ASM Handbook, Volume 2A: Aluminum Science and Technology

ASM HandbookW

Volume 2A Aluminum Science and Technology

Prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee

Volume Editors Kevin Anderson, FASM, Mercury Marine John Weritz, Aluminum Association J. Gilbert Kaufman, FASM, Kaufman Associates

Division Editors Anthony Anderson, ITW Welding North America Michael E. Finn, Finn Metalworking and Cutting Solutions D.S. MacKenzie, Houghton International David Neff, Pyrotek (Retired), Jude Mary Runge, CompCote International, Inc Geoffrey Sigworth, Consultant

ASM International Staff Steve Lampman, Senior Content Developer Victoria Burt, Content Developer Amy Nolan, Content Developer Susan Sellers, Content Development and Business Coordinator Madrid Tramble, Manager of Production Jennifer Kelly, Production Coordinator Karen Marken, Senior Managing Editor Scott D. Henry, Senior Manager, Content Development

Editorial Assistance Ed Kubel Jo Hannah Leyda Elizabeth Marquard Beverly Musgrove Lilla Ryan

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner.

First printing, November 2018

This Volume is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information from worldwide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems. Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM’s control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEG- LIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to speciﬁcation is essen- tial. Therefore, speciﬁc testing under actual conditions is recommended.

Nothing contained in this Volume shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this Volume shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement.

Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ASM International

ASM Handbook Includes bibliographical references and indexes Contents: v.1. Properties and selection—irons, steels, and high-performance alloys—v.2. Properties and selection—nonferrous alloys and special-purpose materials—[etc.]—v.23. Materials for medical devices

1. Metals—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-work—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II. Metals Handbook. TA459.M43 1990 620.1’6 90-115 SAN: 204-7586

ISBN-13: 978-1-62708-158-0 (print) ISBN-13: 978-1-62708-159-7 (pdf) ISBN-13: 978-1-62708-207-5 (electronic)

ASM InternationalW Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org

Printed in the United States of America Foreword

Aluminum Science and Technology is a new addition, as Volume 2A, to the ASM Handbook series and is part of an effort to produce volumes dedicated to important classes of engineering materials. The ﬁrst volume dedicated to an important material class is ASM Handbook, Volume 1A, Cast Iron Science and Technology (2017). Volume 2A continues in this effort, building not only from the ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminum and Its Alloys (1993) but also the classic three-volume set Aluminum edited by Kent R. Van Horn (American Society for Metals, 1967). The extent of coverage also neces- sitates ASM Handbook, Volume 2B, Properties and Selection of Aluminum Alloys for publication in 2019. ASM International and the Board of Trustees are grateful for the work and dedication of volunteer editors, authors, and reviewers who devoted their time and expertise to develop a reference publication of the highest technical and editorial quality. A special note of thanks is offered to the volume and division editors and their commitment to present a publication of the highest technical and editorial quality. The result is a comprehensive reference work that will help readers solve problems and gain insights.

Dr. Frederick E. Schmidt President ASM International

William T. Mahoney Chief Executive Ofﬁcer ASM International

v Preface

Kevin Anderson, FASM John Weritz J. Gilbert Kaufman, FASM Mercury Marine Aluminum Association Kaufman Associates

The breadth and importance of aluminum in modern society con- and practitioners in aluminum technology. The extent of coverage also tinues to grow, even with over 130 years of development since the inde- necessitated an additional publication, ASM Handbook, Volume 2B, pendent discovery of electrochemical reduction of alumina in 1886 by Properties and Selection of Aluminum Alloys for release in 2019. Paul Louis Toussaint He´roult (1863–1914) in France and Charles Martin Hall (1863–1914) in the United States. The extent of aluminum This Volume represents the collected efforts of scores of authors technology and applications is too vast for any single volume, but the and reviewers. The editors wish to extend their heartfelt thanks to all intent of this volume is to give readers a foundation on aluminum who participated in this volume development and for the insightful technology and practical details and insights on the processes, capabil- and extensive contributions provided for the wider engineering ities, and variables in producing and fabricating aluminum products. community. Partially patterned from the three-volume set Aluminum edited by Kent R. Van Horn (American Society for Metals, 1967), this volume Kevin Anderson, Mercury Marine is intended to replace the ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminum and Its John Weritz, Aluminum Association Alloys (1993) with major updates and additions by leading innovators J. Gilbert Kaufman, Kaufman Associates

vi List of Contributors and Reviewers

Diran Apelian W.C. Harrigan, Jr Erik Miller Worcester Polytechnic Institute MMC Engineering, Inc. Miller Electric Mfg. Co. Anthony Anderson Martin Hartlieb David Neff ITW Welding North America Viami International Pyrotek (Retired) Kevin Anderson Sameehan S. Joshi Linda Newman Mercury Marine University of North Texas Houghton International J. Baumeister Mark Jozefowicz Mary Oakley Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Reliant Aluminum Products, LLC Consultant Technology and Advanced Materials J. Gilbert Kaufman George Olive Patrick Berube Kaufman Associates Enclos Hobart Brothers Co. Serhat Kaya Elsa A. Olivetti Victoria Burt Superform Massachusetts Institute of Technology ASM International Sean Kelly Toby Padﬁeld Wayne Chandler Worcester Polytechnic Institute American Axle & Manufacturing SIC Technologies, Inc. James LaBelle Mangesh V. Pantawane Lichun (Leigh) Chen CSD Structural Engineers University of North Texas Superior Essex Chaman Lall Pinakin Patel Larry Chesterﬁeld Metal Powder Products Company Techevon LLC Anodizing Technologies, Inc. S. Lampman Tej Patel Kevin Colligan ASM International Techevon LLC Nova-Tech Engineering, LP Peter Lee Cheryl Roberts Narendra B. Dahotre Manchester University KTA-Tator, Inc. University of North Texas Robert Leggat Jude Mary Runge Devan DePauw KTA-Tator, Inc. CompCote International, Inc. Northwestern Michigan College M. (Kumar) Sadayappan D. Lehmhus Ralph Dorward Natural Resources Canada Kaiser Aluminum (Retired) Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Technology and Advanced Materials Pradip Saha Tiffany A. Dux The Boeing Company Shuang Liu Arconic Forgings & Extrusions Miller Electric Mfg. Co. Satyam Sahay Abdallah Elsayed John Deere Technology Center India D.S. MacKenzie University of Guelph Robert Sanders Houghton International Thomas Fiedler Novellis Richard Mahn Newcastle University Wojtek Szczypiorski Consultant Michael E. Finn Hazelett Corporation Finn Metalworking and Cutting Solutions William Mankins Mark E. Schlesinger Rafael Gallo Metallurgical Services Incorporated Missouri University of Science and Pyrotek Richard Martukanitz Technology Jennifer L. Giocondi Pennsylvania State University Dusan P. Sekulic Arconic University of Kentucky Stephen P. Midson Cullen L. Hackler The Midson Group, Inc. and Jason Sheuring Porcelain Enamel Institute, Inc. Colorado School of Mines Kaiser Aluminum

vii Geoffrey Sigworth Alton T. Tabereaux J. Weise Consultant Alton Tabereaux Consultant Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing D.J. Spinella John M. Tartaglia Technology and Advanced Materials Arconic Element Wixom John Weritz James Staley Kenneth B. Tator Aluminum Association Alcoa (retired) KTA-Tator, Inc. Christoph Werner Israel Stol Nancy Teneyck Apple Consultant and Alcoa Technical Arconic Qiang Zhu Center (Retired) Jungsheng Wang Southern University of Science and Technology, China Beijing Institute of Technology

viii Ofﬁcers and Trustees of ASM International (2017–2018) Frederick E. Schmidt Prem K. Aurora Judith A. Todd President Aurora Engineering Co. The Pennsylvania State University Advanced Applied Services Ellen Cerreta John D. Wolodko David U. Furrer Los Alamos National Laboratory University of Alberta Vice President Ryan M. Deacon Student Board Members Pratt and Whitney United Technologies Research Center Mari-Therese Burton William E. Frazier Larry D. Hanke Carnegie Mellon University Immediate Past President Materials Evaluation and Engineering Olga Eliseeva Naval Air Systems Command Roger A. Jones Texas A&M William T. Mahoney Solar Atmospheres Inc. Jonathan Healy Chief Executive Ofﬁcer Thomas M. Moore Case Western Reserve University ASM International Wavix Inc. Craig D. Clauser Sudipta Seal Treasurer University of Central Florida CCECI

Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (2017–2018) Alan P. Druschitz, Chair Martin Jones John M. Tartaglia Virginia Tech Ford Motor Company Element Materials Technology Wixom Inc. Craig J. Schroeder, Vice Chair Dana Medlin Jaimie S. Tiley Element SEAL Laboratories AFOSR/RTA George Vander Voort, Immediate Past Chair Erik M. Mueller George E. Totten Vander Voort Consulting L.L.C. National Transportation Safety Board G.E. Totten & Associates LLC Craig D. Clauser, Board Liaison Joseph Newkirk Junsheng Wang Craig Clauser Engineering Consulting Missouri University of Science and Technology Kaiser Aluminum – Trentwood Sabit Ali Scot M. Olig Valerie L. Wiesner National Bronze And Metals Inc US Naval Research Lab NASA Glenn Research Center Kevin R. Anderson Valery Rudnev Dehua Yang Mercury Marine Inductoheat Incorporated Ebatco Scott Beckwith Satyam Suraj Sahay Sampe John Deere Technology Center India Narendra B. Dahotre Jeffery S. Smith University of North Texas Material Processing Technology LLC

Chairs of the ASM Handbook Committee J.F. Harper J.D. Graham W.L. Mankins (1923–1926) (Member 1923–1926) (1966–1968) (Member 1961–1970) (1994–1997) (Member 1989–1998) W.J. Merten W.A. Stadtler M.M. Gauthier (1927–1930) (Member 1923–1933) (1969–1972) (Member 1962–1972) (1997–1998) (Member 1990–2000) L.B. Case G.J. Shubat C.V. Darragh (1931–1933) (Member 1927–1933) (1973–1975) (Member 1966–1975) (1999–2002) (Member 1989–2002) C.H. Herty, Jr. R. Ward Henry E. Fairman (1934–1936) (Member 1930–1936) (1976–1978) (Member 1972–1978) (2002–2004) (Member 1993–2006) J.P. Gill G.N. Maniar Jeffrey A. Hawk (1937) (Member 1934–1937) (1979–1980) (Member 1974–1980) (2004–2006) (Member 1997–2008) R.L. Dowdell M.G.H. Wells Larry D. Hanke (1938–1939) (Member 1935–1939) (1981) (Member 1976–1981) (2006–2008) (Member 1994–2012) G.V. Luerssen J.L. McCall Kent L. Johnson (1943–1947) (Member 1942–1947) (1982) (Member 1977–1982) (2008–2010) (Member 1999–2014) J.B. Johnson L.J. Korb Craig D. Clauser (1948–1951) (Member 1944–1951) (1983) (Member 1978–1983) (2010–2012) (Member 2005–2016) E.O. Dixon T.D. Cooper Joseph W. Newkirk (1952–1954) (Member 1947–1955) (1984–1986) (Member 1981–1986) (2012–2014) (Member 2005–) N.E. Promisel D.D. Huffman George Vander Voort (1955–1961) (Member 1954–1963) (1986–1990) (Member 1982–1991) (2014–2016) (Member 1997–) R.W.E. Leiter D.L. Olson Alan P. Druschitz (1962–1963) (Member 1955–1958, 1960–1964) (1990–1992) (Member 1982–1992) (2016–present) (Member 2009–) D.J. Wright R.J. Austin (1964–1965) (Member 1959–1967) (1992–1994) (Member 1984–1985)

ix Policy on Units of Measure

By a resolution of its Board of Trustees, ASM International has units would be presented in dual units, but the sheet thickness specified adopted the practice of publishing data in both metric and customary in that specification might be presented only in inches. U.S. units of measure. In preparing this Handbook, the editors have Data obtained according to standardized test methods for which the attempted to present data in metric units based primarily on Syste`me standard recommends a particular system of units are presented in the International d’Unite´s (SI), with secondary mention of the corresponding units of that system. Wherever feasible, equivalent units are also pre- values in customary U.S. units. The decision to use SI as the primary sys- sented. Some statistical data may also be presented in only the original tem of units was based on the aforementioned resolution of the Board of units used in the analysis. Trustees and the widespread use of metric units throughout the world. Conversions and rounding have been done in accordance with IEEE/ For the most part, numerical engineering data in the text and in tables ASTM SI-10, with attention given to the number of significant digits in are presented in SI-based units with the customary U.S. equivalents in the original data. For example, an annealing temperature of 1570 F parentheses (text) or adjoining columns (tables). For example, pressure, contains three significant digits. In this case, the equivalent temperature stress, and strength are shown both in SI units, which are pascals (Pa) would be given as 855 C; the exact conversion to 854.44 C would not with a suitable prefix, and in customary U.S. units, which are pounds be appropriate. For an invariant physical phenomenon that occurs at a per square inch (psi). To save space, large values of psi have been con- precise temperature (such as the melting of pure silver), it would be verted to kips per square inch (ksi), where 1 ksi = 1000 psi. The metric appropriate to report the temperature as 961.93 C or 1763.5 F. In tonne (kg Â 103) has sometimes been shown in megagrams (Mg). Some some instances (especially in tables and data compilations), temperature strictly scientific data are presented in SI units only. values in C and F are alternatives rather than conversions. To clarify some illustrations, only one set of units is presented on art- The policy of units of measure in this Handbook contains several work. References in the accompanying text to data in the illustrations exceptions to strict conformance to IEEE/ASTM SI-10; in each are presented in both SI-based and customary U.S. units. On graphs instance, the exception has been made in an effort to improve the clarity and charts, grids corresponding to SI-based units usually appear along of the Handbook. The most notable exception is the use of g/cm3 rather the left and bottom edges. Where appropriate, corresponding customary than kg/m3 as the unit of measure for density (mass per unit volume). U.S. units appear along the top and right edges. SI practice requires that only one virgule (diagonal) appear in units Data pertaining to a specification published by a specification-writing formed by combination of several basic units. Therefore, all of the units group may be given in only the units used in that specification or in dual preceding the virgule are in the numerator and all units following the units, depending on the nature of the data. For example, the typical yield virgule are in the denominator of the expression; no parentheses are strength of steel sheet made to a specification written in customary U.S. required to prevent ambiguity.

Contents

Introduction Comminution ...... 98 J. Gilbert Kaufman, Kaufman Associates...... 1 Scrap Sorting and Preparation ...... 99 Thermal Processing...... 101 Aluminum Alloy Nomenclature and Temper Designations Agglomeration ...... 102 Revised by John Weritz ...... 3 Melting ...... 102 Aluminum Alloy Designations ...... 3 Refining and Casting...... 105 Basic Temper Designations ...... 8 Dross Processing ...... 105 Subdivisions of H Tempers ...... 8 Challenges and Future Developments ...... 106 Subdivisions of T Tempers...... 8 Cast Aluminum Alloys and Tempers...... 10 Aluminum Alloy Ingot Casting and Continuous Processes Cast Alloy Temper Subdivisions ...... 10 Reviewed and revised by Junsheng Wang ...... 108 Other Cast Alloy Designations ...... 16 Ingot Forms ...... 108 Wrought Aluminum Alloys and Tempers ...... 18 Molten Metal Processing ...... 109 Fabricated, Worked, and Annealed Tempers...... 18 Ingot Casting Processes ...... 109 Heat Treated Tempers ...... 27 Continuous Processes ...... 112 Properties of Pure Aluminum Solidification in the DC Process ...... 114 J. Gilbert Kaufman ...... 31 Postsolidification Processes ...... 114 Purity Terminology and Designations ...... 31 Safety ...... 114 Mechanical Properties ...... 31 Elastic Constants ...... 33 Physical Properties ...... 33 Melting and Shape Casting Chemical Properties ...... 39 Dave Neff, Pyrotek (Retired) Summary ...... 40 Geoff Sigworth, Consultant Kevin Anderson, Mercury Marine...... 117 Physical Metallurgy of Aluminum Alloys Junsheng Wang ...... 44 Aluminum Casting Alloys and Casting Processes Phases in Aluminum Alloys...... 44 Geoffrey Sigworth...... 119 Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys ...... 48 Designations of Aluminum Casting Alloys ...... 119 Heat Treatable Alloys ...... 49 Composition Groups of Casting Alloys ...... 119 Heat Treatment...... 51 Impurities and Alloying Elements...... 122 Heat Treatment Effects on Physical Properties ...... 56 Alloy Selection...... 124 Alloy Effects on Forming and Machining ...... 58 Rotor Castings ...... 125 Microstructural Effects on Fatigue and Fracture ...... 61 Al-Si-Mg Structural Castings ...... 125 Alloying Effects on Physical Properties...... 63 Al-Si-Mg-Cu Casting Alloys ...... 129 Other Effects of Alloying ...... 65 Al-Cu Casting Alloys ...... 130 Specific Alloying Elements and Impurities ...... 67 Al-Mg and Al-Mg-Zn Casting Alloys ...... 131 Casting Processes and Alloy Selection ...... 131 Aluminum Production and Recycling ...... 81 Sand Casting Processes ...... 133 Permanent Mold Casting ...... 135 Production of Primary Aluminum by Electrolysis Semipermanent Mold Casting ...... 137 Alton T. Tabereaux ...... 83 High-Pressure Die Casting ...... 138 Hall-He´roult Smelting Process ...... 83 Other Casting Processes ...... 139 Purification of Alumina by the Bayer Process ...... 83 Melting and Melt Treatment of Aluminum Alloys Aluminum Electrolytic Process...... 84 David Neff, Geoffrey Sigworth and Rafael Gallo ...... 143 Anode Manufacturing Process ...... 86 Furnaces ...... 143 Electrolyte Chemistry ...... 86 Fluxes ...... 145 Electrochemical Reactions and Thermodynamics for Solid Fluxes ...... 145 Aluminum Electrolysis...... 88 Flux Selection...... 147 Cell Operations and Cell Stability ...... 89 Fluxing Practices...... 147 Key Indicators of Cell Performance ...... 92 Degassing of Molten Aluminum Alloys...... 148 Production Costs and Global Aluminum Smelters...... 93 Degassing...... 148 High-Purity Aluminum Metal...... 94 Degassing of Wrought Aluminum Alloys...... 149 Environmental Issues ...... 94 Foundry Degassing/Fluxing Practice ...... 150 Recycling of Aluminum Filtration ...... 153 Mark E. Schlesinger ...... 96 Inclusions...... 153 The Materials Cycle ...... 96 Filtration in Shape Casting ...... 156 Sources of Aluminum Scrap ...... 97 Grain Refinement ...... 161 Scrap Collection and Acquisition ...... 97 Aluminum-Silicon Modification ...... 162

xi Solidification and Castability of Foundry Alloys Metalworking Geoffrey Sigworth...... 165 John Weritz, Aluminum Association ...... 253 Dendritic Solidification ...... 165 Segregation ...... 166 Wrought Aluminum Processes and Products Freezing Range and Shrinkage ...... 168 John Weritz and S. Lampman...... 255 Solidification Paths and Castability ...... 169 Wrought Alloy Characteristics ...... 255 Die Casting Flat-Rolled Products ...... 265 Martin Hartlieb and Kevin Anderson ...... 175 Rolling of Flat Product ...... 266 Conventional Die Casting ...... 175 Extrusions ...... 270 Vacuum Die Casting ...... 179 Bar, Rod, and Wire...... 273 Die Casting Alloys ...... 180 Tubular Products ...... 273 Die Casting Dies ...... 183 Forgings ...... 274 Product and Die Design...... 185 Forming...... 276 Die Casting Cells ...... 187 Work Hardening and Annealing of Aluminum Alloys Structural Die Castings ...... 189 Reviewed and revised by Ralph Dorward ...... 279 Sand Casting of Aluminium Alloys Work Hardening...... 279 Kumar Sadayappan and Abdallah Elsayed...... 193 Annealing of Worked Structures...... 283 Casting Design ...... 193 Types of Annealing Treatments ...... 289 Patterns ...... 196 Key Process Parameters Affecting Final Properties...... 291 Sand ...... 197 Extrusion and Drawing ofAluminum Alloys Binder Systems ...... 199 Pradip Saha...... 293 Sand Quality Testing...... 200 Extrusion ...... 293 Molding...... 201 Direct Extrusion ...... 294 Casting Alloys ...... 203 Process Variables ...... 295 Mold Filling...... 203 Extrusion Press and Auxiliary Equipment ...... 297 Special Casting Processes ...... 204 Extrusion Dies and Tooling ...... 298 Precision Sand Casting ...... 205 Extrusion Die For Solid Shapes ...... 299 Sand Reclamation ...... 206 Extrusion of Hollow Shapes ...... 301 Health and Safety Considerations ...... 207 Aluminum Extrusion Alloys ...... 302 Permanent Mold Casting of Aluminum Alloys Extrusion of Soft and Medium-Grade Alloys ...... 303 S. Lampman ...... 209 Extrusion of Hard Alloys ...... 304 Permanent Mold Casting Methods ...... 209 Extrusion of Aluminum-Matrix Composites ...... 306 Mold Life ...... 219 Common Aluminum Extrusion Defects ...... 306 Mold Materials...... 221 Drawing ...... 307 Mold Coatings ...... 222 Drawing of Solid Section ...... 307 Mold Design ...... 223 Tube Drawing...... 308 Dimensional Accuracy ...... 226 Aluminum Tube Drawing...... 309 Defects In Permanent Mold Castings ...... 226 Cold Extrusion of Aluminum Alloys Thin-Wall Permanent-Mold S. Lampman ...... 311 Castings ...... 229 Alloy Condition ...... 311 Lost Foam Casting Equipment ...... 311 Kevin Anderson ...... 232 Stock For Slugs ...... 313 Introduction ...... 232 Extruded Parts ...... 313 Advantages of Lost Foam Casting ...... 233 Forging of Aluminum Alloys Process Technique ...... 233 Tiffany A. Dux ...... 315 Foam Pattern Molding and Assembly ...... 235 Forgeability ...... 315 Pattern Coating...... 237 Advanced Alloys ...... 318 Molding and Casting...... 239 Types of Forgings...... 319 Casting Quality ...... 239 Forging Equipment ...... 322 Investment Casting of Aluminum Alloys Forging Die Design...... 326 Victoria Burt ...... 242 Forged Part Design ...... 327 Patternmaking ...... 243 Processing of Forgings ...... 333 Pattern Materials ...... 243 Processing of Precision Forgings ...... 333 Pattern and Cluster Assembly...... 244 Postforge Processing ...... 334 Ceramic Shell Mold Manufacture ...... 244 Forming of Aluminum Alloys Manufacture of Ceramic Cores...... 246 Adapted by Victoria Burt...... 336 Pattern Removal ...... 246 Forming and Formability ...... 337 Mold Firing and Burnout...... 247 Bendability...... 338 Melting and Casting ...... 247 Springback ...... 339 Postcasting Operations ...... 247 Forming-Limit Diagrams ...... 340 Design Considerations for Investment Forming of Bar, Tube, and Wire ...... 341 Castings ...... 248 Draw Bending...... 342 Casting Defects ...... 249 Compression Bending ...... 342 Design for Thin-Wall Investment Ram and Press Bending ...... 343 Castings ...... 249 Roll Bending ...... 343 Design Examples ...... 250 Stretch or Tension Bending ...... 343

xii Rotary Swaging ...... 343 Quenching of Aluminum Alloys Expanding and Flaring of Hollow Shapes ...... 343 D. Scott MacKenzie ...... 438 Four-Slide Press Forming...... 344 Cooling Rates...... 439 Tubular Hydroforming ...... 344 Quench Mechanisms ...... 439 Sheet Forming ...... 345 Quench Severity and Cooling Rates ...... 440 Bending and Flanging ...... 345 Water as a Quenchant ...... 443 Press-Brake Forming ...... 346 Immersion Water Quenching ...... 444 Deep Drawing...... 347 Spray or Fog Quenching ...... 447 Stretch Forming ...... 350 Polymer Quenchants ...... 447 Incremental Sheet Forming...... 350 Other Quenching Media ...... 453 Spinning...... 352 Residual Stress and Distortion ...... 454 Warm Forming ...... 353 Quench Tank Systems...... 456 Superplastic Forming...... 354 Agitation Systems...... 459 Heat Treatment Practice of Wrought Age-Hardenable Process Technologies for Powder, Composite, Foam, and Aluminum Alloys Semisolid Product Forms...... 357 D.S. MacKenzie ...... 462 General Aging Characteristics ...... 462 Aluminum Powder Metallurgy Materials and Processes Effects of Reheating ...... 464 Chaman Lall ...... 359 Electrical Conductivity and Hardness Testing...... 464 Powder Production ...... 360 Age Hardening of Al-Cu (Mg) Alloys...... 466 Compaction ...... 361 Alloy 2014 ...... 466 Sintering ...... 361 Alloy 2024 ...... 468 Repressing ...... 362 Other 2xxx Alloys...... 469 Heat Treatment...... 362 Age Hardening of Al-Mg-Si Alloys ...... 470 Aluminum Production Statistics ...... 363 Wrought 6xxx Alloys ...... 470 Conventional Powder Metallurgy ...... 364 Age-Hardening of Zn-Mg-(Cu) Aluminum Alloys ...... 473 Powder Forging ...... 369 7xxx Wrought Alloys ...... 473 Metal Injection Molding ...... 369 Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloy Castings Additive Manufacturing...... 370 Geoffrey K. Sigworth ...... 478 Conclusions ...... 371 Al-Cu and Al-Cu-Mg (2xx) Alloys ...... 478 Processing of Aluminum Metal-Matrix Composites Al-Zn-Mg (7xx) Alloys ...... 484 Revised by W.C. Harrigan ...... 375 Al-Si-Mg Alloys...... 485 Metal-Matrix Composite Solidification Processing ...... 375 Al-Si-Cu and Al-Si-Cu-Mg Alloys ...... 489 Metal-Matrix Composite Infiltration Processes ...... 379 Recent Developments ...... 490 Spray Deposition ...... 382 Additional Reading and Resources ...... 491 Powder Metallurgy Methods ...... 383 Deformation Processing of DRA Composites...... 383 Machining and Mechanical Finishing ...... 493 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Aluminum ...... 385 Aluminum Foams—Processing, Properties, and Machining of Aluminum Alloys Applications Michael E. Finn ...... 495 J. Baumeister, D. Lehmhus and J. Weise ...... 387 Chip Formation and Control ...... 496 Production Methods ...... 387 Machinability and Alloy Selection ...... 497 Properties of Aluminum Foams ...... 391 Selection of Temper ...... 499 Applications...... 395 Cutting Force and Power ...... 500 Semisolid Metal Casting Cutting Tool Design ...... 502 Stephen P. Midson, ...... 400 Cutting Tool Material ...... 502 Background ...... 400 Cutting Fluids ...... 503 History of Semisolid Processing ...... 400 Distortion and Dimensional Variation ...... 504 Commercial Semisolid Processes ...... 402 Optimizing the Machining Processes...... 504 Die Design, Process Conditions, and Simulation ...... 404 Machining of Aluminum Metal-Matrix Alloys, Heat Treatment, and Properties ...... 405 Composites...... 513 Commercial Castings ...... 406 Nontraditional Machining of Aluminum ...... 514 Laser Beam Machining of Aluminum and Heat Treatment Aluminum Alloys Scott MacKenzie, Houghton International ...... 409 Mangesh V. Pantawane, Sameehan S. Joshi, and Narendra B. Dahotre ...... 519 Metallurgy of Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys Overview of Machining Techniques ...... 520 D. Scott MacKenzie ...... 411 Laser Beam Machining ...... 521 Heat Treatable Alloys ...... 411 Overview of Lasers...... 521 Age-Hardening Treatments ...... 413 Laser Beam Machining of Aluminum and Its Generalized Precipitation Sequence...... 415 Alloys ...... 525 Precipitation in Specific Alloy Systems ...... 417 Mechanical Finishing of Aluminum Metallurgy of Solution Heat Treatment ...... 422 Michael E. Finn ...... 542 Quenching and Quench Sensitivity ...... 426 Grinding ...... 542 Deformation of Aluminum Alloys prior to Aging...... 429 Polishing ...... 544 Natural and Artificial Aging...... 432 Buffing ...... 545

xiii Satin Finishing ...... 547 Oxide-to-Substrate Ratio ...... 597 Barrel Finishing ...... 548 Industrial Anodizing ...... 598 Abrasive Blast ...... 548 Summary and Conclusion ...... 604 Lapping And Honing ...... 550 Sealing of the Anodized Aluminum Coating Shot Peening ...... 550 Pinakin Patel and Tej Patel...... 606 Types of Sealing Methods ...... 607 Factors that Affect Seal Quality ...... 608 Cleaning and Surface Treatment of Aluminum and Its Alloys Testing and Assessing Seal Quality ...... 609 Judy Runge, CompCote International, Inc...... 553 Coloring Anodized Aluminum Metallurgy Basics for Aluminum Surface Treatment Pinakin Patel and Tej Patel...... 611 Jude Mary Runge and John Weritz ...... 555 Integral Coloring ...... 611 The Aluminum Surface ...... 555 Electrolytic Coloring...... 611 Aluminum Alloys ...... 556 Chemical Coloring ...... 612 Trace Element Effects ...... 557 Organic Dyeing ...... 612 Equilibrium Corrosion Processes—Aluminum Organic Dye Chemistry ...... 613 Oxidation ...... 557 Optimal Dyeing Conditions ...... 614 Thermodynamics of Equilibrium Oxidation Processes...... 558 Coloring Methods and Selection Factors ...... 614 Aluminum Oxidation under Atmospheric Chemical Conversion Coatings Conditions—The Passive Layer ...... 558 S. Lampman ...... 616 Thermodynamics of NonEquilibrium Corrosion Processes . . . 560 Conversion Coating Process...... 616 The Potential/pH (Pourbaix) Diagram for Aluminum under Phosphate Conversion Coating ...... 617 Atmospheric Conditions...... 562 Oxide-Type Conversion Coating...... 618 The Potential/pH Diagram for Aluminum under Dynamic Chromate Conversion Coating ...... 618 Conditions ...... 563 Chromate-Free Conversion Coatings ...... 621 Formation of Stable Aluminum Oxide under Dynamic Painting and Organic Coating of Aluminum Conditions—Polarization Effects...... 563 Kenneth B. Tator, Cheryl Roberts, and Robert Leggat ...... 625 Aluminum Oxidation under Dynamic Aluminum Alloys—The Essentials ...... 625 Conditions—Anodizing ...... 564 Aluminum Corrosion...... 625 Designation System for Aluminum Finishes...... 565 Corrosion Prevention...... 628 Cleaning, Pretreatment, and Maintenance of Surfaces Aluminum Conversion Coatings ...... 631 Richard Mahn ...... 568 Paints Used on Aluminum Surfaces ...... 633 Soils ...... 568 American Architectural Manufacturers Association Surface Cleaning Prior to Finishing ...... 568 Speciﬁcations ...... 633 Mechanical Cleaning ...... 568 Conclusion...... 637 Chemical Cleaning ...... 570 Plating of Aluminum Cleaning and Maintenance of Finished Surfaces...... 573 Jude Mary Runge, Christoph Werner, and S. Lampman ..... 639 Weathering and Corrosion ...... 573 Deposition Processes...... 639 Types of Cleaning ...... 573 Surface Preparation for Electroplating...... 644 Cleaner Ingredients ...... 574 Barrel Plating...... 648 Laboratory Evaluation of Cleaners ...... 574 Racks ...... 648 Field Testing of Cleaners ...... 574 Porcelain Enameling of Aluminum Alloys General Cleaning Recommendations ...... 575 Cullen L. Hackler ...... 649 Cleaner Types and Procedures ...... 575 Enameling Process ...... 649 Use of Temporary Coatings as a Preventive Properties of Porcelain Enamels ...... 650 Procedure ...... 577 Performance...... 651 Use of Maintenance Coatings ...... 578 Joining of Aluminum and Its Alloys Handling and Storage Procedures ...... 578 Anthony Anderson, ITW Welding North America ...... 653 Cleaning of Speciﬁc Applications ...... 578 Chemical and Electrolytic Brightening Weldability of Aluminum Alloys Mary Oakley and Wayne Chandler ...... 581 Patrick Berube ...... 655 General Factors...... 581 Properties Affecting Weldability...... 655 Comparing Chemical and Electrolytic Brightening ...... 581 Welding Processes ...... 656 Chemical and Electrolytic Brightening as a Complement Design Aspects...... 658 to Subsequent Processing ...... 582 Weld Filler Metals ...... 659 Chemical Brightening (Bright Dipping)...... 582 Selection and Weldability of Non-Heat-Treatable Bright Dip Solutions ...... 582 Aluminum Alloys ...... 662 Electrolytic Brightening (Electropolishing) ...... 583 Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys ...... 671 Electropolish Solutions ...... 584 Weldability of Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys ...... 673 Etching of Aluminum and Its Alloys Filler-Alloy Selection ...... 676 Linda Newman ...... 586 Corrosion Resistance of Welds...... 679 Chemical Etching ...... 586 Other Properties ...... 680 Anodizing Resistance Welding of Heat Treatable Alloys ...... 681 Jude Mary Runge ...... 590 Selection and Weldability of Aluminum-Lithium Anodic Aluminum Oxide Nucleation and Growth...... 590 Alloys ...... 681 Important Characteristics of the Finished Porous Selection and Weldability of Aluminum Metal-Matrix Anodic Aluminum Oxide ...... 596 Composites...... 685

xiv Arc Welding of Aluminum Alloys Laser Roll Welding...... 734 Devan DePauw ...... 693 Hybrid Laser Welding...... 738 Preparation for Welding ...... 694 Laser Stir Welding Joint Design ...... 694 Richard Martukanitz and Israel Stol ...... 743 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ...... 696 Laser Stir Welding Process Details ...... 744 Equipment ...... 696 Enabling Technologies ...... 746 Welding Current and Polarity ...... 696 Industrial Applications ...... 747 Welding Procedures...... 697 Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys Joint Designs ...... 700 Kevin Colligan ...... 748 Shielding Gases ...... 701 Friction Welding Processes ...... 748 Torch Construction and Electrodes ...... 702 History and Development ...... 749 Gas Metal Arc Welding...... 703 Friction Stir Welding Process Variations ...... 750 Gas Metal Arc Welding Equipment...... 704 Mechanisms of Heat Generation...... 753 Metal-Transfer Mode...... 704 Effect of Welding on Material Properties ...... 755 Process Variables ...... 705 Typical Alloys in FSW Applications...... 759 Power Sources ...... 707 Friction Stir Welding Equipment ...... 759 Shielding Gas ...... 707 Brazing of Aluminum Alloys Automatic GMAW ...... 708 D.P. Sekulic ...... 763 Gas Metal Arc Spot Welding ...... 708 Aluminum Brazing Speciﬁcs ...... 763 Other Arc Welding Processes...... 709 Key Physical Phenomena in Aluminum Brazing...... 763 Shielded Metal Arc Welding ...... 709 Materials for Aluminum Brazing ...... 766 Plasma Arc Welding ...... 710 Joint Design...... 772 Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding ...... 710 Aluminum Brazing Methods ...... 773 Drawn Arc Stud Welding of Aluminum...... 711 Prebraze Cleaning...... 777 Arc Stud Welding Performance...... 712 Fixturing ...... 778 Resistance Welding of Aluminum Alloys Dissimilar Metal Brazing...... 779 D.J. Spinella ...... 715 Flux Removal...... 780 General Factors Affecting Resistance Post-Braze Processes...... 780 Welding ...... 715 Properties ...... 780 Base Material Weldability ...... 716 Safety Precautions ...... 781 Surface Preparation...... 717 Adhesive Bonding Equipment ...... 717 Adapted by Victoria Burt...... 783 Electrodes ...... 718 Functions of Adhesive-Bonded Joints ...... 783 Resistance Spot Welding ...... 718 Characteristics of an Adhesive Joint ...... 784 Seam and Roll Spot Welding ...... 721 Surface Preparation...... 785 Flash Welding ...... 725 Adhesives ...... 786 High-Frequency Welding...... 725 Joint Design...... 788 Cross-Wire Welding ...... 726 Testing of Adhesive Joints...... 788 Inspection ...... 726 Mechanical Joining of Aluminum Laser Welding of Aluminum Alloys Toby Padﬁeld...... 790 Erik Miller and Shuang Liu ...... 728 Joining by Combining ...... 790 Modes of Laser Welding ...... 729 Joining by Forming...... 791 Process Selection ...... 730 Joining with Fasteners...... 794 Procedure Development...... 731 Reference Information...... 809 Weld Quality ...... 733 Summary of Aluminum Temper Designations ...... 811 Weld Joint Geometries ...... 734 Alloy Index ...... 815 Laser Cutting ...... 734 Subject Index ...... 837