afford some sort of pictorial advertisment on the design of the sickle in the figure's hand might their bills, invoices, or letter paper. The earliest picto be of interest to the researcher. The conception of rial invoice heads of interest, which I have been able Santa Claus with a Christmas tree and its decorations to find, are dated 1830. They contain illustrations of (Fig. 10 ) might be helpful to persons seeking to study four different types of baskets (Figs. 4 and 5). A spe the evolution of the Christmas observance in this coun cific example of how invoice heads can be used is the try. Wooden ware such as chums, tubs, and pails, comparison of the three wheelbarrow types (Figs. 6 along with baskets (Fig. 11), were also shown on in and 7) manufactured by Newell and Sperry in 1868-69, voice heads. to the types used in Ireland and illustrated in Irish Two examples of pictorial letterheads are shown in Folkways by E. Estyn Evans. Since these types of paper Figs. 12 and 13. The Eddy and Wilber item shows an Americana usuall y are dated, while trade cards are not, extremely interesting scene of hop-picking in Otsego they are useful in tracing the chronology of the use of County, New York, a major source of hops during 19 I H ,iRDWARE, AGRICUI.'J'URAJ.. \VriREIIOUSE Ai\'D SEED STOllF.. ~-r-- " '" SIG~ OS THE SA'V, 'O J .LEGP. S'l'HE l'; 'l', Fig. 8. Miscellaneous f,;;;:-~ rliA \- ~ - 0 ~ .1 n aJ.d.;',?',,,, C(J, A'"',, "( 10M hardware as advertised r ~ j ., L '--J, 0 ( i t fi. t ) WHEELER & RIPLEY. on a Vermont bill head of 1866. Such 1. 1" £lOltDI) t.of :: =~~: :..:.-.::: :::·:r:-::: =:::.:::.: =- firms pl'o'vided tools II ); ~ .. 0r .:.~-; ( Su ccc~r to Davey & Doolittle,) for the craftsman as { ,A,'r, Steam Biscuit and Cracker B akery, Established in 1846. Fig, 9. This Philadel· - '. phia invoice of 1881 g/..;d,./,,!'/t;r{/ %. / ' used a cut of a farm er in the mral dress of the pre. Civil War pe· t2 ~< :i- v:r____ riod - broad· brimmed hat, yoke shir-t, and BgugblJ gtJ. S~ I~s & S@~~ work h ousers. STEAM BAKERY, 'erms, 30 Days, 321, 323 alld 325 N orth Front Street, 320, 322 and 324 Water Street . , NEW YORK :} 765 BrolldwllY· . ) , 11 59 Broadway, STOSES ; PHILADELPHIA :- IOPS Chestnut St, BALTIIdORF. i-211 W . Baltimore St. I BOSTO N j-499 Washington St. Fig. 10. The t01' firm ot FA.o. Schwarz in 1878 advertised its wares with this Santa tr j'Y y.:;~ ' ~iH\\'V:T" " Y (f1 :I" I"'I,- t \f"<\ """ ",r"l'" ('/ " 'i' '( 7 tl ~ (' 'i' ~""1 Claus and Christmas _~_r , ::.J\) --. ~_J\.V __ \,W'~~~~ ' T e N ]?"; , CASH, 7fifi I1roadway, 1l"«Z: 9th ~" \\1 '~h~~~,u.t~,,~!, "Hllln~!"h .... • f"~ r""II.I ,,( ...... >11 CO N STANTLY R(C[IVI" C ( V E R Y N EVI A RT I CLE IN OUR L'NE Ncm-J)ork, ars Fig. 11. Churns, tubs, 911vo,y ~ /J pails, and baskets, on a New York invoice 3t'OllqotofWARD&KNA~P, of 1860. '-" - '.) 'I A I '!" \C1' l' ,U no: or MILLITARV AND TOV DRUMS , 64 & 66 MAIDEN LANE, f,rm; Nd Cub. CO" "'''".''' .,," """"Y ..... , ... r-. ./J 5rtn c~ ~n~ tlSrnnan!jl s, ENGLISH CUTLERY, A ~,RIC ~N WillOW BASK S, '''11101# If''agon.l, Crn-flu! IUJI'?, w",..t r .... r-u* ... lIobb., 110 .... ( ... ~'\'" C y 019S. CAUUTABR&, WMPlb"'.. ' ... . TOr w.,-.... c Fig. 12. Pictorial let· terhead of Eddy and .. \ n ~ • 'r Unlol , rn1.00"I~ . "',>(lJ n,. t.. ~'''I! '' r....n"" (.'QI,he 1"1 ... Wilber, Milford, Ot· l'tal " S. I. t.44 IInnr R _I n Door MAr. of evtlr, ducnption sego County, New t'l!N ". 'T"W'I .. ~ \ \'I~kln, fil .. I'.. u~ It ~);!o, l'ltltD$ - ~ " "J " C'hltJ York, sho'ws hop·pick i .. r•• ·. ('''''I" l .n ); \nl· ers, a common occu ..J. .t ..:c:;:C:r.:x :::x . pation in the area, 1861. 20 GHEE'N",rOODS SC TIlE ~O. Fig. 13. Local craftsmen manufacturing articles for American fanners some times expanded into full industrial status. This Con- -4 necticut letterhead illustrates the Gremwood Scythe Com pmly's plant in 1866. 17 Fig. 14. Grindstones advertised by the Mc Dermott Company of Ohio, 1871. ~///N~ I~ /:!;! f -'/!~///;_ )/; J l ( c Pettee & Wils on,)")) - :!:!B & :!:!!I ~(lillh &.I · I · ~) , 1·.-,1 & 1·.,,):\ \\';11('" :'1 . Fig. 15. Carts (two lJ)J.PiJJJ:f'£J]s ~'!i j)-:ZjJ.J.7JJs JJYJJJj)JY ----- .--- wheeled vehicles) il \ nJ/, /, .\ . II/llnl'flll Jllll/I'OIl ."111, ,I· ,JilIn I/o, .. , Slrtll / {'O/l I I ~/( I lustrated on the letter I:il,f/II ,·It /I,~ /illl II II I IJllllllfllI A"II//" ~/I 11I1 r It Oil _'PI/': I 1/lItl, -' 11I!.'/ \ head of Pettee & Wil .J/"r/IIIII'/:" ,"'/"(/1" \- '''1(11 '(· /'111 1/ / roll Il i'OIl.r;It"·'l'fI/l11'1I11 ,\." \\(, ,\'1 ------.. _ - - son, New York, 1860. I'll ,' /(If/II( ', ~ IIJI';'' ' !JoltltiJr Il illl',f/11I .t- {'tId ,\;1((/1 Iro/l lIi"'fllj/'! o l P§ rTE E . W. " """" ~ h"N""'=" ~:~~h;;~;'a;;§?r fi ~ the 19th Century. The clothing worn by the workers, American Antiquarian Society ; and the New York haskets, poles, tools, wagons and large containers for Historical Society, New York City. Most large libraries the fres hl y picked hops, are among the objects of and museums do have some of this material, but in material culture of interest to the folklorist. The divi most instances it is not catalogued and is difficult to sion of labor, too, is revealed. In the letterhead of the locate and use. Neither are there any significant pub Greenwood Scythe Company, one sees a view of the lications in the area. pl ant, in addition to the layout of the village, house TRADE CARDS types, a fence, and a wagon. Types of miIlstones and The primary difference between what are generally grindstones made by the McDennott Company are il described as trade cards and what are described as lustrated in Fig. 14, while the Rumsey Company letter advertising cards, is that the former usually advertises head reveals a type of house architecture. Two fine the crafts, skills or trades of specific individuals, or examples of early cart types are shown in the letter their products, while the advertising card is devoted head of the Pettee and Wilso n finn (Fig. 15 ). From to a brand of product. The trade card went out of these examples the student should readily see how such vogue about 1870 when a plethora of advertising cards items can be used in historical research in material began to be circul ated by thousands of American man culture. ufacturers. However, both types of advertising are of Among the institutions which have collections of this interest to the student of material culture. The trade material are the Bettman Archive, N ew York City ; ard is usually uncolored, wh il e the advertising card 21 is generally multi-colored and in some cases approaches being a work of art, the so-called "clipper ship cards," for example. For the folklorist interested in onomasti cs these cards offer a fertile fi eld for research.' One au thority on trade cards has written: The word 'card' connotes usually pasteboard ; it also connotes smallne s. In antiquarian parl ance, however, a trade card is a printed notice of goods for sale without implication as to size or quality of paper. It gives the name and address of the advertiser and the natu re of his business, some times with full description and again merely nam , , I I ing the commodity. U suall y attempt is m ade at . i '~' ~ ~ ~, artistic presentation in the illustration or arrange _ f .; ~~ .. ment.' In general this statement seems acceptable, but it ap- pears that some qualification should be made concern Fig. 16. A small freight wagon is pictured on the trade ing the size of the trade card. When such material is card of WilJiam B. Bradford, wholesale and retail gro printed on a format of more than eight or nine inches, cer of Boston, first quarter of the 19th Century. in height or width, it should be placed in the category of the broadside and not studied as a trade card. This would involve another whole area for research. Trade cards taken as a whole can provide a com mentary on the history of industry and technology, or art and architecture, or modes of living, of styles of dress, of manners and mannerisms, in short the trend of civilization. H owever, if such cards are surveyed in chronological order, here and there a card is found not to be representative of its time-it may be better or worse. Miss Jenny has argued that : The earliest examples of American trade cards, on the whole, postulate .a fullness of life, naturalness free from striving, and a fin e and honest art. A gradual change to sentimentality and later to 'arty' ideals is noticeable, until out of the exploiting Fig. 17. A cart on the trade card of Thomas Ash, nineteenth century there finally came forth again .chair manufacturer of N ew York, first quarter of a feeling for art.' the 19th Century. The earliest known American trade card has been dated circa 1730, and advertises Richard Worley of Boston, a booksell er. London set the fashion for the British colonies, so it is natural to expect to find the use of trade cards appearing in New England and the more sou thern colonies. Concerning trade cards in America, George Francis Dow has noted that: The exact manner in which these trade cards were used is somewhat in doubt. When found pasted in a chest of drawers, a clock case or the top of a trunk, the purpose is evident; many of the cards engraved in the eighteenth century are larger in size and on the reverse of existing examples may be found a bill for goods made out in proper 7-:'I.V('} ,e- rV7JV7JSOR (W':LIER AI..'! /rEO. form .... It is likely, however, that many trade :"? 240 GH EI<;N.W[ C H STRI<;l<}T, cards, es pecia ll y those of more ornate form, were I-I'I//r', ,// /(",I./i/.(·,,// &- ,11t'J'rll.'1 .r// ·o·;:" . primarily used for announcement purposes or to advertise the shop.'· 5 ~.!f<; 'W "CO ~~ K. Wagon and cart types would be a viable area of research in this country for the student of material Fig. 18. The chair maker's shop, pictured on the trade card of lames R. H eaton, New York. folk-culture, and trade cards could be of assistance in 'For a fin e pictorial record of these cards see Allan Forbes and Ralph Eastman, Yankee Ship Sailing Cards, three volumes this work. In Figs. 16 and 17 types of wagons and (Bos ton, 1948, 1949, 1952 ). 'Adele J enny, "Notes on Earl y American Trade Cards from carts are pictured on trade cards. Craftsmen such as the Coll ection of Bell a C. Landauer," in Early American Trade chaitmakers usually had trade cards, and the one il Cards fr om the Collection of Bella C. L andauer (New York, 1927), p. 7. lustrated in Fig. 18 reveals types of chairs, and the 'J enny, p. 8. interior of a shop with tools. A fence type and a 22 ~ ~\tDWELL BltO~ WIIOI.ES 'I.t: A:"D Rt:l'AJI. DJ'; A1.Im IN 1 -i-.-l kJ[A LlflJ[) 1f!I?'All?; E5 - +, OIr@!Ji) ~!lll@) ~i!~~O\) ~ . 9arriage Goods, ae:1l., VUNl~D ~t\J@~UNl~D ~Q. 54 Dom inick 8tJ'eet, Fig. 20. Note carpenter's tools as well as lock and table ware on the trade card of Wardwell Brothers, Fig. 19. Rural and river scenery as illustration on the trade Rome, New York, printed by McClement Brothers card of Matthew H. Chase, Butcher, of New York, 1833-1834. in Philadelphia. mode of plowing are illustrated on the card (Fig. 19 ) of Matthew Chase, a Butcher in New York City from 1833-34. Types of carpenter's tools are shown on the Wardell Bros. card (Fig. 20) while types of wooden barrels are included on the card in Fig. 21 . Early glass making technology is involved in the scene in Fig. 22. These examples should be sufficient to show how trade cards can be useful to the student of material folk cul ture, especially in its historical perspectives. In addition to the books and articles cited, several other bibliographic sources are avail able to the student Fig. 21. Wooden barrels for porter and ale, on a of trade cards. Arts and Crafts in N ew Y ork 1726- trade card of T. Briggs & Co., Maltsters & Brewers, 1776 (New York, 1938) contains examples of trade Elmira, New York, also printed by McClement cards from this period; the Directory of the]. R . Bur Brothers in Philadelphia. dick Collection of Trade and Souvenir Cards and Other Paper Americana in the Metropolitan Museum (New York, [1964]), contains a detailed guide to a fine col lection of 306,353 items, with some examples pictured; H arold E. Gillingham's "Old Business Cards of Phil adelphia" in the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, July, 1929, is a valuable paper containing many illustrations with exact notes on engravers and tradesmen who used trade cards, based largely on the collection of cards in the Historical Society of Penn sylvani a; Ambrose H eal's L ondon Trade Cards of the XVlI] Century (London, 1925), The Trade Cards and Engravers (London, 1927 ), and The London Gold smiths (London, 1935 ). All of H eal's books contain numerous beautiful reproductions, but most of the material is on a very high cultural level. Fine coll ections of trade cards may be viewed at the Essex Institute, Salem, Massachusetts ; Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston; Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Boston; American Anti quarian Society, Worcester, M assachusetts; New York Historical Society, New York City; Library Company N~ 3. SOlJTH-RO'~T. of Philadelphia; and the Historical Society of Penn Fig. 22. The Wing & Sum n er Glass Works and some sylvania, Philadelphi'!. of its products, from a Boston trade card of about 1820. I·D ow, p. 116. 23 The Encyclopaedia Cinelllatographica And FOLKLIFE STUDIES By LESLIE P. GREENHILL The Encyclopaedia Cinematographica is the brain fi lms. These films have been contributed by scientists child of Dr. Gotthard Wolf, Director of the Institut from many countries, and the Encyclopaedia Cinemat fur den Wissenschaftlichen Film, Gottingen, West ographica functions as a kind of professional journal Germany. Dr. Wolf's Institute has a long history of in fi lm form for the publication and circulation of experience in the production of scientific film s, and in such films throughout the world. It operates on a the use of cin ephotography as an instrument for the non-profit basis. study of a wide range of natural phenomena, and for The headquarters of the Encyclopaedia Cinemat the documentation of various aspects of culture. ographica are at Gottingen, West Germany, and ar In 1951 Dr. Wolf proposed the establishment of a chives which loan the films have also been established scientific encyclopaedia in film form. H e envisioned in Vienna and Utrecht, and for the United States, at that this would contain film recordings of natural The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, phenomena or various aspects of behavior having the Pennsylvania.' Partial collections exist in or are under following characteristics: consideration by several other countries, notably Aus 1. They cannot be observed by the unaided human trali a, Canada, England, France, and Japan. eye and therefore demand the use of such film The Encyclopaedia Cinematographica can embrace techniques as slow-motion or time-l apse cinepho any scientific discipline which can be served by such tography. fi lms. However, because of the availability of suitable 2. They need to be compared with other phenom film material, the following disciplines are currently ena, for which purpose written descriptions alone are inadequate. represented : 3. They do not occur frequently; they are not Biological S ciences : readily available for observation by other scientists Microbiology (35 films ) or students; or they are disappearing from the Cytology (26 films ) culture. Zoology (515 films ) Botany (17 films) A basic notion was that each film in the collection T echnical Sciences: should deal with a single phenomenon or aspect of Agricultural, Earth, and Engineering behavior, and that the films would be so arranged Sciences (54 films) as to facilitate, for example, comparisons of behavior Social Anthropology (including Folklife) Europe (93 films) among different species of animals, or comparisons of Africa (143 films) cultural similarities or differences among a number Asia (80 films) of primitive peoples. Furthermore, the films would Arctic (1 film ) be authentic, actu al documents, without sound tracks Americas (83 films) except where sound is an important part of the sub Oceania ( 103 films ) I t is expected that some 220 new films will be added ject. Additional background information would be pro to the above during 1968/ 69. As sufficient film material vided in a written document or film text which would becomes available new categories of films are created. accompany each film. To ensure scientific validity it was proposed that each film accepted should be pro R ELEVANCE TO FOLKLIFE STUDIES duced by or under the direct supervision of a scientist Many aspects of folklife are undergoing rapid change, who is thoroughly competent in the subject matter especiall y in the United States. Others are disappearing being filmed. ' or have already disappeared from the culture. Today, Since its establishment, the Encyclopaedia has grown there is fortunately, an upsurge of interest in the ap at the rate of approximately 100 to 150 new films a preciation and preservation of our folklife and in its yea r, and as of 1968 it contains approximately 1200 scientific study. It is in this latter connection that films 'Gotthard Wolf , D er Wisse nschaftlichen D oc umentations 'The U .S. archive was established with the aid of a grant fil m und die Encyclopaedia Cinematographica, Munich, 1967, from the National Science Foundation. A li s tin ~ of the fi lms, 212 pp. (In German, this book gives bas ic principles of sci· which are available on loan, can be obtained fr om the author entifi c film documentation ) without charge. 24 real life actually perform the events being doc umented and not by actors. 2. The film documents should portray natural behavior on the part of those being filmed. This demands close rapport with the subjects on the part of the folkl orist, and a minimum of parapher nalia on the part of the individual doing the filming. 3. A film document should deal with a limited, cohesive as pect of folklife, but it should deal with this in as complete a fashion as is necessary. Where human movement is involved, some slow motion sequences may be needed. For some activities, such as folk dance, complete coverage of the action may be essential. In other instances, such as in the m aking of traditional pottery, documenta tion of the m ajor elements only may be needed. 4. Where sound is important it should be the actual sound, recorded in synchronism with the pictures. 5. The technical quality should be high if such films are to be duplicated and made widely avail able for research and teaching purposes. All of the above requirements suggest the need for a close collaboration between the folklorist and a com petent cinephotographer in order to obtain the best results. FOLKLIFE FILMS IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA CINEMATOGRAPHICA The films in the Encyclopaedia Cinematographica that deal with European folklife offer excellent models to emulate in the documentation of folklife in America. European folklife films cover many aspects of the material culture that are rapidly disappearing such as use of watermills for power, old methods of spin ning and weaving, manufacture of tools, furniture, and pottery, early methods of farming and so forth. They also document traditional dances, costumes, folk festivals, and religious customs. There are also in the Encyclopaedia Cinemato graphica m any films documenting customs of peoples in other a reas of the world-in Africa, Asia, the Americas; and O ceania. SPECIAL PRO JECTS From time to time the International Editorial Board of Encyclopaedia Cinematographica announces an in ternational project on some as pect of folklife, and folk Scene from Dr. Maurice Mook's documentary film lorists in various parts of the world are invited to sub on Halloween Customs in State College, Pennsylvania, mit appropriate films for considera tion by the Board one of the several American films in the Encyclopae dia Cinematographica. for possible inclusion in the coll ection. Bread Baking. The first such project was on the baking of bread in a rural household. As of M ay 1968, some 25 films on this subject had been accepted. They of the type included in the Encyclopaedia Cinemato document breadbaking in Norway, D enmark, Holland, graphica can play an important role both for research France, Germany, Switzerl and, Austria, Italy, Turkey, and fo r teaching purposes. U.S.A. (Pennsylvania), Uruguay, Afghanistan, Iran T he film medium is valua ble particularly for doc and Brazil. Included are such interesting subjects as umenting those aspects of folklife that involve move the annual baking of bread on an alpine farm in the ment, or sound, or manufacturing processes. To be South T yrol, and the baking of fl at bread in Afghan useful for scientific purposes such film documents istan and Iran. should m eet several important requirem ents: M aking of Butter and Cheese. A second international 1. They should be authentic and accurate. The project deals with the making of butter or cheese in a presentation should be by the individuals who In rural setting. So far there are onl y about seven films 25 Trick or T reaters, State College, Penn sylvania, in Dr. Mook's documen tary film. in this group, contributed from four different countries. CONTRIBU TIONS O F FILMS Children's Games. About three years ago a project As was indicated earlier, contributions of appropriate was announced to d ocum e nt c hild ren's traditional fi lms are invited from scientists in various countries. games and customs. About a dozen such films on this If an individual has a film accepted, he becomes a subject have been accepted already and others are In member of the Encyclopaedia Cinematographica, re production, including one on H a ll oween customs in ceives 50 reprints of his accompanying written doc Pennsylvania. ument, receives the journal R esearch Film, and may R eligious Rituals. The most recent international borrow films in the collection for his own personal project deals with the documentation of religious rites scientific use for reasonabl e periods without charge. in different countries, and several films on this subject (A modest rental charge is made to other borrowers).' are in the coll ection. This is a rich area for further It should be mentioned that the Editorial Board of documentation. the Encyclopaedia Cinematographica insists on high Making of Pottery. Although not announced as an scientific and technical standards for the films it ac special international project, there are in fact in the cepts. Also, it requests only the rights for the non Encyclo/)aedia Cinematographica about 30 fi lms that commercial use of the Encyclopaedia version of the show the m aking of pottery in traditional ways in film. The owner is free to make whatever other uses several countries. of the film he wishes. In this way, the Encyclopaedia Traditional Dances. Likewise, there are many films Cinematographica hopes to develop a valuable resource documenting traditional dances both in various regions for use by scientists and teachers throughout the world. of Europe as well as among more primitive peoples. Already, an excellent beginning has been made. It should be apparent that the Encyclopaedia Cin ' In establishing an archive, a country accepts the obli gation ematographica is a rich source of materials fo r the to encourage contributions of films from its scientists in the fi elds represented, as well as to make the films in the coll ec folklorist both for research and for university teaching, tion available for research and teaching uses. The author and many users of the films in the American Archive would be glad to confer with individuals who are interes ted in collaborating in this important international scientifi c en have already acknowledged this fact. deavor. 26 The Cheese Was Good By ELIZABETH CLARKE KIEFFER Some years ago, in that useful Library of Congress Cowes. "Contrary to the agreement ... they suffered compilation, Sources for American H istory to be found very much from hunger on board of the said Ship, in British Archives, I stumbled upon an item listed as: which had taken on little or no Provisions in Holland." "Report on the Petition of Theobald Kieffer and Others. They are now "in and around Cowes, spending the rest 9 September, 1737. Public Records Office. SP 42-138" of their substance, nor does it appear that the ship is As several of my direct ancestors were named Theobald to be victualled, the Master of it declaring that he Kieffer, I was naturally curious, and sent for photostats cannot take in such Quantity of Provisions as is neces of the report. It consisted of eight foolscap pages, and sary' by reason that the Ship is not able to carry such the Theobald Kieffer involved was none of mine. I Burthen." onl y wish he was. I should be proud to have an ancestor Under examination, the petitioners testified further: sufficiently intrepid to appeal direct to the king of Eng They had left home in May with the permission of land against a British shipmaster. "their Superiors". Valentin Jutzig produced letters This Theobald Kieffer, is apparently the one who from Purysburg, South Carolina, giving a general in figures in the Speyer Archives (Oberamt Zweibriicken, vitation to immigrate. Seventy three families, in all 1736) as: "Theobald Kieffer of Kirkel leaves with wife about 300 souls, came down to Holland, of whom only and children for Carolina." In the publication of this three families wish to go to Philadelphia. They reached list by the Pennsylvania German Folklore Society, Rotterdam in June, and made an agreement with a Volume I, he is incorrectly identified with Dewald shipmaster to take them to London (apparently hoping Kieffer of Maxatawny Township, Berks County. That to ship for Carolina from there.) They were informed Dewald, who was my ancestor, came over as a minor, that only Hope and Stedman were authorized by both with his fa ther Abraham Kieffer on the T wo Brothers Holland and Great Britain to transport immigrants in 1748. It is an interesting commentary upon the in and they sailed only for Philadelphia via Cowes. complete nature of these emigrant lists that although By this time they had used up most of their money this party consisted of "270 souls" all of whom are at and provisions so they gave in and agreed to go to tested to have received permission to leave the Pal Philadelphia, taking passage from Mr. Hope on the atinate, the list shows only "sixteen different persons" Three Sisters (the captain's name is never mentioned ) . leaving Zweibriicken in 1736 and none in 1737. While Several of them had pa id part of their passage, and of the four petitioners, Theobald Kieffer's is the only others were willing to do so, but their money was in name listed. their chests which were stowed in the hold and they Divested of its official verbosity, the moving story of could not get to it. Others had spent everything they these bewildered travellers is as follows: had during the six weeks delay in Rotterdam. On the On August 23, 1727 four "Palatines": Theobald passage to Cowes, the water was bad, only one day's Kieffer, Valentin Jutzig, Casper Schneider, and John beer was drinkable, .and thirty or forty persons a day George K eller appeared at Hampton Court, "Praying got no meat, and the rice was bad. to His Majesty for Relief." Their petition stated that Arrived at Cowes, they complained to the Mr. Hope "The Palatines settled in Carolina," had written to their who lived there, and he promised to send them good relati ves "in the Palatinates," promising to find work provisions. Their chests were carried on shore to make for all who would join them. That in June, about 300 room for stowing additional food, but after a few days, of them arrived in Rotterdam, and there agreed with they were told to carry their chests back on board. This a shipmaster "to transport them at their own expense." they refused to do, until they were convinced they This, however, was forbidden by "the magistrates of would not be starved. Mr. Hope then "told them Rotterdam" who said that it was "against his majesty's plainly" that the ship was not large enough to carry order to transport them to that Colony," and that they the provisions agreed for. could only go to Philadelphia.* "While they were boiling their provisions in a field They therefore agreed with Mr. Archibald, Isaac and near Cowes," a man came along who had been in the Zacharias Hope' for a passage to Philadelphia and wars in Brabant, "and could speak Dutch." They told "after a tedious passage of three weeks" arrived at him their troubles, and he said that "Hope had de stroyed many poor souls in that manner," and advised *This explains why so many immigrant groups came first to Philadelphia and transshipped for the southern ports. them to go direct to London and appeal to the king. 'April 20 1735. Archibald and Isaac Hope, merchants of Rotterdam, 'asked permission of Pennsylvania Coun cil to trans "'Necessary" is probably the passengers' id ea, not the port 400 emigrants to America. CR 4. master's. 27 ~-- Emigrant Ship of the 18th Century. In such vessels the forefathers of the Pennsylvania Germans arrived at the port of Philadelphia. Mr. Wragg, the owner of the ship, was called to George West, who had been mas ter of several ships, testify, H e said he would have preferred to transport and was well acquainted with such matters. First he the emigrants to Carolina, where he had interests, but sampled public opinion among the residents of the the authori ties in R otterdam had granted an "octroy island, without stating his offi cial position. Some felt or monopoly" to the H opes, and prohibit all other that the Germans "had been a little obstinate about persons to transport emigrants " exc~ pt those that con some things," but on the whole agreed that they had tract with them". H e produced copies of his letters been ill-treated. H e next visited the Collector of Cus to Mr. H ope, asking permiss ion to make an exception toms at East Cowes, who proved most cooperative, and and take this party to Carolina, but said he was as offered him the full resources of his offi ce. This offi cial sured that they refu sed to go to Carolina and insisted said that it was obvious the p rovisions shipped from on going to Philadelphia, also that they were "the H oll and were bad, but that he was convinced that Worst and the R efuse of a ll the Germans that have they had now been repl aced by adequate ones. set out for America this year." H e produced the lists The next witness sent for was "their Interpreter, one of the provisions he had ordered to be shipped, and Anna Maria ..." (The dots are his. Mr. Godfrey called the mate to testify. The mate admitted that was a gentleman ) " the onl y person that could speak the water and beer were bad, but this was "accidental good English among them" and explained to her that by reason that the casks had not been cleaned". Mr. the king had " been graciously pleased to order their Wragg said that he was losing money at the rate of Grievances to be inquired into and Justice to be done ten pounds a day, because the Germans refused to sail. 'em." U nder his careful questioning this lady caused H e produced affid avits of Samuel White, J ohn Morey, the in vestigator " to suspect her to be prepossed in yc and Gabriel Player, masters of vessels, a nd Thomas Master's ffavor, and that she did not represent things H ewitt, King's pilot, that they had inspected the provi in their true light." sions and they were good, except for three casks of Lastly he introduced himself to the master and to beef brought from H oll and, which were "not fit to be Mr. H ope, showing his commission with the royal served for humane consumption," and were ordered order that "the Palatines must be justly treated." They buried in the sand. acknowledged the contract held by the Germans as T he Germans produced a letter, just received from theirs except that they said, it had been amended to Cowes, saying "That they apprehended they should be allow molasses to be substituted for treacle; grout of ill-treated a t Sea for that there were Irons put on barley with the husks taken off for oatmeal; and that board." while Tuesday's meal was to be a pound of meat with T he cou rt then sent Mr. John Godfrey of Southamp rice, Thursday's was to be only half-a-pound with fl our ton to make a thorough examination. Although, at the and rice. end of his letter, he properly apologizes for "having Only now as he prepared for the actu al inspection been thus prolix," his study of the case was conscien of the ship, he took with him a large group of wit tious and impartial. H e took with him a captain, nesses, and went on board. 28 In questioning the Germans on the ship, he found the res t as soon as they know, exactly, how many will that his earlier conversation with Anna Mary proved sail, as many have rambled all over the island, and a hindrance, "they not at all liking her, and being very some to Portsmouth, and had to be brought back by jealous of her." At first they refused to answer his Justices' warrants, "which has been the only force upon questions at all, but, at last, sifting out the conflicting them." As soon as they and their chests a re on board statements and the captain's replies, he had what he the provisioning will be completed. The Customs officer felt was a fair appraisal of the situation: The water promises to oversee this. The captain says he will be was "stinking," having been put into empty wine casks, sure to have enough: "being not willing to expose which had not had the lees of the wine rinsed out, but himself to Mutiny on the high Seas which probably "when they came into the Downes the master bought wou ld be the Consequence if they should be like to as much water as cost 17 shillings. " A large part of sta rve. They having one day taken to their arms on the beer was very bad. The Germans said almost all the master's offering to take away the Stages which of it, but the captain said only 10 casks out of 20. made a communication from the Ship's side to the They admitted that the meat served during the crossing Shore. " was good, but insisted it was unfairly divided. Anna Mr. Godfrey summarizes: The provisions from Rot Mary, who had done the distributing, insisted that she terdam were certainly bad, but, henceforth, there should had been quite impartial. be no just cause for complaint. The rice, Mr. Godfrey found, was India rice, of a There seems little need for comment on this report. poor quality and "very dusty," but he could not find any One wonders how much of the trouble was due to worms in it. The Germans produced a "lump of clot the language difficulty, how much to their inability to ted rice, musty, and good-for-nothing" but Mr. Hope im agine the restrictions of life on the subsistence diet claimed that this was Carolina rice, and was taken provided on an immigrant ship. Later pamphlets and from a cask in his storeroom, to which they had access, letters of advice persistently warned immigrants to give which had been set aside to be thrown away. The much care to providing supplementary food of their butter, cheese and bread were good. Someone pro own. That dubious lady, Fraulein Anna M.aria, seems duced a stale piece of black Dutch bread, but it was to have pl ayed considerable part in increasing the con proved that the only bread served them was ship's fusion. It is instructive to ponder on the depth of pov biscuit. The Germans admitted that they had sold erty, which caused many of them to exhaust all they some of the biscuit and cheese to house-wives in Cowes, had in five weeks of waiting in Rotterdam. Also upon but said they did this to buy soft bread for the sick. the width of the misunderstanding which m ade the At the present time, no provisions were being distri Germans fear mistreatment when they saw the ircns buted, except beer. This, said Mr. H ope, was with carried on board, which the captain was supplying their consent, the sailing having been delayed five weeks to protect himself from mutiny. because of the petition and investigation. Up until a What was the end of the story? Who knows? The few days ago, however, the full rations had been served. Strassburger and Hinke shiplists show no arrival of The Germans, asked if they had given this consent, said a Three Sisters in Philadelphia until the 19th century. it was forced upon them. The name of Wragg does not appear either as Captain Mr. Godfrey then had a ship's carpenter measure or owner. I find no further mention of this Theobald the ship. H e goes into detail as to how this was done Kieffer, nor of V alentin Jutzig. There were several with the keel under water, and gives extremely full Caspar- Schneiders later, and a George K ell er (whose measurements. They add up to 177 tuns and upward, fate is known ) who had come earlier. Alexander Sted which all agree is ample for "cabbin space" and provi man has always been considered one of the more honor sions for 200 grown persons. There are 270 souls in abl e merchants. (Possibly he learned a lesson from the party, but those under 14 are reckoned as half this episode.) passengers and those under four as none. This totals Was the ship, after all , allowed to go to South Car less than 200 as "Nine are run away and supposed to olina? Did she, ras hl y, sail for Philadelphia, so late be begging somewhere." in the season, and run into a hurricane or a winter All the committee agree that the ship is tight, staunch, gale? Was the whole voyage abandoned, and the travel and of sufficient capacity. "Captain West and myself, lers sent home? Or is it merely a case of another tasted the picJde of every cask (of beef) ." There is, missing shiplist? however, a separate item of "London beef and pork In any event the resolute conduct of Theobald Kief for the ship's company. " H e examined: "good Dutch fer and his comrades proved to the world that with cheese," "boiling pease," small beer, Carolina rice, 3 a little initiative, it was possible to obtain redress even casks of butter. "The Bread room is full of Biscuit, for poor, poverty-stricken "Palatines." (George II was, what we could get at is very good." There were also a after all, more German than English.) Who knows "parcell" of flour, "100 butts of fresh water, which cost how many a later shipmaster contemplating stinting on above nine pounds"; and "about 500 wt. of Stockfish, his provisions to fill his own pocket may have thought which they wi ll not eat, al though good and contracted [or." of this story and added to the casks and the biscuits The captai n and Mr. Hope, admit that the quantities or even tasted the pickl e. I still wish that Theobald are not yet quite suffi cient, but say that they will stock was my ancestor! 29 NOTES and DOCUMENTS: Eighteenth-Century Letters from Germany Edited by DON YODER I. vices for some years as a "redemptioner," he was mar [The local historian J ames Y. H eckler (1829-1901) ried in 1764 to Catharine Freed, daughter of Peter of Montgomery County produced several local histor Freed, a M ennonite, of Lower Salford. For seventeen ical sketches which present-day Pennsylvania research years the H eckl ers lived near the present town of ers, historians, genealogists, and folklife scholars, find Blooming Glen in Hilltown Township, Bucks County, of value. His History of L ower Salford T ownship, then moved back to Lower Salford. The name was (Montgomery County), Commencing with a H istory originall y spell ed "Hechler" - the historian bl ames of Harleysville (Harleysville, Pennsylvania, 1888) is an Irish stonecutter for changing the spelling to "Heck a 456-page mine of information on early life in the ler" on the emigrant's headstone. George H eckl er died "Dutch end" of Montgomery County. His History of August 28, 1816. - EDITOR.] Franconia Township which ran in local newspapers, was reprinted in book form in 1960 by the Schlechter Ret[s] chweiler, M ay 3, 1784. Press in Allentown, Pennsylvania. M uc h beloved brother: Another local historian of Montgomery County, Since the 8th of November, 1767, which was the whose interests involved particul arly church history last date of your writing to us, we have not had any and genealogy, was H enry S. Dotterer, whose period information from you, and of your circumstances . I ical, The Perkiomen R egion, Past and Present, Volumes must presently mention that father and mother have I-III (1894-1901 ), was actually the first regional his died :-mother about ten years and father about four torical periodical to appear in Pennsylvania. H enry years; and our sister some twenty-odd years ago. S. Dotterer is remembered also for his researches into I, Michael H echler, your brother am alone left re Reformed Church history and backgrounds in Penn maining of our family ; and you my beloved brother sylvania; many of his church-historical sketches ap George. It causes me much regret to be at such a peared in the R eform ed Church M essenger and other distance from you. You can imagine for yourself how church periodicals. sad it is to have an only brother and to be so far from In the D otterer Papers, Volume X, pp. 103, 105 him that it is an impossibility to speak even a few words (Collections of the Genealogical Society of Pennsylva with him, for which I have wished a thousand times, nia, Volume 319 ), there is a pencil copy of "An Old although I see the impossibility before me. At least Letter from Germany," with the notation: "Mr. James mention to me your right address so that I can now Y. H eckl er, of H atfield, has favored us with a transla and then have a written conversation with you. tion of a letter from his unpublished History of the The bearer of this is one of our countrymen, a native H eckl er Family. It will be read with interest by the of Ret [s] chweil er, whose name is Christi an Schneider, many members of the H eckl er family, as well as by whom you, as a faithful countryman, may assist as others." The letter was sent from Retschweil er in much as you possibl y can, that he also may find a home Lower Al sace, now in France, in 1784, from Michael and employment. H e leaves here on account of poverty. H echler to his brother George H echler, then of Lower H e has not carried on any unworthy business that he Salford Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. should leave on that account. No letters had passed between the brothers since 1767, Inform me as soon as possible what you wish us to and the European brother tells the family news and asks do with your patrimony, which we have kept for you. spccifi call y for the right to dispose of the American We can make disposition of it so that our descendants brother's property in the home parish. M any similar will not come into vexations about it. All people who deta il s can be found in the long series of Amerikabriefe tell me about you assure me that you have achieved a that we have published in Pennsylvania Folklife. complete success. If it is so inform me of it. According to J ames Y. H eckl er's History of Harleys I will inform you also that I have been m arried ville (H arleysvill e: Benjamin L. Gehman, 1886), pp. about eighteen years with our neighbor Casper Schnei 177-183, George H eckl er, son of Michael H echler, was der's daughter, M aria Elizabeth, and with her have born in R etschweil er, Lower Alsace, April 26, 1736. had nine children. Of these are living by God's grace, After learning the tailoring trade at the age of 15, he four so ns and two daughters, of whom the oldest is a emigrated to Ameri ca, arriving in Philadelphia on the son fifteen years old. Neptune, September 30, 1754. After paying for his Finding yourself now such a wealthy man please to passage by the very common practise of selling his ser- surrender to my children your share. Please m ention 30 Bergzabern in the Palatinate. Foto Cra mer to me in what manner it shall be done: although I directed toward the British Colonies, producing the leave it all to your gracious pleasure (and judgment). background of the Pennsylvania German culture, a We are, thank God, all healthy and well, hoping second major migration was taking place into Eastern and wishing the same may be the case with your family. Europe. Whole areas of Hungary, Poland, and Russia Salute your dear wife and dear children affectionately were settled in the 18th Century by Gennan farmers for us . Believe and be assured that I am at all times from various states, under the colonization policies of in brotherly love and friendship your sincere and faith Catharine II and J oseph II. In the 1870's, when the ful brother. liberal agreements of the colonizing monarchs were Michael H echler. abrogated, a counter-migration began, bringing, partic Beloved brother, I wish you much lu ck and blessing, ularl y from Russia, large numbers of Gennan-speaking and since it is impossible for us to speak together other Mennonites to Canada and the Plains States. wise than by writing, I ask you, beloved brother, to The family details given in the correspondence can write a letter back to me soon. I send greeting to you, be enlarged by reference to The M ennonite Encyclope brother George H echler, and your whole family many dia. For the Rupp family, including H einrich Rupp thousand times. These few disjointed lines have been (1760-1800) of H arxheim and Johann Rupp (1747- written by me, Michael H echler. 1787 ) of Altzey, who emigrated to Galicia in 1784 ff. , to Einsiedel and Rosenberg respectively, see IV, 379. II. For the Landes (Landi ) Family in Pennsylvan.ia, see [As a followup to the recent "Mennonite Contacts III, 280-282. Background infonnation on the materials Across the Atlantic" (Pennsylvania Folklife, XIX : 1, in these letters can also be found in the encyclopedia Autumn 1969,46-48 ) the letter of J acob Rupp of H ep under the headings H eppenheim, Oberflorsheim, Gal penheim in the Palatinate, dated 1786, and the reply icia, Einsiedel, and Rosenberg. by Rudolph Landes of D eep R un, Bedminster Town The Zimmermann-Hardt migration to Pennsylvania ship, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, dated 1787, are of referred to in the correspondence very probably in interest on several counts. volves two passengers on the Brig Betsey which arrived The J acob Rupp letter is important especially for its in Philadelphia in 1771. In the list of the passengers explicit reference to the migration of Palatine Men taking the Oath of Allegiance on December 4, 1771 nonites to Eastern Europe. In the same century that (S trassburger-Hinke, I, 738, List 292 C ) there appears the major thrust of Gennan and Swiss emigration was a Jaco b Zimmerman and immediately following, Jean 31 Gaspard H orthe. In addition there are in the same list !Il ! e Sebastian H arth, Rudy Funck, and M artin Funck. The Rupp-Landes Correspondence was published in J. S. H artzler and D ani el K auffman, M ennonite Church History (Scottdale, Pennsy lvania: Mennonite Book and f Tract Society, 1905), pp. 401-405, without indication be! of where the authors found the originals. Will M enno I nite librarians and archivists pl ease inform us wh ere the I Bi1n~lt~ ~i~U~5) original letters, or copies of them, may be found at the o~er ou6erlr[rnc present time? - EDITOR.] H eppenheim, near Altzey, geiftreid)e Q)efonge, April 15th, 1786. crUm roo~ren ~e\16f>1g!rrigc n Dear W orthy Friends: ce(tltSlingclt bet ~ciU)eit, I desire to express my heartfelt wish for your true in[onbrrDrit ova aflrn welfare in all pertaining to the thriving of body and soul. The letter from yo u dear friends, Abraham and I ~~riftlid)cn 0emeinbcn beG S;)errn Rudolph Landes dated April 12, 1784, we received on pm the 17th of August, 1784, with great pleasure, and through it ascertained as to your general health. We wish to announce that all who are still living of us are, praise the Lord, in good bodily health. Yet it has pl eased the Lord, who alone is Ruler over life and death, to demand from us Elizabeth Burkyen in the month of Mayas also Christian Schmitt on the 14th of June, 1784. They were called out of this toilsome world and transformed to Eternity, where in accordance with the Christian Faith they will increase the inhab itants of the other world. M ay the Almighty in his mercy prepare us for a joyful following. I also an r.itle-pa~e. of the FranconiaMennonite Hymnal, nounce that the youngest daughter, Christina, of Eliz fzfth edttzon, 184B. Rudolph Landes' acrostic abeth Burkyen, deceased, was wedded to Rudolph For hymn appears in the second appendix, No. 21. rer also of "Wersheimer Hof," and is in possession of the farm of her father, Jacob Burkyen, deceased. Further more I give you without concealment the information cannot be found among the crowned heads. H e permit that within the past three or four years many of the a ll religions, which before his time was not permitted. families from this and other neighborhoods have moved I wrote you a letter which I presume you received in into the kingdom of Poland. This journey of over four the fall of '84, through my brother-in-law, Jacob Rupp, hundred hours was made by my brother John, leaving who visited us from Pennsylvania, at that time, which on the 10th of O ctober, 1784, as also my brother H enry, contained a description of former times. Further I wish who wedded Catherine Brollin, reformed religion, from to acquaint yo u with the fact that the year '84 was H arxheim, on June 13th, 1785, they together with J acob such a complete failure that the oldest persons remem Muller of Rudelsheim, with his son-in-law, Jacob Bur ber none such; fruits, vegetables and crops of all kinds sched of H arxheim. The journey was partly by water, were very scarce, causing great hardship a t the begin but mostly overland. They went to improve their con ning of '85. The pen cannot describe it at all. Now dition. The country is very fertile and does not be every thing is again blest and cheaper than in many long to the Kingdom of Poland any more. It is call ed long years and the growing crops look well with us. now Mehro-Galli ia, which came into possession of the We live in hopes of soon getting a letter from you. R oman Empire M ajesty Joseph II, during the war Information is asked if Casper H ardt, brother of J acob times. Through his glorious and more than wise gov H ardt, did not come to you about 12 years ago. ernment, many colonists have settled there, as also Mrs. Landes, her children, I and mine send you many Estates of Nobility and church. They are furnished greeting. R emember us in yo ur prayers, we are willing with good new homesteads with about fifty acres of to do likewise with God's sanction. With compliments land without any ost, a lso cattle, implements, house and under the protection of the Almighty, I am utensils, just as farmers need, also several free years Your true and sincere friend. without taxation. They have as yet not been assigned JACOB RUPP. to places but hope to shortly. If they haven't been, they P. S.-The above greetings include the entire circle will certainly before long as they receive support until of fri endship- the Landes famil y, I must particularly they are assigned their land. The favours which these mention Frederi ck Landes, who is just my age. I would people receive from the wise Joseph, is more than great. li ke also to receive a few lines from him some time. Not alone this, he is al 0 a philanthropist whose equal Adieu. 32 REPLY OF R UDOLPH LANDES. Landes. I and my housewife and children again send April 13, 1787, Bu cks County. their heartfelt greetings, and to remember one another Bedminster T ownship a t Deep Run. in prayers is my wish. The beloved God who has W orthy Friends: brought us this far a nd aided us will, I hope, help us The Lord be with you through His holy, righteous lay our weary heads into the dust of the earth to rest Spirit, guide you through His sincere grace, love and until the Lord shall awaken us to the glory, comfort mercy to the path of love and peace. This I wish you and happiness of yonder life. As this goes beyond all upon your friendly greetings, may the Lord and God thought, may the Lord therefore give us the strength of all grace give us and you all, strength to follow Him to lead such lives that we may there look upon one on the path upon which He preceded us through pure another in eternal joy and splendor. This I wish you love to our eternal salvation and happiness, and loved and us all through Jesus Christ. Amen. I would like not life unto death- His alone be praise, honor and to know if Cousin Landes' daughters, M agdalen and commendation in all eternity. Amen. Grette, a re sti ll living. I send them and theirs hearty Beloved friend and Cousin Rupp, your writing of greetings, as also all our friends in this writing which April 15, 1786, we received and through it perceived has been done in simplicity and love. that you were in part well , which was very pleasing From your friend, to us. Also that some of ou r friends departed this life, RUDOLPH LANDES.* and I hope that God in His mercy through J esus Christ [ Po S.] It has frequently come to my mind that I has received and taken them into life eternal, that we would like to know if old Christian Weber, William may with the wise virgins be prepared, and that our Kramer, Jacob Dahlem and John H aan are still living like may be kept burning and our lamps not extin or any of them or who is in charge of the household guished; that adorned in the unsoiled wedding robe, of our M ennonite community in Upper Florschheim we may, like unto mankind, wait for the Lord- that where I was received in great poverty and ill health the Friend, the Lord, the Bridegroom may come when and taken up in the congregation of J esus Christ. Which H e pleases and would not then become alarmed, but now being nearly 38 years ago comes to my thoughts would be joyful and enter with Him to the nuptials that though we wrote to one another from time to may our good Lord help us thereto through Jesus Christ. time, I fear the time at hand when we morta ls will Amen. sink or have sunken to sleep and soon to hear "a cry In regard to how we are getting on, we can say as at midnight, and behold the Bridegroom cometh." Now far as bodily health is concerned, we are presumably as the one to make the cry is not revealed to us, we well , thanks to the Lord, and we have also full and should call to one another and be on guard as the plenty to eat. Nor are we alarmed with war, although enemy is watching and it is said goes about us like a they are troubled inla nd with little warfares. What will roaring lion to devour us. Oh, that we m ay withstand come of it, only God knows. It is mostly on account him through our belief-though we are strangers by of the money demands. A large portion of the Penn sight I hope tha t in united belief and united hope and sylvania inhabitants cannot become reconciled to this, in love, the Lord may strengthen our foundation that and the humbling of the Lord's name does not please we may go on from strength to strength, from might many. They have as yet been unaccustomed to it in to might, until we reach God in Zion, to this may God this country. Yet again there a re those who use the help us through Jesus Christ. Amen. name of the Lord to greedily fill their hands and pockets Remember us also in your prayers. I am willing so with the farmer's possessions, a nd as they are no better far as the Lord aids me in my weakness to do likewise. than others, it causes indignation. Christ's followers T ake this up in love as it is done in love. have only to give attention to the Lord's commands. To a heartfelt friendly and brotherly greeting in the H e saith, give unto the king whatsoever belongeth to Lord from the king, and to God what is his, and to love thine RUDOLPH LANDES. enemies and to plead with the offender, that you may be children of your Father in heaven, says Christ. N. B.-Cousin Rupp, I trust you will execute the It is asked if Casper Hardt had not come to this wishes ex pressed, and hope you will write and if we country. I answer yes, and is still here as much as I li ve and the Lord is willing, we will continue our know-away up country somewhere. I wrote about correspondence. him to you last year, about him and Jacob Zimmerman, *While reading proof on this a rticle I was visited at the as they came to this country. J acob Hardt is still living, University of Pennsylvania by Ada K adelbach, a student of as far as I know. He lives thirty hours trip from here. Dr. Hans G~ l insky'~ at .the Uniyersity of .M ainz who is writing her Ph.D . d,sserta tI on In Ameri can StudIes, on the subject of Furthermore you write that your brother had moved M ennonite H ym nody in the United States to 1860. I am in into the kingdom of Poland, regarding this I should debted to her for p ~ intin g out th ~ curi? us acrostic hymn by Rudolph Landes whIch appeared In prtnt for the first time like to hear more, providing it is not asking too much in the th .ir~ . edition of the F.ranconia M ennonite hymnal, Die kleme gelstllche H ar/e d er Kmder Zions (Germantown 1820) of you. Regarding the remaining friends, the other Zugabe, N r. 2 1. The hymn, which begins, "Rath hUif und letters will inform me. I heard that your brother-in trost, 0 HErr, mein GOtt, Find ich bey dir all'e ine" was law, J acob Rupp, had been in good health this winter. written, accord.in g to verse 13, when the author was 65: hence can be dated In 179 7. Rudolph Landes died in 1802 and is Also the same of the widow and children of J acob buried at D eep Run.- EDITOR. 33 By GUY TILGHMAN HOLL YDAY The Cloister at Ephrata, Pennsylvania, in addition gothic letters, called in the German Fractur-schrifften.'" to holding a unique place in German-American print There remain today only twelve wall-charts at the ing, musi ology and hymn-writing, was a pioneer center Cloister. A thirteenth, at the Cloister's 19th Century of the art of Fraktur. Concerning Fraktur illumination, offshoot, Snow Hill in Franklin County, also appears for instance, D onald A. Shelley declares: "Fraktur il to be a product of Ephrata. H ow and whither the lumination not only appeared in America first at the others have departed no one seems to know. Ephrata Cloister in Ephrata, Pa., but also reached Fortunately, several nineteenth-century scholars visit its greatest perfection there. '" Now that most of the ed Ephrata and transcribed some of the wall-charts Ephrata wall-charts- those Frakturs measuring some they found there. 1. D aniel Rupp, the early 19th fiv e or six feet on a side and intended for hanging on Century historian of the Germans in Pennsylvania, re a wall- have been restored, the visitor to Ephrata may corded the following: soon be abl e to view these grandest, though sadly [l] Z enobia wird griinen und Gedeyen, abused, products of Ephrata craftsmanship.' ihre Arbeit wird nicht vergeblich, At one time, apparently, the Cloister was overflowing No ch auch ihre H oUnung, verlohren seyn, with wall-charts and Frakturs. In 1835 Dr. William ihr Erbe bliihet mitten unter den H eiligen.' M . Fahnestock declared: "The walls of all the rooms, [Zenobia wi ll blossom a nd prosper, including the meeting room, the chapels, the saals, and H er labors will not prove fruitless, Nor shall any hopes that she had prove vain. even the kammer-s, or dormitories, are hung and nearl y H er works do flourish midst the Saints here at covered, with large sheets of elegant penmanship, or Ephrata.] ink-paintings, many of which are texts from the scrip Fahnestock, who described the Society before Rupp, tures, done in very handsome manner, in ornamented records the same Fraktur and explains that at the death of a cclibate such pieces were hung in the chamber 'The Fraktur-Writings or Illuminated M anuscripts of the previously occupied by the deceased.' Pennsylvania Germans, The Pennsylvania German Folklore So iety, All entown, 1961 , XXIII, 101. '''An Historical Sketch of Ephrata, together with a Con 'The term Fraktur will be used to refer to small er wall cise Account of the Seventh-Day Baptist Society of Pennsylva cha rts. The author is indebted to the conservator of the ni a," H azard's R egister of Pennsylvania, XV (January-June, wall-charts, Mrs. R oswell W eidner of Philadelphia, a nd to 1835), 162. a n unpublished report of hers on their conservation, for ' H istory of Lancaster County, T o Which I s Prefixed a Brief posing many of the ques ti ons dealt wi th in this study. We Sketch of the Early H istory of Pennsylvania (L a ncaster, 1844), will not consider here problems emphasized in her report : p. 22 1. symboli sm a nd the identity of the scribes . 'Fahnestock, " An Historical Sketch," p. 162. 34 • • - ~ - - - f - . ... Inscription No. 5 Later in the century Julius Friedrich Sachse recorded Prints reproduced from the Collections the following Fraktur in his monumental two volume of the Library of Congress study of Ephrata, The German Sectarians of Pennsylva ma: [2J HIR TRONT DER HIRTE dieser Schaar Sachse and Oswald Seiden sticker of the University of tuth sie als S chafflein weiden, Pennsylvania German Department both recorded a drum ge hen sie bey Paar u Paar third Fraktur still at the Cloister at the end of the Und ruhmen Gatt mit Freuden! 19th Century: [Here reigns the shepherd of this flo ck; Puts them like lambs to pasture. [3J W O Filadelfia bluht als ein grunes Feld And so they go now two by two Da sihet man aufge hen die Frucht der neuen Welt .' And praise the Lord with gladness.J [Where Philadelphia blooms like a verdant field, 'Volume I ( Ph iladelphia, 1899 ), p. 410. Actuall y, Sachse There one can see growing the fruit of this transcribed the Fraktur as "CHRISTUS DER HIRTE . . . " new world.J A close inspection of his photograph of it at the Seventh D ay Baptist Historical Society in Pl ainfield, ew J ersey, however, 'Sachse, The German Sectarians, I, 4 14; and Seidensticker reveals the form given above to be correct. Where it is known Ephrata, eine amerikanische Klostergesc hichte (Cincinnati: what letters on a Fraktur were capitalized, thy will be tran 1883), p. 7. The reference here is to the biblical Philadelphia scribed as such here. men tioned in Revelation 1: 11 and 3: 7. 35 - ....., ~ J\ ( . ) -. ( , ~ -. Inscription No.6 Finally, Sachse records a fourth Fraktur now missing, Ephrata are recorded by the three major historians cited the epitaph of another Sister: above. It is probable that of the many Frakturs and wall-charts seen by Dr. Fahnestock in or about 1835 [4] Bernice, Freue sich in ihrem gang unter del' only the small easily transportable ones were taken S chafJ-W eide, und sey fr eundlich u. huldreich unler den Lieb away, and that by this D arwinian law of selection ac Habern. s cording to size, all the largest have remained to us. If any of the smaller Frakturs have been preserved in [Bernice shall be joyous now on walks midst the grazing lambkins, attics, collections or elsewhere, perhaps they may yet May she friendly and gracious be with the be brought to light. loved ones.] The Sister Bernice FraktUl' is interesting on several accounts. Sachse gives a lengthy romanticized descrip At this point two striking facts should be noted. tion of her burial, preceded by the following informa First, all of the missing Frakturs of which we have tion: "The first of the Sisterhood to leave this transitory knowledge contained brief inscriptions. And second, life and go forth to join the celestial Bridegroom beyond most of the large Frakturs which are now preserved at the skies, was Bernice, who died of consumption, while SThe German Sectarians, I, 4·78. The form given here is the Sisterhood were ye t in K edar, November 30, 1743, taken not from Sachse's faulty tra nscription, but from the in the thirty-second year of her age. She was Leonard Sisters' C hronicle manusc ri pt at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, as will be explained below. H eidt's daughter, a beautiful girl, who lived with her 36 I I I I ~ I ~IPb I I I I . , •._~, : ~ X" ... . " ",: /' "i\' .~ ' . f · A""""C : . ~ ,~-"---~------~_..... -- .. Imcriptio1Z No. 7 parents at Oley, and after a VJSl t from the Solitary been executed at the time, this would give us a known Brethren to her father's house was so enraptured with Fraktur executed as early as the year 1744. If we may the thought of a spiritual life that she foll owed them trust the phra eology of the official chronicle of the to the settlement and became one of the fo unders of Cloister, published at Ephrata in 1786, Frakturs were the Sisterhood.'" Sachse concludes with the statement hung in a "Saal," a worship hall, several years before that the head of the Cloister, Conrad Beissel, composed this. Thc fourteenth chapter of the chronicle deals with her epitaph and the sisters executed the Fraktur there the events of the year 17 35, the year in which the of." church-building and Brothers and Sisters house Kedar The date of death given by Sachse is incorrect by was built "After the meetings had been held for a short onl y two months." If we assume the Fraktur to have time in K edar," relates the chronicle, a housefather offered his possessions for the construction of a new 'The German Sectarians, I, 477. lOI bid., I , 478. Sachse gives no source fo r these statements building of worship, one in which "texts in black-letter and their validity is open to question. were hung: '" The chronicle then states that this new liThe Pennsylvani a Histori cal Society contains a manuscript of the Sisters' Chronicle which is obviously the original copy. building was razed just four years later!' Assuming it I t is entitled : " Die R ose oder: D er angenehmen Blumen zu to have been built in 1736 at the latest, and assuming Saron geistliche Eheverl obnus mit ihrem himmlisc hen Brauti gam . ... Ephrata den 13. des 5 M on. 1745:' On page 376 that the "bl ack-l etter" texts were Frakturs, these works we find : "Unsere vielgeliebte Schwester Bernice ist im H erren must have been executed at the Cloister by the year entschlaffen den 30 des 11 Monats Anno 1743 ihres alters 32 J ahr!' Above the "des 11 Monats" is written the word "J en 1740. U nforunately, only one wall-chart that has ner" (J anuary). At the time the chronicl e was begun, 1745, survived, the so-called "Three H eavens," discussed be- the eleventh month of the year was J anuary, a nd in this fi rs t month of the year 1744, according to present day reckoning, 12 Chronicon Ephratense: A H istory of the Community of Bernice died. The later' copies of the chronicle, one each at Seventh Day Baptists at Ephrata, L ancaster County, Penn'a the Historical Society of Pennsylvania and at the Seventh by " L amech and A grippa," transla ted by l M ax H ark, D .D: D ay Baptist H istorical Society in Plainfield, New J ersey, mis (Lancaster, Pennsylvania 1889 ), pp 79, 80. takenly interpret the eleventh month as November. " I bid., p. 80. 37 low, carries a date : 1755. That Frakturs or wall-charts The next logical place to search is in the many were executed long after that time is indicated by the products of the famous 18th Century Ephrata press, epitaph of Sister Zenobia, quoted above, who did not alrcady mentioned, and here we are more fortunate. die until 1798." In the Erster Theil der Theosophischen L ectionen of The inscriptions on the Ephr.ata wall-charts present 1752, in the "Theosophische Gedichte," are to be found a two-fold problem : where did they come from, and, the inscriptions of two of the wall charts: in the case of those that have been partiall y destroyed by weather and vermin, what were the original texts? [7] GOTT UND DAS KEUSche Lamm muss stetig in uns walten: I n look ing for their origins one turns naturally, as Und uns in Ewigkeit nicht lassen m ehr erkalten." Fahnestock suggcsted, to the Bible. But there one finds the sources for only the two wall-charts with references [God and the virgin lamb must always in us rule, to the Book of R evelation : And through eternity not let our faith grow cool.] and [5] UND DIE STADT DARF K einer Sonnen noch des M onden dass ~8] Z euch hin, 0 Liebe Seel, und trage deinen sie I hr scheinen, denn die H errlichkeit Gottes Jammer. erleuchtet sie, u. Ihre L euchte ist das Lamm. Dein GlU ck bliiht dir aldort in jener Ewigkeit: off. 21 , 23.]· Da wirstu gehen ein in deine Ruhe-Kammer, Nach viel gehabter Miih, u. manchem bittren L eid. [And the city has no need of sun or moon to Bin ich an jetzo schon offt schwer und hart beladen, shine upon it, for the glory of God is its light, So dass die Schmertzen mir geht tief ins H ertz and its lamp is the Lamb. R evelation 21 : 23 .] hinein, and: So wird die Hoffnung doch zuletzt dem Elend [6] UND DIE KONIGE AUF ERden rat hen werden I hre H errlichkeit und Ehre in W enn ich ge h nach vielleid in m eine Kammer ein." dieselbige bringen. Und I hre T ohre werden nicht verschlossen des Tages denn da wird keine Nacht [Go forth, beloved soul, and nobly bear vexation, seyn. Thy fortune blossoms there in that eternity; off. 21,24.25. There shalt thou find thy way into thy peaceful sanctum, [And the kings upon earth shall bring their glory But first must come both strain and harsh infirmity. and honor into it, and its gates shall never be Am I at this time full well stra ined and sorelv shut by day-and there shall be no night there. burthened, ' Revelation 21: 24-25.] So that the agony goes deep into my breast, Yet comes the time when hope my suff'ring will Many Pennsylvania-German Fraktur inscriptions are have mirthened, known to be taken from the hymns of the particular When I go, for much pain, into my sanctum's rest.] religious group which produced them. Beissel and his followers were constantly writing hymns-and hymnals. In no other 18th Century Ephrata publications, how The first hymnal, the Gottliche L iebes und L obes Geth ever, are any of the wall-chart inscriptions to be found. one of 1730, containing sixty-two hymns, was one of There remains but one other area of Ephrata pro the first works published by Benjamin Franklin in ductions to search: the manuscripts produced at the Philadelphia. The Z ionitischer Weyrauchs-Hiigel of Cloister. There were, first of all, an unknown number 1739 was the first book published by the famous of smaller Frakturs produced by the Brothers and Germantown printer Christopher Sower and contained Sisters. Although these could probably not be viewed 692 hymns, many by writers of previous centuries. as sources for the wall-charts, they might at least Between the e dates three other hymnals were produced supply us with texts for parts of wall-charts that have by Beissel and his foll owers. And from the time of the deteriorated beyond recognition. But the location of fi rst hymnal published on the press at Ephrata, the only a few of these Frakturs is known. As Dr. Shel Gesiing Der einsamen und verlassenen Turtel-Taube ley, the outstanding authority in the fi eld, has stated: in 1747, until the printing of the last great collection " . . . we still know surprisingly little a bout the in of Ephrata hymns in 1766, two years before Beissel's dividual artists who did this extraordinarily beautiful death, the Paradisisc hes Wunder-Spiel with its 725 work, the sources of their inspiration, or the scope of hymns composed at the Cloister, numerous manuscripts their activity. Ephrata illuminated manuscripts today and imprints with hymns were produced there.'· In are so widely scattered and so rarely heard of, that not a single one of these, however, is there more than considerable field work will have to be done before an occasional echo of the wall-chart inscriptions. these questions can adequately be a nswered.'''' The author has located and inspected many Ephrata choral "'Date taken from the original Sisters' Chronicle at the manuscripts, but besides music these contain onl y the H istorical Society of Pennsylvania, p. 38l. "The quotations of existent texts are taken from p ersonal inspection of the wall-charts and from photographs made in " P. 405, No. 36. We have transcribed here and below the the 1930's, now at the Prints a nd Photographs Divisi on of the form used on the Frakturs, not that of the Theosophische Library of Congress. Gedichte. According to Anneli ese M . Funke, the Theoso ]"The Ephrata Cloisters: An Annotated Bibliography by phische Gedichte are attributed to Conrad Beissel (The Eugene E. D oll and Anneliese M . Funke (Philadelphia 1944) Ephrata Cloisters, p. 96). ,,;n indispensable reference work for the student of Ephrata: lSP. 428, O. 128. lIsts all the hymn coll ections which bear separate imprints. "Shelley, Gp. Cit., p . 102. 38 The Ephrata Wall-Chart of the Three Heavens. See text, Inscription No.9. opening passage of works printed in the Ephrata hym and the "Three H eavens," however, we must have nals. The sole Ephrata manuscript found thus far to more information on their mutilated texts. The "Three contain any wall-chart inscription is the Sisters' Chron Heaven," wall-chart today has such great losses that icl e, containing the epitaph of Bernice. In looking for one can not tell how many lines of writing there are other possi ble sources, the author has searched in the below the illustrations and can decipher only a part Berleburg Bible of 1726 ff. , and in the Dutch edition of the four lines of text forming the left and right sides of the famous Martyrs Book, translated into German of the triangle of inscriptions. Fortunately, an excellent by Brother John Peter Miller and published on the photograph has been preserved at the Prints and Pho Ephrata press, but in vain. tographs Division of the Library of Congress dating If sources are to be found for the two most un from the 1930's in which several details now lost are usual wall-charts, the "Crooked and Narrow Way," clearly visible. And most fortunate of all, the Seventh 39 Day Baptist Historical Society in Plainfield, New Jersey, Mitte (?) Nichtigkeit und (?) ...... Paradises, possesses a photograph made by Sachse in the late da wil . . . 1880's on which the inscriptions in the lower left hand 4 .... Blin .. .erfreuen (?) von (?) der Huld (?) ...... corner of the wall chart, destroyed by the 1930's, are 5 . . .. wir dann nicht Freude . .. Paradisis- clear enough for us to count the number of lines ( 11) chen (?) ...... Paradisisches (?) Kinder and discern the words that begin most of them. (?) -Leben vor Using Sachse's photograph the author has also been 6. Was (?) ist dann (?) wol der Frevel (?) able to determine that the lines of the left a nd right und . .. B ... en des L ebens (?) ...... H er tz (?) ... empfunden wird. Die R ose (?) sides of the triangle of inscriptions go together. The 7.... ches Kinder (?) -Leben! 0 was wird top line of the left side, clearly the beginning of the ...... sieht (?) die Freu de text, is followed by the top line of the right side, after 8 ... . gen Kinder (? )-Leben ...... which the second line of the left side follows, a nd so deine Blumen-Rose ( ?) forth. At the top of the triangle is the word "Welt" 9. Was ( ?) ... do ch (?) vor ... S egen! (?) ...... W eilen die Lammer von gr . . . (World ), within the triangle stands Christ, clearly 10 .. . ' W ... tranck (?) ...... S . . . visible only in the Sachse photograph, with His sheep, 11 .... nim setze se he (?) ...... and outside and above the triangle a re three heavens, the lowest of which appears to consist of scenes from Just as fascinating as the "Three Heavens" is the life a t Ephrata. The tex ts, as best we can read them, " Crooked a nd Narrow Way." Although Sachse's pho are as fol lows: tograph of it is very poor, with the help of the Library of Congress photograph from the 1930's, most of the Left and right sides of the triangle: text, except for the two inscriptions at the base of the [9a] Was sehen wir doch fur Wunder? der Vor wall-chart, can be distinguished. The text on the path, hang ist abgethan, de?" Glantz der neuen W elt whose shape is suggestive of the well-known spiritual bricht ( ?) herfur (?). S ehen wir dann nicht im Thal die reine Schaf-Weide Christi alwo der gute labyrinths of the time--one of which was printed at H irte (?) sie leitet und fuhret zu der reinen Tranck Ephrata in 1788,'° begins in the lower left corner and an dem Strom oder Brunnen des L ebens (?) Siehet ends in the lower right. The faded scenes and persons (?) man (?) dann nicht (?) . . .. Hohen und on the rest of the chart illustrate the message of the Bergen die Zahl der Jungfrau en-Schaarenweis mit text. The inscriptions are as follows: Harffen Gottes einhergehen, und am Strom des L ebens sich weiden, dabey singen wie ein ne·u Lied welches sonst men Esc hen?] . . . ohne die (?) On the path: Zahl (?) . . . [Schaa?]ren der Jungfrauen die [lOa] V om Au [[gang der ] Sonnen bis zum Nied dem Lamm nachfolgen wo es hinge het, weilen in ergang wird man des [HeTrn W erc?]k preisen: ihrem Munde kein Arges noch Falsches funden. vom M ittag bis Mitternacht prediget man seine W as sehen wir dann dorten zur Seiten vor schone Wunder. In der Mitte dieser vier W elt Theilen Spielen? ist es da nn nicht ein Paradisisch es ist Gottes heiliger Ruhe Punct, auf denselbige n Blumen-Feld, das (?) die K inder der neuen W elt Punct ist erbauet die Stadt des Friedens oder das in Freuden einander hertzen, und mit Frolo cken heilige Jedusaleml [ail?] wo die Burger stoltze sic huber die S c honheit der Blu m en erfreuen. Ruh und Sicherheit genussen, und ob den Frieden halten. Rund um dasselb e her [sind?] erbauet rWhat miracles lie before us? The curtain is die Hutten der Gerechten, welche (?) Einwohner taken down, the new world's luster breaks forth. die heilige Thor-Wacht halten, damit kein Frevel Do we not see in the vale the saintly sheep herd in die Stadt ge bracht werde, noch etwas von of C hrist's own, wherein the Good Shepherd leads dergleichen da aus und eingehe. In der mit and guides them to the taintless drink at the river ten derselb en ist erbauet der T empel Gottes, und or spring of life? Does one not see (how on the) ge het von da herau s Lob und Freuden gesang zu heights a nd the mountains the hosts of virgin maid Ehren dem Ailmachtigen. In der Mitten des inn ens rowan row with harps of God are moving, wendigen H eiligtums ge hen die Priester und L eviten pasturing at the river of life, where they sing songs in priesterlichem Kleidersc hmuck einher u dienen of new mood which (humans without number? ) dem reinen Altar und schlachten die wiilige Opfer, ... hosts of virgins follow after the Lamb wher als die dem H errn geheiliget sind. In dem aller ever it goes, while out of their mouths issues no heiligs ten wird das ewiggrunende Priestertum ver evil nor false word. And wha t do we see there at walten (?), allwo der priesterliche S chmuck als the margin, such gladsome playing ! Is it not a die S onne leuchtet. Dieser Priester nun ist Eintzeln paradisiacal fl owering fi eld, where the children of u. wird ge[nenn?let der Hohe Priester, als welcher the new wo.r1d in their joy embrace each other, ein gulden Rauchfass in Handen hat. worin das a nd with glad hearts show their delight in the heilige Feuer brennet, u. machet die heilige Gebate beauty of the fl owers.] als ein liebliches Rauchwerck aufsteigen vor dem Gnadenstul des Unsichbaren und Ailwaltenden. Dieses Priestertum versohnet aile Lande und aile Inscriptions at the base of the "Three Heavens:" V olcker um Jerusalem her, damit sie im Frieden [9b] 1. Hupfen sie dann nicht auf (?) von grosen wohnen, deswegen auch aile V olcker von m orgen Freuden (?) ...... Was ist dann wohl angen- abend mittag u. mitternacht ihre gab en werden ehmers nach Jerusalem bringen, und daselbst den H errn 2. als das herrliche Freuden-Leben des ( ?) anbiiten A m en H alleluia ...... freu ... uber die Kinder Gottes (?) 3 .... Schonheit (?) Darum . . . nur (?) ... 'OD oll and Funke, Op. Cit., p . 118. 40 Inscription No. 10, the Crooked and the Narrow lVay. [From the rising of the sun until its going down Now there is only one such priest and he is called we shall praise the wo rk of the Lord ; from mid the High Priest, and as such he holds a golden day until midnight we shall proclaim his wonders. censer in his hand, wherein the holy fire burns, In the middle of these four quarters of the earth and makes the holy prayers to rise as sweet incense is God's holy resting pl ace. On this same spot is before the throne of grace of the Invisible and built the City of Peace or the H oly Jerusalem Almighty. This priesthood reconciles all peoples where the citizens enjoy stately rest and security, round about Jerusalem, so that they dwell in peace. and where they keep peace. Round about the same Thus all people from North and South and East are built the dwellings of the just, whose inhab and West will bring their gifts to J erusalem and itants maintain the holy watch at the gates so that there worship the Lord. Amen. H all elujah.] no wickedness be brought into the city nor any Top left: thing of the so rt go in and out. In the midst [lOb] Was ist wol sc honers, als die Ehre der H eil thereof is built the T emple of God, and from thence igen? Was ist wol angenehmers, als [ihr?] issues song of praise and joy in honor of the Al mighty. In the midst of this inner sanctuary move Schmuck? Und was [ist ] wol erfreulichers, als der schone Glantz so uber Ihnen aufgehet. W eder the priests and Levites in priestly finery, serving the sacred altar and slaughtering the willing sac H ohen noch T ie/en werden ihren Adel besteige n rifices which have been dedicated to the Lord. noch ihre Schone erreichen. In this holy of holies sha ll rule the eternal priest [What is more seemly than the honor of the Saints? hood, where the priestly garb glistens like the sun. What is more pleasing than their brilliant garb? 41 Inscription No. 11 And what is more delightful than the radiance Right side : whi h is round about them? Neither h ights nor [ lOe] W er wird dann dem-nach ihre H oheit er d pths can comprehend their nobility, or attain rahten Hannen?], noch auch ermessen die Ehre their beauty.] der H eiligen ... send gemacht mit dem [heiligen?] Top right: Gel, und ihr Geru ch ist angenehm und liblich: ihre [Gebiite] steigen ohne unterlass als ein H . [lOc] Sie ge hen aus und ein mit Frolocken, preisen, R a[uchwerck ] auf vor dem Gnaden Stul. riihmen [und?] erheb [en den?] Allmachtigen, ihre S chone und H oheit ist [unermesslich?] und ihre [Who will then be able to sense their majesty, Ehre ist bey Gott, der sie so geliebet hat. G! wie or to estimate the glory of the saints . . . made wol lasset sichs unter ihren Gezelt en wohnen. with holy oil, and its scent is pI asing and sweet. [They go in and out with rejoicing, praising, Their prayers rise up unceasing as a holy incense honoring, and magnifying the Almighty. Their before the throne of gra ce. ] b auty and majesty is immeasurable and their Lower left: glory is in God who has so loved them. O! how [ 1Of] l. . iiber (?) der (?) glorious it is to dwell among their tents.] 2. . das gantze Left sid : 3. was vor V ortrefflichkeiten unter (?) [lOd] D ort siehet man, wie sie [ein?] her ge hen ihnen(?) in dem Schmuck und S chone ihre [s] Gottes und 4. und be .. . werden (?) wie ie [ein]ander hertzen, auch . .. H oheit sie 5. uns (?) anae tan sie [steigen] auf und ab .. . der( ?) Tiete Lower right: die ... best eigen. W er . .. wie Sie . .. [ l Og] 1. Wir fr euen uns der Ehre der H eiligen lind sind troh linter ihrem Ge- [There one sees how they walk about in the garb 2. schlec ht. W er . . . ihres L ebens . . . and b auty of th ir God and how they embrace ausreden(? ). W . . . es wol one anoth r . . . ] 3. 4. 5. 42 Inscription No. 12 Before concl uding with the rest of the wall-charts original creation." There have been many prolific let us discuss one more individuall y. The following hymn-writers in the history of the Christian Church, inscription was hung over a doorway in the "Saal:" but probably never before or since has there been a whole community of writers of original hymns as at [11] Die Tur zum Eingang in das H aus the Cloister. And the music to which these hymns Wo die vereinte Seelen wohnen Last keines m ehr von da hinaus were put was both original and singular." Finally, in Weil Gatt tut selber unter ihnen trohnen. the very making of our wall-charts originality was stres I hr Gluck bluht in vereinten Libes-Flammen sed. In a passage which apparently refers to the charts, W eil sie aus Gatt und seiner Lib herstammen. the chronicle states: "The outlines of the letters he [This door's the entrance to the place [Beissel] himself designed, but the shading of them Which, the united souls retaining, was left to the scholar, in order to exercise himself Lets nothing more from there escape, in it. But none was permitted to borrow a design any For God himself among them now is reigning. where, for he said: 'We dare not borrow from each Their joy blooms in united love-filled flame, Because from God and His own love they came.] other, because the power to produce rests within everybody.' "" A text of this sort was probably, like the epitaph for "Chronicon, H ark, pp. 88-89. "See Julius Friedrich Sachse's The Music of the Ephrata deceased celibates, composed on the spot. This is the Cloister; also Conrad Beissel's Treatise on Music, as S et Forth more likely when we consider the great emphasis placed in a Prefqce to. the " Turtel Tau~ e" of 1747 (Lancaster, 1903) , also published In the Pennsylvania German Society Proceedings on originality at the Cloister. According to the descrip and Addresses, Volume XII (Lancaster, 1901) . tion in the Chronicle, the garb at Ephrata was an " Chronicon, H ark, pp. 168-169. 43 ( - ~ . - . ~. - . -- ... . , ~ .. ------'- Inscription No. 13 In the li o- ht of this evidence it is quite possible The other wall-charts read as follows: that the Ephrata wall-chart texts were also original [13J SO steht der T empel da er fiillt mit remen creations, and the best we can hope for is that a Seelen transc ription of the "Three H eavens" and "Crooked Die sich das keusche L amm zu eigen tut vermlihlen. Es ge het vor uns her, wir folgen treulich nach and Narrow Way" will turn up somewhere. It is to Und nehmen mit auf uns sein Creutz und Unge be hoped that this is not the case, but rather that mach. someone reading the inscription here quoted will be Bleiben wir so in Ihm so ist das Zil getroffen a bl e to supply a revealing link between Ephrata and Und haben dorten eins das wahre Gut zu hoffen the outside world. W ir bleiben I hm gespart biss es sic h wird vermlihlen Und wir in jener W elt ewig sein L ob erzehlen. Of thc remaining wall-charts, one was misquoted by Sachse." It should read: [So stands the temple there, replete with saintly [12J GOTT WOHNET DA MIT seinem Geist, spi ri ts, und tuht in L ibe walten Who for themselves alone have picked the lamb Dass jedes seine Wunder preist ohn einiges of virtue. VERALTEN H e goes before u all , we follow after true, [God's present now, his spirit's here, his love it And take upon ourselves His cross and bitter rue. is that rules, I f we remain in Him we shall have reached our goal, And we in thanks his wonders praise in faith that And one day can ex pect salvation of our soul. never cools. J We keep ourselves for Him till we may live together, And in that other world si ng then His praise for "The German S ectarians, I , 4 13. ever.J 44 Inscription No. 14 [14] Unsre Kronen die wir tragen Us to weaken in our strife. H ir in dieser Sterblichkeit, What joy then! We seek our nurture Werden uns in Triibsalstagen Midst the flo ck of purest birth, durch vii L eiden zubereit, Who do wed the lamb of virtue, Da muss unsre H offnung bliihen And are ransomed from the earth. u. der Glaube wachsen auf Though our crown and garb of honor Wann sich Welt u. Fleisch bemiihen May below remain unknown, uns zu schwiichen in dem L auf. We shall be on that dear morning o wol dann! weil wir [geziihlet] Crowned by J esus, God's own son.] zu der reinen Lammer H eerd [15] So lebet dann die reine Schaar Die dem keusc hen Lam vermiihlet, im innern T empel hir beysammen u. erkauffet von der Erd. Entrissen alter W elt Gefa hr [Bleib ed schon alhir verb orgen I n heiss verlibten Libes-Flammen unser Ehren Schmuck und Kron, Und lebet dann in H offnung hin [Wird uns doc h an jenem] M orgen N ach der begliickten Freiheit die dort oben kronen Jesus, Gottes Sohn." Da sie nach dem V erlibten Sinn [Crowns upon our heads are resting 1 hn ohne Z eit und End wird loben 'Here in this our vale of tears; [Here lives the pure and holy herd, Fashioned are they through the suff'ring Within the temple it remains, Which we bear for painful years. Protected from all worldly hurt Hope must burgeon ever higher Consumed in glowing love-fi li ed flames. And our faith must find new life Its only yearning now is this: When the world and fl esh conspire Employing soon the freedom found in heaven, "'Parts now los t, indicated by brackets, were taken from There it may with exceeding bliss, Sachse, The German Sectarians, I , 411. Sing praises to the Lord forever.] 45 Inscription No. 16 [1 6J Die Lib ist unsre Kron und heller Tugend lassen Spigel, Drum wil ich ihn auch nun und ewig nimmer (?) Die W eissheit unsere Lust u. reines Gottes-Sigel lassen. Das Lamm ist unser Schatz, dem wir uns anver trauen [The lambkin's not alone, the dovelet has a mate, Und folgen seinem Gang als reineste Jungfrauen. And I no playmate have, nor shepherd who will wait. [O! love is now our crown, it mirrors bright our How long now must my heart in pass'nate longing virtue, burn And wisdom is our goal, which grants us God's Till my dear precious Friend myself his own will own blessing. term? The Lamb is now our prize, we give ourselves I know within my heart my love will ne'er grow to Him, cold, And follow in His path, we virgins chaste, amen.J Yet premature this pow'r is wont to waxen old. I ever shall embrace the wisdom of my heart, (The Snow Hill Fraktur) Which raises me in it, and remedies my smart. [17J Das Taubgen ist gepaart, das Schafgen nicht But still it's not enough, to comprehend all this. allein I want the most beloved, our heav'nly mate to kiss; Und ich muss ohn Gespiel und ohne Hirte sein. And since his look of love within my heart does lie, Wie lange sol mein H ertz in dem V erlangen Such that he'll stay my boon, and other loves deny, brennen And since 'twill surely be: he'll take me at the last, Biss mein so treuer H irt mich wird sein eigen So will I choose him now and ever forth hold fast.] nennen. Die L iebe lasset mich zwar nimmermehr erkalten [The author is currently making a checklist of Frak Doch wil derselb en Krafft offt vor der Z eit veralten turs (wall charts, bookplates, and other writings and 1 ch hange zwar ohn End der W eissheit an dem illustrations) and choral manuscripts produced at the H ertzen (?) Die mich in sic h erhoht und heilet meinen S chmert Ephrata Cloister and at the Snow Hill Nunnery in zen Pennsylvania. H e is also looking for letters and diaries Doch ist mil's nicht genug dass ic h kan dises wissen written by members of the Ephrata Cloister. Persons l ch mochte gern das libst (?) den Briiutgam selb er owning any of these materials or knowing where any kiissen. might be found are urgently requested to write: Dr. Und weil sein Libes Blick mir so ins H ertz gefallen Dass er mir bleibt der libst fur (?) tausend andern Guy Hollyday, D epartment of Germanic Languages allen and Literature, 305 College Hall, University of Penn So wird noch wol geschehn dass er mich wird um- sylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104.] 46 ITINERANTS: Peddlers, Drovers, Wagoners, Gypsies, Tramps Foll~-Cultural Questionnaire No. 15 Early America swarmed with nonconformists of peddlers you remember, glvmg names and characteris various sorts. Not only were there many "characters" tics. What sort of a "route" did they follow? How of local fame whose legends were told and retold by did they travel? How did they carry their wares? our grandparents, but the roads were full of tramps What sorts of wares did they supply to the farmer and and other itinerants, peddlers, drovers, wagoners, tink farmer's wife? What languages did the peddlers speak? ers, and gypsies, some of them social and some of them Were other ethnic groups besides the Yankee and Jewish economic nonconformists. This class of our population peddlers represented in this class of itinerant? is one great source of legendary materials, sayings, and 2. Wago ners. Describe what you recall of the life songs. The traveling workman as well as the traveling and lore of the wagoner who in the 19th Century played non-workman (tramp) carried lore and gossip into so large a part in Pennsylvania's marketing system . the households with which they came in contact. Early What sorts of freight-wagons were there and where accounts tell us that traveling shoemakers and tailors were they used? Describe what you recall about the were great gossips, and one can imagine how eagerly following types of wagons: Bark Wagon, Charcoal their winter visits to the farmhouses of our forefathers W agon, Pittsburgh Wagon, J ersey Wagon, Conestoga were awaited. Apart from their role as culture carriers, Wagon. Where did the wagoners stay overnight? What these marginal workmen and itinerants of various sorts was a Fuhrmannsbett (wagoner's bed) ? were also remembered for their personalities, their flair 3. Drovers. In the 18th and 19th C enturies in life-style. animals were transported over long distances by the For the Folklife Archive of the University of Penn system of "droving." What animals were involved, and sylvania, we need the following information: how was the system carried on? Where did drovers 1. Peddlers. Among the most widespread of the stay overnight? itinerants in early America were the peddlers, first the 4. I tinerant Laborers. Describe the types of labor Yankee peddler from New England, particul arly Con ers who worked in rural Pennsylvania by traveling, necticut, and later the Jewish peddler. D escribe the staying now with one farmer's family and then moving A Gypsy Camp on the D eerfield Pike in Pennsylvania, 1905. 47 A market wagon retuming from Philadelphia with up state farmer and family. I Larger wagons drawn by six-horse t eams hauled freight across the Alleghen ies. on as work demanded : shoemakers, tail ors, and other gathering junk of various sorts from the farms In a craftsmen. wide area. Did this class of work ever include in 5. Seasonal W orkers. What do you recall of the Pennsylvania the "skinner" (Pennsylvania German visits of (a) the local butcher, who worked in rotation "Schinnerhannes" ) whose lowly job it was to dispose on the farms of his area at butchering time as spe of dead animals? cialist to help with the autumn and winter butcherings, 8. T ramps. Pennsylvania's roads once swarmed and (b ) the visits of the threshing machine and its with tramps. Describe the principal tramps that you crew to your f:umstead? remember as regul ar visitors to your farmstead, giving 6. Small Craftsmen ( T inkers). D escribe the cl ass their names, characteristics, and the basic facts that of small craftsmen, who traveled around the country you remember about them. What nationality were mending tools and other small items. What so rt of they ? What languages did they speak? Did they ever persons were they, and what so rt of equipment did perform work tasks for the farmer where they stayed they bring with them? H ow did they travel? Were overnight, or in order to get a meal? Where did they they permitted to stay overnight on the farm? sleep ? What is a "tramp's bed," a "tramp piece"? 7. Rag, Bone, and Junk Collectors. Describe the Was there a special cl ass of "beggars" apart from coll ecting type of itinerant, who made a living by the tramps p roper? 9. Gypsies. Gypsy camps and gypsy wagons were once common sights throughout rural Pennsylvania. Do you recall gypsy visits to your home country? What was their relationship to the rural population? What language did they speak? Were there gypsies who talked Pennsylvania German? 10. In earlier stages of our culture schoolmasters we re sometimes itinerants, serving for a short time in one community and then moving on. Do you recall stories about any of these? Do you recall the "board = ing around" system applied to schoolmasters? 11. What was the farmer's attitude to the itiner ants listed above? What was the social a nd economic role of the itinerants in Pennsylvania society in the past, i.e., how far did the farmer accept the itinerant and his services into his rural society? 12. Incl ude with your reminiscences of Pennsylva nia's itinerants stories, jokes, verses, sayings, and songs which you recall as associated with them. Be sure to incl ude Pennsylvania Dutch materials that you remem ber, and don't worry about the spelling-Pennsylvania German should be spell ed whichever way you prefer it. The Thompsons, itinerant umbrella menders, wan Send your replies to : dered the roadways of Eastem Pennsylvania in the Dr. D on Yoder early 1900's. H e was an Irishman and she was a Ger man, who spoke fluent Pennsylvania Dutch peppered College H all Box 36 with a large vocabulary of profanities. Drawing by University of Pennsylvania Paul B. Horning. Philadel phia, Pennsylvania 19104 48 Mill architecture and mill technology in Pennsylvania have yet to be studied in depth. There was a great variety of milling technology in Europe which the pioneers transplanted to these shores, to which refine ments were added by American experts like Oliver Evans, whose The Young Mill-Wright and Miller's Guide (Philadelphia, 1834) went through many editions. The illustrations are from the Editor's Collection. Before gristmills were erected in the early seltleme,lIs, the /Jioneer fmmers wed primitive methods of pounding graill. This pictllre, from Sherm(l11 Day's Historical Collections of the State of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1843), shows Pennock's M ill, on the Penllepack, by the mgraver Gilbert. a com mill 111ade of a hollowed-ollt stump, with the The mill was built in 1697 and shows many architectural pounder aI/ached to a flexible tree limb. The apparatllS features derivative from the British Isles . was known as a "hominy mill". H enry Harbaugh (1817- 1867), Pennsylv(l1zia's first important dialect poet, wrote a remi11iscent piece called "Die Alt Miehl" The Old Mill. This is the illustration that accom panied it, fr0111 Har baugh's Hade: Gedichte in Pen n s y I van i s c h - ~f!~~i,!~~~~~'!~~~~~~i Deutscher Mundart (Phil- ~ adelphia, 1870). -~I Ludwig Derr's log mill was built in 1772. Derr was the founder of Lewisburg on the West Branch of the Susque hanna. The illustration ap peared in John Blair Linn, Annals of Buffalo Valley, Pennsylvania, 1755-1855 (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1877). An invitation to become a subscriber to the Society's periodical PENN SYLVANIA FOlKLlFE, now in its twentieth year, published quarterly, in Fall, Winter, Spring and Summer. Each issue appears in a colored cover, with 48 pages or more of text, and is profusely illustrated. Subjects covered include: architecture, cookery, costume, customs of the year, folk art and antiques, folk dancing, folk medicine, folk literature, folk religion, folk speech, home-making lore, recreation, superstitions, traditional farm and craft practices, transportation lore and numerous others. The purpose of the Pennsylvania Folklife Society, a non-profit corpora tion, is three-fold: collecting the lore of the Dutch Country and Pennsylvania; studying and archiving it; and making it available to the public both in this country and abroad.