CONTENTS February 2017/ Volume 57, Number 7
FEATURES
6 Passing the Torch: Igniting Senior Voices in Multigenerational Choirs by Victoria Meredith
18 Never Too Old: Establishing an Intergenerational Choir for Transformational Learning through Singing by Carol Beynon
30 Intergroup Contact Theory and Choir: Modeling Conductors Without Borders by Ryan Luhrs with Tim Sharp and Kevin Fenton
ARTICLES
43 One Voice, One Life: Many Changes throughout a Lifetime of Song
by Karen Brunssen
On the Cover This month’s cover features a graphical 51 A Life of Song: Considerations for the family tree with interlocking branches, symbolizing Collegiate-Based Town and Gown Choir the 2017 conference theme: A Life of Song. by John C. Hughes and Jon Hurty Annual dues (includes subscription to the Choral Journal): Active $125, Industry $135, Institutional $110, Retired $45, and Student
$35. Library annual subscription rates: U.S. $45; Canada $50; 81 The International Conductors Exchange Program Foreign $170. Single Copy $3; Back Issues $4. Circulation: 18,000. ICEP of the Americas Main offi ce: 405-232-8161 by T. J. Harper
The Choral Journal (US ISSN 0009-5028) is issued monthly except 85 Student Times for July by the American Choral Directors Association. Periodicals postage paid at Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and additional mailing Intonation offi ce. by Bruce Dalby POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Choral Journal, 545 Couch Drive, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73102. HALLELUJAH, AMEN! A section focused on Music in Worship Since 1959, the Choral Journal has been the refereed, international jour- nal of the American Choral Directors Association. Each issue features: three scholarly articles, anonymously peer-reviewed by the editorial 64 Spirituals: Music of the Soil and the Soul board; refereed articles on pedagogical or scientifi c issues for the choral by Eileen Guenther conductor; refereed articles with practical advice and ideas for the cho- ral conductor; reviews of books, recorded sound, and choral works by choral experts; and editorials from association leadership. The January 77 Sacred Music Choral Reviews and February issues preview each year’s divisional or national conference off erings. Articles from the Choral Journal can be found in the following online databases: JSTOR (Arts & Sciences XI Collection); ProQuest EDITORIAL (International Index to Music Periodicals); University Microfi lms Inter- national; NaPublishing; RILM (Répertoire International de Littérature 2 FFromrom thethe ExecutivExecutive DDirectorirector Musicale); EBSCO music index; and WorldCat. Advertising options are available for members and nonmembers. Cover art by Efrain Guerrero. 4 FFromrom thethe PresidentPresident Interior art by Tammy Brummell. Musical examples by Tunesmith Music 5 FFromrom thethe EditorEditor
STANDING COMMITTEES From the
Advocacy & Collaboration EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Chair Robyn Lana [email protected] Why do we sing? I maintain we sing because there is no better al- Composition Initiatives ternative. We breathe because we have to in order to Chair supply oxygen to our body to live; we eat because we Susan LaBarr [email protected] have to supply energy to our organs for them to con- tinue to function; and we sing because we have a need Diversity Issues Tim Sharp to express and explore our feelings. For these things Chair there is no alternative. Eugene Rogers The emotional, physical, and psychological benefi ts of singing are now [email protected] well documented. While we still have work to do to tap into the priorities and resources that will off er these benefi ts to more and more people, the Education & Communication science is clearly on our side as choral conductors and advocates for the Chair community’s song. In every area of ACDA’s mission—inspiring excellence Lisa Billingham [email protected] in choral music education, performance, composition, and advocacy—we are reaching into our communities in new and innovative ways to off er a International Activities lifetime of singing to our nation. I see a choral music tsunami rolling across Chair the United States as our members go beyond the traditional rehearsal room, T.J. Harper choir loft, stage, and auditorium to bring the better alternative of the artistic [email protected] experience of singing to more and more people and communities. Repertoire & Resources As I outlined in my column in the January 2017 issue of Choral Journal, as an organization, ACDA has affi rmed Lifelong Singing as one of three pil- Chair Amy Blosser lars of service for our organization: 1) Children and Youth, 2) Collegiate, 3) [email protected] Lifelong Singing. If I were to put my academic robe back on for a minute,
Research & Publications I would give our fi fty-eight-year-old organization an “A” for what we have done for the fi rst two pillars. We have established the gold standard in choral Chair John Silantien music education, and our members who serve our schools and universities [email protected] continue to challenge us with the best thinking, research, and performance for choral music.
ADVOCACY STATEMENT THE CONFERENCE STARTS TUESDAY NIGHT MARCH 7TH Whereas the human spirit is elevated to a broader understanding of itself through study and performance in the REGI-CEPTION 4PM - 7PM aesthetic arts; and
Whereas serious cutbacks in funding MEZZANINE LEVEL and support have steadily eroded state MINNEAPOLIS CONVENTION CENTER institutions and their programs through- out the country; WELCOME TO MINNEAPOLIS CONCERT 7:30PM - 10PM Be it resolved that all citizens of the United States of America actively voice affi rmative and collective support for MAIN AUDITORIUM necessary funding at the local, state, and MINNEAPOLIS CONVENTION CENTER national levels of education and govern- ment to ensure the survival of arts pro- grams for this and future generations. The 12 Purposes EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR'S of ACDA It is now time for us to work for LOG that “A” in the area of community and lifelong singing. There is so much • To foster and promote choral singing, which will provide What's on work to be done and exciting oppor- artistic, cultural, and spiritual Tim's daytimer? tunities for us all. We have revised experiences for the participants. our ACDA Constitution and Bylaws Jan 19-20 NDSU • To foster and promote the finest to state that this is what we want to Fargo, ND be about. As we look to our March types of choral music to make 8-11, 2017, ACDA National Confer- these experiences possible. Feb 2-4 International Blues Challenge Memphis, TN ence in Minneapolis, we will explore • To foster and encourage “A Life of Song” as our theme. Be- rehearsal procedures conducive Feb 17-18 Handel’s Solomon yond Minneapolis, our new Standing to attaining the highest possible Tulsa, OK Committees will lead us to programs level of musicianship and artistic performance. that move us deeper and deeper into Feb 24-26 Bluefi eld College community singing. At the national Bluefi eld, VA • To foster and promote the level, I will continue to lead ACDA organization and development toward embracing new initiatives of choral groups of all types in that connect us more closely with our schools and colleges. What's on communities through song. This is Tim's Ipad? the next stage of ACDA’s progressive • To foster and promote the vision. development of choral music in the church and synagogue. Listen to This As we move forward into this vi- Alex Ross sion for ACDA, and as we off er the • To foster and promote the better alternative of vocal singing to organization and development The Rest is Noise our communities, hear the words of of choral societies in cities and Alex Ross McGill University professor Daniel communities. Levitin in his June 3, 2013, interview • To foster and promote the with Ari Sharpiro on NPR’s “Talk of understanding of choral music What's Tim's the Nation”: as an important medium of Latest App? contemporary artistic expression. But the joy of singing…and the nonjudgmental aspect of it, the •To foster and promote significant Spotify Prime communal part of it, the part research in the field of choral music. where diff erences are recon- ciled and we’re all just in it to- •To foster and encourage choral What's Tim gether, that’s the truly uplifting composition of superior quality. Listening to? power of it. And I think that’s important to keep in mind. The • To cooperate with all history of music was always that organizations dedicated to the Thomas Tallis’s development of musical culture it was that: it was communal. O Nata Lux in America. Choir of Merton College
• To foster and promote Daniel Elder’s international exchange programs Elegy involving performing groups, Skylark Vocal Ensemble conductors, and composers. Randall Thompson’s • To disseminate professional news To Song and information about choral TimothySharp The Philadelphia Singers music. American Choral Directors Association Hear more at
NATIONAL OFFICERS From the President Mary Hopper PRESIDENT 630-752-5828 [email protected]
Vice president My mother was the choir director at our Presby- Karen Fulmer 253-927-6814 terian Church, so I grew up doing my homework kpfulmer1@comcast.net at the back of choir rehearsal on Thursday nights. President-elect My mother was not a professionally trained musi- Tom Shelton cian, but she was a good singer and took great joy in 609-921-7100 preparing the choir to sing for services every week. [email protected] Mary Hopper In fi fth grade I accompanied the junior choir for the President-elect Designate Lynne Gackle fi rst time, and when I was in high school I joined the 254-710-3654 senior choir and even had an opportunity to sing one of the solos in the [email protected] Vivaldi Gloria. It’s the memory of Orville, Bob, Evelyn, and others com- National Treasurer ing every week and faithfully joining in song that encouraged me to go Jo Ann Miller [email protected] into choral music. It was evident that the church choir was both a way they could serve and a place where they found community. Chair, Past Presidents’ Council The idea of multigenerational singing is something we have lost in Jo-Michael Scheibe [email protected] many of our church and community choirs. This last Christmas in my little church choir, three high school students joined with the others who Executive Director Tim Sharp included a man with dementia. He has sung in the choir for years and [email protected] loves being there even though he usually sleeps through most of the
Central Division President rehearsal! Choral music is for everyone of any age and really any ability. Gayle Walker It’s our job to fi nd places for all to participate. 614-823-1508 [email protected] A Life of Song is the theme for our 2017 National ACDA conference and a topic we cannot ignore in our profession. Last spring I had the Eastern Division President Paul Head opportunity to meet with leaders from many choral organizations. One 302-831-2578 of the major ideas discussed was how to keep singers involved as they [email protected] passed from one life era to another. For example: how can high school North Central Division President teachers actively encourage their students to continue singing when Mary Kay Geston they get to college? I encourage my college students to continue singing, 763-443-2177 [email protected] and it brings me great satisfaction when I hear that they are participat- ing in a church or community choir. Whatever aspect of choral music Northwestern Division President Nicole Lamertine you are engaged in, I hope you will fi nd this edition of the Choral Journal 307-766-5242 encouraging and thought provoking. [email protected] My mother, the amateur choir director, and my mother-in-law, a life- Southern Division President long singer and pianist, both participated in a choir in the retirement Alicia Walker home where they both lived in the last years of their lives. I am so fortu- 706-542-4752 [email protected] nate to have had lifelong singing modeled for me, and I hope we can all model it for our families of singers. Southwestern Division President Tony Gonzalez 405-570-6980 [email protected]
Western Division President Anna Hamre 559-278-2539 [email protected]
Industry Associate Representative Brad Matheson Harmony International [email protected] From the Choral Journal EDITOR Editor This special Choral Journal focus issue contains ar- Amanda Bumgarner ticles and columns that follow our national conference ACDA National Offi ce 405-232-8161 (ex. 205) theme, “A Life of Song.” Carol Beynon, associate pro- [email protected] fessor in music education at the University of Western Ontario, discusses three principles for establishing an Managing Editor intergenerational choir, sharing insight and research Ron Granger from the funded project Advanced Interdisciplinary ACDA National Offi ce Amanda Bumgarner 405-232-8161 Research in Singing (AIRS). From rationale for the [email protected] program, curriculum, funding, participation, and lessons learned, readers will be inspired by the work of our colleagues in North America. Board Members
Victoria Meredith, also a professor of choral music from Canada, writes Hilary Apfelstadt specifi cally about igniting senior voices in multigenerational choirs. This ar- [email protected] ticle contains information on multigenerational choral repertoire selection Kristina Boerger guidelines and rehearsal strategies, the impact of vocal changes on reper- [email protected] toire choices, and identifying musical traits that may present vocal challenges to senior singers. These two articles pair well with Karen Brunssen’s article J. Michele Edwards [email protected] “One Voice, One Life,” which is a reprint from VOICEPrints, the scholarly journal of the New York Singing Teachers’ Association, and has been re- Edward Lundergan vised for Choral Journal. As the introduction states, “This article will present [email protected] a look at various age-related mutations of the evolving voice in relationship William Weinert to respiration, vibration, and resonance.” The Student Times column fea- [email protected] tures a helpful article on intonation, and the author includes a link to a You- Giselle Wyers Tube video for readers to see and hear demonstrations of the phenomena [email protected] described in the article. Continuing on the topic of “A Life of Song,” John Hughes and Jon Hurty Column Editors off er considerations for the collegiate-based “town and gown” choir. Readers Philip Copeland will appreciate the author’s case study, in which fi ve conductors of collegiate- [email protected] based multigenerational choirs describe their respective ensembles. Finally, Kevin Dibble Ryan Luhrs shares his dissertation research on intergroup contact theory. [email protected] This is essentially research behind the question: “Can bringing people to- Sharon A. Hansen gether intentionally around song be an eff ective prescription in the eff ort to [email protected] build bridges between people of social groups who don’t otherwise interact in meaningful ways?” Tim Sharp and Kevin Fenton include sections on two Jason Paulk [email protected] programs they are involved in—Conductors Without Borders and A Voice for Peace, respectively—that model the “science” Ryan writes about and are David Puderbaugh a practical testament to how intergroup contact theory can and does function [email protected] in the twenty-fi rst century. This month also includes the third installment of Gregory Pysh Hallelujah, Amen!, Choral Journal’s quarterly section for readers interested in [email protected] sacred music. This section was highlighted in the June/July 2016 issue with a Magen Solomon focus issue, and the second installment appeared in October 2016. [email protected] I hope that as you make plans to attend the 2017 National Conference, the articles and columns in this month’s issue inspire you to celebrate “A Life of Richard Stanislaw [email protected] Song” as we settle in to a new year.
ChorTeach Editor
Terry Barham [email protected] PASSING THE TORCH IGNITING SENIOR VOICES IN MULTIGENERATIONAL CHOIRS
Victoria Meredith
Victoria Meredith Professor of Choral Music Western University, London, Canada [email protected]
6 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 multigenerational choir provides an op- portunity for singers of all ages to learn A with, from, and about each other as they make music together. Depending upon the ages of the members of the ensemble, increased challenges in repertoire selection and rehearsal techniques con- front the conductor seeking to achieve musical satis- faction for all. The thrust of this article is to address the age group most prevalent in multigenerational and intergenerational choirs: seniors. Many multigenerational choirs combine senior adults and younger singers of various ages. A brief survey of some typical types of choirs that incor- porate seniors is presented below, followed by sug- gested guidelines for repertoire selection and related rehearsal techniques. There are several reasons for such a focus.
1) As adults mature, vocal changes often occur that make them uncomfortable singing in the choir or unsure that they are making a meaningful contri- bution to the group. This might be viewed as similar to what adolescents experience when their voices are changing.
2) Most formal training for conductors is focused on working with children and young adult to middle- aged singers. Normally, little attention is paid to vo- cal changes that aging adults might be experiencing.
3) There are many fi ne resources about working with children, adolescents, young adults, and beyond but few devoted specifi cally to conducting senior adults. At a time when the fastest-growing segment of the population consists of retired people, this is a gap that needs to be addressed for conductors work- ing with that age group.
4) Repertoire selection guidelines and rehearsal suggestions that are essential for choral success with older singers can also benefi t younger choir mem- bers.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 7 PASSING THE TORCH IGNITING SENIOR VOICES
There is usually a specifi c purpose for combining Types of Multigenerational Choirs singers of various age demographics. Each ensemble has its own reasons for being formed and its own musical Combining the Young and the Young at Heart and non-musical goals to be met. Membership in multi- Since the 1980s, in both the United States and Can- generational groups may be by audition or open to all ada, organized intergenerational choral programs such and may include many styles of musical repertoire. One as Close Harmony and Interlink have connected se- aspect they all have in common, however, is a wide age nior adults and elementary-age students musically and span, creating unique challenges for the conductor. socially. The social interaction through such initiatives The conductor of a multigenerational choir must ask is usually as important as the music for all participants. several questions. The answers will probably reveal both Frequently, the two age groups rehearse separately each musical and non-musical facets that will have a direct week, working on the same music and led by the same impact on the music selected and on the approaches director. The children and adults later combine, either taken to working with the group. periodically or for several rehearsals closer to perfor- mances. This simplifi es the music learning process as the What is the function of this choir? conductor tailors the rehearsals to the ages and learning styles of each group. Singing is the main vehicle through Who are these diff erent age groups of singers being combined? which choirs provide a connection between generations.
Why are they being combined? The Family Choir How can I best meet the individual and collective needs of the For several years, I served as music director for a small groups in this combination? church in London, Canada. With a congregation total- ing only about 200 members, the number of children in People sing in choirs for many reasons as they seek the church was not large enough to sustain a children’s to achieve aesthetic, social, spiritual, psychological, and choir program. Still, there were about a half-dozen girls physical goals. When asked why they sing in a choir, in- aged eight to twelve who wanted to sing. All of their dividuals of all ages often reply that they “just love to parents sang in the twenty-fi ve-member adult choir. So, sing” or that “singing makes me happy.” Why they sing in addition to being featured as a small ensemble a few in a specifi c choir is often related both to favorable per- times each year, these young singers joined their parents sonal interactions with that particular group of people and the other adults in what came to be called a Family and to the types of music that the group performs. While Choir. there is an ever-growing list of physical benefi ts to be There were several advantages to this arrangement gained through singing, from lowered blood pressure to for preparing weekly service music with such a dispa- a heightened immune system, for most singers these are rate group. Rehearsals for upcoming music were held not the primary reasons that they devote their time and on Sundays right after the church service, eliminating energy to choral singing. In fact, most are not aware of the need for either young or aging singers to come out these potential benefi ts. Commitment to a choir is more on a school night. This schedule also allowed the entire likely to be explained by a balance between the musical family to attend rehearsals without requiring one par- or social aspects of choral singing. An intergenerational ent to stay home to look after the children. The children or multigenerational choir off ers the added dimension were all learning music in school and a few were taking of experiencing the universality of singing by combin- piano lessons, so they possessed some music reading abil- ing voices with people across the lifespan. It is the con- ity and were able to keep up with, and sometimes lead, ductor’s responsibility to make the experience musically the adults musically. The age range of the adults in the meaningful for singers of all ages. choir was between twenty-one and eighty-four. Having a front row of healthy young treble voices contributed
8 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 IN MULTIGENERATIONAL CHOIRS
to a fresh, youthful sound. Discipline was never an issue successful musical results of such health-based groups as because parents were always nearby. This combination the self-named Trembleclefs Parkinson’s Choirs (www. of ages was able to meet both the musical and social trembleclefs.com), ensemble participation can make a needs of the members of a particular congregation, and signifi cant diff erence in maintaining or even regain- it allowed both the children involved and their parents ing the ability to communicate verbally. Pride of iden- to contribute to the worship service in a meaningful way, tity and a positive group attitude are obvious from their and to learn from each other while making music to- tongue-in-cheek choir name. In such ensembles, patients gether. are usually seated with their caregivers and family mem- bers or partnered with a young singer during rehearsals and performances. Singing is the main vehicle through Adult Church and Community Choirs which choirs provide a connection Most church and community choral organizations are “between generations. made up of singers spanning at least three generations, from their twenties to their eighties and beyond, even though they are all referred to as “adults.” In a typical choir of this type, some singers will be in their vocal prime while others may well be experiencing signs of vo- Health-focused Intergenerational Choirs cal decline. While not as obvious as combining children During the past twenty years or so, specialized choirs and adults, many adult choirs are truly intergenerational have emerged for people dealing with a variety of types vocally. The conditioning needed to help the oldest sing- of illnesses. Choirs specifi cally for cancer, Alzheimer’s, ers maintain their vocal ability also benefi ts the younger and Parkinson’s patients have sprung up in many com- singers in such a group as it helps them to retain a vocal munities. These types of health-focused ensembles fre- condition that will serve them well for a lifetime of fulfi ll- quently encourage participation by non-patients of vari- ing choral singing. ous ages, providing an opportunity for family members, friends, and caregivers to add their voices to weekly choir rehearsals and regular public performances. Fam- Special Events that ily members and friends also add psychological support Combine Choirs of Various Ages and physical assistance as needed. Furthermore, such Throughout 2017, Canada will be celebrating the interactions can lead to improvement of the mental out- sesquicentennial of Confederation (1867-2017), so there look of the patient and often to the disease symptoms will be many “Canada 150” choral festivals around the themselves as all of the singers benefi t from this choral country. Some will undoubtedly feature any number of experience. choirs, performing individually and also combining for a Choirs such as these might be considered as much portion of the performance, or joining forces for a major music therapy as artistic endeavor, with their focus on so- work that calls for both adult and children’s choirs. Spe- cial interaction and the physical and psychological ben- cial occasions such as these usually involve each group efi ts gained from choral participation. However, deter- learning the music on its own and then combining for a mined and intentional rehearsing and performing of the few rehearsals and the performance. The focus of these choir’s repertoire takes these ensembles legitimately into initiatives is normally on the particular music to be per- the intergenerational choral category. In many cases, the formed together and also on off ering the opportunity for musical standards are very high. The stronger the vocal singers to collaborate with other musicians and do some- technique taught and applied, the greater the benefi ts thing bigger than any single choir could accomplish. It to the singers—just as in any other choir. Beyond the would probably be more accurate to describe such in-
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 9 PASSING THE TORCH IGNITING SENIOR VOICES
stances as intergenerational events than intergenerational Multigenerational Choir Repertoire Selection choirs. Repertoire used for such festivals where choirs of Guidelines and Rehearsal Strategies diff erent ages combine for performances might include One key to successful repertoire selection for any choir Orff ’s Carmina Burana, Penderecki’s Credo, Stroope’s Can- is achieving the balance between challenge and mastery. tus Natalis, Boito’s Prologue to Metistofeles, Britten’s War Re- For singers of any age to be able to fully contribute mu- quiem, or Rutter’s Mass of the Children. sically, the repertoire selected must match what they are able to produce vocally. For conductors of youth and adult choirs, understanding the changes that may be Who Are “Senior Adult” Singers? taking place in the vocal production of their singers can We age continuously from the day we are born; there help to inform eff ective repertoire choices and rehearsal is no set point at which an individual becomes a “senior” techniques used, resulting in a more satisfying musical singer. More signifi cant than chronological age is a sing- experience. To engage adult singers, it is optimal for the er’s physical and vocal fi tness. A knowledgeable conduc- music to stretch their ability in some way. Adults tend tor can help to keep all choristers singing at a satisfying to value learning new things and to grasp what they are level through sensitivity to the types of challenges singers doing and why they are doing it. At the same time, for might be experiencing at diff erent ages and the applica- all ages of singers musical challenges must be achievable tion of appropriate vocal techniques. This becomes par- for the experience to be intellectually and musically ful- ticularly important to individuals for whom choral par- fi lling. Choristers need to be able to sing freely—going ticipation has long been a signifi cant part of their lives, beyond the notes in their expression of the music. both musically and socially. When their vocal prowess In addition to determining if a piece is appropriate to begins to diminish, choristers frequently question wheth- a particular occasion or concert, the conductor is wise er or not they should continue to sing in the choir. It is to ask: not uncommon for this lack of confi dence to coincide with other age-related concerns such as health problems • Is the music emotionally and intellectually appealing to or personal loss. It is at times like these that people need the singers? Can all singers involved learn to relate the continued support of the choir and the fulfi llment to it? that singing itself provides more than ever. This is when the conductor’s job includes not only understanding the • Is the music within the choir’s vocal abilities to sing various challenges faced by adults but also applying en- well? How can I help to expand their abilities to couragement and patience. meet the challenges of the music? Many of the physical and vocal changes that aging singers experience result from sarcopenia (loss of muscle mass and strength). Fortunately, much of this lost strength Emotional and Intellectual Appeal can be regained through vocal and physical condition- Singers of all ages are motivated by high-quality rep- ing through targeted exercises. Aging or vocally under- ertoire sung well. One of the most signifi cant elements conditioned singers are likely to experience changes such contributing to emotional and intellectual appeal of a as limited range, breathiness in the tone, loss of breath piece is text. Is the text well written and approachable? control, and some decrease in agility and dynamic scope. Does it convey a message with which all ages in the choir These and other potential challenges facing the senior can connect and become involved? It is worth remem- adult singer are examined below in relation to consid- bering that children are capable of deep emotional mu- eration of repertoire selection and rehearsal techniques. sical engagement with both the music and the expres- sion of complex texts. There is no need to “dumb down” textually or musically to accommodate either the very youngest or the very oldest singers. Focus on quality and integrity of both the text and the music and how they
10 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 IN MULTIGENERATIONAL CHOIRS
align with the singers’ vocal capabilities. Topics such as become increasingly more challenging. Women’s voices nature, the universe, patriotism, and some humor tran- tend to become a little lower as they age, which makes scend age. them more comfortable singing music with a slightly lower tessitura. (On exceptional occasions, the opposite might occur, where a senior adult woman moves from Impact of Vocal Changes on Repertoire Choices alto to soprano.) Such range loss may be compounded A conductor who is aware of potential changes in vo- by hormonal changes and edema that can develop with- cal production in all ages of singers has two primary tools in the vocal folds, making them thicker and a little more available to guide successful repertoire decision making. sluggish, reducing the elasticity and speed of vibration needed for the highest notes. Older men normally lose 1. The conductor can assess the vocal demands of the some of their upper range, and most basses eventually music and select repertoire that is within the cur- also lose their very lowest notes, although basses seem rent technical ability and optimal ranges of the to show the least change over time. The conductor can choir. encourage vocal comfort and tone quality by seeking to change such identity mind-sets as, “But I’ve always been 2. Knowing that singers are apt to have some diffi culty a soprano!” with particular vocal or musical demands present- ed by a piece, the conductor can guide singers in vocal exercises and rehearsal techniques that will A knowledgeable conductor can help contribute to improving vocal ability, thus making the music more approachable through expanded to keep all choristers singing at a vocal skill. This assumes knowledgeable use of vo- “satisfying level through sensitivity to cal technique both in warm ups and throughout the types of challenges singers might rehearsals. be experiencing at diff erent ages.
Identifying Musical Traits that May Present Vocal Challenges to Senior Singers A major concern for older singers is created by the Each of the musical and vocal traits discussed below notes in a piece staying too high for too long. Sometimes should be considered within the context of potential vo- a song that does not seem to be improving with a choir cal challenges that singers may be experiencing. It is im- with senior participants is simply in too high a key and portant to keep in mind that aging is a highly individual the voices are becoming overtired. If coupled with a re- matter and that the vocal and physical conditions of petitive rehearsal approach, music that is too high not each singer will have an impact on their voice at any age. only increases fatigue but also can adversely aff ect tuning Even a short, well-structured warm-up at the beginning and tone quality. Conductors of senior adults may fi nd of each rehearsal is time well spent. that simply transposing a song down a step or two puts all voice categories into more comfortable ranges. At the same time, conductors can encourage healthy vocal Range and Tessitura production not only during the warm-up but throughout For many adult singers, higher notes become more the rehearsal. diffi cult with age. With a general loss of muscle mass ex- Range and tessitura become even more critical con- perienced throughout the body frequently comes a loss siderations when combining generations of singers. Chil- of elasticity, including in the vocal folds. When this com- dren’s voices tend to be higher than adult voices. Look bines with stiff ening of the cartilages that move to stretch for music that does not stay extremely high or low for ex- the vocal folds for higher notes, upper-range singing can tended periods of time in any voice part. The challenge
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 11 PASSING THE TORCH IGNITING SENIOR VOICES
frequently lies in fi nding music that is high enough for which they do not yet have the skill to sing well. A poorly young voices to sing with a healthy head tone and at the produced tone that helps neither their voices nor the end same time low enough for senior adults to sustain com- musical result ultimately diminishes everyone’s musical fortably. Descants can aff ord wonderful opportunities for experience. younger voices to have their own higher part while the To help singers sustain their best tone quality, it is use- adult singers cover the melody and harmony lines. While ful to guide them in some comprehensive vocal condi- three-part SAB writing may work well for junior high tioning. The tone is the result of the entire voice working school singers, combining all of the adult men on what is well as a unit. Rehearsal time devoted to vocal condition- in essence a high baritone part tends not to work as well ing pays off most obviously in the aspect of tone quality. for adults because the writing is too low for the tenors Encouraging singers to spend about twenty minutes on and too high for the basses. at least two other days between weekly choir rehearsals To help singers maintain their upper ranges the con- working on the same vocal strengthening exercises will ductor can consciously warm up the middle of the voice yield tremendous results with regard to building an en- fi rst, gradually approaching the extremes and slowly semble tone that is even, free, and resonant. working up to the highest notes. A series of descending exercises in which each successive pattern begins a step higher than the previous exercise is one way of gradu- Rhythmic Independence ally building up to the higher range while strengthening Perhaps related to a lack of confi dence in music read- the foundation in the middle. Keep in mind that range ing skill, or to decreased hearing ability, many aging is highly individual and that not everyone in any section singers experience diffi culty in independently sustaining will be comfortable on exactly the same pitches. their part, especially if it is rhythmically diff erent from other parts. Chordal music with some rhythmic interest is usually more successful than music either with pro- Tone Quality longed, sustained writing or with contrapuntal or rhyth- Changes in tone quality tend to parallel changes in mically complex lines. Look for music that is predomi- the condition of the body generally and within the vo- nantly homophonic or with obvious entrances if parts cal mechanism. If a voice is under-conditioned it is not enter independently. Rhythmic activity is fi ne, but it is unusual to hear a tone that is breathy, thin, a little rough, easier to learn and sing accurately if all parts have the or hoarse. For example, older singers frequently experi- same rhythms or if parts are paired rather than entirely ence both the feeling of having less air and of produc- rhythmically independent. ing a breathier sound. This is partially the result of thin- To help singers with rhythmic independence, make ning tissue of the vocal folds, which can permit more them aware of the diff erence between the rhythm and excess air to escape as tone is produced. Couple this with the beat and ask them to gently tap the beat as they sing. weaker breath control as abdominal and rib muscles lose Speaking the text in rhythm while tapping the beat also strength and elasticity, and it is no wonder that adult helps to strengthen rhythmic control. Children are par- singers may feel that breathing has become a problem! ticularly quick to grasp this concept by maintaining the Look for repertoire that matches the best tone quality beat with one hand and tapping the rhythm of a song that your group is capable of producing. Ask yourself with the other hand while singing or speaking the text. what music the choir sounds especially good singing. If the choir has a lovely, light tone on lyric repertoire but has diffi culty on music with a grand, heroic sound, then Extreme Dynamics focus more on music that suits their best sound. At the Extremely loud dynamics become more diffi cult as a same time, the conductor can help them build the vocal result of the combined thinning vocal folds, diminished skills needed to successfully expand their repertoire. This fi ne motor control, and decreased breath capacity that is musically and vocally preferable to selecting music for often occur with age. Soft singing on high notes can be
12 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 IN MULTIGENERATIONAL CHOIRS
diffi cult for singers of all ages. Encourage singers to use nique developed in the warm-up to the music being re- their best tone quality rather than worrying too much hearsed. Especially when working on loud passages, it is about how loudly they can sing. At the same time, sing- helpful to avoid words like “blend” and simply to direct ers can work to develop more vocal strength and dy- their attention to how the vowel should be shaped, thus namic control. Quality over quantity produces a more helping the singers create a unifi ed sound while produc- rewarding musical experience overall. ing their own freest tone. Look for music that does not call for continuous forte singing in any range and that avoids piano dynamics on the highest notes. Or, consider modifying the expressive Fast-Moving Scales markings to dynamic levels that can be produced with Melismatic writing can present a challenge for aging free tone. If a high pianissimo is essential to the music, voices when the cartilage of the larynx begins to ossify consider having only part of the singers cover it, perhaps and the vocal mechanism loses some strength and fl ex- the more youthful members. ibility, making it more diffi cult for the singer to move Helping singers build more dynamic control requires quickly and precisely. There is also a tendency for neuro- a combination of free tone and steady breath. These logical rates to slow down throughout the body creating qualities can be addressed in a well-structured warm-up delayed reaction times and slower movement in general. that includes some high, full, and free singing. The con- Look for music that is not comprised predominantly of ductor can help singers transfer the healthy vocal tech- long, fast-moving scale passages. Still, the occasional
yale glee club Je≠rey Douma, Musical Director
Emerging Composers Competition First Prize: $1,500, premiere performance by the Yale Glee Club, and possible future publication Compositions for a cappella or accompanied SATB Choir Please visit www.yalegleeclub.org/New_Music for details and submission info Submission Deadline: April 1, 2017
Yale Glee Club New Classics Choral Series A source for new music that will engage your singers and your audiences Dominick Argento Christian Grases Jocelyn Hagen James Macmillan Michael Gilbertson Eric Banks Dale Trumbore Je≠rey Douma Dominick DiOrio
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 13 PASSING THE TORCH IGNITING SENIOR VOICES
short, quick scale should not keep you from selecting a sures of rest or by shorter phrases. piece, particularly if fast phrases are followed by slower To help singers perform music with long phrases well, moving lines to allow for recovery. fi rst help them to increase their individual breath control To help singers negotiate quick musical passages, through vocal exercises done on a regular basis. Encour- develop vocal exercises in which patterns are fi rst sung aging singers to engage in active physical exercise such as slowly then repeated at ever-increasing speeds. Within a brisk walking or swimming will also contribute to stron- warm-up it is also advantageous to increase the size and ger breath control and better overall muscle tone. velocity of the intervals of the patterns. Keep in mind Taking a few minutes of rehearsal time to bring the that as we age, various physical systems tend to become singers’ attention to the phrasing requirements of the slower and less accurate as a result of neuromuscular piece will help them to become aware of managing their changes. The good news is that this decline is far less breath and applying their own vocal technique to the associated with actual chronological age than it is with music. Ask singers of all ages to mark breathing places condition—something that can be improved. in their music, which make musical sense and fi t their own breath management rather than just singing for as long as they can and then refi lling. Better to plan ahead Slow, Sustained Pitches so they aren’t stranded mid-phrase when they run out If a song is made up primarily of long notes in a slow of air! tempo, singers often get lost rhythmically. In addition, Determine breathing places by discussing the phras- sustaining an even tone on long held notes can be a chal- ing as it relates to the expression of the text, perhaps by lenge for aging voices that may be beginning to wobble reading the text aloud together and discovering where a little. As muscles and ligaments lose tonicity with age breathing should ideally take place for the clearest com- or under-conditioning, the result will be a less satisfying munication of the meaning of the text. Decide whether tone. Look for music that is more syllabic than extremely it would be more eff ective to have the entire group break sustained. up some of the longer phrases by adding extra breaths Help singers by having them tap the beat and count or for the choir to use staggered breathing, with individual on long notes so that they do not get lost. In rehearsal singers breathing in diff erent places in a way that still it is sometimes useful to sing the number of beats on projects the shape and direction of the entire phrase. long notes. An even, sustained tone is the result of pos- ture that supports the voice—steady breath coordinated with muscles that are toned. If their tone is beginning to Pitch Accuracy on Large or Unexpected Leaps waver, encourage singers to keep their air moving steadi- Pitch accuracy is largely dependent upon fi rst having ly and warmly, as opposed to trying to hold the sound the interval clearly in mind, coupled with the physical steady in their throat. adjustments necessary to execute the move. Both aspects can become more challenging to singers as they age. Un- usual intervals, such as tritones, chromatic passages, or Long Phrases and Recovery Time augmented leaps, are more diffi cult than diatonic inter- Older singers often require longer for inhalation. vals because they are heard less precisely since they are Mechanical effi ciency can decrease as the total lung not part of the predicted scale. Changes in the smooth- volume and vital capacity lessen, making the recovery ness of the joints involved in moving the vocal mecha- process take longer. Look for reasonable phrase lengths nism can make it more diffi cult to position the vocal folds when considering music to be performed. If most of the precisely for large intervals. phrases are long then it may be diffi cult for singers to Look for music that does not have a lot of large or un- perform the piece well. This is because of the need for usual leaps. Fourths, fi fths, and octaves tend to be more the body to recover after a long phrase. Ideally, look for easily sung than tritones, sevenths, or even sixths because music in which a long phrase is followed by a few mea- they are easily heard within the major-minor tonality
14 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 IN MULTIGENERATIONAL CHOIRS
and because the vocal musculature has been trained to Find Out the Type of Voices for which the produce these intervals more easily through frequent, Piece was Originally Composed long-term use. Adult female voices often sit about a minor third lower To help singers negotiate large or unusual leaps, use than children’s voices, meaning that if a work was origi- techniques such as playing the fi rst note of a leap and nally written for a children’s or boy’s choir even though having the choir sing the second note to train the ear. It is it is SSA, the ranges may or may not be suitable for a also useful to include some warm-up exercises with wid- women’s ensemble. This is particularly important in er intervals or whole-tone scales, rather than just singing Baroque music, for which soprano lines were normally major scales and arpeggios. sung by unchanged boys’ voices and the tessituras tend to be too high to be comfortably sustained by many adult female singers. This might be addressed in the multigen- Quick Text erational setting by having some adult sopranos sing sec- As neuromuscular movements involved in clear dic- ond soprano and more of the younger voices sing fi rst tion become a little slower, it can become more diffi cult soprano, singing at “Baroque” pitch or transposing the for singers to produce fast diction with facility. Singers music further down. may also be dealing with dental changes that impact both speech and singing. For these reasons, quick diction can present more of a challenge for older singers than it Summary of Repertoire Selection Guidelines does for younger singers. Look for music that can be successfully sung at a tem- • Texts need to be emotionally and intellectually appeal- po your choir can project clearly. The conductor can de- ing to all ages involved. termine the approachability of the text by speaking the words in the desired tempo while producing all of the • Study the range and tessitura of each voice part. Be sounds of all of the words, not just the words in general. sure that most of the notes are within the comfort- Sounds that tend to cause the most diffi culty are s, r, and able range for each part. Avoid music that stays in l. any extreme range. Keep in mind that children’s To help singers with quick, well-projected text, in- voices tend to be higher than adult voices. clude diction exercises in the vocal conditioning/warm- up portion of the rehearsal. Tongue twisters such as • Homophonic music tends to be easier for adults to “maybe my mommy may go to Miami, or maybe my learn than music with rhythmically independent mommy may not” and “a dozen daff y ducks did a dizzy parts. dumb dance” that are sung fi rst at a moderate tempo and then gradually increasing in speed allow singers to • Modify extreme dynamics, particularly for extended focus on the production and projection of consonants. periods of time. Encourage singers of all ages to listen for all of the sounds of the words while at the same time maintaining • Approach very fast and very slow writing with care, a healthy singing tone. Resist the inclination to talk-sing minimizing long, fast scale passages and extended diction exercises. Rehearse music with quick or challeng- slow, sustained pitches. ing text at a slower tempo and gradually increase spoken and sung text. • Be aware of phrase lengths. Short phrases or long phrases followed by a period of rest work best.
• Stepwise movement is more easily managed than large leaps.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 15 PASSING THE TORCH IGNITING SENIOR VOICES
• Notice the tempo of the piece in relation to demands John M. Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices (St. Louis, of the text. Fast consonants become more diffi cult MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1999). for aging singers. Look for music that can be suc- cessfully sung at a tempo that your choir can proj- Don L. Collins, Teaching Choral Music, second edition ect clearly. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999).
Chris Crowley and Henry S. Lodge, Younger Next Year Conclusion (New York: Workman Publishing, 2004). Senior adult singers bring a lifetime of experience to the choir. What they might have lost in strength or Rollo Dilworth, Choir Builders, Fundamental Vocal Tech- stamina is made up for in long-term musical understand- niques for Classroom and General Use (Milwaukee: Hal Leon- ing, experience, expression, and love of singing. Those ard, 2006). fortunate younger singers who combine with senior adults benefi t musically, socially, and culturally from this Wilhelm Ehmann and Frauke Haasemann, Voice Building experience. The successful lifelong participation of adult for Choirs (Chapel Hill, NC: Hinshaw Music, 1982). singers depends in part upon the conductor’s working understanding of vocal and physical changes that se- Marilyn M. Gonzalez, Choir Care: Building Sound Technique niors may be experiencing. This knowledge can infl u- (New York: American Guild of Organists, 1993). ence successful repertoire selection and rehearsal deci- sions, contributing to an optimal musical environment Frauke Haasemann and James M. Jordan, Group Vocal within the intergenerational or multigenerational choir. Technique (Chapel Hill, NC: Hinshaw Music, Inc., 1991). In this way, the conductor can fan the fl ames of personal betterment and continued enthusiasm for singing by se- Victoria Meredith, Sing Better As You Age (Santa Barbara, nior members, enabling them to pass the torch to the CA: Santa Barbara Music Publishing, 2007). next generation of singers! Richard Miller, Solutions for Singers: Tools for Performers and Teachers (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). Selected Resources Lloyd Pfautsch, Choral Therapy (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Frank Abrahams et al., Teaching Music through Performance Press, 1994). in Choir, vol. 1, ed. Heather J. Buchanan and Matthew W. Mehaff ey (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2005). Kenneth H. Phillips, Directing the Choral Music Program (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). Jean Ashworth Bartle, Lifeline for Children’s Choir Directors (Toronto: Gordon V. Thompson Music, 1988, 1993). Brenda Smith and Robert T. Sataloff , Choral Pedagogy (San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2013). Jean Ashworth Bartle, Sound Advice: Becoming a Better Chil- dren’s Choir Conductor (New York: Oxford University Press, Brenda Smith and Robert T. Sataloff , Choral Pedagogy and 2003). the Older Singer (San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2012). Gene D. Cohen, The Creative Age: Awakening Human Po- tential in the Second Half of Life (New York: Avon Books, Leon Thurman and Graham Welch, ed. Bodymind and 2000). Voice: Foundations of Voice Education, in 3 volumes (Colleg- eville, Minn.: The VoiceCare Network, 2000).
16 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 Changing Lives through the Power of Performance
Iris Derke, Co-Founder and General Director | Jonathan Griffith, Co-Founder and Artistic Director
250 West 57th St., New York, NY 10107 Tel: (212) 707-8566 Email: [email protected] www.DCINY.org
BE A PART OF DCINY’S 10th ANNIVERSARY SEASON IN 2018 Just some highlights...
A World Premiere work by Sir Karl Jenkins -RQDWKDQ*ULIÀWK'&,1<3ULQFLSDO&RQGXFWRU 6LU.DUO-HQNLQV'&,1<&RPSRVHULQ5HVLGHQFH January 15, 2018 at Carnegie Hall
The Music of Eric Whitacre Eric Whitacre, Composer/Conductor April 8, 2018 at Carnegie Hall
The King’s Singers 50th Anniversary Bob Chilcott & Simon Carrington, Guest Conductors April 22, 2018 at Carnegie Hall
www.DCINY.org &RQWDFWXVQRZWRÀQGRXWDERXWRWKHUKLJKOLJKWVLQFOXGLQJVSHFLDOJXHVWV Hilary Apfelstadt, Ola Gjeilo, Deke Sharon, Paul Mealor and many more!
VISIT WITH DCINY AT ACDA NATIONALS Can’t wait to see you at ACDA Minneapolis March 8-12, 2017
And yes, DCINY will host free chair massages throughout the conference. Be sure to visit our booth and relax!
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 17 ntergenerational (IG) pro- gramming, and by extension I intergenerational singing, involves scheduled and planned curricula that engage two diff er- ent generations, usually elders and children/youth. Intergen- erational programs are often confused with, or referred to as, multigenerational programs, but they are not the same and exhibit signifi cantly diff erent characteris- tics. Whereas multigenerational programs are valuable learn- ing activities, they are usually designed for participants from across a wide span of generations and could include a combination of age groups such as children, youth, young adults, middle-aged adults, young seniors, and/or el- ders. Often the various genera- tions are involved in simultane- ous learning, side-by-side, with some interaction. The emphasis is on individual learning in the ensemble using more traditional, albeit diff erentiated, interactions by age, with peers. While multi- generational programming has its own benefi ts, IG programs, on the other hand, are specifi cally designed for two diff erent genera- tions and focus on individual and intentionally intensive, shared, reciprocal interaction and equal learning opportunity.1
18 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 Never Too Old Establishing an Intergenerational Choir for Transformational Learning through Singing CAROL BEYNON
The Intergenerational Choir Project, London, Canada Conductor, Kathy McNaughton, Medway High School
Photos in this article courtesy of Bruce Wray and the Alzheimer’s Society of London & Middlesex.
Carol Beynon, [email protected] Associate Professor in Music Education, The University of Western Ontario Co-investigator with the multidisciplinary SSHRC funded project, Advanced Interdisciplinary Research in Singing (AIRS)
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 19 Never Too Old
Feliciano Villar explains the diff erence: singing program.
The term “Intergenerational” implies the in- volvement of members of two or more genera- Lifelong Learning tions in activities that potentially can make them Recent medical advances have resulted in a dramatic aware of diff erent (generational) perspectives. It improvement in health, well-being, and lifespan such implies increasing interaction, cooperation to that the percentage of senior citizens in Canada will in- achieve common goals, a mutual infl uence, and crease to more than 25 percent of the total population in the possibility of change (hopefully, a change the next twenty-fi ve years.5 Furthermore, if current pop- that entails improvement). In contrast, “multi- ulation trends continue, Statistics Canada estimates that generational” is usually used in a related but seniors will outnumber children in Canada by a factor far broader sense: it means to share activities or of three to two in twenty years’ time. While experienc- characteristics among generations, but not nec- ing a longer lifespan, seniors are also enjoying increased essarily an interaction nor an infl uence among participation in life activities; some are choosing to con- them.2 tinue working past the normal retirement age while oth- ers are involved in varied social and recreational pursuits With the increasing number of senior citizens seeking that require active mental and/or physical participation. dynamic opportunities for lifelong learning, IG choral Canada is not unique; these statistics match fi ndings in programs are an ideal learning component for music other similar countries, such as the United States. education programs in elementary or secondary schools The period of life between retirement and about because there is a fi xed younger generation and an in- eighty years of age is now referred to as the third age creasing number of elders enjoying good health in close because of the improved quality of life that most elders proximity. experience. Maintaining mental acuity, memory, and an To be considered a viable learning experience, IG active quality of life after retirement is critical and has programs require planned but fl exible curriculum with been recognized as a signifi cant concern of seniors, fam- learning outcomes that suit and accommodate both gen- ily members, and health professionals. There is no doubt erations and are monitored for learning achievement.3 that as one ages, one experiences signifi cant diff erences The focus is on purposeful learning, and in the case of in physical, emotional, and indeed intellectual health. this article, using singing in an IG choir as the tool to This is not a new phenomenon. In 2006, the Canadian introduce, reinforce, and value specifi c learnings, includ- Council on Learning noted: ing improved singing through development of vocal techniques, posture, breathing, mastering new reper- As the population ages, fi nding ways to main- toire, memory and recall, and creating opportunities for tain quality of life well into the senior years is be- learning about self, another generation, aging, socializa- coming increasingly urgent. Maintaining healthy tion, and health and well-being. mental faculties is a crucial challenge. Mental In the traditional IG choral environment this is ac- acuity can begin to deteriorate as a result of age- complished in a fairly normal, seated choir setting where related physiological changes in the brain. Ac- youth and elders come to know each other and sing and cording to brain research, age alters the structure learn together.4 Having been involved as a participant- of the brain: overall brain mass shrinks modestly observer and researcher in several IG programs of dif- in some people beginning around the age of 60 ferent kinds over the past several years, I can attest to or 70. The cortex also undergoes modest thin- the enduring and endearing learning that occurs. In my ning and the brain’s white matter decreases, opinion, acknowledgement of the rich and deep learn- infl uencing the transmission of signals between ing through singing from the beginning to the end of life diff erent regions of the brain. Neurotransmit- is the key foundational principle of an intergenerational ters, the chemicals that relay messages from neu-
20 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 ron to neuron in the brain, become less available occurs when elders work with young children to support with age and this may play a role in declining children’s literacy and perceive their role as facilitators memory among older adults.6 and guides to learning. However from a musical per- spective, there are few IG learning experiences related to music or singing; rather, the norm is that children per- form on special occasions for elders in seniors’ homes7 To be considered a viable learning or with a seniors’ group for short periods of time rather experience, intergenerational than in ongoing, purposeful learning situations. In addi- programs require planned but fl exible tion, there is little in the literature discussing IG singing programs specifi cally. However, one teacher involved in “curriculum with learning outcomes IG music educations notes that: that suit and accommodate both generations and are monitored for The programme itself is recognized as a course in which the seniors are registered as students in learning achievement. the same manner as adolescents and the mem- bers…form a community of practice, learning collaboratively as equals. Their many perfor- What better way to promote mental acuity than mances provide an added measure of authentic through singing! While memory naturally declines with work with a very real and pertinent goal while aging, there is no evidence that learning needs to slow the daily nature of their interaction changes down or stop. Engagement in activities that require fre- their entire concepts of personal and social quent and deep mental stimulation helps reduce the im- identity. This programme is one step towards an pact of aging, not only in the brain, but also on one’s intergenerational education paradigm shift that psychological outlook on aging. Lifelong learning is is beginning to happen.8 much more than a buzzword; it is essential for life and quality of life because active learning infl uences not just brain stimulation and mental health but physical health Establishing an and emotional health. Singing provides an excellent ve- Intergenerational Choir Project hicle for stimulating the brain for all ages. Many of the fi ndings in this paper have been drawn from a local intergenerational choir established for high school students, persons with dementia, and their care- School-Community Learning givers. I turn now to providing a description of the choir Third-agers as learners are an under-represented for conductors to consider in setting up such a program. population. Schools, colleges, and universities are nor- (There is also a YouTube video describing the origin mally considered the primary site for formal learning of the Intergenerational Choir Project that provides a and are typically associated with children and youth in richer description that can be found at https://www. the various subject disciplines. Older generations are pri- youtube.com/watch?v=L5o3Nh6ydbo, which would be marily involved, not as co-learners, but as professional a helpful resource to conductors setting up such a pro- educators, facilitators, or volunteers supporting youth gram.) This program began at the behest of a local non- who are considered to be the “real learners.” However, profi t supporting persons diagnosed with Alzheimer’s recent literature indicates a growing awareness of the Disease and their caregivers. The executive director of signifi cance of bringing the community into the school, the support group approached the choral teacher of a and we have seen a signifi cant increase in the number high school to discuss a potential relationship. Planning and types of intergenerational programs. At the early began in earnest six months before the start-up and in- years’ level in our region, the most common program volved the teacher (who was the conduit to the principal
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 21 Never Too Old and music department), the executive director and her Location and Accessibility: staff , and the head of the new Sisters of St Joseph’s resi- dence where the choir would be hosted. The planning 1) What is the best location? phase took about six months before the program began and involved comprehensive discussion of the following 2) Is the site physically accessible to both generations of principles. learners?
3) Is transportation required and available for all singers Principle #1 to engage? Who will fund transportation? Integrated Community-School Program Planning 4) Is there suitable and comfortable seating for all sing- Fully integrated planning is critical in implementing ers, taking into consideration various abilities and dis- an IG program because in the initial stages, mutual plan- abilities and size of younger and older singers? ning between the youth instructors (school) and elder advocates (community) is essential to ultimate success. 5) What are the acoustics like for hearing instructions Once the willingness to develop a learning partnership and also for singing? Is there a system available for the is in place, concrete answers related to the why? what? conductor to ensure those who have hearing loss are ac- how? where? and when? are essential. commodated?
Rationale for the Program: Participation:
1) What is the purpose of the IG choir? What learning 1) Who will direct the choir? Who will accompany? Will outcomes should we expect for youth? For elders? For we need to pay a pianist? teachers/staff ? 2) What singers (from the school and from the commu- 2) How will we know the program has been successful? nity) will participate?
3) Who is responsible for the evaluation? 3) Who will administer and oversee the program? (Pro-
22 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 motion and recruitment; attendance: follow-up with Principle #2 singers and guardians/trustees; procure scores; concert Governance programs.) To ensure the sustainability of these programs, there needs to be an overt educational and fi nancial commit- 4) How will the elders be recruited? ment by the school, the school district, and the com- munity that recognizes the importance of IG commu- 5) What commitment is expected from the director? nity-based learning. School personnel and community Young singers? Elder singers? agencies need to be committed to lifelong and shared learning between generations for success. In one pro- 6) Will choristers (younger and elder) receive any kind of gram we studied, the high school was registered with the credit for learning? In what form? Ministry to off er a specialized co-curricular vocal spe- cialist certifi cate upon graduation to students who had Curriculum Development: completed extra requirements beyond normal participa- tion in vocal classes and choirs. One such condition for 1) Who has responsibility for developing the curriculum students to receive the specialist certifi cate was involve- and anticipated learning outcomes? ment in the IG choir program.
2) How and when will the curriculum and the program Student participation and expectations included: be evaluated? How will we know that there is learning? 1) Working with the music teacher during spare hours or 3) How can mutual learning and interactions between lunch break before the rehearsals began, and continuing and amongst generations be ensured? once the rehearsals were in session to co-develop the cur- riculum and outline the learning outcomes 4) What will the format be for each session? (e.g., nam- etags; greeting & re-acquaintance time before rehearsal; 2) Attending a mandatory preparatory session with an length of rehearsal; social time after) expert gerontologist to prepare for dynamic and appro- priate involvement Funding: 3) Attending and providing active leadership at all re- 1) What will the program cost? (e.g., venue, director/ hearsals and concerts, including helping with setup and teacher; accompanist; sheet music, support persons) cleanup
2) Is there a way to off er the program at no charge to 4) Preparing song repertoire booklets participants? Who will fund the program? 5) Meeting one of the elders at the fi rst session during Time: the social time before rehearsal, having a conversation, and sitting with him/her during rehearsals and concerts 1) What time of day will the program be off ered? For to facilitate the partner’s positive experience, etc. how long? We observed that while members from both genera- 2) What is the frequency of rehearsals? Per week? Per tions were nervous in the beginning stages, they soon de- term? veloped enduring friendships based on mutual trust and looked forward to seeing each other each week.9 As the 3) Will each term culminate in a concert? Location? program grew and developed, the local school district When? Uniform? featured the program in various ways, such as at a board
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 23 Never Too Old
meeting for trustees, and encouraged other schools to noise level of talking in the room during interactions, become involved. Such organizational governance opens hearing laughter around the room, and seeing the smiles the doors to authentic shared learning programs. and hugs as they say goodbye until next week. Elder singer participants also need access to staff and the choral director to share their ideas, to help revise Principle #3 the program and curriculum, and to share positive out- Ensuring Physical and comes, questions, and concerns, all of which results in Interpersonal Accessibility and Trust committed ownership of the program. Making IG programs accessible for elders and stu- dents with special abilities who need or want them must always be a signifi cant consideration because of acces- Lessons Learned in Intergenerational Choirs sibility. With respect to the programs we have observed in our research, access can be the primary obstacle that 1) Learning is enhanced for students, elders, caregivers, keeps people away. Elders need straightforward access, and music teachers when carefully planned, authentic, not only to the building but also the ability to negotiate and safe IG choral learning opportunities are off ered. the physical structures outside and inside buildings. Such Learning for both generations goes far beyond improve- issues as nearby parking and how far into a building one ment in singing, learning, and performing new reper- has to travel to fi nd the rehearsal room require consider- toire; it encompasses life lessons about acknowledging, ation and assessment. Similarly, if the IG choir is off ered understanding, and appreciating such signifi cant aspects after school in another location, consideration needs to as chronic illness, aging, death and dying, developing be given to student access and transportation. communication skills, socialization, and caring, which Advocating for the development of contiguous space in turn support the development of self-effi cacy and re- for school and senior community spaces is critical. One newed confi dence. The IG choir provides an anodyne idea we have fl oated to policy-makers is that just as many setting for the development of equality and equity, mu- jurisdictions are including daycare space in new schools, tual respect, shared learning, and lifelong respect for ag- so too should retirement residences and long-term care ing. facilities be situated within or next to schools not only to provide accessibility but to capitalize on mutual learning 2) As time progresses and longevity of the choir ensues, opportunities. interactions and engagement increases between the gen- Interpersonal accessibility is equally critical. Elders erations even though membership changes as students and youth need time and opportunity during the pro- graduate or some older partners become too ill to par- gram to develop a relationship rather than just time to ticipate or pass away. As engagement increases, so too sing together. The real learning comes from the friend- does evidence of joy in life and learning and confi dence ships developed when they have confi dent and shared in individual learning that extends far beyond the stated access to the “other.” One highly successful program we outcomes. are studying lasts 2 hours and is off ered from 2:30 to 4:30 pm at the end of the high school day. The fi rst thir- 3) Providing the IG choir experience for all at no cost in ty minutes is a welcoming time as students, elders, and an easily accessible environment is not only appreciated caregivers arrive. During this time, the youth and elder but essential to ensure equal access. partners greet each other like old friends, catch up on the latest happenings, and make their way together into 4) Relationships between and among participants are the rehearsal room, often arm-in-arm. The carefully enhanced when school-community partnerships are cul- structured rehearsal lasts about an hour and is followed tivated over time. by thirty minutes of social time with cookies and juice. The indicators of success readily become the heightened 5) Through their connections and mutually negotiated
24 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 relationships, social capital is increased. Everyone gains thought. At the outset, we’ve found that consideration some measure of confi dence to model musically and so- must be given to the participants, notably their ethnic cially for each other in very diff erent ways. Due to mutu- and cultural backgrounds, their ages, and the outcomes ality and reciprocity, learners show a sense of belonging each wishes to realize. Getting to know the elders and and importance to their choral community. understanding their reasons for participating is critical; awareness of cumulative outcomes provides a founda- Best practices in IG programs include: tion for developing shared outcomes for the program. Perhaps most critical is the repertoire chosen, because 1) Success builds over time, so paying continuous atten- the repertoire is the primary vehicle to facilitate learning tion to strengthening school-community partnerships about vocal technique, breathing, and self. is essential, keeping in mind there are numerous stake- While the concert performance is seen as the motivat- holders, such as long-term care facilities, support groups ing accomplishment of the IG choir and an activity that for seniors, seniors’ centers, retirement residences, and every singer eagerly anticipates, it is the rehearsal process so on, with whom one may work to help both age groups through which singers learn as they master and develop to reach their full potential. long-term recall of brand-new melodies, harmonic lines, phrasing, tuning, interpretation of style, and musician- 2) Ensuring a sense of belonging and being welcomed ship. As they work to master the repertoire, singers are warmly to the IG choir is essential for all participants. incorporating the technical lessons of singing supported The majority of third-agers have been away from school by the skills of social capital related to rehearsal deport- for a long time and attended schools very diff erent from ment and socialization that they are inherently absorb- those today. While structure remains in the educational ing. system, it looks quite diff erent than it did some fi fty years ago, and third-agers need to time to assimilate into the Older singers and physical conditions: We have new cultures and expectations. In addition, older peo- found that older singers who come to IG choir have var- ple are anxious about youth perceptions’ of them and ied choral backgrounds. Many join the choir because need reassurances that they are not there to be judged. they are experienced singers and are no longer able to Similarly today’s youth are equally apprehensive about participate in church or community choirs. They are engaging with older people and worry that their senior anxious to learn how to sing with their new but older partners will perceive them negatively. Students also in- voice, which also may be impacted not just by aging but dicate their concerns about illness, aging, death, and dy- also infi rmities, medications that dry the throat or cause ing and do not know how to react to (or may be reluctant hoarseness, thinning of vocal membranes, dry-mouth to engage with) life’s inevitabilities. In situations we have syndrome, shortness of breath, stooped posture, and so studied, establishing a solid relationship with an older on.10 Their needs are diff erent from some of their con- partner helped to alleviate the high school students’ anx- temporaries who may never have sung at all—and truly ieties as they came to know their partner not as simply believe they cannot sing—but want to join for the social “an old person” but as a friend and often confi dante. In benefi ts of learning alongside the younger generation. our programs, we have observed improved confi dence The choir can and must accommodate all singers re- and self-esteem, and learning about music and self in gardless of background; some members may choose to both generations as paired student and elder have be- sing a melody line, or a harmony line, while others may come friends. sit in but listen much of the time to those around them. For these latter individuals, it is the sense of belonging they are needing, and usually, before long, they too are The Curriculum: Focus on Repertoire singing a line here and there. Creating an appropriate and engaging curriculum for The elders in the choir may also suff er from one or an IG choral program is complex and requires careful more complex ailments such as weakness, shortness of
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 25 Never Too Old
breath, heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke recov- to request songs by the Beatles,11 tunes from musicals ery, dementia, hearing loss, runny eyes or poor eyesight, like the Sound of Music,12 and popular sings of the 1950s and dizziness, which creates additional complexities for and ‘60s. Fortunately, publishers like Hal Leonard have the singer and attention by the conductor. For example, amassed many good, accessible choral arrangements of during some rehearsals we noticed that singers would such pieces. Ironically, in some of our programs when a develop a persistent and irritating cough often brought new piece was introduced that the high school students on as a result of dryness from medications or use of did not know, their older partners would take great pride deeper breathing for singing. However, because the older in helping teach them the melodies, usually accompa- generation has never had the habit of carrying a water nied by tales of their youth associated with the song. bottle, and were either unable to get to a water fountain The positive aspect of selecting repertoire that provides or reluctant to get up and get a drink so as not to draw opportunity for one generation to share repertoire with attention to one’s self or disrupt the rehearsal fl ow, we another, requiring new learning from each with the sup- suggested having cups of water nearby that the student port of a partner who likely knows the piece under study, partner could pick up and deliver unobtrusively. cannot be underestimated. Finally, setting up the choral room in a semi-circle in An example of one recent, one-hour program for an voice parts (e.g., SATB, two-part, or unison) so that all IG choir of 90 members—about 45 high school students can stay seated and be able to look up and see/hear the and 45 third-agers—included varied unison to four-part conductor and accompanist during rehearsal without octavo arrangements opening with Oh, What a beautiful straining the head, neck, and shoulders is essential. Our Morning, followed by Oklahoma, You’ll Never Walk Alone, singers were keen to declare their voice part and looked Pussywillows Cattails, What a Wonderful World, Imagine, Un- forward to sitting in the same seats with their intergen- der the Boardwalk, Over the Rainbow, Sentimental Journey, Blue erational friends each week. Moon, Put a Little Love in Your Heart, closing with their tra- ditional Blessing.13 This is an IG choir in its fourth year, Voices ranges and tessituras: It will come as no sur- and while four of the pieces were repeated from earlier prise to any experienced conductor that most women concerts but with additional fi nesse and harmony, most will declare themselves altos and most men basses al- were new in this term. Each year, this choir’s repertoire though there will always be a few sopranos and tenors to list grows longer and more pieces are added for perfor- carry those parts. Physically, as a person ages, the voice mance indicating their cumulative musical growth. tessitura lowers, and without ongoing practice it takes time for singers to expand their range. This phenome- Singing in harmony: While the youth attending these non creates some diffi culty for older adults working with rehearsals may be accustomed to singing in three or four younger children especially because the healthy tessitura parts, many of the older singers may have forgotten how, of the child or younger voice is physiologically higher or lost confi dence, to sing a harmony part. The astute than that of third-agers. Appropriate selection of rep- conductor reassures singers by advising them to sing ertoire, attention to starting on an accessible pitch, and along comfortably with the melody for now and to try working with elder voices to expand range needs to be a singing the harmony parts when they feel comfortable. critical focus. Some stick to the melody at fi rst while others venture bravely into harmony parts. Pairing younger and older Repertoire choice: Age is a signifi cant factor in choos- singer by voice part also facilitates learning and confi - ing repertoire. Many older singers want to begin by learn- dence as the younger singer will usually be learning the ing and performing songs with which they are familiar, same harmony part right beside him/her and simultane- so knowing relative ages and interests of singers are im- ously developing leadership skills in doing so. portant factors. Whereas WWII-era and popular songs Many times, we have observed as conductors have of the 1930s might once have been commonly used with worked only with unison songsheets on a new piece and senior groups, those joining choirs now, are more likely when comfortable will invite the singers to improvise
26 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 consider, depending on the issues, whether to continue with the piece in the repertoire. For rehearsals, two kinds of songbooks need to be created—one with the musical scores, the other with only the lyrics typed out in large print. While the youth will normally be expected to use scores, the older sing- ers have the choice of which book to follow. Often the youth partner shares the songbook with his/her partner depending on their abilities to physically hold the book and turn pages and may point to the words or music as the rehearsal progresses. The songbooks should be set up so that the scores are in order for each rehearsal and singers only need to turn harmonies, fi rst perhaps at the end of a phrase or the to the next page. Having fl exible binding allows for stu- end of a piece; they may then venture into the body of dents to rearrange as they plan for the next rehearsal and the song, sometimes introducing a new edition of the concert order with the conductor. Involving the students score with harmony parts. Doh a Deer from the Sound of in the planning of the curriculum in this way provides a Music medley is a great example of a known song that means for students to take ownership, show leadership, the choir can sing in two parts easily without adding a and begin to understand how careful development of complex score. Singers learn that regardless of the parts curriculum supports learning. It gives them the oppor- written, they can pick and choose the appropriate sec- tunity to discuss the learning in the IG choir situation, to tions to sing in harmony or in unison. ask questions, and off er suggestions for optimal learning. Another option if available is to project the music Sheet music & songbooks: In preparing for rehears- onto a screen at the front in a clear format to save look- als, creating a ‘songbook’ that has the pieces in rehearsal ing up at the conductor and then losing one’s place when order is necessary for all singers. Routine is important to looking back down. Height for comfortable elevation of all no matter one’s age, and following the pre-planned the chin and head and lighting need to be considered, as songbook order prompts muscle memory and helps to improper projection can tire neck muscles and/or eyes, prepare for concert order. In some cases, the students which causes blurred vision. take the books back to school at the end of rehearsal and realign scores for the next rehearsal. Rehearsal format: Providing social time before and The order of pieces in a rehearsal is also important. after the rehearsal gives opportunity for singers to es- We have found that beginning rehearsal with a known tablish and develop deep relationships of trust and co- favorite helps draw everyone’s mental attention to the dependency for learning outside of the rehearsal. The rehearsal setting and establishes confi dence. Following one-hour rehearsal then becomes a time when all are fo- this with a piece that requires some new learning works cused on learning through singing. The normal pattern well because minds are fresh and focused after warming is to begin with a known song for warm-up, usually the up with the familiar. Establishing a pattern of interspers- same one each week, that draws minds and bodies to the ing review and familiar songs is helpful. When teaching learning task at hand. The tessitura of the song needs to a new song, often only the melody line is off ered even if be in a comfortable range so that all can begin to warm a full SATB score is introduced until there is a sense of up vocal folds, attend to sitting posture, and breathing. mastery of the piece. With respect to the introduction Songs such as He’s Got the Whole World in His Hands14 or of a new piece, elder members can be quite vocal about Doh a Deer are great starters with a positive message. likes and dislikes, which requires the conductor and high Then the rehearsal follows a pattern of learning of a school partner to listen carefully, acknowledge, and then newer score, repeating and working on songs from last
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 27 Never Too Old
session such as adding another harmony part, or solo improving in tone quality, reading, and retention, and groups, etc. Experienced conductors will vary the pace that his students were learning about aspects of aging of the rehearsal to ebb and fl ow as suitable for the par- and working with singing partners with dementia, he ticular group, adding phrasing, dynamics, and so on to wasn’t as sure what other benefi ts the older singers might the songs as deemed appropriate in the situation. Just be experiencing until this event happened. as most of the programs we have observed begin each We were all blown away by that experience. So many rehearsal with the same piece, so to do they end each of the older singers—those with dementia and their care- rehearsal and concert with the same piece—usually a givers—hadn’t realized that they could learn a new piece blessing of some sort that wishes each other well until of music and retain it in the long term. I had thought we meet again. Katie Bart’s Blessing15 is a wonderful ex- they would be recalling and refreshing pieces they knew ample of a piece that can be sung in unison or with up from life experience, but this had been new, and they to four parts. proved their ability to learn.17 Positive feedback and encouragement are essential components; members of IG choirs want to sing well, but they also want to learn how to sing better and to Conclusions learn new repertoire, and they want to perform well. This research informs our understanding of several They expect praise along with constructive criticism. key guiding principles that one can use to establish, im- Choir directors need to be attentive yet demanding in plement, and assess intergenerational learning experi- pursuits of improvement toward excellence. ences such as IG choirs. However, certain requirements must be in place to ensure that lifelong learning experi- ences become a pri ority. Transformational Learning There is no doubt that the creation, success, and So, how do we know that learning for high school longevity of intergenerational programs has a positive students and third-agers occurs in the IG choir setting? impact on the entire school-community area. IG choirs And how is it that this learning can be considered trans- require attention to pedagogical changes that include ex- formational? The following anecdote may help. In one periential learning where age is irrelevant; where all are program during the second term of the fi rst season, the considered equal learners; where all are recognized as IG choir was called on to give a special performance. students—young and old; where all need to be part of Because they needed more songs to perform than they the cyclical planning/implementation/review process. were currently working on, the conductor asked the While there are costs to such a program, the investments choir if they could recall and perform a song that they are outweighed by the evidence of increased learning for had performed four months earlier. The Storm is Passing all and the social and health benefi ts to society. Given the Over16 had been totally new to all, and the choir hadn’t increasing number of seniors living well globally, such sung it in four months. No one knew what would hap- investments in lifelong learning through singing will a) pen, and this was a real challenge of recall and long- transform the lives of many seniors as they enjoy healthy term memory. lifestyles, which ultimately places fewer demands on our As the piano began the introduction, every member healthcare systems, and b) help younger generations val- sat up straighter and watched the conductor intently; ue aging and lifelong learning. they sang the piece in four parts with such rhythmic pre- cision and aesthetic feeling that it seemed as if they had been working on it all along. The smiles and applause NOTES they gave themselves afterward was evidence that they had not only learned a piece new to all but had inter- 1 Carol Beynon, Rachel Hayden, Susan O’Neill, Zhang Zheng nalized it. In speaking with the conductor afterward, he & Wendy Crocker, “Straining to hear the singing: Toward noted that while he was quite aware that the choir was an understanding of successful intergenerational singing
28 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 curriculum,” Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 11 no. 9 The Intergenerational Choir Project of the Alzheimer’s 2 (2013): 176-189. Society of London and Middelsex https://www.youtube. 2 Feliciano Villar, “Intergenerational or Multigenerational? com/watch?v=L5o3Nh6ydbo A Question of Nuance,” Journal of Intergenerational 10 J. Hutchison, & C. Beynon, “It’s all about confi dence and Relationships, 5 no.1 (2007): 116. how you perceive yourself ”: Musical perceptions of older 3 Beynon et al. adults involved in an intergenerational singing program, 4 There are also alternative IG environments more focused on Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal, 5 no. 2 multimodal interactions where elders and young children (2014): 1465-1474 may be seated together around active learning centers 11 Imagine, arr J Althouse, Alfred Music Pub (unison to SATB) using singing as the primary vehicle of learning. or Yesterday, arr R Emerson, Hal Leonard. 5 Statistics Canada: Seniors. http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/ 12 Sound of Music (medley), arr C Warnick; Hal Leonard. subject-sujet/theme-theme.action%3Bjsessionid=5BB57 13 Program listing for Intergenerational Spring Concert, May 2016; 0A54531D975F11E69DBBB396CEB?pid=70000&lang Conductor Kathy McNaughton. Medway High School. =eng&more=0 14 See Hope Publishing for arrangements of traditional, 6 Canadian Council on Learning: Lessons in Learning. suitable repertoire. http://www.thirdagenetwork.ca/Never-too-old-to-learn. 15 Blessing, K Bart, Neil Kjos – available in unison, SSA, SAB, pdf or SATB. 7 Beynon et al. 16 The Storm is Passing Over, C Tindley/arr B Baker, Boosey & 8 Christopher J Alfano, “Intergenerational learning in a high Hawkes. SATB. school environment,” International Journal of Community 17 Interview with the author, 2013. Music, 1 no. 2 (2008): 262.
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CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 29 INTERGROUP CONTACT THEORY AND CHOIR
MODELING CONDUCTORS WITHOUT BORDERS
RYAN LUHRS In October 2016, I traveled to Kenya with Thierry Thiébaut, president of A Coeur Joie, International, WITH AN and director of the International Federation for Cho- INTRODUCTION BY ral Music’s program Conductors Without Borders. We TIM SHARP spent two weeks in Nairobi where our host, Kennedy Okeyo Wakia, director of the Nairobi Chamber Cho- rus, ACDA member, and Cultural and Educational Aff airs Specialist at the U.S. Embassy in Kenya, cre- ated an intense schedule for us, consisting of daily vis- its and interviews with choral directors and educators, and evening workshops and master classes with a great variety of choirs. Both Thierry and I serve on the Board of IFCM, and Ken Wakia is a widely known choral conductor and friend to IFCM. Ken had also recently hosted Dr. Kevin Fenton, Florida State Uni- versity Choral Professor and former ACDA Southern Division President, as the two collaborated on the choral fi lm, A Voice for Peace (http://avoice4peace.org) a worldwide peace awareness project. ACDA was a Ryan Luhrs Director of Choral Activities major advocate for this fi lm project. Kevin shares his Coordinator of Sacred Music Program experience and involvement with A Voice for Peace on Lenoir-Rhyne University pages 34-35.
30 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7
INTERGROUP CONTACT THEORY AND CHOIR
Conductors Without Borders takes its name from the universally known and beloved program, Doctors With- out Borders, and has similar goals. It is a mutual assis- tance program whose goal is to give conductors in devel- oping countries—mainly in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia—the opportunity to work with experi- enced teachers in choral conducting. The program origi- nated in August of 2006 at the conclusion of the World Assembly of Choral Conductor’s Associations (WACCA) in Buenos Aires. At that assembly, the need for a mutual assistance program for training choral conductors was clearly identifi ed. In January 2007, a fi rst announcement was published in the International Choral Bulletin with a call for interest in the CWB program. The multiple re- heritage of the country, is supported by the national gov- sponses received testifi ed to the great interest shown by ernment, and is a cherished time in the life of Kenyans. conductors from all over the world. Public schools in Kenya off er music education. Uni- In November 2007, a fi rst meeting was held in Ca- versities in Nairobi teach music theory, ethnomusicology, racas with delegates who were already involved in simi- music education, composition, and other traditional mu- lar projects. During three intense meeting days, the del- sic tracks. Every university and conservatory we visited egates agreed on the necessity of a sustainable program demonstrated strong interest in choral music. A majority that would not only create insightful choral leadership all of the choirs we observed rehearse twice a week. Rote over the world but would also be committed to the fun- learning continues to be the practice, although published damental social values and goals of choral singing, which music and music in manuscript was clearly in evidence. include the establishment and conveying of solidarity, re- Usually the repertoire is unaccompanied, but sometimes spect, tolerance, loyalty, community building, and inter- it is accompanied by drums and keyboard. human communication. It was our pleasure to talk to the directors we worked ACDA is connected to Conductors Without Borders with about their hopes and plans for forming a national as a result of our close connection and affi liation with association similar to ACDA for their choral conduc- IFCM. However, as executive director of ACDA, it has tors. We introduced them to the programs of IFCM and been my goal for our association to be even more inti- ACDA and established communication tools for ongo- mately attached to this program. This was my reason for ing exchange. It is clear that choral music is a pathway immersing myself into the program with volunteer work to peace and understanding between our countries. The in Kenya. I have discussed this initiative at length with following article is based on Ryan Luhrs’s dissertation ACDA’s newly established International Activities Stand- on the topic of Intergroup Contact Theory and is in es- ing Committee, and I have great hope that an ongoing sence the “science” behind the goal of programs such as relationship can be established between ACDA and East Conductors Without Borders and A Voice 4 Peace. Cho- Africa, and in particular, Kenya. ral conductors and music educators have all experienced What I discovered during my visit is there are hundreds how the act of singing helps to build bridges and break of choirs in Nairobi of all categories: children’s, male, fe- down walls between and among individuals from diverse male, mixed, and many, many youth choirs. We estimated backgrounds, but why? Ryan shares recent research re- the number of choir directors in the region was in the lated to Intergroup Contact Theory while outlining the hundreds. Throughout the country, choirs participate in “fi ve optimal conditions” that either advance or impede the decades-old and decades-strong Kenya Music Festi- the ability of singing to break down social barriers. Kev- val, their national music festival organized by the Min- in’s and my experiences in Kenya are a practical testa- istry of Education and Culture. This festival takes place ment to how this theory can and does function in the every August in Nairobi and showcases the cultural music twenty-fi rst century.
32 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 MODELING CONDUCTORS WITHOUT BORDERS
Intergroup Contact’s Five Optimal Conditions * * * * * * * * * * * * * Condition 1: Equal Status ommunal singing in contexts such as military To achieve equal status, power disparities present in settings, corporate worship, protests, vigils in everyday life must not be perceived in the contact set- Cthe aftermath of tragedy, and sporting events ting. All people involved need view themselves as equals. provide evidence that singing may be one of the most This may be an easy concept to grasp, but equal status is effi cient ways to foster a sense of “we” and unity in a diffi cult to measure and attain.4 Yet, music making can group of people.1 The sense that group singing unifi es provide a space where traditional hierarchies are con- diverse people for a common cause is also present in tested.5 Directors organizing interactions can promote traditional choral settings, evident as choristers work to- equal status by taking the following steps: ward the common goal of preparing a concert program or worship contribution. Given the many ways people 1. Sing. The mere act of singing together can challenge are divided, separated, and lack a sense of “we,” and the statuses. There is documented evidence that status dis- prospect of unifying a group through song, a question parities related to age, grade level, disability, ethnicity, faces those of us who lead singing: Can bringing people socio-economic status, incarceration, and homelessness, together intentionally around song be an eff ective pre- etc., can all be contested in a choir.6 This phenomenon scription in the eff ort to build bridges between people of may be especially present when a group sings in har- social groups who don’t otherwise interact in meaningful mony and the director encourages all singers to work on ways? issues related to ensemble, such as balance and vowel Just as a physician who prescribes medication needs to uniformity.7 understand how a drug functions, choral directors may benefi t from understanding how singing functions in in- 2. Select repertoire representative of the diff erent social tergroup settings (situations where individuals from dif- groups involved. Singing the music of both groups as ferent social groups encounter each other). Much of the one choir implies that everyone’s music is valued and existing research literature devoted to the topic, however, one group’s music is not superior. simply credits the “power of music” as the underlying reason for the eff ect, an explanation fi lled with mystery, 3. Teach the music using approaches representative of adding limited understanding on how singing in a group the diff erent groups involved. For instance, if one cultur- actually works to strengthen social bonds. The fi eld of al group traditionally learns music by ear and is forced social psychology may provide helpful insight. Research to read music with the implied bias that “real” musicians related to the intergroup contact theory2 includes more read notation, they will probably feel lower in status. than 500 studies demonstrating compelling evidence that People are more likely to feel comfortable, valued, and contact (interaction) between individuals from salient so- of equal status when the music is taught in a manner cial groups typically leads to improved attitudes. The ef- familiar to them. Furthermore, a director’s words of en- fect of intergroup contact is especially strong when fi ve couragement can go a long way when asking singers to optimal conditions are present in the contact setting: learn music using unfamiliar means, such as incorporat- equal status, cooperation, common goals, institutional ing movement or not using sheet music. support, and friendship potential.3 If singing does indeed break down social barriers, perhaps its power to do so re- 4. Assemble leadership that represents the diff erent so- sults from the choral setting’s innate ability to bring about cial groups. When possible, collaborate with leaders many aspects of these fi ve conditions. The purpose of from the various groups during the organizational pro- this article is to examine the fi ve conditions, propose how cess and the rehearsal and performance process. Events they can be attained in choral settings, off er suggestions led by diverse leaders are less likely to neglect one group related to repertoire selection, and provide additional or favor one over the other. models for promoting intergroup choral activity.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 33 INTERGROUP CONTACT THEORY AND CHOIR
5. Off er leadership that encourages input from A Voice for Peace the group when practical, avoiding an overly autocratic style. by Kevin Fenton
6. Avoid creating scenarios where select singers During the summer of 2012, I was looking for unique are perceived as being of a higher status. For repertoire to program for the University Singers spring instance, if a professional or auditioned choir tour, which culminated with a concert at the national participates, have members spread out among ACDA conference in Dallas. I reached out to former stu- the entire choir. Otherwise, one runs the risk of dent Lillis Weeks, who was living in Kenya at that time, and creating a sense of unequal status between the a member of the Nairobi Chamber Chorus to learn about “pro” and amateur singers. the choral music in Kenya. She provided several titles and suggested I attend a rehearsal with her during my visit to Nairobi, which was already planned for October. Condition 2: Common Goals Research suggests that sharing a goal has mo- tivated people to be more supportive, friendly, and cooperative with each other.8 In most cho- ral settings, this condition exists on its own. Just as teammates on a sports team work together for the common goal of athletic success, choris- ters strive for a quality performance or pleasing musical experience but with an increased feel- ing of shared success and aesthetic result not typically present in sports.9 As I observed the rehearsal, Ken Wakia, the conductor of NCC, conducted two arrangements that were celebra- Condition 3: Cooperation tions of peace—Wana Baraka in Swahili, which is the na- Cooperation bears much resemblance to tional language of Kenya, and Ukuthula in Zulu, which is a common goals, and the two are often positively language commonly spoke in South Africa. Wana Baraka correlated10 since cooperation is typically nec- began with Mark Onyango singing the melody as a solo, essary for a common goal to be accomplished. and I witnessed sincerity in his singing that was transforma- In a choral setting, singers cooperate in the tional. That sincerity was then expanded as the other voices eff ort to achieve goals concerning vowel uni- of the choir entered with quiet strength, which transitioned formity, diction, dynamics, onset, cutoff s, tim- to a bold sincerity that seemed to penetrate the soul. Then bre, rhythm, etc. In an intergroup choral set- Maureen Obadha performed the solo in Ukuthula with the ting where music representative of one of the choir standing scattered around her in no particular order. groups is being performed, that group can take As she sang, I was stuck by her humility as she became a a turn leading and demonstrating nuances spe- vessel for the music and text. cifi c to music more familiar to them. In 2014, I took twenty members of the Festival Singers Singing in harmony also requires coopera- of Florida to Kenya to perform with the Nairobi Cham- tion. For instance, some members of each sec- ber Chorus. The two choirs would combine to perform tion often catch on to a part sooner, with weak- Josh Rist’s Invictus as a representative piece from America er singers relying on stronger ones to learn their and Wana Baraka, and Ukuthula from Africa. The rehearsal parts. In a study of an Icelandic men’s choir, brought the members of the two choirs together for the fi rst Faulkner and Davidson even suggested that time. We rehearsed Invictus and Wana Baraka and shared tea
34 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 MODELING CONDUCTORS WITHOUT BORDERS
and biscuits during a break. Then Ken provided a and live for peace?” In the concerts that followed, Ken bit of instruction before we sang Ukuthula: “When introduced Ukuthula, challenging audience members to we sing, we stand around the audience and the stage talk and sing about peace, especially on the Interna- facing in the direction of Maureen. We lift our hands tional Day of Peace. The tour concluded with com- to demonstrate an openness to peace entering into bined concerts of the Nairobi Chamber Chorus and the space, and we follow Maureen’s dynamics.” And the Festival Singers of Florida in Winter Haven and with that, Maureen began singing. During the next Orlando, Florida. In Orlando, over 100 students from six minutes, I found myself experiencing emotions I the Orange County School District joined the two had not known; we were surrounded by peace, fulfi ll- choirs to perform Ukuthula, and we began planning ment, well-being, and it was overwhelming and tears what would be known as AVoice4Peace. fl owed.
On September 21, 2016, choirs from all over the In 2015, Ken brought members of Nairobi world joined the Nairobi Chamber Chorus in a stream Chamber Chorus to the United States to perform of their performance from Kenya’s National Theater, throughout the southeast. At every concert, mem- and over 150 choirs submitted video recordings of bers of NCC combined with host choirs to perform their performance of Ukuthula. Conductors, singers, Ukuthula. As Ken introduced the arrangement at the teachers, and students spent the day talking and sing- University of Mississippi, he talked about the Unit- ing about peace, and the vision of many individuals, ed Nations’ sponsored International Day of Peace. young and old, was on a picture of a peaceful world. “Wouldn’t it be wonderful if choirs all around the Unity and community are as central to the choral ex- world would sing Ukuthula on that day and talk about perience as peace and harmony, and it is clear that the choral conducting profession can provide the world a compelling display and profound understanding of a peaceful mind-set.
To learn more about A Voice for Peace, visit avoice4peace.org, where you can watch the fi lm trail- er, sign up to receive updates, and learn more about submitting your own recording of the South African peace hymn, Ukuthula.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 35 INTERGROUP CONTACT THEORY AND CHOIR
singing in harmony is representative of ideal human in- choral ensembles provide fertile ground for friendships teraction: to spring forth.13 Some bonding may occur through the act of singing without additional interaction, and those When singing in harmony in a large collective, organizing intergroup choral experiences can also ar- singers appear to make sense of themselves and range meals, dances, sports, retreats, and other get-to- their place in the world by recognizing their own know-you activities that can inspire friendships to form voices and the diff erent voices of those around without coercion. them and by collaborating to fi nd an ideal vocal and social state.11 Repertoire in the Intergroup Choir The limited research exploring the relationship be- Condition 4: Institutional Support tween social cohesion and repertoire suggests that The premise of this condition involves institutional au- cyclically structured music is more eff ective at inspir- thorities approving the intergroup activity. For instance, ing a sense of togetherness.14 Sacred music scholar C. intergroup activity that is not legal or endorsed by infl u- Michael Hawn defi nes cyclic forms as open ended in ential leaders will likely not have positive outcomes. In length, learned by ear without sheet music in hand, epi- the choral fi eld, institutional support is already implied sodic, related to movement, and community oriented. on a general level due to the popularity of choral music Sequential forms, which occur on the other end of the as a leisure activity12 and the existence of so many choral spectrum from cyclic, are usually performed over a fi xed ensembles throughout the world, most of which require time, learned by eye with sheet music in hand, linear in funding approved by institutions or governing boards. structure, and text driven.15 Consequently, if the goal If organizing an intergroup choral event, the following of the choral setting is to improve social relations be- may attain additional institutional support: tween groups, standards of the Western canon, verbose hymns, and other through-composed pieces should be 1. Ask those in positions of leadership, such as teachers, avoided. In a recent study that examined this phenom- professors, clergy, administrators, and government offi - enon in a multi-ethnic context, Haydn’s “The Heavens cials to actively approve and promote intergroup choral are Telling” and a through-composed setting of Langs- activity. ton Hughes’s very fi tting “I Dream a World” text was not perceived as socially cohesive even though participants 2. Invite those same leaders to participate in intergroup expressed a positive musical experience. Three contem- choral activity as singers. Their participation not only porary African American gospel selections with cyclic implies support but may also encourage additional sing- elements, a short repetitive song arranged by John Bell, ers to join. and the hymn “It is Well with My Soul”—which has a refrain—were all more eff ective in the study.16 3. If unable to sing, ask leaders to speak, deliver read- ings or poems, lead prayers (if a worship setting), or at the very least, sit in a prominent location where they are Intergroup Choral Models noticed. Unless a given choir already has substantial diversity, creative measures have to be taken in order to get people from diff erent backgrounds singing together in a single Condition 5: Friendship Potential ensemble. The following models can be implemented, Friendship potential refers to an intergroup contact often without a drastic interruption to a choir’s existing setting’s capacity to foster new, non-superfi cial, cross- cycle of rehearsals and performances, providing oppor- group relationships. Attempting to manipulate friend- tunities for meaningful interactions that would not oth- ships into existence can prove challenging. Fortunately, erwise take place.
36 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 MODELING CONDUCTORS WITHOUT BORDERS
One-day Choral Festival single choir that learns all the music (as opposed to mul- Combining choirs for a concert or worship is not new. tiple choirs coming together to sing for each other). A School districts will sometimes feature all their choirs, possible schedule for this model includes a three-hour elementary through high school, in a single event, of- rehearsal, a meal together, and a performance or wor- ten with a concluding selection with participation from ship event open to the public in the evening. There are all groups. Religious organizations sometimes hold ecu- multiple advantages of this model, including accessibil- menical or inter-faith music events that draw choirs to- ity due to its relatively short time commitment and the gether from a given community. Building on these exist- sense of excitement and participant cooperation neces- ing models, a one-day choral festival allows organizers sary to put together a full program in a short amount of to recruit singers from diverse backgrounds and form a time. Selecting music that either a large portion of the
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 37 INTERGROUP CONTACT THEORY AND CHOIR
singers already know or that is easy to learn is crucial to Communities that Sing at Virginia Theological Seminary, a this model’s success. Ideally, a sub-set of the festival choir symposium that taught song leading fundamentals to a will have learned all the repertoire in advance of the fes- class of twelve students with the hope this manner of tival day and can serve as the backbone of the ensemble singing leadership would gain wider use. This type of to ensure that the event will succeed musically. choral setting might be especially benefi cial to those seeking singing to strengthen social bonds. Community sings potentially draw wider participation due to their Community Sings accessibility and non-threatening environment. Reper- Community sings seek to break down the wall be- toire is typically cyclic in structure, and when sheet music tween audience and performers because there is no au- is not being used, greater social interaction while singing dience—everyone sings!17 Song leaders empower people can occur. regardless of ability and training to participate in singing for pure enjoyment. The accessible music used is often learned without instrumental accompaniment or sheet Touring Ensembles music. Some worship communities are even adopting One of the most practical ways to encounter people songleading as an alternative to traditional leadership from varied backgrounds is to travel to diff erent parts from a keyboard instrument, and overall, this style of of the country and world, a practice already common leading is gaining momentum. For instance, in October among many choral ensembles. Of course, tours provide 2015 and 2016, master song leaders Alice Parker, Ysaye opportunities for choirs to sing for diverse audiences. Barnwell, and Marlyn Haskell led Raising the Song: Creating But given the ubiquity of singing throughout the world,
CHOR EACH
Practical Teaching Ideas for Today’s Music Educator
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38 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 MODELING CONDUCTORS WITHOUT BORDERS
tours might also allow for collaboration with the singers Group Singing and Performance for Marginalized and from regions visited. Shared concerts that include a set Middle-Class Singers,” Psychology of Music 33, no. 3 sung by all singers can give new insight to a diff erent mu- (2005): 269-303; Mary A. Kennedy, “‘It’s Cool Because sical culture, provide programming variety, and increase We Like to Sing’: Junior High School Boys’ Experience audience size and engagement. Furthermore, tours to lo- of Choral Music as an Elective,” Research Studies in Music cations such as Latin America, South America, Eastern Education 18, no. 1 (2002): 26-36; Ryan Luhrs, “Singing Europe, and Africa can expose choristers to regions of for Social Harmony: Choir Member Perceptions During the world where singing has a heightened social function Intergroup Contact” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, compared to the majority of Western Europe and the 2015); Laya Silber, “Bars Behind Bars: The Impact of United States. a Women’s Prison Choir on Social Harmony,” Music Education Research 7, no. 2 (2005): 251-271. 7 Robert Faulkner and Jane W Davidson, “Men in Chorus: Conclusion Collaboration and Competition in Homo-social Vocal Singing together can be a tremendously powerful force Behaviour,” Psychology of Music 34, no. 2 (2006): 219-237. that fosters a sense unity among people of diff erent back- 8 David W. Johnson and Roger T. Johnson, “Mainstreaming grounds. Overall, the power of music remains a mystery. Hearing-Impaired Students: The Eff ect of Eff ort in Yet its ability to improve relations between people might Communicating on Cooperation and Interpersonal result from its capacity to foster the conditions of equal Attraction,” The Journal of Psychology 119, no. 1 (1985): status, cooperation, common goals, institutional support, 31-44. and friendship potential. Bringing diverse groups togeth- 9 Elizabeth Cassidy Parker, “The Process of Social Identity er around song can’t solve all the world’s social problems Development in High School Choirs: A Grounded and divisions, but it may provide an ideal setting for the Theory,” Journal of Research in Music Education 62, no. 1 elusive goal of social harmony to exist. (2014): 18-32. 10 Hodson and Hewstone, Advances in Intergroup Contact, 6. 11 Faulkner and Davidson, 235. NOTES 12 Chorus America, The Chorus Impact Study: How Children, Adults, and Communities Benefi t from Choruses (Washington, D.C.: 1 Ellen Dissanayake, Communicative Musicality: Exploring the Author, 2009). Basis of Human Companionship, ed. Stephen Malloch and 13 Cecil Adderley, Mary Kennedy, and William Berz, “‘A Colwyn Trevarthen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Home Away from Home’: The World of the High School 2009): 17-29. Music Classroom,” Journal of Research in Music Education 2 Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: 51, no. 3 (2003): 190-205; Jo-Anne van der Vat-Chromy, Addison-Wesley, 1954). Thomas F. Pettigrew and Linda “Safety, Identity, Transmission and Enculteration: An R. Tropp, “A Meta-analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Investigation of Four Formative Aspects of Choral Theory,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90, no. Cultures on Music Majors in Undergraduate Auditioned 5 (2006): 751-783. and Non-Auditioned Collegiate Choirs” (Ph.D. diss., 3 Ibid. Florida State University, 2010). 4 Gordon Hodson and Miles Hewstone, Advances in Intergroup 14 Luhrs, “Singing for Social Harmony.” Contact (London: Psychology Press, 2013): 5. 15 C. Michael Hawn, One Bread, One Body: Exploring Cultural 5 Arild Bergh, “I’d Like to Teach the Whole World to Sing” Diversity in Worship (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefi eld, (Ph.D. diss., University of Exeter, 2010); and June Boyce- 2003): 126-139. Tillman, “The Transformative Qualities of a Liminal 16 Luhrs, “Singing for Social Harmony.” Space Created by Musicking,” Philosophy of Music Education 17 Kelsey Menehan, “Community Sings: How to Get the Review 17, no. 2 (2009): 184-202. Whole Room Singing,” https://www.chorusamerica.org/ 6 See: Betty A. Bailey and Jane W. Davidson, “Eff ects of singers/community-sings.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 39 Who and What is the AAmericanmerican ChoralChoral DirectorsDirectors Association?Association?
We are a nonprofi t organization whose goal is to promote excellence in choral music.
We are a group of choral professionals whose joy comes from the performing, composing, publishing, researching, and teaching the fi ne art of music.
From the smallest towns to the largest cities across America, we strive to elevate the role of choral music and the way it touches our society.
We inspire and lead over a million singers nationwide, combining individual voices into an instrument of incomparable beauty.
We are the American Choral Directors Association. Join us.
Membership information is available on our website at www.acda.orgrg>.
OOnene VVoice,oice, OOnene LLife:ife: MManyany CChangeshanges throughoutthroughout a LLifetimeifetime ooff SSongong bbyy KKarenaren BrunssenBrunssen
This article is based on an earlier version Every singer, at every age, has vo- lives. This article discusses some of published in VOICEPrints, the scholarly cal limits and vocal potential. Voice my favorite evolving voice facts, in- journal of the New York Singing Teachers’ professionals should understand and cluding the increase in the number Association. work within, not below and not be- of alveoli from birth to adulthood; yond, limits while at the same time the change in the laryngeal carti- working toward vocal potential. lages that are fi rst spongy, then more The singing voice changes con- Choral directors can accommodate fi rm, and later undergo some calci- stantly, refl ecting the living musical all singers better when they know the fi cation; the changes in hyaluronic instrument that it is. reasons people sing as they do at dif- acid (HA) levels, how little pharynge- Throughout life, muscular, skel- ferent ages. Then they can promote al space there is in a baby compared etal, reproductive, circulatory, diges- contiguous and realistic approaches to an adult, how the shape of the air tive, urinary, endocrine, lymphatic, and expectations through the course tube changes, and the evolving of respiratory, and nervous systems of a lifetime. Not only can choral the vocal cords from a single-celled change. Variable and non-uniform directors espouse the well-laid-out composition to multiple and varied growth and development with re- principles of good vocal produc- layers of tissue including a muscle. spect to respiration, vibration, and tion, excellent musicianship, and resonance have a profound infl uence a vast array of repertoire, but they on vocal production, vocal expecta- can aspire to provide fact-based, Respiration tion, and vocal qualities in singers age-appropriate sequencing of vocal The ribs of newborns are carti- from infancy to old age. expectations for singers from birth lage with a compliant softer compo- At every age, vocal function is through old age. sition. They fl are outward / \ and dependent on how the body is pro- This article will present a look at off er little resistance to breath. The gressively and constantly changing. various age-related mutations of the muscles of support are not devel- A deeper understanding of chrono- evolving voice in relationship to res- oped, and the tissue of the lungs is logical development can better in- piration, vibration, and resonance. very spongy with little elastic recoil. form voice professionals in the pur- With even a limited amount of in- Babies take 25-50 breaths per min- suit of optimal singing. A “lifetime formation, choral directors can be ute (bpm).1 They have approximate- perspective” of each singer has po- more aware of interesting, logical, ly 20 million alveoli. The length of tential to enhance the development and fact-based correlations between the trachea is 2 cm at birth and will of productive goals with respect for age, vocal function, and vocal expec- grow to 12 cm by adulthood.2 Os- the past, the present, and the future. tations at every stage of their singers’ sifi cation of the ribs and intercostal
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 43 OOnene VVoice,oice, OOnene LLife:ife: MManyany CChangeshanges throughout a Lifetime of Song
muscle tone increase with age. Alve- voce, and articulation—at a suitable of breathing lose strength, singers oli increase to 300 million by the age volume and range. By the time they should be careful not to substitute of eight. By ten, a child’s ribs will be are young adults with 400-700 mil- extrinsic muscle tension around the oriented downward \ /. The tissues lion alveoli, fully ossifi ed and devel- larynx in an eff ort to achieve vocal of the lungs change constantly as we oped ribs, and strong intercostal and clarity. age. After six years of age, the lung oblique muscles, their earlier train- recoil increases due to more elas- ing will be a great resource, com- tin fi bers.3 The breath rate is 15-30 plemented with effi cient subglottal Vibration bpm.4 pressure and optimally vibrated vo- The single purpose of the fetal Children can sing at the level of cal cords that can sustain signifi cant- larynx is to facilitate fetal breathing. an untrained adult. Kevin D. Skel- ly longer phrases. At birth, the fetal larynx must sud- ton says, “The vocal and musical Approaching the age of seventy, denly assume three purposes: con- skills children are capable of achiev- there is dilation of alveoli and di- trol respiration, protect the lungs, ing and employing is often vastly minished compliancy of the chest and produce the fi rst birth cry.8 underestimated.”5 Children natu- wall as the bones become more cal- Newborns communicate with cries, rally generate fi fty to one hundred cifi ed. Respiratory muscle strength whose pitch, loudness, and duration percent more lung pressure than decreases. The tissue of the lungs exceed that of adults. High amounts adults for comparable loudness and is stiff er with a slower recoil, and of hyaluronic acid (HA) in the super- softness. They work harder to use there is a greater reserved volume fi cial portion of the vocal folds off er their voices and need more frequent of breath with less access to the total shock-absorbing protection to the breaths. By the age of ten, lung pres- volume of air in the lungs.7 Typical developing vocal cords.9 At birth the sure is more comparable to that of results are shorter vocal phrases, a arytenoids are proportionately larger adults.6 Trained children singers can slight to great loss of vocal intensity, within the laryngeal structure than learn to do all fi ve vocal textures— and a slight to signifi cant bowing they will be later. The newborn’s vo- legato, staccato, coloratura, messa di of the vocal cords. As the muscles cal cords have a single cellular struc- ture that within just a few months becomes a bilaminar structure and a tri-layered structure by the age of seven. The superfi cial layer of the lamina propria is proportionately much bigger at birth and decreases until it reaches its adult proportion by the age of seven.10 The cartilage of the laryngeal structure is spongier and the epiglot- tis is fl oppy. The front of the thyroid cartilage is rounded and tilted slight- ly.11 Gradual ossifi cation of cartilag- es, including the laryngeal cartilages, begins the day we are born and con- tinues throughout our lives.12 First vocalization includes cooing, ooing, Get Your FREE “Life Should Be All Things Musical” Poster! crying, and suckling noises. The Email: [email protected] Search Our Music Directory! Visit: www.allthingsmusical.com larynx grows quickly up to the age of three and then more slowly until
44 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 One Voice, One Life: Many Changes throughoutthroughout a LifetimeLifetime ofof SongSong
puberty.13 It is not until post-puberty rate.19 Men experience a one to two at the smallest width below the vocal that all the layers of the vocal cords percent annual reduction in testos- cords by the cricoid. It will become are clearly delineated as layers of ep- terone from the age of forty to sixty cylindrical and signifi cantly wider at ithelium, three layers of the lamina with fi fty percent less testosterone by the cricoid as an adult.21 The pro- propria: superfi cial, middle elastin, the time they reach seventy. This pri- portions of a child’s body change so and the TA (thyroarytenoid) muscle. marily aff ects muscle strength. the head becomes about one sixth of During puberty the emergence the body. Gradually the neck length- of sex hormones activates incred- ens and the position of the larynx ible growth. For females, the men- Resonance lowers. Baby teeth begin to fall out strual cycle begins. The infl uence When a baby is born, the head ap- and are replaced by adult teeth. of estrogen and progesterone on the pears to be one quarter of the body. The width of the resonator is 80% vocal folds is similar to the eff ect on The neck is short, shoulders narrow, developed, whereas the length of the ovaries.14 Airiness in pubescent and the larynx is positioned near the the pharynx is 20-40% developed. girls is referred to as the “mutational second vertebrae. The tongue is pro- During puberty, the neck lengthens chink.” This is remediated naturally portionately larger than it will be in signifi cantly, and the larynx drops to as the arytenoids and laryngeal car- adult life, and the pharynx is propor- near the fourth, fi fth, or sixth verte- tilages grow to their adult propor- tionately smaller.20 The shape of the brae. The length of the vocal tract tions.15 Males secrete androgens that air tube is cone shaped with a bend is done growing in girls around age increase oxygenation and muscle performance.16 Their larynx grows, and the tilt changes as the formally curved front of the thyroid becomes Conductors Workshop more pointed so the Adams apple is with Rod Eichenberger 17 visible. The infl uence of sex hor- Master Teacher, Conductor, Innovator mones results in the development of Choral Professor Emeritus, Florida State University a third layer of epithelium in both boys and girls. It is not until the late A five-day professional development teens, and even more so beyond the Workshop Locations workshop for choral conductors at all levels age of twenty, that the arytenoids, Alexandria, Virginia cricoid, and thyroid show signs of July 10-14, 2017 calcifi cation.18 This is the beginning of three to four decades of hormon- Seaside, Oregon al stability with the adult physical July 24-28, 2017 proportions and strength necessary for rigorous professional and ama- teur singing. Women experience menopause For more information, contact: between the ages of forty-seven to George Fox University’s fi fty-fi ve when progesterone is no Department of Music longer produced. Just as the epi- 503-554-2620 thelium of the cervix atrophies, so [email protected] does that of the vocal cord. It also triggers a progressive slowing in the Information is also available at choralconductorsworkshop.com nerve conduction of the vagus nerve, 3343 12.16 which aff ects coloratura and vibrato
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 45 OOnene VVoice,oice, OOnene LLife:ife: MManyany CChangeshanges seventeen. For boys it continues to ryngeal region and position of the Proportions, tissue, muscle, carti- grow past the age of nineteen.22 The jaw. Researchers agree that changes lage, the number of bones in the cavities in the sinuses and nose also in the oral and pharyngeal regions body, and hormones are signifi cantly grow.23 of the vocal tract merit further study diff erent from those of adults. The Singing voices change dramati- through two and three-dimensional evolving of their voices based on the cally during this time as tissues and measurements along with acoustic developments of their bodies is pro- skeletal proportions of the resona- considerations.24 found. tors reach their adult size. For the fi rst time, singers are able to antici- • Children can learn to sing all the pate resonant possibilities that may Expectations, Limitations, textures of the voice with a clear blossom over upcoming decades. A and Realities in vocal quality in the treble staff with picture of the skull of an adult com- Singing at Every Age their agile smaller larynx and pha- pared to that of an older adult shows Is there an optimal way to train ryngeal space. that elderly bones lose mass, aff ect- singing from birth through old age? ing the shape of the oral and pha- In reference to the changing male • The clear sounds of a four-year-old voice, John Cooksey said, “The core child singing nursery rhymes, mak- of the voice should be followed, be ing up songs, experimenting with respected.”25 This is an excellent new sounds and vocal textures while guiding principle throughout a sing- dancing around a room is entertain- er’s life. In order to intelligently navi- ing evidence of the emerging inter- gate the signifi cant and normal evo- play between the evolving mind and lution of the singing voice from age body. to age, well-established principles of good singing can be synthesized • It is common for adolescent fe- with knowledge about changes in the males to have breathiness in their body that account for variables in sound. This is due to the incomplete vocal production, expectations, re- closure of the vocal folds and called alities, and normal limitations. Here the mutational chink. Normally it is are some examples: remediated naturally as the aryte- noids and vocal folds mature to their • The high-pitched intense crying of adult proportions. It is advisable that a baby is not harmful to the vocal these singers avoid nasality and over- cords, thanks to a very short neck, use of the chest voice, which could soft cartilage, and high levels of hy- result in negative vocal eff ects once aluronic acid in the vocal cords. In- they reach maturity. fants cannot sustain each cry for very long but can repetitively cry for up to • Adolescent newly changed voic- two hours, after which it is likely that es are unstable as they experience the less-developed support muscles the hormonal surges, non-uniform will tire. The act of making noises growth, and development of the stimulates muscles and tissue devel- thyroarytenoid muscle. Their necks opment within the larynx and the and torsos grow signifi cantly in size support muscles. and strength over the course of the next few years. The infl uence of • Babies are not miniature adults. estrogen and progesterone in ado-
46 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 One Voice, One Life: Many Changes
lescent females are refl ected in new higher and lower frequencies. The infl uence of androgens in adolescent males may cause a sudden drop of an octave in their vocal range as the larynx and vocal cords grow.
• College-age singers can begin to follow the lead of their voice as they experience new parts of their regis- tration, the internal feedback ring in the voice, and optimal coordination of respiration, vibration, and reso- nance. This is a time of new vocal possibilities and accumulating ex- periences in repertoire, range, style, resonance, language, music theory, and history. Pacing and sequencing can result in a dependable arsenal of fundamental knowledge that will be useful throughout their adult years.
• The optimal time for professional classical singing is during the adult years of hormonal stability. The presence of HA has lowered but is at a suffi cient level. The gradual cal- cifi cation of the laryngeal cartilages results in more stability. The muscles of support are strong. The ribs have just the right level of compliancy for good expansion while still off er- ing resistance necessary for suffi cient subglottal pressure. The resonator benefi ts as the length and circumfer- ence of the neck is fully developed, and the larynx has settled at C6 or 7. The strong muscles of support work with 400-700 million alveoli and ful- ly developed lung tissues. The com- bined factors off er a balanced buoy- ancy in vocal production, which is capable and trainable for enormous beauty and musical facility.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 47 OOnene VVoice,oice, OOnene LLife:ife: MManyany CChangeshanges throughout a Lifetime of Song
• As mature adults age, bones loose • Life expectancy has increased. that would indicate normal vocal density. Facial features change with Those singers blessed with long lives growth and progress? Do those ex- this as the jaw tends to jut forward. enjoy singing if they understand and pectations change? When is it age? This changes the size and shape of adjust to realistic, normal expecta- When is it technique? When is it the resonators and therefore the tions and limitations. Sue Ellen Lin- repertoire choices? When is it cho- expectations for resonance. Senior ville sums this up perfectly: “The bi- ral tone preferences? When is it too citizens may not be expected to have ology of aging is nondiscriminatory soon? When is it too late? Can ex- the same look for a relaxed, dropped in terms of occupation.”26 pectations better match reality every jaw as younger adults. step of the way as singers move from Choral directors have instinctive- being the younger generation, to be- • Due to stiff ening of the tissues of ly taken age into consideration for ing the adult generation, to being the the lung, slower recoil of the lungs, centuries. Now it is possible to know senior generation? and an increase in the amount of re- more of the facts behind “best prac- Synthesizing knowledge with the served air, seniors may take longer to tices” throughout a lifetime. Which overall art of singing is an ongoing get a fully refreshed breath and may fundamentals and techniques apply challenge for twenty-fi rst-century need to take more breaths. through the span of an entire life? vocal pedagogues and experts. As we What are the best vocal expectations work toward optimal vocal produc-
A Day at the International Children’s Choir Festival Since 1997 — Canterbury Cathedral and London — [email protected] July 22 - 29, 2017 ~ July 21 - 28, 2018 ~ July 20 - 27, 2019
Hong Kong Children’s Choir, CHINA
Canterbury FesƟval Evensong - Day 3 Three Morning Rehearsals w/Leck & Flood
Amabile Children’s Choir, CANADA
Canterbury Evening Concert - Day 4 Two Evening Rehearsals w/Leck & Flood Each Choir Enjoys a Private Workshop with Both Henry Leck and David Flood!
Indianapolis Children’s Choir, USA
Southwark, London, Final Concert - Day 6 Dress Rehearsal for Final Concert Australian Children’s Choir, AUSTRALIA Allery Flood Leck Searles Sing Three Major Concerts Under the Six Rehearsals Under the DirecƟon Each Choir Sings a Solo Concert Your Fes Ɵval Team! 63 Years Experience DirecƟon of Henry Leck and David Flood of Henry Leck and David Flood in Canterbury Cathedral With This Incredible FesƟval! i
48 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 One Voice, One Life: Many Changes throughoutthroughout a LifetimeLifetime ofof SongSong
tion for each person in our choirs et al., 1421-1435. (Philadelphia, Voice. and the fi nest choral sounds we can Pennsylvania: Saunders, 2003). 18 P. A. Hudgins, et al., “The Normal achieve, this layer of perception and 7 J.P. Janssen, J.C. Pacha, and L.P. Pedatric Larynx on CT and MR,” knowledge will enhance and inform Nicod, “Physiological Changes in American Journal of Neuroradiology our work from a fact-based life-span Respiratory Function Associated (1997): 239-245. perspective. The evolving voice is with Ageing,” European Respiratory 19 Jean Abitbol, n.d. “Normal Volice profound at every age! Journal (Munksgaard International Maturation: Hormones and Age.” Publishers) 13, no. 1 (1999): 197- 20 Houri K. Vorperian, et al., “Anatomic Karen Brunssen is associate pro- 205. development of the oral and fessor of voice at the Bienen School 8 Glenn Isaacson, “Development pharyngeal portions of the vocal of Music at Northwestern University Anatomy and Physiology of the tract: An Imaging study,” The and president-elect for the National Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs, Journal of the Acoustical Society Association of Teachers of Singing. and Esophagus.” of America. (2009). Accessed [email protected] 9 John M Schweinfurth and Susan L. May 2014. http://dx.doi. Thibeault, “Does Hyaluronic Acid org/10.1121/1.3075589. Distribution in the Larynx Relate 21 Eric L. Pedicini, Kennetj D. Candida, NOTES to the Newborn’s Capacity for and Ned E. Nasr, “Essential Crying.” Laryngoscope (John Wiley & Anatomy of the Airway, Chapter 1 emtresource.com. 2014. Normal Vital Sons, Inc) 118, no. 9 (2008): 1692- 1,” in Emergency Medical Procedures Signs. April 27. Accessed November 1699. (McGraw Hill Publishers, 2004). 29, 2015. http://www.emtresource. 10Christopher J. Hartick, “Development 22 Houri K. Vorperian, et al., “Anatomic com/resources/guides/normal- of the Human True Vocal development of the oral and vital-signs/. Fold: Depth of Cell Layers and pharyngeal portions of the vocal 2 Glenn Isaacson, “Development Quantifying Cell Types within the tract: An Imaging study.” Anatomy and Physiology of Lamna Propria.” Annals of Otology, 23 Stephen Dowshen, Kids Health (2007 the Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Rhinology, and Laryngology 115, no. March). Accessed August 2009. Lungs, and Esophagus.” Chap. 10 (2006): 784-788. http://www.kidshealth.org/ 74 in Pediatric Otolaryngology, by 11 Glenn Isaacson, “Development parent/general/body/changing_ Sylvan E. Stool, et al., 1361-1378. Anatomy and …” voice html. (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: 12 Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: 24 Houri K. Vorperian, et al., “Anatomic Saunders, 2003). System and Art in Vocal Technique (New development of the oral and 3 Jihad Zahraa, n.d. mecriticalcare. York: Schirmer Books, 1996). pharyngeal portions of the vocal Accessed November 28, 2015. 13 Glenn Isaacson, “Development tract: An Imaging study.” http://www.mecriticalcare. Anatomy and …” 25 Ally Hook, “Changing Voice and net/downloads/lectures/ 14 Jean Abitbol, n.d. “Normal Volice Middle School Music: An PedsBasicAnatomyPhysiology.pdf. Maturation: Hormones and Age.” Interivew with John Cooksey 4 emtresource.com. In The Performer’s, by Thomas and Nancy Cox.” Choral Journal 5 Kevin D. Skelton, “The Child’s Voice, Murry Michael S. Benninger. 39 no. 1 (1998): 21-26. Accessed A Closer Look at Pedagogy and 15 William Vennard, Singing: The Novmber 28, 2015. www.jstor.org/ Science.” Journal of Singing 63, no. 5 Mechanism and the Technique (Los stable/23552446. (2007): 537-544. Angeles: Carl Fischer, 1967). 26 Sue Ellen Linville, Vocal Aging (San 6 Marshall E. Smith and Steven D. 16 Jean Abitbol, n.d. “Normal Volice Diego, CA: Singular, 2001). Gray, Voice. Vol. 2, in Pediatric Maturation: Hormones and Age.” Otolaryngology, by Sylvan E. Stool, 17 Marshall E. Smith, Steven D. Gray,
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 49 50 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A LLifeife ooff SSong:ong: CConsiderationsonsiderations fforor tthehe CCollegiate-Basedollegiate-Based TTownown aandnd GGownown CChoirhoir bbyy JJohnohn CC.. HHughesughes aandnd JJonon HurtyHurty
“There was nothing in my choir will describe a multigenera- Challenges and childhood, only work… But I tional choir that functions primarily Opportunities have forgotten one thing—the in a college or university setting and Every choir, whether high school, singing. There was such a lot includes both students and commu- church, university or professional, of singing in the villages then, nity members. comes with its own potential for suc- and this was my pleasure, too. Undergraduate students away cess and inherent challenges. Multi- Boys sang in the fi elds, and at from home for the fi rst time stand generational town and gown choirs night we all met at the Forge next to community members who are no exception. Two of the pri- and sang. The chapels were have sung in the choir for decades. mary challenges are the wide range full of singing… So I lie; I have There are benefi ts for everyone who of individual skill levels of singers had pleasure. I have had sing- participates in this kind of ensemble. and limited rehearsal time—both of ing.” Musically, community members’ which can engender performances years of experience are advanta- that are not of the highest quality. —Fred Mitchell, geous, and younger voices balance However, these challenges can also quoted in Akenfi eld: Portrait more mature sounds. Furthermore, provide special opportunities for of an English Village by students recognize that regardless conductors and ensembles. Conduc- Ronald Blythe1 of major or profession, one can and tors have the opportunity once or should make singing a lifetime ac- twice each week to unite people of Perhaps more so than any other tivity, and community members are diff erent generations and talent lev- type of choral ensemble, collegiate- energized by their interaction with els into something larger than them- based multigenerational choirs em- young adults. This article explores selves. By creating what Weston No- body “a life of song,” the theme of the musical, social, and vocational ble refers to as “the special world,” the 2017 ACDA National Confer- benefi ts of these choirs and discusses when “everything is in line—we are ence. Many colleges and universities the opportunities and challenges that momentarily whole,” conductors off er a “town and gown” choir—an are specifi c to town and gown choirs. can guide choir members beyond ensemble open to students, faculty, The authors (who conduct multigen- social and generational divisions and staff , and singers from the surround- erational choirs at their respective toward oneness with each other.2 ing community. For the purposes of institutions) off er suggestions for The unique setting of these choirs this article, the term town and gown leading these unique ensembles. provides particular opportunities.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 51 A LLifeife ofof Song:Song: ConsiderationsConsiderations forfor thethe Collegiate-Based Town and Gown Choir
Repertoire selection and using the a performance of Britten’s War Re- another weekly obligation for com- skills, knowledge, and talents of the quiem, I (Jon Hurty) collaborated munity members. Rather, they can surrounding academic community with English and Religion faculty to be an event that members look for- can help everyone be more engaged off er a Learning Community course ward to in their own way—a break in the artistic process. Examples in- exploring the musical, social, reli- from exams and papers, a night out clude asking a German major to gious, textual, and historical con- for parents of young children, or a read a German text aloud or pro- text of the piece. In addition to the social activity for retirees. Interesting vide a translation for the group or normal coursework, students did repertoire presented in an engaging inviting an English professor to lead research on various aspects of the and collaborative manner is perhaps a discussion of the text. One could work, then shared their information the fastest way to create a feeling of even develop a course that addresses with the larger ensemble through community. the context, history, and related ma- email and short presentations. Town and gown choirs can also terial of a major work that the choir Involving the singers and spark- help conductors establish a local sing- is preparing. ing discussion about the music and ing culture. The addition of recent At Augustana College, we have text not only bridges the generation college graduates and high school an interdisciplinary general educa- gap but also unifi es them as an en- students can not only improve the tion requirement called “Learning semble. Town and gown choirs can group’s musical quality but can also Communities.” In conjunction with be more than a class to students or infuse the ensemble with new energy and invigorate its sense of potential. Alumni who stay in the area after graduation may be invited to sing in the choir. They will be familiar with the conductor’s rehearsal process and can serve as ambassadors for the en- St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome semble. If a conductor is skilled at Let your music creating a fulfi lling rehearsal climate and rewarding performance experi- be heard… ences, younger members will make time in their busy schedules to par- in Italy! ticipate. When current college stu- “As a music director who dents see recent graduates participate has used Witte for the past in the ensemble, they may be more two European concert tours, likely to continue to sing after gradu- I highly recommend them. ation. The service was exceptional, Sometimes community members the staff was friendly and extremely accommodating, ask if their high school or even ju- and the overall outcome of our nior high school children can be in- experience was excellent!” volved in this kind of choir in order — Dr. Gerald J. Blanchard to provide a kind of family activity. Director of Choral Activities The question arises as to whether it Kellogg Community College Italy Tour is appropriate to have such young Witte has been arranging exceptional singers in the ensemble. This kind of concert tours through Italy and the 800 GO WITTE situation can be resolved by talking rest of the world since 1975. wittept.com to the parent and child and making sure the young singer understands
52 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A Life of Song: Considerations for the CCollegiate-Basedollegiate-Based TTownown aandnd GGownown CChoirhoir
the commitment and the parent is Individual Voice Instruction,5 Sangeetha more critical within the context of aware of their responsibility in guid- Rayapati presents fi ve primary areas the aging voice to include regular ing and helping the child learn the that should be addressed. Although and carefully planned warm-up se- music. Because this is not a common these categories of warm-ups can quences. situation, it may not be a problem to be applied to voices of any age, it is have one or two younger voices in an ensemble. Regardless, conductors should be upfront and clear about expectations. On the other end of the spec- trum, working with aging voices is a persistent issue in town and gown choirs and one that is somewhat unique to these ensembles (along with church and community choirs). While some professional, symphon- ic, and opera choruses impose age $2,500 limits, many collegiate-based choirs invite singers to participate as long as they would like. As the population CHORAL of aging adults in the United States continues to grow, conductors need to develop strategies to help older SCHOLARSHIP singers. Working with aging voices is a topic too large for this article; how- ever, many useful resources on the topic exist.3 The main thing to consider is that unlike other collegiate ensembles that may comprise music majors or other serious college-age singers, town and gown choirs are most likely Any student who has been selected to an All-State Choir made up of people who have either automatically qualifies for this choral scholarship, which is not taken voice lessons, taken them open to students of any major. Other singers may audition only occasionally, or have not stud- for scholarships up to $2,500. Auditions are held in late fall, ied voice for many years. Therefore, winter and spring. the warm-up exercises at the begin- Alert your singers to this excellent opportunity to help ning of a rehearsal are probably fund a nationally ranked education while pursuing the only vocal training these singers something they love. receive. It is imperative to make vo- calises meaningful to aging singers, who increasingly struggle with fl ex- X roanoke.edu/ChoralScholarship ibility, agility, and intonation.4 In her book Sing Into Your Sixties…and Beyond! A Manual and Anthology for Group and ©2016 Roanoke College. All rights reserved. Roanoke College and associated logos are trademarks of Roanoke College.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 53 A LLifeife ofof Song:Song: ConsiderationsConsiderations forfor thethe Collegiate-Based Town and Gown Choir
1) Improving respiration—Panting, gios, using the sound “ner” in the singers and their ability levels, so pulsations, brrr (lip trills)/sniff , sequence. I asked everyone to schedule a time staccato. so that I could hear them sing. This 5) Improving Articulation—Word was not going to be an offi cial “audi- 2) Managing vibrato—This is a par- plays, tongue twisters, hung-a, tion,” but rather an opportunity for ticularly important element in alternating vowels, tongue fl ap- me to get to know the singers and working with aging voices in ping. hear them sing a short passage. The the choir and can include cre- uproar was deafening. Although I scendo/decrescendo, visual- Another issue is whether or not did follow through with the pro- ization of purity of tone, and to audition choir members. Some- cess, many singers were upset and lightening the tone/concept. times, particular groups have a his- thought that my primary motive was tory of not auditioning singers. Al- to try to “weed out” anyone who I 3) Improving phonation—Sing/song tering that tradition can be diffi cult thought was not good enough to be and elevated speech level, lip and may change the character of in the group. Ultimately, it worked trills, slides, and glides. the ensemble. When I (Jon Hurty) out. I did not re-audition members arrived at Augustana College, the in subsequent years, most singers 4) Improving resonance—Experi- Handel Oratorio Society had been stayed in the group, and I did get a ment with nasal and breathy a completely non-auditioned choir sense of what kind of singers were sounds, hum/chew, descend- for over a hundred years. I was in- involved. However, it was a relatively ing slides, octave leaps, arpeg- terested in fi nding out more about traumatic experience and one that I would recommend approaching carefully. Of course, if the goal is actually to change the character of The ACDA CAREER CENTER the group from a non-auditioned to acda.careerwebsite.com an auditioned ensemble, then a con- ductor must move forward with that goal in mind. One must fi rst, how- ever, determine whether the group is going to move to a new practice before embarking on that kind of change. There are a number of other par- ticularly problematic issues related to non-auditioned town and gown choirs. Singers with little or no ex- perience may join and feel lost. Like- wise, people with poor reading skills or signifi cant pitch issues can disrupt the rehearsal process and adversely aff ect a performance. Conductors should prepare for these issues in two ways. First, proactive steps can Your next choral career opportunity be taken to address these issues in could be closer than you think. general. For example, email PDFs of marked scores to singers and
54 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A Life of Song: Considerations for the CCollegiate-Basedollegiate-Based TTownown aandnd GGownown CChoirhoir
ask them to transfer markings into movements or passages that require would decide to sit with their friends their scores outside of rehearsal at a smaller ensemble, such as some and especially not with someone in their own pace, or place a score on of the concertino/ripieno sections in another age group. For the high- a document camera that projects Handel’s Messiah or turba choruses in est impact on the group, it is im- the image when giving markings to Bach’s Passions. Although this needs portant to establish a seating chart help people follow along. Pass out to be handled carefully, many of the as soon as possible in the rehearsal rehearsal schedules. Be prepared to non-auditioned singers understand sequence. Depending on the goal, teach notes and rhythms and how to that they too have the opportunity many choices can be made. Options sing them. In other words, remem- to audition for the select group. include: ber that these are not professional They also understand that their singers. Inform choir members performances are enhanced by the 1) Mixing younger and older voices about learning-track providers such addition of singers who might not together in every other seat. as www.cyberbass.com or www.cho- normally choose to be in the group. Doing so mixes the sound raltracks.com and encourage them Standing arrangements are par- qualities of the voices and cre- to practice outside of rehearsal. ticularly important for choirs that ates the best overall blending Preempting issues is essential to lim- have a range of generations. Giv- of disparate voices. Second, iting frustration (on both the singers’ en their own choice, most singers and perhaps even more im- and conductor’s part) and ensuring a smooth rehearsal process and suc- cessful performance. Second, es- tablish personal relationships with members of the choir. Each singer and situation is unique and should be dealt with on a case-by-case ba- sis. Establishing positive working re- lationships with singers is crucial to having diffi cult conversations about continuing to sing in the choir. Another issue is fi nding ways to engage the best singers in a commu- nity into the town and gown choir. One method of attracting higher- level singers is to create a “core” group or a separate group of audi- tioned community singers that sings for major performances but also has All the scores, all the time. additional separate performances Snugly secured or instantly released, your music scores during the year. These singers often are at your command with the touch of one thumb. And do not want to make a commitment our snag-free closing mechanism makes every page turn only to singing major works with (and performance) jitter-free. It’s why our RingBinder is Optional imprinting non-auditioned singers but will do the pick of so many musicians around the world. See all adds your number, so if they have another outlet for our folders and accessories at MUSICFOLDER.COM today. name or logo. smaller and perhaps more refi ned Canada/USA (toll-free): 1-877-246-7253 singing experiences. It is also pos- Tel. and Fax: +1 604.733.3995 sible with many major works to fi nd
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 55 A LLifeife ofof Song:Song: ConsiderationsConsiderations forfor tthehe Collegiate-Based Town and Gown Choir
portantly, it creates a social en- ers to be close to their friends including small, private colleges, Big vironment where singers with while still providing the musi- Ten universities, and an Ivy League diff erent goals and ages inter- cal and social mixing that is so school. Each of the ensembles rep- mix socially. important to town and gown resented has its own constituency, choirs. culture, goals, and focus. They vary 2) Placing stronger voices in the back in size from around 65 singers to of the arrangement. Some Many other options are available almost 200; some require auditions strong singers gravitate to the depending on the size of the group, and others do not; some focus on front of the risers because they the acoustic of the hall, accompa- choral-orchestral works while others feel more connected with the niment, etc. However, the primary perform a wide variety of repertoire. conductor and have a better goal should be to use the standing Regardless of these diff erences, each sense of hearing the whole en- arrangement to encourage commu- of these choirs meet once or twice semble, but by putting stronger nity and a higher level of musical per week to off er people of all ages voices in the back, less confi - achievement. and walks of life a meaningful musi- dent voices will hear stronger cal experience. voices, and they will provide better leadership for the entire Case Studies ensemble. Town and gown choirs are as Conclusion unique as the institutions they serve. Because some collegiate-based 3) If the group is large enough, it In Table 1 on pages 56-58, fi ve con- multigenerational choirs have been is also possible to create small ductors of collegiate-based multi- in existence for many decades, many pods of younger and older generational choirs describe their readers might assume that this kind singers that are infl uenced by respective ensembles. Respondents of ensemble is limited to those insti- each other. This allows sing- come from a variety of institutions, tutions with longstanding traditions.
Table 1 - Town and Gown Choir Case Studies Camerata, UMS Choral Union Choral Union, Handel Oratorio Society, Yale Camerata, University of Iowa, Ann Arbor, MI Ripon College, Augustana College, Yale University, David Puderbaugh, Scott Hanoian, John C. Hughes, Jon Hurty, conductor Marguerite Brooks, conductor music director and conductor conductor conductor How many people c. 75 (63 student, 12 180 (approximately 65 (35 students, 140-200 (depending on 112 (32 students, sing in the choir? faculty/staff /commu- 60 students, 120 non- 30 non-student the project, 60 students 80 non-student nity members) students) members) and 80-140 non- members) student members) How often and Tuesdays and Thurs- Mondays 7:00-9:30 Thursdays 7:00-9:00 Mondays 7:00-9:00 Once a week. for how long does days, 7:15-9:15 p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. Chamber chorus, 55 the ensemble minutes; large chorus, rehearse? 2.5 hours. How many 4-6 5: Two Messiah perfor- 3 2: Messiah in December 2-3 per term concerts per mances in December and another oratorio in academic year and usually three the spring. does the choir other performances perform?
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Is an audition Yes Yes for new members No No Yes, and a voice check required? and every other every year for those year for continuing not in the chamber members chorus. What is the Students: 2 unex- 1 absence is allowed All participants can Community members One absence jeop- attendance cused before grade per concert rehearsal miss one rehearsal are allowed two ardizes membership policy? drops to C. Each ab- period. per semester. absences for each per- if they do not make sence thereafter: one formance sequence. up work done in that letter grade lower. rehearsal, including No absences allowed markings, on their within 10 days of own. university session of a concert. What repertoire, Renaissance–present. Major works for chorus Our concerts consist Messiah in December. We perform music of if any, do you At least one concert and orchestra of a variety of pieces; Major works for chorus all periods, including focus on? per year focuses on however, the choir and orchestra in the a focus for a number choral/orchestral often does a ten- to spring. of seasons on the repertory. twenty-minute piece J.S. Bach Christmas as a centerpiece of the Oratorio. We also have concert. a special commitment to music of the 20th and 21st centuries. How often does At least once per year, Nearly always with an Choral Union collabo- December Messiah with Usually once a year. If this ensemble Camerata joins the orchestra. rates with the college contracted professional we need to, we hire collaborate with other UI choirs in a orchestra approxi- orchestra. Spring is ap- instruments. other ensembles? mass choir/orchestral mately every other proximately every other concert. school year. In the year with the college past, the ensemble symphony orchestra has performed in and alternate years conjunction with with the local regional the Green Bay Civic professional orchestra. Symphony. Are there fees Concert attire and the Scores and concert Students do not pay No No associated with scores for the major attire. Students may anything. Non- participating in work concert. also take Choral Union student members are the ensemble? as a class and pay the not required to pay appropriate fee to anything either, but a receive credit. $20/semester dona- tion is recommended to off set the cost of music.
Do you provide No No. Once in a while No No On an ad hoc basis. any music literacy we provide optional training? enrichment courses.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 57 A LLifeife ofof Song:Song: ConsiderationsConsiderations forfor thethe Collegiate-Based Town and Gown Choir
Table 1 continued
This page contains the remaining questions from the case studies of town and gown choirs. Some of the answers were too long to fi t within the original table structure on pages 56 and 57.
How do you recruit and engage that we don’t mind having kids in the re- halftime show conducted by Alan Gilbert. younger community members? hearsal room. Choral Union, Ripon College In 2015, Camerata, University of Iowa We do What is a recent accomplishment with Choral Union performed a themed con- not have a satisfactory way to reach out to this ensemble that you are especially cert to mark the 150th anniversary of the the community because there is no budget proud of? end of the Civil War. The highlight of this for ads, posters, etc. Community members program was Jeff rey Van’sA Procession (not affi liated with UI) tend to be people Camerata, University of Iowa In fall Winding around Me with the incomparable who actively sought out the choral pro- 2014, I was able to have Camerata appear Fareed Haque playing guitar. The college’s gram, or we have people connected to UI on a high school conference honor choir Symphonic Wind Ensemble also performed employees/students/family members who festival I was guest conducting in central music inspired by the Civil War, and a music received our on-campus communications. Iowa. It was great to see the choir, which class curated an exhibit in the concert hall’s is primarily non-music majors, rise to the lobby of local artifacts from the period. Our UMS Choral Union Summer Sings, news- occasion and represent UI and the School collaborative and crosscurricular concert paper ads, emails from the University Mu- of Music as professionally as a music ma- was well received and truly helped the sical Society, webpage, word of mouth, jor ensemble. They performed well and singers connect with the music on a deeper former students, interesting repertoire and showed the high schoolers that choral level. performance collaborations. singing is a possibility in college. In fall 2015, Camerata observed the Civ- Handel Oratorio Society One particu- Choral Union, Ripon College Making il War anniversary by singing three move- lar accomplishment does not stand out in the rehearsals fast paced and program- ments of Paul Carey’s Civil War Requiem. my mind. However, I am very proud of the ming challenging and satisfying music Through Skype, the choir interacted with willingness and positive attitude of the en- helps spark interest. Reducing the rehears- the composer; it was a joy to hear the choir semble to be involved in a wide variety of als from twice per week to once per week ask the composer probing, insightful ques- pieces, projects, and styles. has helped parents with small children be tions about the music and his inspiration in able to participate. writing it. Yale Camerata Though I am the conduc- tor of this chorus, our graduate student Handel Oratorio Society Word of mouth, UMS Choral Union We were part of the conductors serve as assistant conduc- individual contact, media, and social me- William Bolcom Songs of Innocence and of tors both in rehearsal and in concert. The dia. We also sometimes combine with my Experience recording (Naxos) that won four singers (many of whom are professional younger auditioned ensemble, which has Grammy awards in 2006. We were also part singers, teachers, conductors, and instru- in general younger members. of the Milhaud Oresteian Trilogy recording mentalists) are proud of the fact that they (Naxos) that was nominated for a Grammy contribute to the education of these future Yale Camerata Word of mouth, social me- in the Best Opera Recording category in colleagues. dia, working with local arts magnet school. 2015. We also sang with the New York It helps to continually remind participants Philharmonic Brass during a UM football
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Likewise, conductors currently lead- ability to read the music. Choir Jon Hurty is Henry Veld Professor ing town and gown choirs might feel was an integral part of her of Music and director of choral ac- that they cannot make changes to community. tivities at Augustana College in Rock how these ensembles operate. Some Island, Illinois. jonhurty@augustana. caution is advised when implement- Conductors should not be afraid edu ing changes; however, organizations to try new things, regardless of and programs that do not continu- whether they want to establish a new NOTES ally innovate are missing opportuni- town and gown choir or are looking ties to grow and to better serve their for ways to lead their current organi- 1 Ronald Blythe, Akenfi eld: Portrait of an singers. zation more eff ectively and effi cient- English Village (New York: Pantheon In some cases, there can also be ly. With prudent leadership, these Books, 1969), 48. opportunities to start fresh either choirs can go beyond simply prepar- 2 Weston H. Noble, Creating the Special by restarting a previously existing ing for performances. Conductors of World, ed. Steven M. Demorest ensemble or beginning something these ensembles have an opportunity (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2005), new. Christopher Aspaas, associate to open dialogue between members 18. professor of music and director of of a heterogeneous group of indi- 3 Interested readers should consult choral activities at Texas Christian viduals. Finding common ground, Brenda Smith and Robert T. University, recently restarted TCU’s exploring diff erences, and ultimately Sataloff, Choral Pedagogy and the Choral Union. When asked about making music together forges under- Older Singer (San Diego: Plural his reasons for doing so, he writes: standing and inclusivity. Members Publishing, 2012); Sangeetha are part of something bigger than Rayapati, Sing Into Your Sixties…and Restarting the Choral Union themselves regardless of their ages, Beyond! A Manual and Anthology for at TCU is about engaging the occupations, or skill levels. People Group and Individual Voice Instruction lifelong learner and musician. need and value the unity and sense (Delaware, OH: Inside View Press, This ensemble is dedicated to of belonging choirs off er. 2012); Victoria Meredith, Sing Better support members’ continued Town and gown choirs provide a As You Age (Santa Barbara: Santa growth as vocal musicians in unique opportunity for all partici- Barbara Music Publishing, 2007); addition to providing a conduit pants, regardless of age. Although Sarah Parks, “Enriching Choral to connect them with other every ensemble has its own unique Opportunities for Aging Voices,” singers. I want their Monday structure, history, and traditions, the Choral Journal 53, no. 11(June/ night experience to support cultivation of a localized singing cul- July 2013): 32–41; Kimberly their singing in church and ture, wherein singing is valued and VanWeelden, Abby Butler, and other ensembles and impact routine, could be seen as the highest Vicki A. Lind, “Working with the our greater singing communi- call of conductors. They can strive Senior Adult Choir: Strategies ty in the Fort Worth area. We to make high-level, communal sing- and Techniques for a Lifetime of are going to make great mu- ing available so that everyone can Healthy Singing,” Choral Journal sic and have a wonderful time say, “I have had pleasure. I have had 43, no. 5 (December 2002): 61–69; doing it! Also, I want my stu- singing.” and Robert T. Sataloff , Deborah dents at TCU to see that sing- Caputo Rosen, Mary Kawkshaw, ing is a lifelong endeavor, not John C. Hughes is assistant profes- and Joseph R. Spiegel, “The Aging just something that happens sor of music and director of choral Adult Voice,” Journal of Voice 11, no. in school. My grandmother activities at Ripon College, Ripon, 2 (June 1997): 156–160. sang in her church choir until Wisconsin. [email protected] 4 VanWeelden, Butler, and Lind, 61. the age of eighty-seven when 5 Rayapati, 1–24. macular degeneration stole her
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 59 FUND FOR TOMORROW
We gratefully recognize the following Podium Society members for their generosity with gifts to ACDA’s Fund for Tomorrow: PODIUM SOCIETY
Impresario ($10,000+) Tom Merrill Peter Tiboris & Eilana Lappalainen-Tiboris
Maestro ($1,000-$4,999) Sally K. Albrecht Dr. Karyl K. Carlson Conan Castle Dr. Robert A. Harris William Hatcher & Darlene Lawrence Marilyn J. Miller Marsha Owens
The Podium Society is a very special group of people who invest in our programming for children and youth. To learn how to join the Podium Society, or make a gift to the fund, please visit www.fundfortomorrow.org.
60 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 Naxos of America is Proud to Announce its Best Choral Performance nominees for the 59th Annual GRAMMY® Awards STEINBERG: PASSION WEEK TheThe ClarionClarion ChoirChoir | StevenSteven FoxFox
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CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 61
Hallelujah, Amen! A Focus on Music in Worship
Those who grew up in the Tuskegee Institute and grew in my love for these songs. 1960s and ’70s in the deep south I went on to Florida State University to pursue a have vivid memories of the in- doctorate, where a new professor had come the previ- tegration of schools and society ous year. At thirty years old, André Thomas was al- brought on by the Civil Rights ready displaying the artistry, scholarship, and charisma Act and the Brown v. Board of that have made him such a great choral conductor. And Terre Johnson Education decision. I grew up in while he joined a well-known faculty that was steeped South Georgia in a family that in the western European choral tradition, it was a rev- was strongly pro-integration. My father was an educa- elation to us all to hear him teach about the slave-songs tion professor and spent a year in a grant-funded proj- of the deep south. I loved my encounters with Negro ect to help Georgia’s rural school districts develop plans Spirituals as they occurred with my schoolmates and in for integrating their schools successfully. My mother the college choirs to which I had belonged. But I began was a public school teacher, and as the small towns of to understand them better and desired to never stop the south developed private academies that were racial- studying them when this true scholar of the art form ly exclusive, we were among those children from white taught about them. families who were determined to attend and support As a church choir director for most of the last forty public schools. years, I have observed that among the vast canon of It is no surprise that racial integration did not hap- sacred repertoire only a small percentage of available pen in our churches. And my parents were part of a pieces brings equal parts of aesthetic beauty, musical group of church members who tried to get our Baptist challenge, and spiritual inspiration. For me, achiev- church to open its doors to anyone who wished to wor- ing the stylistic, technical, and emotional demands of ship there. The doors eventually opened, but not be- the spiritual repertoire as presented by great historical fore their group started another church among whose arrangers like Dawson, William Henry Smith, Jester founding principles were racial and gender equality. Hairston, and their contemporaries, or the added chal- As my formative church and school experiences be- lenges of the modern settings of Moses Hogan, André came opportunities to meet and befriend people from Thomas, and many others, is among the more diffi cult whom I had previously been segregated, I heard the and worthwhile opportunities I can present to my vol- music of the black church for the fi rst time. My class- unteer choir. mates sang gospel and spiritual songs in school talent I hope you will read with interest as Eileen Guen- shows, frequently with great success and audience ap- ther describes her new book in the following article, proval. This music was new and diff erent and (in the and gives the slaves from whom these miraculous musi- verbage of that time) more soulful than our church’s cal expressions emerged the opportunity to be heard worship music. in their own voices. The songs of the Negro Spiritual As a freshman music major in a small college in tradition are worthy of our use as congregational and Alabama, the fi rst piece I encountered in the choral choral music, and the stories of their originators make rehearsals that would eventually defi ne my career path the experience of singing them infi nitely more mean- was William L. Dawson’s “There Is a Balm in Gilead.” ingful. Our conductor, a soft-spoken man who had grown up in the north, was deeply committed to the native- Alabamian treasure of the Dawson spirituals. That commitment was contagious, and we all loved the ex- Terre Johnson perience of these deep wells of musical and spiritual Music Director at Vestavia Hills Baptist Church refreshment. When I attended graduate school at Au- ACDA R&R Lifelong Choirs Coordinator burn University I encountered Dr. Dawson at nearby [email protected]
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 63 Hallelujah, Amen!
Spirit uals
Music of the Soil and the Soul
Eileen Guenther
Eileen Guenther Professor of Church Music Wesley Theological Seminary [email protected] A Focus on Music in Worship
Editor’s Note: This article is based on the author’s book tion. The number of victims of slavery will never be In Their Own Words: Slave Life and the Power of Spirituals known, nor will the extent of its poisonous eff ect ever be (MorningStar Music Publishers, 2016) fully recognized. Its poison affl icted an entire social, po- litical, religious, and economic system and everyone in it: the owners (the victimizers) and the slaves (the victims). Through all the sorrow of the Sorrow Songs The balance of power was totally unequal and, in the there breathes a hope—a faith in the ultimate gross immorality of slavery, it is the story of the victim justice of things. The minor cadences of despair that captures our hearts, our sympathy, our imagination, change often to triumph and calm confi dence. and our admiration. Sometimes it is faith in life, sometimes a faith The creators of Negro Spirituals were fi ercely deter- in death, sometimes assurance of boundless jus- mined survivors of the largest forced migration in histo- tice in some fair world beyond. But whichever it ry. Many of the captives did not survive. Because of star- is, the meaning is always clear; that sometime, vation, disease, and cruelty, fi fteen to thirty percent of somewhere, men will judge men by their souls those enslaved died on the march from their African vil- and not by their skins. lages to the slave ship that would bring them to the New World. An estimated additional ten to fi fteen percent did —W. E. B. Du Bois1 not survive the Middle Passage. Between the march and the Middle Passage, millions of Africans died. “For every Slavery has been called “America’s original sin.” It 100 slaves who reached the New World, another forty ripped apart families, communities, churches, and a na- had died in Africa or during the Middle Passage.”2
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 65 Hallelujah, Amen! Spirit uals Music of the Soil and theSoul
The cruelty they endured once they had been pur- rehearsing the Spiritual Sometimes I Feel like a Motherless chased and settled on a plantation reinforced the de- Child. When I asked him why he was crying, he said he termination to survive. The enslaved peoples’ frustra- was gay, had just “come out” to his family, and had then tion and anger at the oppression, torture, and control been told that he was consequently not welcome home at of body, mind, and soul are refl ected in their Spirituals Christmas. At that moment, he truly felt like a motherless and in their autobiographical narratives (over 200 book- child. A recent study of older African Americans, led by length documents) and the 2,300 interviews conducted Jill B. Hamilton of the University of North Carolina at by the Works Progress Administration. Chapel Hill School of Nursing, showed that at the other The following article is based on a book about the end of the age spectrum, individuals not only found their history of the Negro Spiritual. The text from the book feelings mirrored in the music but that, like the creators appears in this article as it was transmitted—sometimes of the Spirituals, “song was a coping strategy for par- in dialect, sometimes not, and the entries are refl ective ticipants experiencing stressful life events who described of the importance a subject held for the slave. There are feelings of being comforted, strengthened, able to en- also excerpts from specifi c spirituals. When considering dure, uplifted, and able to fi nd peace.”6 the narratives, there are more entries relating to pun- James Lovell, a former Howard University professor ishment and freedom than any other category because and author of arguably the single most important book these subjects were foremost in the minds and memories on Spirituals, estimated their number to be in the range of the slave or former slave. While the subject of punish- of 800 to 1,000.7 In addition to the songs tracing themes ment does not always fi gure signifi cantly in the music, such as the life of Jesus and celebrating the liberation of freedom is a prevalent subject. iconic fi gures in the Hebrew Scriptures, I have identifi ed The Spirituals sing of hope—hope for eternal life and approximately forty subjects. Some of the subjects these hope for escape from the often diabolical control of the songs address are: resistance, accountability, community, owner, or from the many others who controlled a slave’s religion, death, steadfastness in the face of adversity, cre- life such as the owner’s spouse and children, overseers, ation, consolation. More Spirituals are devoted to free- slave drivers, jail-house masters, and any white person dom, the second coming, and heaven (basically the same who saw the slave doing anything arbitrarily considered songs) than to any other subject. wrong. There is beauty and genius in these “musical products of an enslaved community’s struggle with the vital hu- man issues of life and death, hope and despair, slavery Why Write about the Spirituals and Slavery? and freedom.”8 While focusing on the text helps identify Spirituals are among the most powerful music ever themes and specifi c subjects, it takes the combination of created. Spirituals are also universal; they apply to situ- melody and words to enable the full power of the Spiri- ations well outside of slavery. As psychologist and mu- tual to come through, and it takes both to deliver the sician Arthur Jones writes, Spirituals are “available to insight and healing that can transform a hurting world. all persons who are prepared to open themselves to the unsettling healing power that inhabits these marvelous songs of life.”3 They come out of slavery, indisputably Spirituals: Beginnings and Their Value “deeply meaningful, archetypically human experiences, Spirituals began with the chants and moans of the relevant not only to the specifi c circumstances of slav- fi eld, becoming more subtle and complex over time. ery but also to women and men struggling with issues Their creation paralleled the hold Christianity took on of justice, freedom, and spiritual wholeness in all times the slave population, with the real explosion coming after and places.”4 Indeed, they transcend their original cir- the Second Great Awakening began in 1800. In addition cumstances and are “sources of wisdom and guidance to using rhythms and melodies the slaves had brought in addressing current societal and psychological issues.”5 from Africa, the creators heard hymns of Isaac Watts I remember a student who started to cry as we were and John Wesley in white services and at camp meetings
66 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A Focus on Music in Worship
and appropriated the characteristics of those hymns into Want to Be a Christian; Give Me that Old Time Religion) a song the Spirituals. The Spirituals were not composed in the could be extended to last infi nitely. This was important traditional sense of that word but created, with one per- for two reasons: work went faster and was more produc- son beginning a song and others adding to it, resulting in tive if accompanied by singing, and the relief from the a song that was “owned” by the community. boredom of manual labor—picking cotton in the fi elds Society in the American South placed little or no value or grinding grain in the mill—was essential. on the enslaved individual. The Spiritual counters that The imagery of the text is sometimes unique (Keep devaluation with affi rmation: “I exist, and I matter.” The a-Inchin’ Along), and there is an eternality to the mes- eminent theologian James H. Cone explained that “the sage. The religious songs are overwhelmingly based on essence of ante-bellum black religion was the emphasis biblical texts. Throughout, there are double meanings: on the somebodiness of black slaves. The content of the Canaan might refer to heaven, a life of freedom in the black preacher’s message stressed the essential worth of North, across the Mason-Dixon Line, or in Canada, or their person.”9 One of the most important aspects of the even freedom after emancipation. Code songs might Spiritual is that it allowed the slave to feel a sense of per- seem harmless enough to owners or overseers but could sonal dignity in a situation where they were treated and convey to the slaves a hidden meaning, such as the time legally defi ned, in the words of philosopher and theo- of a secret meeting or the arrival of a guide to lead them logian Howard Thurman, as “a tool, a thing, a utility, to freedom. a commodity.”10 This affi rmation is unequivocal: “You Spirituals address a wide range of emotions, from the are created in God’s image. You are not slaves…you are wrenching cry when a family is torn apart by a sale (Some- God’s children.”11 The language of Spirituals is rich and times I Feel Like a Motherless Child) to the quiet confi dence symbolic, refl ecting the slaves’ African heritage. And, as of Steal Away, the joy of In That Great Gettin’ Up Morning, Arthur Jones has observed, Spirituals have a “seemingly or the outright defi ance of Go Down, Moses. Song was the magical ability to speak to universal issues of the human slaves’ way of expressing their feelings. They sang of the spirit.”12 present and sang of the future; they sang in the cabins and the fi elds, the mill and the kitchen—and the songs were of brokenness and sorrow, expectation and hope. Musical Styles The three widely recognized types of Spirituals are: Melodic and Rhythmic Origins • Slow, long-phrase melodies: Deep River; Nobody Knows the Melodies of the music have certain modal character- Trouble I’ve Seen istics and often use the pentatonic scale, a fi ve-note scale utilizing notes spaced the same way as black keys on a pi- • Songs with syncopated, segmented melodies: Every Time ano. The melodies also use patterns that include the fl at- I Feel the Spirit; Glory, Glory, Hallelujah ted third or seventh or the raised sixth. No matter how engaging the melody might be, it is the rhythm—the • Call-and-response (African roots, with leader and group primary characteristic of African music—that remains alternating): Woke Up This Morning; Go Down, Moses the key characteristic of the Spiritual. Countless trav- elers and scholars have cited the relationship between Spirituals are not limited to one type of song but en- Spirituals and the music heard in Africa, particularly in compass a variety of genres: sermons-in-song, jubilees, West Africa, the region so many slaves had called home, contemplative sorrow songs, work songs, shouts. Regard- although that is a topic that goes beyond the scope of less of genre, the most prevalent structure is that of call- this particular article. and-response. There are certain prevailing characteris- Creation process? Make no mistake about it: This tics. Many Spirituals are repetitive and easily extended. is folk music! “Every folk song, verse, and melody is the By changing only a word or phrase in each verse (Lord, I product of a folk community,” said Lovell.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 67 Hallelujah, Amen! Spirit uals Music of the Soil and theSoul
When [an individual] creates the song and gives by the enslaved from person to person and community it to the group, the group generally accepts, but to community, just as their ancestors in Africa had done. reserves its veto power. It may strike off portions Only after they were written down in the 1860s do those that, in singing or in the present mood, do not outside the community of origin have the means to sing fi t. It may even add a phrase or a line. Over the them. period and range of transmission of the song it may add stanzas, and has often done so.13 Context Matters Spirituals are “community-based.” “I” often means It is impossible to understand the song fully without “we.” Regardless of the pronoun, whether specifi cally knowing the life and experiences of the community personal or communal, these songs refl ect the joys or from which it came, and as choral musicians we have sorrows of the entire community while at the same time an obligation to our singers and our audiences to famil- actually building community. iarize ourselves with the context and communicate it in Regardless of what they are called—slave songs, rehearsal and perhaps even in performance. Therefore, plantation songs, jubilee songs, survival songs, religious this book includes detailed descriptions of slave quarters, songs, or sorrow songs—a single individual is never cred- clothing, food, work expectation, and punishments, in- ited with creating a Spiritual that comes out of this time cluding material directly from those enslaved. and place. These songs of the people were passed orally A community sings, in the words of John Lovell, “the
68 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A Focus on Music in Worship
entire range of its deep concern.”14 Knowing the cir- Slaveholders took vastly diff erent approaches to their cumstances that gave rise to the songs allows us insight slaves. Not every slaveholder was cruel or abusive. Most into the slaves’ lives, their fears, their longings, their joys, were. The distinctions were rooted in the temperament and their sorrows. By more fully understanding these of the owner, the owner’s economic and social status, the concerns, one gains an appreciation for the ways their locale and size of his plantation or farm, and demands concerns intersect with our own today. of the particular crop. What slaveholders did have in common were two simple facts: 1) They owned human beings and 2) their material success depended on those Slave Life human beings working for nothing. The infl uential abolitionist and former slave Freder- Let each reader put himself in the slave’s place ick Douglass called slavery “the grand aggregation of to whatever extent he can. If you are like most human horrors.”16 The horrors began with a human be- of your colleagues in slavery, you are not only ing considered property rather than a person. Many in- distressed by but indignant over your slavery. On dividuals—the owner, overseer, slave driver, slave catcher your arrival in the colonies you are sometimes and slave trader—controlled a slave’s life, food, work, exposed naked, without distinction as to sexes, worship, and punishment. Slaves had no legal rights: to brutal examination by your purchasers. You they could not own property, marry, testify against a are driven against your will to work from dark white or, in some cases, even against another slave. “One to dark. You are forced to work without any legal opinion held that a slave’s word was assessed at the clothes… same value as ‘the cry of an animal.’”17 A slave’s name or family history received scant atten- Your food and lodging are subminimal. You tion. A note might be made in the Bible of the owner hear cloth and shoes referred to as Negro cloth recording the date a slave child was born and its name, or Negro shoes because of their sleaziness. but just as often there was simply an entry noting the Your stated name is rarely used; you are gener- owner’s holding had increased by one. As non-persons, ally called upon in burlesque terms or in curse slaves took the last name of the owner. Their fi rst names words. You see your closest relatives and friends often were also issued by the owner, who might call them sold in an instant and forever. You can be sold by the month in which they were born or purchased or without being made aware of the fact until your by fanciful names from mythology or history. new master comes to pick you up. You are com- pelled to watch the murderous beatings of your “Of my father, I know even less than of my fellow slaves. One of your number was whipped mother. I do not even know his name. I have because he cried when he saw his fellow slave heard reports to the eff ect that he was a white and friend beaten to death. man who lived on one of the near-by planta- tions. Whoever he was, I never heard of his tak- You would have to shut your eyes to the legal ing the least interest in me or providing in any aspects of your situation, for how could you ever way for my rearing. But I do not fi nd especial reconcile yourself to the fact that some man or fault with him. He was simply another unfortu- woman owned you, held papers showing that nate victim of the institution which the Nation you belonged to him for life and were forced to unhappily had engrafted upon it at that time.” obey him in every respect, at the expense of be- (Booker T. Washington)18 ing beaten or sold. You are held to strictest ac- count, but no promise ever made to you is bind- Furthermore, the slave could be bought, sold, leased, ing, legally or otherwise.15 or given away at the pleasure of the master. And if the master was in debt, his debtor or a legal authority then
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 69 Hallelujah, Amen! Spirit uals Music of the Soil and theSoul
controlled the slave’s future. If a slave were injured in While the emotion of hatred does not often appear any way (unless it was at the hand of another slave), directly in the music, the narratives and the interviews there was no legal redress. “Not until 1821, in South clearly convey the slaves’ hatred of those who owned Carolina, was murder of a slave made punishable by them. In addition to their lack of freedom, food, and re- death; even then, if the deed was committed in sudden spect, they deeply resented the simple but profound fact heat and passion, the penalty was a $500 fi ne and six that they were owned. They also resented the abundance months in jail.”19 of insults and punishments they received, often on a daily basis. “It don’t seem to me that even upon the Lord’s “I knew a free man of color, who had a wife on day…and now I know that there is a hereafter, it would a plantation. The patrols went to his house in be a sin before God to shoot him, if he were here.” (John the night time—he would not let them in; they Little)23 broke in and beat him: nearly killed him. The next morning he went before the magistrates, bloody and dirty just as he was. All the redress Psychological Damage he got was, that he had no right to resist a white Linda Brent, the slave who went to such lengths in man.” (Francis Henderson)20 order to avoid becoming the mistress of her white master, felt “slavery wasn’t so much a political fact as a poison, The master’s need for control was without bounds, a disease.”24 Her narrative, the fi rst by a female former and a slave who disobeyed or even showed “attitude” slave, was also the fi rst to focus on the psychological ef- was subject to brutal treatment. One Kentucky owner fects of slavery. The psychological damage infl icted on chopped up a slave with an axe and threw each piece of the slave was as deep as it was unrecognized. “We were the body in the fi re while warning the watching slaves all afraid of master: when I saw him coming, my heart this could be their fate if they disobeyed, ran away, or would jump up into my mouth, as if I had seen a ser- even spoke about the incident.21 If a slave did something pent.” (Mrs. James Seward)25 deemed punishable, there was no legal limit to what the Another ex-slave, Sarah Jackson, remembered: master could do. Not surprisingly, the number of capi- tal crimes in state statutes for slaves was much higher “I…did not feel safe at night: not knowing whom than those applying to white persons. There are many I might belong to in the morning. It is a great accounts of slaves being charged and punished for their heaviness on a person’s mind to be a slave. It nev- actions but few for whites, even for killing. er looked right to see people taken and chained in a gang to be driven off . I never could bear to “There was a planter in the country, not far see my own color all fastened together to go on from us, whom I will call Mr. Litch. He was to such a place as down the river. I used to go in an ill-bred, uneducated man, but very wealthy. the house and shut myself up—I did not know He had six hundred slaves, many of whom he how long before it would be my own fate.”26 did not know by sight. His extensive plantation was managed by well-paid overseers. There was Enslaved for twenty-fi ve years before he escaped to a jail and a whipping post on his grounds; and Canada, William Grose said, after fi ve years of freedom, whatever cruelties were perpetrated there, they “I feel like a man, while before I felt more as though I passed without comment. He was so eff ectually were but a brute,” a recurrent theme in the narratives. screened by his great wealth that he was called He no longer feared, he said, looking a white person in to no account for his crimes, not even for mur- the eye, answering a question, oversleeping—and he re- der.” (Linda Brent)22 joiced that he had “the rights and privileges of any other man.”27
70 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A Focus on Music in Worship
Slave Labor and Punishment seers they had—and when they had a hard over- Labor was generally organized one of two ways on seer, there was no peace at all. It was whip, whip, the plantations: individual responsibilities or the “gang continually, old and young; nobody got too old system.” With the gang system, overseers and drivers to be clear of the lash. It seemed as if the whip- were the intermediate authorities. They managed the ping had to be done, whether the work was done plantation agricultural operations and saw to it that the or not.” (Henry Gowens)29 enslaved workers were as productive as possible—by whatever means necessary. The slaveholder received the While not a frequent topic in the music, no subject is benefi t of their work but did not have to care for them addressed more often than punishment in the slave nar- if they became invalids or were too old to be productive. ratives and interviews; testimonies such as these fi ll those It was not unknown for slaves to be literally worked to pages. One Spiritual that addresses punishment (along death. with other standard aspects of life such as the rations of Slaves who acquired a variety of specialized skills were food and being at the mistress’s beck and call 24/7) is able to “hire their own time” in such work. They laid this one: railroad track, cobbled shoes, baked bread, built houses, made clothes, drove carriages, and worked in foundries. They also played numerous musical instruments, and the best musicians were in great demand to provide mu- sic at plantation celebrations. Song leaders were much in demand and might receive special privileges if they were good at choosing the right songs and setting a tempo that increased productivity. Punishment was the overriding aspect of slave life. As acda.careerwebsite.com/ Frederick Douglass declared, “There is no earthly in- ducement, in the slave’s condition, to incite him to labor faithfully. The fear of punishment is the sole motive for any sort of industry, with him… [The slaveholder] natu- rally concludes the slave will be idle whenever the cause Are You an Employer for this fear is absent. Hence, all sorts of petty deceptions are practiced, to inspire this fear.”28 Looking for Job Candidates? Slaves could be punished for just about anything one can think of: inadequate work performance (either in quality or in speed), drinking, gambling, selling some- Post your job listings where thing, insolence, the look on the slave’s face, or mov- the top talent resides. ing too slowly, lying, stealing, talking inappropriately to whites, seeming too smart or too knowledgeable, or not having passes when off the plantation. And for running away. Punishment was sometimes capricious but always brutal, frequent, repeated, and inescapable. We make it easy for you to manage your recruitment eff orts and improve your ROI by “In Alabama, I know how two plantations, of specifi cally targeting choral professionals seeking to one hundred and fi fty, and one hundred and build a better career in the choral music world. thirty each, were managed [slaves] who were whipped and slashed under the kindest over-
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 71 Hallelujah, Amen! Spirit uals Music of the Soil and theSoul
No more auction block for me…Many thousand gone years, and gambled them off and came back No more peck of corn for me… home without them, leaving the parents in an- No more driver’s lash for me… guish.” (William H. Robinson)31 No more pint of salt for me… No more hundred lash for me… They were bought and sold swiftly and frequently, in No more mistress’ call for me… order to settle a debt or fulfi ll the terms of a will, to pun- ish the slave who had shown attitude or attempted es- cape, to punish the family, or simply because they were Family Separation no longer needed. The separation of family members was a constant The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 had a profound and and soul-wrenching topic of the narratives and inter- disastrous eff ect on slaves because it not only required views, and it even made its way into the music. Spiri- escaped slaves to be returned to their owners but also tuals such as Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child and required the entire citizenry to assist in this action. Fail- Mama, Is Master Gonna Sell Us Tomorrow? speak poignant- ing to do so resulted in a fi ne or imprisonment. It was ly to what many slaves considered the worst punishment strictly illegal to aid the escape of a slave. to which they could be subjected. “After my escape from slavery, I married a free Sometimes I feel like a motherless child….A long ways colored man. We were comfortably settled in from home…. the States, and were broken up by the fugitive Sometimes I feel like I’m almos’ gone…. slave law—compelled to leave our home and friends, and to go at later than middle life into a Mama, is master going to sell us tomorrow? / Yes, yes, foreign country among strangers.” (Slave name yes! / O, watch and pray unknown)32 Going to sell us in Georgia? / Yes, yes, yes! / O, watch and pray Farewell; mother, I must lebe you / Yes, yes, yes! / O, Religion: Visible and Invisible Worship watch and pray The majority of the songs that have come down to us Mother don’t grieve after me / No, no, no! / O, watch are religious. The importance of the Bible (King James, and pray 1611) as a source of texts cannot be overstated. It has Mother, I’ll meet you in heaven / Yes, my child! / O, often been said that there are suffi cient scriptural pas- watch and pray sages captured in the Spirituals that, if the Bible were lost, the enslaved would still have had enough left in “When the white folks brung ‘em over here, the music to more than provide for their spiritual needs. they snatched ‘em up and sold and traded ‘em Spirituals record the liberation stories of the Old Testa- away from one another. The chilluns was took ment in songs such as Go Down, Moses and Didn’t My Lord away from their pas and mas. Husbands and Deliver Daniel. They trace the life of Jesus from birth (Go wives was separated and sold.” (Lucy Donald)30 Tell it on the Mountain) to his triumphal entry into Jerusa- lem (Ride on, King Jesus) to his crucifi xion (Were you There?) Slaves were property, although not often treated as to his resurrection (He Rose). There are others such as valued property. As mere property, they could be a form My God is a Rock and Oh, He Raise-a Poor Lazarus that of currency. record acts in the ministry of Jesus. The question of religion was a thorny one. If the “[The slaveowner] was a drunkard and a gam- owners felt that baptism would result in freedom for a bler, for he had taken three diff erent women’s slave, or if they feared that the slave might be exposed sons, between the ages of twelve and fourteen to some of the liberation passages from the Bible, then
72 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A Focus on Music in Worship
they did not permit religious involvement. However, if heard. But always, they created their own music. How- it meant slaves might become more obedient as a result ever, they risked severe punishment if caught. of their conversion, that is, if they took to heart the ser- “Any meetings of slaves ‘under pretense of divine mons focusing on a text like “servants, obey your mas- worship’ might be dispersed and the slaves could receive ter,” then the owners permitted exposure to religion. twenty-fi ve lashes on the bare back without trial. After Slaves often attended worship with their masters, sitting Nat Turner’s uprising in 1831, the Virginia legislature in the slave gallery or standing outside listening through passed a hard bill prohibiting any Negro—ordained, li- the windows. censed, or otherwise—from holding religious or other More lenient owners might even allow their slaves to assemblies at any time. To hold or attend such a meet- hold their own worship in a church on the plantation ing called for thirty-nine lashes.”33 No wonder Spiritu- under the scrutiny of a white overseer. The services that als refl ect the need for secrecy in worship or prayer. most fed the souls of the slaves were ones they conducted The invisible church—the church where slaves wor- themselves, often in secret. In these services, frequently shipped in secret—was fueled by the music, claims held in the woods far away from the main house, they Wyatt Tee Walker, pastor and author. “Nearly all the could form their own responses to the owners’ hypoc- Spirituals are derivatives of biblical themes, but heavy risy, their own version of God’s promise of freedom, emphasis fell upon those themes where by supernatu- and their own sense of community. They incorporated ral means God delivered the faithful from impossible Bible verses along with snippets of the hymns they had circumstances.”34 As Morehouse Glee Club Music
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 73 Hallelujah, Amen! Spirit uals Music of the Soil and theSoul
Director Wendell Whalum said, the music expressed Code Songs and Resistance: “the gamut of human experience” with “the constant Singing What They Could Not Say theme…of freedom.”35 There is a long list of ways that slaves resisted their Spirituals and slave religion have been said to focus masters: slowing down work, poisoning the owner’s on the “compensatory” aspect of the enslaved person’s family, starting fi res, pretending to be pregnant, faking life; that is, thinking “we can put up with anything here disability when on the auction block, self-mutilation, on earth because we will have our reward in heaven.” suicide, mothers killing their babies so they wouldn’t At the same time, according to Benjamin Mays, a son of have to grow up as slaves. Escape was a primary form of former slaves who became president of Morehouse Col- resistance, but it was not without its challenges. Where lege, Spirituals “affi rm a complete trust in God to make should they go? Whom could they trust for information right in the next world what was done wrong in this or directions? Would they be turned in for the promised world… The Spirituals provided an emotional security reward? Where would they fi nd food? What would hap- for oppressed slaves during turbulent times. Since slaves pen to their families if they ran away? had no economic or political security in this world, they Singing, too, was a form of resistance. The slaves put their trust in Jesus whom they believed would make could sing what they dared not say. Singing Swing Low, everything all right.”36 Sweet Chariot had multiple possible interpretations. It could signal the impending arrival of a conductor on
74 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A Focus on Music in Worship
the Underground Railroad to lead them to freedom or lines, “No more shall they in bondage toil…let them an upcoming time for worship or a meeting to plan an come out with Egypt’s spoil.” One can hardly be much insurrection. It would be heard by the slaveholder as more explicit than that! an innocent song while the intended meaning was clear to those in the enslaved population. Several songs, in- cluding Sinner, Please Don’t Let This Harvest Pass and Let Singing, too, was a form of resistance. Us Break Bread Together (“Let us praise God together on “The slaves could sing what they dared our knees”), have been associated with resistance meet- not say. ings.37 Likewise, Steal Away may have signaled a secret meeting. It is the one song with which the name of a possible composer has been attached: it may have been composed by Nat Turner, but at the very least, it has The unlocking of the “biblical code” in the music is been connected with him since his uprising in 1831. In not diffi cult: Egypt, Babylon, or hell referenced the land addition, Go Down, Moses was connected with both Har- of enslaved people or specifi cally being sold “South.” riet Tubman and Denmark Vesey. Pharaoh or Satan signifi ed slave owners or, indeed, The resistance encoded in Wade in the Water has mul- anyone who mistreated the slave. The slaves referred to tiple facets, perhaps more than any other single song. themselves as the Israelites. Patrollers were Pharaoh’s First, waterways were boundaries between the freedom army. Jesus or King Jesus referred to anyone who had and enslavement (such as the Ohio River); slaves escap- the slave’s interest at heart. Obtaining freedom was ing often walked besides rivers or creeks and moved crossing over the Jordan River, which might actually to the water when dogs were heard barking in the dis- be a reference to the Ohio River. The Promised Land tance to make it harder to track their scent. It references might refer to Africa, the North, Canada, Canaan, or healing (the pool of Bethesda as recorded in the New heaven. Testament in John 5), and confi dence that God would, indeed, “trouble the waters” and ultimately the slaves would be free when they would be reunited with their Conclusion friends (in heaven, or in freedom—If you get there before I The value of knowing—in their own words—the con- do…tell all my friends I’m comin’ too they sang.) text that gave birth to the Spirituals, their meanings, Meanings were fl uid, changing according to the situ- and the potential for connecting to life in the twenty- ation at the time as interpreted by the singer and by fi rst century is incalculable to those who sing and con- the community. While Follow the Drinking Gourd is embed- duct. ded with a map for escape, others are less specifi c but nonetheless held meaning for the singers. Sometimes Entwined in the rhythm of that freedom song particular songs were avoided entirely in the presence were the perceptive musings of Olaudah Equi- of white authority. In one of many testimonies on this ano, the questions of the child Broteer, and the subject, Elijah Green explains: “One song I know I sweet probing rhymes of Phillis Wheatley. That used to sing to the slaves when Master went away, but I ode of unleashed joy celebrated the unques- wouldn’t be so fool as to let him hear me.”38 Secrecy in tioning fury of Denmark Vesey, Gabriel, Nat these matters was essential for the slaves’ survival. When Turner, and John Brown. Each joyous lyric told former slave Robert Smalls was asked whether master the story of the visionaries Richard Allen, Da- knew anything of the secret life of the slaves, he replied, vid Walker, and Jarena Lee. “No, sir; one life they show their masters and another life they don’t show.”39 The newly liberated slaves sang for themselves, Some songs were more explicit than others. For in- for their new country, and for the thousands stance, the later stanzas of Go Down, Moses contain the upon thousands of Africans ripped from the
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 75 Hallelujah, Amen! Spirit uals Music of the Soil and theSoul
clutches of home. They sang for those who sur- 18 Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery (New York: Dover rendered to the water during the passage, for Publications, Inc., 1995), 2. those who refused to eat, for those who died 19 Lovell, Black Songs, 155. chained below the decks of a creaking ship. And 20 Benjamin Drew, ed., Refugees from Slavery: Autobiographies they sang for the survivors, who lived through of Fugitive Slaves in Canada (Mineola, New York: Dover the indignities of torn families, numbing labor, Publications, Inc., 2004), 110. and the dreaded auction block. 21 Lovell, Black Songs, 155. 22 Linda Brent, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, L. Maria No song ever held so much.40 Child, ed. (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 1973), 45–46. 23 Drew, Refugees from Slavery, 139. NOTES 24 Yuval Taylor, ed., Growing Up in Slavery: Stories of Young Slaves as Told by Themselves (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1 W.E.B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (Boston: Bedford 2005), 118. Books, 1997), 192. 25 Drew, Refugees from Slavery, 29. 2 “The Middle Passage,” Digital History.com 26 Ibid., 125. 3 Arthur C. Jones, Wade in the Water: The Wisdom of the Spirituals 27 Ibid., 59. (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993), xi. 28 Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, 266. 4 Ibid., 47. 29 Norman R. Yetman, ed., Voices from Slavery: 100 Authentic 5 Ibid., xiv. Slave Narratives (Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 6 Jill B. Hamilton et al., “You Need a Song to Bring You Inc., 2000), 96. Through”: The Use of Religious Songs to Manage 30 Andrew Waters, ed., Prayin’ to Be Set Free (Winston-Salem: Stressful Life Events, The Gerontologist 55 no. 6 (2015): John F. Blair, Publisher, 2002), 167. 961-971. 31 William H. Robinson, From Log Cabin to the Pulpit or, Fifteen 7 John Lovell Jr., “The Social Implications of the Negro Years in Slavery. Reminiscences of My Early Life While Spirituals,” The Journal of Negro Education 8 no. 4 (October in Slavery, 3rd ed. (Eau Claire, Wis.: James H. Tiff t 1939): 634-643. Publishing Printer, 1913), 28. 8 Bruno Chenu, The Trouble I’ve Seen: the Big Book of Negro 32 Drew, Refugees from Slavery, 21. Spirituals (Valley Forge, Penn.: Judson Press, 2003), ix. 33 Lovell, Black Songs, 149. 9 James Cone, The Spirituals and the Blues (Maryknoll, New 34 Wyatt Tee Walker, “Somebody’s Calling My Name”: Black Sacred York: Orbis Books, 1972), 16. Music and Social Change (Valley Forge, Penn.: Judson Press, 10 Howard Thurman, Deep River and The Negro Speaks of Life and 1992), 32. Death (Richmond, Ind.: Friends United Press, 1975), 13. 35 Ibid., 34. 11 Cone, The Spirituals and the Blues, 17. 36 Cone, The Spirituals and the Blues, 17. 12 Jones, Wade in the Water, 13. 37 Miles Mark Fisher, Negro Slave Songs in the United States (New 13 Lovell, Black Songs: The Forge and the Flame (New York: York: The Citadel Press, 1953), 27-29. Paragon House Publishers, 1986), 134 38 Yetman, Voices from Slavery, 149. 14 Ibid., 129. 39 Chenu, The Trouble I’ve Seen, 120. 15 Ibid., 142. 40 Charles Johnson and Patricia Smith, Africans in America: 16 Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, America’s Journey through Slavery (San Diego: Harcourt an American Slave; My Bondage and My Freedom; The Life and Brace & Company, 1998), 371. Times of Frederick Douglass (New York: The Library of America, 1994), 423. 17 Lovell, Black Songs, 154.
76 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A Focus on Music in Worship Sacred Music Choral Reviews
When Jesus Wept melody. The transformation of the This Is My Father’s World William Billings (1746-1800: 1770) original triple meter time signature Arr. Elaine Hagenberg Text: Perez Morton to common time completes the new (b. 1979: 2016) (1751-1837: 1770) structure. text: Maltbie D. Babcock Arr. and alt. by Gwyneth Walker The relentless forward rolling mo- (1858-1901: 1901) (b. 1947: 2016) tion of the accompaniment succeeds SATB, Piano, Violin (4:00) SATB with div., Piano and in driving the dramatic tension of Hinshaw Music Percussion or Organ with optional the choral texture. Walker’s phrases HMC2494 Brass and Percussion (4:00) overlap antiphonally between the e-address: www.hinshawmusic.com ECS Publishing ECS 7034 upper and lower voices, entering (Full Score ECS 7528) stretto-like with increasing urgency, e-address: www.ecspublishing.com culminating at the mid-point of the piece in a dissonant, unaccompanied cluster chord that paints the “falling tear” text like blurred vision. The momentum restarts with a texture similar to the opening, though the Elaine Hagenberg begins her ar- upper voices now accompany the rangement of Maltbie Babcock’s fa- men’s canon in a mournful hum. mous hymn This Is My Father’s World William Billings’s canon When Je- The hum eventually shifts to the conventionally, with a light upper- sus Wept has long been a favorite of “my son” text and comes to domi- octave piano accompaniment that choirs of every level of accomplish- nate the choral material, again driv- gently dialogues with a lovely violin ment. Gwyneth Walker provides a ing the piece toward a climax of for- solo. The opening simplicity of the new, emotionally moving setting that tissimo dissonance accompanied by famous TERRA BEATA tune, how- utilizes the original canon material the full instrumental complement. ever, gives way later to clever, lush yet still succeeds in placing the mate- The choir concludes the piece, again harmonies, highlighted by a fantas- rial into a new wineskin. on the text “the falling tear,” with an tic key change during a phrase eli- Walker’s arrangement includes appropriately cascading minor scale sion in the middle of the piece and the addition of an achingly haunt- canon. an unexpected shift to the relative ing refrain, “my son, my son,” evok- minor just a few bars later. ing Thomas Weelkes’s When David Performance demonstration: The piece soars with eloquence Heard. This refrain tolls lamentation http://www.canticledistributing. and ingenuity yet remains acces- throughout, in union with the op- com/audioplayer.php?n=7034.mp3 sible. The bass and tenor ranges, in tional timpani. The piano accom- particular, are limited to a sing-able paniment paints a weeping obligato tessitura, which will lend itself well that underpins Billings’s beautiful to the amateur church ensemble.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 77 Hallelujah, Amen! Sacred Music Choral Reviews
Hagenberg’s well-crafted choral Antiphonal Processional acoustic arrangements for the mul- writing, however, includes enough Hal H. Hopson (b. 1933: 2016) tiple performing forces. Despite the vocal interplay and subtlety to satisfy Text: John 12:13 and Edward H. scope of those forces, the arrange- the more accomplished choir as well. Plumptre (1821-1891: 1865) ment is very accessible. The versatil- The solo violin, present through- SATB and unison choir, organ, ity and multiple available confi gu- out, is an essential part of this piece’s handbells, optional brass, timpani, rations are the basis for the success success, though it requires a player congregation (3:10) of this work. This piece is certainly with some skill. The counter-melo- Choristers Guild CGA1485 appropriate for a large ensemble, dies in the violin, along with an al- e-address: www.choristersguild.org/ though the composer suggests that most orchestral piano, weave above, it may be sung with only organ, and underneath, and through the beau- the treble choir replaced with adult tiful choral texture. The solo violin sopranos if needed, for the smaller part is included in the choral octa- choir. vo—a nice bonus! Opening antiphonal statements The piece ends with a sparkling, of “hosanna!” and a brass introduc- circular echo on the words “and tion give way to a unison fi rst verse heaven and earth be one,” utilizing Hal Hopson provides a new tune over a thickly orchestrated texture. alternating dissonance and conso- and multi-use festival setting of Ed- Verse two introduces a busier cho- nance, fi nally culminating in a sat- ward Plumptre’s hymn Rejoice, Ye Pure ral setting with staggered entrances, isfying unison tonic, symbolizing in Heart, to be sung on Palm Sunday symbolizing the “answering echoes” earth reaching up to heaven. or Advent #1, with alternate texts in the text. Verse three is reserved for provided for General Use or Christ the unison treble choir, followed by Performance demonstration: the King Sunday. an extended fl orid brass and organ https://www.youtube.com/ As the title suggests, Hopson rec- fanfare interlude. The congregation watch?v=HfWjey9tQS0 ommends a number of diff erent joins the chorus and instruments on verse four. Hopson provides a des- cant for the upper voices during this For advanced singers fi nal verse. On the demonstration & and choral directors Chamber Choir recording, the unison trebles join the Sessions and final concert Choral Conducting Workshop video and audio recorded sopranos, though it seems perfectly acceptable for directors to have the led by Conductors will have the • Simon Carrington August 13 – 20, 2017 opportunity to conduct children continue singing the unison choral and instrumental hymn tune along with the congre- ensembles Deadline: March 23, 2017 gation, particularly if the high G is Repertoire from the Questions: [email protected] • 860.542. 3000 Renaissance to the prohibitive. The edition includes an Apply: norfolkmusic.org 21st century optional choral and instrumental coda and a reproducible bulletin in- sert for congregational use.
Performance demonstration: http://www.choristersguild.org/ store/cga1485-antiphonal- processional/6893/ YALE SCHOOL OF MUSIC • NORFOLK CHAMBER MUSIC FESTIVAL Robert Blocker, Dean • Melvin Chen, Director YALE INSTITUTE OF SACRED MUSIC Martin D. Jean, Director
78 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 A Focus on Music in Worship
I Will Pray and Sing make the return to the lowered Hassidic teacher. Infl uenced by Kab- Jocelyn Hagen (b. 1980: 2016) fourth shortly afterward satisfying. balah traditions, the text portrays the Text: 1 Cor. 14:15, Rom 8:26-27, She sets up an interior climax high- Sabbath as a bride and the singers Eph. 3:14-19 lighted by a modulation back to the as the “bridesmen.” The poem in- SATB with descant, piano (3:40) original key, and rising counterpoint cludes imagery that is celebratory Jubal House Publications JH-1220 in the upper voices culminating on and mystical, and includes language (distributed by Hal Leonard) the word “heights.” Hagen com- depicting physical intimacy as meta- e-address: www.halleonard.com pletes the piece with a repetition of phor. The edition includes a helpful the opening choral chant, though transliteration of the Aramaic and lingers at the end on an unresolved both a literal English translation and plagal cadence—fi tting commentary a poetic, rhymed performance trans- on the effi cacy of unending prayer. lation, all courtesy of the arranger, Joshua Jacobson. Performance demonstration: Jacobson works through the https://www.youtube.com/ lengthy text with a consistent and Jocelyn Hagen’s new anthem, I watch?v=2WAA2GQYweQ concise bell-like piano and frequent Will Pray and Sing, refl ects upon the choral divisi, creating a warm, ro- nature of prayer and song. The piece mantic texture. Through timely opens with a homophonic texture, Azamer bishvokhin: modulations, unaccompanied sec- reminiscent of Anglican chant, os- A Shabbat zemer tions, and tasteful chromaticism, Ja- cillating between a compound meter (I Will Sing with Praises) cobson brings new devotional life to texture and the occasional duplet. Attr. to Rabbi Nahman of Bratslav both this text and melody. This rhythmic pendulum serves both (1772-1811) The setting is strophic, with only to mirror exactly the syllabic stress Text: Rabbi Isaac Luria a few instances of echoed repetition of the text while also calling to mind (1534-1572) between the voices. To create con- prayer traditions in which rocking Arr. by Joshua Jacobson trast and interest between the sixteen back and forth is a prominent prac- (b. 1948: 2002) stanzas, Jacobson reimagines the ac- tice. Hagen employs a beautiful des- SATB with div., piano (8:00) companiment throughout, almost cant solo over this chant. ECS Publishing ECS 5742 like a theme and variation, and em- The peaceful opening abruptly e-address: www.ecspublishing.com ploys frequent choral “ahs,” provid- transforms over a suddenly ac- ing a fl uid color palette upon which tive and expansive accompaniment to place Rabbi Nahman’s melody. into an exploration of intercessory prayer. Hagen transitions back to Performance demonstration: the opening material by briefl y frag- http://www.canticledistributing. menting the original homophony com/azamer-bishvokhin.html amongst the voices before settling back into the original swaying man- Rabbi Isaac Luria’s medieval Ar- Timothy Michael Powell tra of the opening. amaic poem was written to be sung Director of Choral Activities, The third and fi nal passage fea- at the Sabbath table. The original Martin Methodist College tures harmonic, rhythmic, and tex- melody has not survived, though this Pulaski, Tennessee tural transformation in the music. new arrangement combines the text Hagen employs staggered Lydian with a melody attributed to Rabbi scale entrances in the choir, which Nahman of Bratslav, an important
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 79 Rio Rancho High School (NM) at Carnegie Hall
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80 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 THE ACDA INTERNATIONAL IONAL CO NAT NDU TER C IN TO R S CONDUCTORS EXCHANGE PROGRAM
E RAM ICEP OF THE AMERICAS XCHANGE PROG by T. J. Harper
In 2016, ACDA created the techniques. I am immensely als oversee all aspects of the US Standing Committee on Interna- grateful for the opportunity residency for our Visiting Interna- tional Activities in response to the and wish to encourage others tional Conductors (VIC) from Latin new structure approved by its mem- to seek the same.” America, and our counterparts from bership. Central to this restructuring Latin America oversee all logistics of was the desire to innovate and revise In 2017, ACDA continues the US residencies in our partner coun- the current state of the association important work of international ex- tries. Their contributions to ACDA, in an ongoing eff ort to better serve change with ICEP of the Americas. the ICEP, and the choral music pro- ACDA members. The Internation- With a total of thirty conductors fession cannot be overstated. This al Conductors Exchange Program from seven countries, ICEP of the year’s exchange would not be possi- continues to serve as a cornerstone Americas is a robust expansion of ble without our partners from Latin of this initiative and plays a signifi - this ACDA initiative to include mul- America. The ICEP Liaisons for the cant role in advancing ACDA’s mis- tiple international partners during a 2017 ICEP of the Americas are: sion of inspiring excellence in choral music single year. The international ICEP education, performance, composition, and Conducting Fellows are established Timothy Westerhaus advocacy. In the November 2016 issue leaders of the choral profession, Northwest & Western Division of the Choral Journal, ICEP alumna and this year they represent Argen- Kimberly Dunn Adams eloquently tina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Jeremy Jones expresses why this initiative remains Mexico, the United States, and Uru- North Central & Central Division integral to the future of our associa- guay. The fi rst half of this exchange tion: will take place in the US and center Wendy Moy around the ACDA National Con- Eastern Division “I have always believed choral ference in Minneapolis, MN, this music is vital in our communi- March. The second half of this ex- Emily Williams Burch ties as a venue for expression, change will occur throughout 2017 Southern Division education, appreciation of when the ICEP Conducting Fellows beauty, and connection to oth- will travel from the United States to Oscar Escalada ers. Ultimately, these exchang- their Latin American host countries, Argentina & Uruguay es are not about discovering where they will be in residence with and understanding simple local choral organizations and insti- David Ramirez “diff erences” or “similarities” tutions of higher education. Costa Rica & Guatemala between countries—as artists and humans, our commonali- Jorge Cozatl ties are inherent. Rather, the ICEP Liaisons Mexico real revelation was the dra- The continued success of this ex- matic expansion of our expo- change program is due in large part Eduardo Lakshevitz sure to and conception of the to ACDA members who have heard Brazil immense world of musical lit- the call to service and have stepped erature, language, trends, and forward with vigor. These individu-
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 81 THE INTERNATIONAL CONDUCTORS EXCHANGE PROGRAM
2017 ICEP Conducting Fellows Jose “Peppie” Calvar Caron Daley United States is assistant director is director of of choral activities choral activities at at Syracuse Univer- Duquesne Univer- Nicholaus Cummins sity. sity. is director of choral
activities at Northwestern State is University. Paul Hondorp Matthrew Erpelding director of choral is director of choral activities at Western activities at Lebanon Kentucky Univer- Valley College. Alan Stevens is as- sity. sociate director of choral activities at East Tennessee State is is University. Joseph Osowski Arian Khaefi choral director at St. director of choral
Michael – Albert- activities at Towson ville High School. University. Wendy Moy is
director of choral activities and music education at Sherrill Blodget is 2017 ICEP Conducting Fellows Connecticut College. director of choral activities at Argentina Castleton University. Bradley Miller is Camilo Santostefano director of choral is conductor at activities at the Conservatorio Ástor University of Min- Trent Brown is direc- Piazzolla. nesota, Morris. tor of choral activi- ties at Florida Gulf Coast University. Nicolas Dosman is Virginia Bono is director of choral musical director of activities at the Uni- the Chamber choir versity of Southern Sara Durkin Estudio Coral Maine. is choral director Meridies for The at North Andover Girls Choir at the High School. Instituto Coral de la Phillip Shoultz III Provincia de Santa is the associate Fe. conductor of VocalEssence.
82 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 ICEP OF THE AMERICAS
Emiliano Linares is Fabián Vargas Castillo Bianca Malafaia is a conductor at is conductor at conductor at College of Juridical Estudio Choralia. Presbyterian Church and Social Sciences, of Rio de Janeiro. National University of La Plata.
Santiago Serna is 2017 ICEP Conducting Fellows Eduardo Nóbrego conductor at Guatemala is director of Cor al Domingo Zípoli Universitário Gazzi Institute. Dulce María Santos de Sá. Azurdia is music teacher at National Conservatoire of 2017 ICEP Conducting Fellows Music, Guatemala. Tarik Bispo is music Uruguay minister at Baptist Church of Recife.
Rodrigo Faguaga is 2017 ICEP Conducting Fellows conductor at Mexico Coro Rapsodia & Coro Panambí. Julio Morales is a If you are interested in learning composer, arranger, more about the International Con- and the founding ductors Exchange Program or how conductor of Vox to become involved with the conduc- Ana Laura Rey is Populi Project. tor exchange in 2017, please contact conductor at T. J. Harper, Chair of the ACDA Music School’s Standing Committee on Interna- Choir University of Abraham Tinoco is tional Activities: harper.tj@gmail. the Republic. director of Jóvenes com. Consider joining our ICEP Cantores de Morelos group on Facebook or the ICEP Choir Fulgencio Choralnet Community (choralnet. in Ávila Guevara, org/home/280632) for the latest 2017 ICEP Conducting Fellows Cuernavaca. news and information about upcom- Costa Rica ing exchanges.
Susan Hernández 2017 ICEP Conducting Fellows T. J. Harper is the chair of the Osés is conductor Brazil Standing Committee on Interna- at Allegro Choral, tional Activities, director of ACDA’s D’ Allegro in the José Alberto Corulli International Conductors Exchange Culture House of is a music teacher Program, and associate professor of Heredia. at Santa Marcelina music at Providence College. Catholic School, Botucatu.
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 83
SStudenttudent TTimesimes
Jason Paulk, Editor
Intonation
by Bruce Dalby
Author’s note: To see and hear dem- Musical Acoustics does a fl ute playing a given note, for onstrations of the phenomena de- Musicians are trained to listen for instance, sound so diff erent from an scribed in this article, go to
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 85 SStudenttudent TTimesimes
displayed). Notice how each succes- monious, or consonant. Beats between sive interval in the series is smaller The major triad is the most con- Non-Unison Tones than the one preceding it. Higher sonant chord type because of this Let’s take a closer look at the tun- harmonics also have less amplitude, alignment of the overtone structure. ing of major triads. On the left in or volume, on the average than har- We consider other chords less conso- Figure 4 is a major triad as it might monics lower in the series. nant (more dissonant) to the extent be played by a quartet. On the right Th e interval relationships in the that this alignment does not occur. is the harmonic series of the bass harmonic series always remain the Thus, a minor triad is a little more up to the fi fth partial (another term same, regardless of where the fun- dissonant than a major triad, a di- for harmonic or overtone). The so- damental is located. The intervals minished triad a little more still, and prano, alto, and tenor are sounding proceed in this order: octave, perfect so on. pitches that are present in the bass fi fth, perfect fourth, major third, mi- Perhaps now you can see how tone. If the fundamentals of any of nor third, etc. An instrument playing these acoustical phenomena aff ect these notes are out of tune with the a C3 would produce the harmonic the tuning of an ensemble playing corresponding overtones in the har- series shown in Figure 3. a major triad. If the various instru- monic series of the bass, beats will ments play in tune with the harmon- result. ics being generated by other instru- Timbre ments, the triad will sound in tune. The timbre, or tone quality, of a If not, the resultant beats will make Beats between Harmonics musical tone is determined by the the triad sound out of tune. These We’ve seen how beats can be cre- quantity and relative strength of its beats are not as strong as those cre- ated when one instrument’s funda- overtones. A tone with an abundance ated by out-of-tune unisons, but they of strong overtones, especially in the are strong enough to detract from the upper register, will sound brilliant resonant, pure sound of the triad. and bright. A trumpet is a good ex- ample of an instrument that produc- es a bright tone. A fl ute tone is much more pure, less complex. Its upper harmonics are fewer and weaker than those of the trumpet. Conse- quently, its timbre is not as bright.
The Chord of Nature Look closely again at the har- monic series shown in Figures 2 and 3. Notice that the fi rst six harmon- ics, the strongest ones, form a major triad. The major triad is sometimes called the chord of nature. When played by an ensemble the various instruments reinforce the strongest overtones being generated by other instruments. We call the result har-
86 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 mental is out of tune with an over- For the chord to sound in tune, the Musical Temperament tone being generated by another tenor fundamental must be tuned so We’ve introduced some of the instrument. But what about a triad that these two partials are the same acoustical phenomena that aff ect the voiced such as the one in Figure 5? pitch. If not, the partials will beat way we make judgments of intona- The fi rst fi ve partials of the C in the against each other and the chord will tion. Certain aspects of acoustics, bass are shown in the center (the sound out of tune. however, make intonation a little fundamental is considered the fi rst It should be stressed that playing more complicated than our discus- partial). As you can see, the tenor’s G in tune doesn’t necessarily require a sion so far has suggested. We now is not present in the harmonic series lot of conscious mental calculations need to examine the concept of tem- of the bass. Is there any way for the of the type we’ve been describing. perament, a term that refers to specifi c tenor to tune to the bass? Good performers do, however, be- methods of assigning pitches to the The tenor can tune to the bass. come so familiar with the sound of twelve notes of the chromatic scale. Just as fundamentals can be tuned to in-tune harmony that they can tune The chromatic scale as we know harmonics, harmonics can be tuned various chord structures with great it is a relatively recent development. to other harmonics. On the right in accuracy and consistency. All it takes Most early music was diatonic, us- Figure 6 are the fi rst several partials is 1) knowing what to listen for and ing seven or fewer notes to each of the tenor’s harmonic series. No- 2) practice. octave. As the use of chromaticism tice that the tenor’s 2nd partial is the and modulation increased, so did the same as the 3rd partial of the bass. need for a chromatic scale that would sound good in any key. The perfect fi fth seems well suited for constructing such a scale. After the octave it is the strongest har- monic. In addition, a succession of perfect fi fths progresses through all twelve notes of the chromatic scale. In other words, perfect fi fths piled on top of each other lead in a circle back to the starting note. If each succeeding note is placed a pure, beatless fi fth above the one be- fore, it should be easy to form in-tune major or minor chords on any of the twelve notes, since those strong 3rd partials, the perfect fi fths, will be in tune. Unfortunately, things don’t al- ways work as we expect them to. Figure 7 shows a succession of twelve perfect fi fths starting and fi n- ishing on C, a “circle of fi fths” (there are a number of octave transposi- tions, but you get the idea). We be- gin with the fi rst interval, C up to G, tuning the G to form a pure, beatless
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 87 SStudenttudent TTimesimes
perfect fi fth with the C, then tune fi fths results in an octave of twelve play in all 12 keys with only a small D in the same fashion to the G (sec- half steps of equal size. To temper is amount of “out-of-tuneness.” Be- ond interval), and continue through to modify or adjust in some way. In cause of its great versatility, equal the remaining notes of the circle of music, temperament refers to systems temperament has become the stan- fi fths. of tuning in which intervals devi- dard tuning system. Most musical When we fi nish the process, there ate from the “pure,” acoustically instruments are tuned as closely as will be 12 beautifully tuned fi fths, correct, intervals of the harmonic possible to the equal tempered scale. but with a problem. The C of the series. An equally tempered fi fth is So why is this important? It isn’t last fi fth will be 22 cents higher than about 2 hundredths of a half step (or easy, after all, to hear the two-cent the initial C. The fi fth of nature, the two cents) smaller than the pure fi fth diff erence between tempered and beatless fi fth of the harmonic series, of nature. And a chromatic scale pure fi fths. is just a tad too big for the purposes with all half steps (and all other in- of constructing a twelve-tone chro- tervals) of equal size is called an equal matic scale. tempered scale. Intonation of the Major Third The solution to this problem is to The equal tempered scale is a Let’s take a look at the other adjust the pitch of the perfect fi fth compromise. By mistuning the per- member of the major triad, the ma- just slightly so that a circle of 12 fect fi fths slightly, we are able to jor third. We need to know how the pitch of the major third of the tem- pered scale compares to the natural 2017 CROSS-CHORAL third generated in the harmonic se- TRAINING® WORKSHOP ries of the root. Vocal and Musicianship Pedagogy with Figure 8 shows the fi rst fi ve har- Dianne Berkun Menaker and Brooklyn Youth Chorus monics of the harmonic series; no- tice again how they form the notes From the classroom to the concert stage—explore the proven and successful in a major triad, with the fi fth par- training methods of the Grammy Award-winning Brooklyn Youth Chorus. tial corresponding to the third of the Go beyond warming up to achieve real vocal development and learn how to prepare challenging music of varied styles and genres. triad. We’re interested in the pitch of the Cross-Choral Training® topics include: fi fth harmonic in the chord of na- • Vocal Function – Registration, Vowel Resonance and Breath Management • Developing Vocal Exercises ture built on C (an E) and the equal • Appropriate Vocal Qualities for varied Vocal Styles tempered E derived by the process • Sight-Singing and Ear Training Approaches just described. As it turns out, the • Problem Solving Challenges in Repertoire diff erence between tempered and TWO FULL DAYS, SAT & SUN, FEB 4-5 pure thirds is much greater than that between tempered and pure REGISTER TODAY! fi fths. A pure major third is 14 cents brooklynyouthchorus.org/workshops lower than the major third of equal temperament. Tempered major tri- ads produce a moderate amount of beating and cannot truly be consid- ered “in tune.” Their sound doesn’t bother us, however, because we have been conditioned to accept it. Equal temperament is a compromise sys-
88 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 tem that spreads out-of-tuneness intonation: The pitch adjustments just dis- equally among all twelve notes of For the dominant triad (Figure cussed produce a just intonation ma- the chromatic scale. We consider the 10), the root (G) is already set (+2), jor scale with pitch deviations from fl exibility of equal temperament so the fi fth (D) would be 2 more cents equal temperament as shown in Fig- useful that we’re willing to put up sharp to equal temperament (+4), ure 12. with its relatively minor imperfec- and the third (B) is plus 14 cents to If the above math is too much to tions. equal temperament minus the +2 follow, then just take my word for it cents of the root: that tuning the seven notes of the Pitch levels for the subdominant diatonic scale in this fashion results Limitations of triad are shown in Figure 11. The in wonderful sounding I, IV, and V Just Intonation root (F) is 2 cents fl at to equal tem- triads; the minor iii and vi triads also Demonstrations of chordal pas- perament, because we derive its root sound as good as minor chords can sages performed in just intonation by going down a pure—2 cents larg- sound. If Western music needed no and equal temperament versions er—perfect fi fth from C. The fi fth more harmonic variety than these typically leave the listener astonished (C) is the same as the tonic; no diff er- fi ve chords (in major tonality, that is), by how “out of tune” equal tem- ence from equal temperament. The then life would indeed be wonderful. perament sounds compared to just third (A) is an extra 2 cents fl at from As we add more harmonic functions, intonation. It follows, then, to ask equal temperament because it is de- however, the limitations of just into- the question: Why not establish just rived from the 2-cents-fl at root F. nation become glaringly apparent. intonation as the target intonation system for all music making? Un- fortunately, devising an all-purpose just intonation tuning system turns out to be as infeasible as building a 12-tone chromatic scale by stacking perfect fi fths in the fashion described earlier. To build usable chords in major tonality, we start with the “primary” triads of tonic, dominant, and sub- dominant (I, V, and IV). We have already analyzed the pitches of the members of the tonic triad. The numbers in Figure 9 indicate devia- tions from equal temperament (in cents) of those notes tuned in just
CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 57 Number 7 89 SStudenttudent TTimesimes
The ii chord plays an important role in major harmony. Basing it on the +4 cent scale degree 4 already set, we arrive at the calculations in Figure 13. The discrepancies with the notes in our just intonation scale are eas- ily noted. The biggest problem is scale degree 6, in this case A. That all tuning system, musicians should • Homophonic (chordal) sections in note was tuned way down in pitch also be able to recognize the sound slow or moderate tempos (16 cents) to serve as the major third of pure intervals. Because many in- of the IV chord, but it needs to be 6 struments are capable of fl exibility • Conventional diatonic, triadic har- cents sharp to equal temperament to of pitch, musicians can play (or sing) monies serve as the fi fth of the ii chord. pure intervals if they prefer them The ii chord in major tonality to the sound of tempered intervals. • At cadence points and other rest- poses unyielding complications to They can play in just intonation. ing places in the harmonic mo- the attempt to devise a usable and The primary concern of playing in tion practical just intonation tuning sys- just intonation is to lower the pitch tem. As harmonic complexity con- of the third of major triads. Use equal temperament: tinues to increase, problems com- The two tuning systems sound pound further. Ultimately, Western noticeably diff erent. Some musicians • When texture is dominated by musicians gave up on the quest and prefer one over the other, while oth- melodic rather than harmonic settled on equal temperament as the ers believe that the musical context elements; in counterpoint pas- best compromise system. should determine which system is sages, for example appropriate. In practice, just into- nation is likely to be used sparingly, • In harmonically complex passages Just Intonation and Equal such as on sustained chords at the (chromaticism, modulation) Temperament in Context end of a phrase or piece. when there is no other choice, Although equal temperament is Just intonation is appropriate for such as when playing an instru- accepted as the most versatile over- the following contexts: ment such as piano that lacks fl exibility.
magine … Sing Where Inspiration Was Born. I singing in the venues Bruce Dalby is professor of music of the great composers, in awe at the University of New Mexico in inspiring cathedrals and charming village churches, Albuquerque. [email protected]. for appreciative audiences around the world. Let us take you there. NOTES
1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_
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