“Access to Environmental Justice: Ngo Environmental Advocacy on Mining-Related Environmental Issues in Mongolia”
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“ACCESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: NGO ENVIRONMENTAL ADVOCACY ON MINING-RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN MONGOLIA” ULZIILKHAM ENKHBAATAR A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF LAWS GRADUATE PROGRAM IN LAW OSGOODE HALL LAW SCHOOL, YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO October 2020 © Ulziilkham Enkhbaatar, 2020 ABSTRACT In this thesis, I apply the theory of environmental justice to determine how NGOs use substantive and procedural environmental rights to advocate for mining-affected nomadic communities in Mongolia. Environmental NGOs often possess legal and scientific expertise pertinent to resolving and mitigating environmental risks and demanding justice for environmental damages on behalf of the mining-affected local communities. Based on the environmental justice theories, I have constructed a theoretical framework to examine how NGOs access and implement environmental justice tools, both domestically and internationally. Using a multi-methods research approach, including documentary analysis and qualitative interviews with NGO experts and lawyers, I was able to uncover the experiences, difficulties, and challenges faced by NGOs as they seek favourable environmental outcomes. My findings demonstrate that domestic and international environmental justice tools provided opportunities to NGOs to litigate, advocate, negotiate, and mediate the disputes between marginalized mining-affected nomadic communities and their much-larger opponents, mining companies. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deep gratitude and sincere appreciation to my wonderful, kind and caring supervisor, Professor Estair Van Wagner, for her tremendous personal and professional support and guidance in writing this thesis during the challenging effects of the Covid-19 pandemic. I also would like to thank Professor Shin Imai, the LLM thesis supervisory committee member, for his unwavering support and guidance. Moreover, my sincere appreciation and gratitude also go to Professor Sonia Lawrence, the Graduate Program Director, for her invaluable support in guiding me through the ethics application process at the Office of Research Ethics. My further gratitude goes to Heather Moore, Chantel Carolyn Thompson, and Ammad Khan at the Osgoode Graduate Office for their administrative support and personal encouragement towards the thesis completion, submission, and defence. The Study Group on Law in a Global Context instructed by Professor Craig Scott was invaluable in facilitating my academic growth. I have also greatly benefitted from the York University Graduate Fellowship and the Harley D.Hallet Graduate Scholarship in undertaking this LLM research at the Osgoode Hall Law School. I would like to express sincere gratitude and appreciation to my family members in Mongolia for their emotional support and encouragement during the Covid-19 lockdown in Canada. I am also thankful for the opportunity to enhance my graduate learning skills in the training organized by the Graduate Student Wellness Services, which was especially appreciated during the Covid-19 pandemic. Additionally, I have undertaken a research field trip to Mongolia for December 2019 – March 2020 to conduct interviews with environmental NGO experts, advocates, and lawyers, who have contributed immensely to my acquisition of in-depth knowledge of domestic court remedies and international corporate accountability mechanisms. I am indebted to all of my interviewees for sharing their valuable insight, knowledge, and experience in engaging with mining- affected nomadic communities in Mongolia. Furthermore, this study’s research findings I will publish in various outlets, such as the University of British Columbia blog post dedicated to Mongolia, and several environmental and legal issues academic journals such as the Journal of Environmental Law and Practice. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................... vi Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 Literature Review on NGO environmental advocacy and litigation on environmental and human rights ........................................................................................................ 5 “NGO environmental advocacy and litigation” ............................................................ 6 “Access to environmental justice” ............................................................................... 8 “Linking human rights law with the environmental law” ............................................ 10 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework of NGO Access to Environmental Justice ......... 12 Chapter 3: Qualitative Research Methodology: Document Analysis, Interviews, and Research Ethics ........................................................................................................ 13 Chapter 4: Mongolian NGO Access to Environmental Justice Tools Domestically .. 13 Chapter 5: Mongolian NGO Access to Environmental Justice Tools Internationally 14 Chapter 6: Conclusion .............................................................................................. 14 Chapter Two: Theoretical Framework of NGO Access to Environmental Justice .......... 16 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 16 Theoretical Framework: Environmental Justice Framework ..................................... 16 Role of NGOs in Environmental Justice ................................................................... 19 Access to Environmental Information ....................................................................... 22 Participation in Environmental Decision-Making ....................................................... 25 Access to the Courts: Public Interest Environmental Litigation ................................ 26 Access to International Cooperation and Decision-Making Processes .................... 29 Access to International Corporate Accountability Mechanisms ................................ 31 Chapter Three: Qualitative Research Methodology: Document Analysis, Interviews, and Research Ethics ............................................................................................................. 36 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 36 Methodology: Qualitative research design ................................................................ 36 iv Document analysis: Content analysis of the decisions of the Mongolian courts and the international non-judicial accountability mechanisms ......................................... 37 Interviews with environmental NGO experts and environmental lawyers ................. 39 Research ethics ........................................................................................................ 43 Chapter Four: Mongolian NGO Access to Environmental Justice Tools Domestically .. 45 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 45 Mongolian Legal Framework on Substantive and Procedural Environmental Rights45 Role of Mongolian NGOs in Environmental Justice Domestically ............................ 53 Mongolian NGO Access to Environmental Information ............................................ 58 Mongolian NGO Participation in Environmental Decision-Making ............................ 63 Mongolian NGO Access to the Courts for Environmental Remedies including the Enforcement of Environmental Laws ........................................................................ 68 Chapter Five: Mongolian NGO Access to Environmental Justice Tools Internationally . 72 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 72 Mongolian NGO Access to International Cooperation and Decision-Making Processes ................................................................................................................. 72 Mongolian NGO Access to International Corporate Accountability Mechanisms ..... 79 NGO Access to the OECD Accountability Mechanism ............................................. 79 NGO Access to CAO Accountability Mechanism ...................................................... 84 Chapter Six: Conclusion ................................................................................................. 89 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 92 Appendices .................................................................................................................. 109 Appendix A: Mongolian NGO Court Cases ............................................................. 109 Appendix B: Interview Questions ............................................................................ 118 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Theoretical Framework on NGO Access