Chapter Three
Some Aspects of Korean religions Chapter - III Some Aspects of Ancient Korean religions
3.1. Buddhism and Ancient Korean religion
We need the time of ancient history not only for investigating the documents but also for examining the genuineness of them. And it is necessary for us to study the activism of history. In order to discriminate the authenticity, we have to understand basically the environment as well as investigate the field.
Between 6,000 and 4,000 BC, tribes of Tungusic people migrated into the Korean peninsula from Central Asia, the T'ien-shan(^i 11) mountain and the Altaic mountain region. These people were of the Neolithic Age and are thought to be the direct ancestors of Korean people. They lived in pit dwellings, started to weave, began to sew with bone needles, and were capable of very detailed painting on their pottery. They believed in Animism (worship of animals) and thought all natural objects had spirits. Shamanism (spirit worship) was prevalent among these people as it was elsewhere in Asia during this period. Shamans were believed to have supernatural healing power and the ability to contact spirits to protect family and community from evil spirits.
The Tungusic tribes spoke a Ural-Altaic language. This language group extends from Scandinavia and the Balkans in the West, through Central, North, and Northwest Asia in the East. Though dialects of the Ural-Altaic languages vary greatly, they each share similar characteristics of syntax. This language group set the foundation for the modern Korean language. During the Ancient Joseon (Gojoseon; Korean Kingdom), the Korean nation Hved on the territory of what we now know as Manchuria (Korean northern field, now included in China), as well as on The Korean Peninsula, and the two kingdoms of Buyeo and Koguryo shared similar territories. The kingdoms of Buyeo(^l^) and Koguryo were centered on the territory of Manchuria but also dominated on The Korean peninsular. The kingdom of Parhae(?fJ)?S) which succeeded Koguryo and existed from 7* to 10* century A.D., shared similar territories as well. The Korean nation centered on the territory of Manchuria and has been living on The Korean peninsular for at least 3000 years now, which shows that the mentioned territory was far form being the history of China. Agriculture first appeared around the third millennium B.C. in the northern part of the peninsula, and somewhat later in the south,'
The Bronze Age in Korea lasted from about the ninth century B.C. to about the fourth century B.C. However, this time span varies to some extent in different areas of the peninsula. Numerous menhirs (large upright stones) from the age have caused this culture to be characterized as megalithic. The Bronze Age is characterized by a variety of bronze artifacts. Mandolin shaped daggers have been unearthed in tombs, as well as bronze mirrors. The pottery is of the geometric motif of the Neolithic Age that indicates a transition period when the two cultures were in contact. The decorations on many bronze artifacts were similar to those found on pottery of the Neolithic Age.
Bronze Age artifacts in Korea indicate a stratified society. The bronze daggers and mirrors would have been the possessions of only a privileged few, whose authority was symbolized by their ownership of the items.
*^ -James Huntley Grayson, "Korea a Religious History," CLARENDON PRESS. OXFORD 1989, P-16 Some Dolmen (stone cyst tombs) has capstones weighing up to seventy tons suggesting that the persons in the tombs had the power to command many, many people. Dolmens are found in clusters of as many as one hundred, built in an orderly fashion indicating a lineage of stratified society. There are about seventy thousand piece Dolmen reported in the world and of these forty thousand piece Dolmen are in the Korean peninsula, twenty five thousand piece Dolmen are found in southern Korea, fourteen thousand piece Dolmen are in northern Korea, and a few thousand piece Dolmen are in southern Manchuria.^"
Korea preserves about 30,000 dolmens of various size and shape. Korean dolmens are distinct from their European, Chinese, or Japanese Counterparts in their density, variety, and longevity of use. Dolmens, holding the hoards of primitive cultures; serve as clues to the social system and beliefs of early man. With such historic value, the dolmen sites in Gochang(r^l), Hwasun(fb ill), and Ganghwa(?lip)) were registered on UNESCO's World Cultural Heritage List on December 2, 2000.
Dolmen Site in Gochang—More than 2,000 dolmens in 85 clusters are concentrated in the towns of Jungnim-ri and Sanggam-ri in Gochang-Gun County Jeollabuk-do Province. Maesan Village in Jungnim-ri has 440 dolmens that are lined up on hilly terrain stretching 1.76 km to the east and west. At this site, the sizes of dolmens vary considerably, weighing from under 10 tons to up to 200 tons, and all three types (table, go board, and capstone) are found here. Dolmen Site in Hwasun—about 500 dolmens are clustered on 10 km of the slopes along Bogeomjae Pass, which links the towns of Hyosan-ri and Daesin-ri in Hwasun-Gun, Jeollanam-do Province. Discovered recently in wooded areas, they are well preserved. A nearby
-Sanho Kim's Fine Art, "A Faction history of the Korean 2 dynasty, Great Choo Shin CAncient Jo-Seon") Emoire ^Korean Laneuaeel. r)-25 quarry with rustic rock walls still bears the marks of flint production. Archeologists expect to learn more about primitive stone handling, transporting, and dolmen-making processed at this site. Dolmen Site in Ganghwa—^the slopes of Mt. Goryeosan hold 120 dolmens, including Korea's largest at 7.1m wide and 2.6 m tall. The mountain straddles the towns of Bugeun-ri, Samgeo-ri, and Osang-ri in Ganghwa-Gun, Incheon-si City.^'
Korean history may be said to begin with the Iron Age, because it was during this period that distinct tribal groupings began to form which became the direct ancestors of the first Korean states. The advent of Iron Age technology and culture brought with it increased social change which took place in direct relation to the proximity of the tribal area to the centre of Chinese civilization. The Korean peninsula, a large section of southern Manchuria, including Liaotung Peninsula and all the land west to the Liao River, north to the Sungari River, and to the East Sea, is said to have been the primal territory of the Korean people. The Iron Age reached the area of Ancient Joseon first, with the result that a state emerged in this region during the fourth century before Christ, the same era as the Period of Wamng States m Chma.
It is believed that the history of the Korean people began approximately 5,000 years ago with the influx of Mongolian tribes onto the peninsula. The cultural development of these Neolithic tribes was accelerated by the Chinese conquest of Ancient Joseon in 108 B.C. When the Chinese were finally driven from their colony on the Korean peninsula in 313 A.D.; they had left a lasting cultural imprint on the inhabitants.
^' - Second Edition, Sec Young Su professor, Danguk Uni^'ersity, John Young Hae journalist Chuncheon MBC (TV), "Korean Cultural Insights" Korea Tourism Organization, pp-70-71 Human life on the Korean Peninsula can be traced back to the Paleolithic era about 600,000 years ago. The earliest state developed when a league of several tribes came together to form the Gojoseon (Old Joseon or Ancient Joseon) Kingdom around the 10* century B.C. Gojoseon fell to an invasion by Emperor Wudi (Wu-ti; Chinese) of the Han Dynasty of China in 108 B.C. after which emerged various walled tribal states. As their political power strengthened, these tribal states developed into Koguryo, Paekje and Shilla the Three Kingdoms.^^
In 109 B.C., the Emperor Wu-ti (r. 141—87 B.C.) of the Han Dynasty conquered Ancient Joseon in an attempt to protect his sensitive north-east border. The incorporation of the most ancient Korean state into the Han Empire led to the creation of the Lolang (Nangnang in Korea) commanderies, which were to play an important part in the diffusion of Chinese civilization into the Korean tribal areas.
The introduction of iron technology greatly aided the military strength of Ancient Joseon. Iron swords and arrowheads quickly replaced the ones made of bronze during the Period of Warring States (403—221 B.C.) in China, and clearly enabled this group to maintain and secure its position against the various neighboring Chinese states. Iron also led to certain improvements in living conditions. Iron tools could more easily fashion wood, which led to homes made of wood replacing the mud homes of the past. The ondol or Korean hypocaust system of under floor heating traces its origins to this period, a significant advance in home heating. During this era the use of the dolmen declined and finally ceased, to be
^^ - Seo Young Su professor, "Korean Cultural Insights", Danguk University, John replaced by interment of the remains in large burial mounds or in large, round coffin jars 94
Tangun founded Ancient Joseon in B.C. 2333. If you add A.D. 2010 to this former number, it becomes 4343. Therefore, in Korea, we say that we are living in the year 4343, which is the equivalent to 2010. Also the 3rd of October is the National Foundation Day (Tangun's Accession Day), the day that Tangun found Korea. It is a public holiday for the people of Korea.
It is known that the inhabitants of The Korean peninsula during The Neolithic Age came from Siberia, and brought the comb-marked pottery along with them. However, it wasn't that simple. The culture which was characteristic of the various tribal groups and incipient states of that time, we term Korean Primal Culture. This culture, regardless of superficial embellishments which were derived from Chinese civilization, was entirely Korean and owed its origins to developments in Siberia and Central Asia.
The shamanistic influence may be seen in the indigenous belief in a supreme, heavenly spirit called HanullimiSupremQ God, Uranian God) in Korean or Ch 'onsin (sky god) in Sino-Korean, and in the body of heavenly spirits which carry out his will. Shamanism also is the belief in the ability of certain unusual persons to communicate with the realm of spirits in particular with Hanullim, the Lord of Heaven. The antiquity of the belief in a supreme being is indicated by the mention of this great god in the foundation myths of the Korean tribal states, and the occurrence of the
^'^ - James Huntley Grayson, "Korean a Religious History," CLARENDON PRESS. name of Mountain God, a modem guise of the Ruler of Heaven, on a stele dated to A.D. 85 in the area of the state of Ancient Joseon.^^
In the Korean peninsula the earliest known religion was a form of shamanism and folk tales collectively known as Musok (ZEft>). After having entered into the country from Siberia, Musok took firm root into the peoples' spiritual perception. As new doctrinally sophisticated religions with structured shrines, temples, and clergy entered into Korea, Musok continued to thrive amongst the common people by yielding to the new religious traditions and integrating new ideas and deities into their rituals and customs. And, by taking the lower role, even though they were looked down upon, Musok was able to continue to appeal to the people's need for spiritual guidance, reassurance, and active repair of worldly life problems. Acting as the spiritual undercurrent throughout Korean history, Musok was able to absorb many of the practices of Religious Taoism while gradually forcing a transformation in Korean Buddhism and Confucianism.
The shamanistic role of the Korean sovereigns is well illustrated by the royal regalia excavated from the great tumuli in the capital of Shilla, Kyongju. Although the regalia date from the sixth century and later, they preserve the religious sentiment of an earlier era. The royal regalia consist of three items of ceremonial dress, the crown, the belt, and shoes, all three of which are important elements of the dress of modern Siberian shamans.*^^
In order to better understand the foundation religion of Korea, Musok (Korean shamanism); one must first understand its origins and central stories. In Korea there is no ancient documentary evidence for any form of creation myth that is concerned with the origin of the universe or mankind in general. Instead, the oldest surviving documents are the myths
95 -ibid, pp-22,23 of the people, state, clan and culture. Easily the most significant, widely respected, and propagated of these stories by the Korean people at large, regardless of their religious affiliations, is the Myth of Tan'gun, the legendary founder of the first Korean state, the Kingdom of Wanggom Joseon (Ancient Joseon). Perhaps the oldest recorded complete version of this legend is found in the Samguk Yusa (Memorabilia and Mirabilia of the Three Kingdoms), which was a compilation of ancient tales written in the myths written by the Buddhist monk, Iryon {-m, 1206-1289 A.D.). The earlier written form of the story, found in the Samguk sagi (Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms), was a historiographical work composed one-hundred years earlier by the Confucian scholar, Kim Pusik(^li|jl;). Iryon, who is considered to be the first Korean folklorist, released his text to counter the intentionally demystified Confucian adaptation with a complete, rigorously researched piece of ancient Korean folklore.
Whether or not ancient Korea was ruled by a line of shaman kings, it is still clear from the physical historical relics that some form of shamanism was being practiced throughout the peninsula during Old Joseon (Ancient Joseon) Period, which spanned from 2333 B.C. to about 50 B.C. Many important pieces, like those that employ the use of deer antler in crowns to demark royalty and the frequent finds of bells and mirrors made of bronze, are clear signs of a Siberian influence. And recently numerous pieces painted on white birch bark and used to decorate saddles were discovered dating from 400 to 500 CE. This is significant as a Korean find primarily because the use of white birch was considered a sacred material for the ancient Siberians due to its connection with the myth of Cosmic Tree. Moreover, one of the main differences between the practice of ancient Siberian Shamanism and Musok, besides the pantheon and culturally delineated scng and dance, was the concept of direct astral projection into the outside world and onto spiritual realms, was represented by the image of the flying horse. The newly discovered birch bark pieces from the Shilla Kingdom, whose official state religion was Musok until 526 CE, depict many varied images of rider less horses in flight.
Korean Shamanism regarded three spirits with special reverence and importance: Mountain Spirit, San-shin (who is usually depicted as an old man with a tiger at his feet), Doksong(Lohan; Arhat), or the Recluse, and Ch'ilsong (the spirit of the seven stars, the Big Dipper). Buddhism accepted and absorbed these three spirits and, even today, special shrines are set aside for them in most temples. The Mountain Spirit, in particular, receives due veneration following the ceremonies honoring the Buddha in the main hall.^^
We have seen that when Buddhism first made contact with ancient states of Korea, the Indian religion tended to absorb many of the characteristics and forms of Korean primal religion, which we shall now refer to as Musok-kyo (literally, shamanistic religion). The emergence of an eclectic and esoteric form of Buddhism in the seventh century did not mean the end of a separate tradition of Korean primal religion. From this period onwards, the primal religion became the religion of the folk or of the ordinary man. Traces of this folk religion may be found throughout the history of the late Shilla, Koryo, and Joseon periods.
Buddhist divinities—are mixed up with the crowd: most frequently the mountain-god, accompanied by the tiger for his escutcheon, also the kitchen-god. It should be particularly noted that in many monasteries there is a special chapel for the worship of the constellation of stars known to us
^^ -Seoul Conference Report, 1990, p-175 as the Great Bear, and also that the sun and moon still retain a dim religious significance.
It is the actual character of the spirits that differs from the Siberian model. In Siberia, the spirits tend to be perceived in terms of natural beings in the shape of birds, fish, and animals. In Korean Musok, however, the spirits based on nature are manifestations of heavenly bodies such as the sky, sun, moon, and stars, or geographical elements such as seas, rivers, water, mountains, rocks, and earth. Siberian shamans are possessed by a lifelike spirit, and sense can be made out of the belief that the shaman flies to heaven or swims through water as he becomes a bird or fish. But, Korean mudang are possessed by a personified spirit with human characteristics. In Mongolia and Japan, possession by personified spirits similar to those of Korean mudang can be found. ""^
The word mudang (Korean shaman or manshin; myriad spirits), unlike most Korean words, does not have any solid, indisputable, corresponding Chinese characters ascribed to it. Instead it seems to have been from an admixture of various north and central Asian terms for shaman. Mudang (a^jS: or WI'J:) can be classified into two general types, god-descended and hereditary shaman, depending on how they received their abilities and training. God-descended, like many of their Siberian counterparts, become inflicted with "possession sickness," which has been likened to acute schizophrenia. These otherwise normal people suddenly become physically weakened, meditative and dreamy, have prophetic dreams, seek solitude, and sometimes suffer seizures that render them unconscious. And the shamanic call is not volitional, being followed by spiritual encounters within their dreams that display or demand the
^^ -H Hackmann, "Buddhism as a Religion", p-260 '°° -Edited by Keith Howard, "Korean Shamanism", Printed in Korea, 1998,Pp-22-23 transformation. Unless the ill person drops any previous occupation and seeks to become a shaman, the mysterious sickness will continue indefinitely often increasing with time and occasionally resulting in death. Moreover, if the new mudang choose at anytime throughout the course of their lives to abandon the professing, the illness immediately returns. The hereditary shaman, which exists only in certain areas of Korea, is a variant that is trained by his or her parents and typically receives an ancestral spirit as a primary tutelary guide. This type of mudang, unlike the god-descended shaman, does not have the power to summon spirits directly into their bodies, but must rely on telepathic communication alone when relaying messages from the spirit world.
What has come into prominence whilst Buddhism is driven into the background is the worship of ancestor, and with it an ancient form of nature and demon worship, which from early times is ingrained in the Mongolian race, and was only slightly veiled by Buddhism. Demon worship is especially noticeable amongst the bulk of the population. The stars, mountains, rivers, caves, have their demons, besides numberless remarkable or peculiar places and objects. Amongst animals, snakes are particularly feared and worshipped as spirits. They are often kept and fed near the houses as guardians of the dwellings. The tiger is frequently looked on as the manifestation of a spirit. The discovery of the influence of an evil spirit and its exorcism are important and practically daily occurrences. The people who rely on their skill in dealing with these matters for their livelihood, and to whom everyone applies in such a case, are always, strange to say, women—the so-called mudang. There are, indeed, men of a similar occupation—the so-called/?«/:5i^'"'
"" -H. Hackmann, "Buddhism As a Religion', p-267 The spirit world of Korean Musok-kyo may be divided into six classes: the Supreme Being, the gods of the air, the gods of the land, and the gods of the water, nameless lesser spirits, and the ancestral spirits. The Koreans from the earliest recorded period have worshipped a high god who resided in the heavens from where he exercised.
(a) Hananim (the Ruler of Heaven)
The Supreme Being has been known in Korea variously as Hananim, HanalLim, Hanunim, or HanulLim—the Ruler of Heaven. Another spirit of the heavens whose shrine is frequently found behind the principal hall of Korean Buddhist temples is Ch 'ilsongnim or the Seven Star Spirit. From this belief developed the cult of this star cluster and its powerful spirit. The shrine dedicated to Ch 'ilsong, the Ch 'ilsong-gak, is invariably a small, tile-roofed structure usually situated to the left and rear of the principal temple building. The interior often contains only a simple
1 (17 altar with a painting of the deity often depicted as a Bodhisattva.
(b) Gods of the Air
1. Obang changgun, five direction's gods, which are immediately beneath the Ruler of Heaven, are his highest subordinates, the Generals of the Five Cardinal Points. The worship of the guardians of the cardinal directions is not unique, as we find the cult of the Sach 'onwang or Four Heavenly Kings in Buddhism. What is distinctive about the cults of these five spirits is the designation of the centre as a point of the compass. For this reason it is possible to conjecture that the origin of the cult may be autochthonous to Siberian peoples. And Sinjang{QvQxyi]\mg gods), these spirits are subordinate to the Obang changgun and may be thought of as the
'°^ -Ibid,P-260 aides-de-camp of the generals. There have been estimates that there may be as many as 80,000 of these spirits.
(c) Spirits of the Earth
1. San-sin, is the most important of the earthly spirits which is the Mountain God. His cult is celebrated in two places, in small shrines behind the principal hall of a temple, or in front of the village altar. The unique characteristic of San-sin is that he is not the god of a particular mountain, but the god of all mountains. Ryo Tong-shik has adduced that San-sin is in effect a guise of Tan'gun, the founder of the first Korean state. Historically, worship of San-sin is very ancient. The oldest known stele in Korea is dedicated to this spirit and is dated to 85A.D. The association of the tiger with San-sin is significant in that the Tungus tribes of Siberia worship a master of the hunt, an old white bearded man who rides on a tiger.'"^
2. Chishin is a minor spirit of the land which is responsible for the fertility of the soil. It used to be common for farmers to offer a portion of their noonday meal to this spirit. The cult of this is no longer widespread.'"'*
3. Changsung which is in front of entrance to most villages in pre- modem Korea, there were two standing posts frequently made of wood but in some areas made of stone. These spirits are the tutelary spirits of the village and are situated so as to block the entrance of malevolent spirits into the village precinct. The duality of male/female, sky/earth, and characteristic of the chang-sung is a primeval statement of the Yin-Yang Theory.'"^
'°^ -Ibid, Pp-161-162 '°'' -Ibid, Pp-162-163 4. Songju is a patron deity of a house taking care of the peace and prosperity of the house. Naturally, Songju appears as the highest deity among other house deities. It is regarded as the host of the house that lives on the upper pillar. Songju is served when a new family has been made or a new house has just been built. Belief in Songju existed all around the country and is still found in many regions. The object of worship is called shinche, the divine bodies are represented by beg jars or a piece of folded paper, or, sometimes by hemp cloth. In certain regions, there exists a shapeless Songju.'°^
5. Samshin is a deity that is concerned with childbirth. It is usually called Samsin halmoni. Grandmother Samshin, and is believed to live in the warm part of the main room. It is believed to take care of pregnancy, easy delivery, breeding and health of the baby's mother. It is represented as ajar, a dipper or a Cloth-bag. In them, people put grains for Samshin and replace them every year after the autumn harvest. In some regions, Samshin usually has no shape but people take ajar to her only before and after childbirth.'"^
6. Toju is a deity of the ground of a house. It is usually found in the central region of Korea but seldom found in the southern region. Usually, it is called Toju'taegam (His Excellency, the Landlord) or Chishin (god of earth). It is represented as a jar including rice, the mouth of which is covered with rice straws. The jar is kept in the terrace of the backyard. The rice is replaced every year. On festive days, people serve sacrificial meals and pray for the good fortune of the family in front of the jar.'*'**
106 -"Religious Culture in Korea", by Ministry of Culture and Sports, Republic of Korea, PI20 '°^ -Ibid, Pp-120-121 7. Chowang is a deity that is believed to live in a kitchen or a fire place. It is characterized as a fire deity. On birthday's, festive days, sacrificial meals are served for him. In some regions, shamans practice a ritual for it at the first procedure of kut. Usually women prepare water and pray in front of it every morning. They pray for the life span and health of the family members, and especially for the safely of husband or sons who are traveling far off.'°^ /md Pyonso kakssi is the guardian of the toilet. Although a minor spirit in the Korean celestial hierarchy, Songju is the supreme guardian of the home." °
(d) Spirits of the Water
There is a variety of water spirits, all of which are conceived as dragons. The yong (HH) or dragons live in the rivers and streams, in the springs and wells, and in the seas and heavens where they control the rains. The worship of these spirits is very ancient and similar in many ways to the practice of the modem Tungus groups."'
(e) Nameless Spirits
Beneath the spirits discussed above comes a host of spirits, ghosts, imps, and such which constitute the lowest level of the Korean spiritual realm. Another class of spirits would be the tokkaebi or imp-like creatures which delight in mischievous acts such as mislaying household items or cracking the kitchen crockery. All of these spirits had to be appeased to ensure harmony in the home."^
"'^ -Ibid,P-121 '"^ -Ibid,p-121 '" - James Huntley Grayson, "Korea a Religious History" Clarendon Press Oxford 1989.P-264 (f) Ancestral Spirits
The Confucian cult of the ancestral spirits has been discussed above in relation to the Chesa (^;i[l) ceremony. It needs only to be stressed here that ancestor worship is indigenous to Korea. Confiicianism only codified and organized a pre-existing practice. The Myth of Tan'gun, which dates back to the tribal states period, is one early indication of the importance of the cult of the ancestors. In this case, the ancestors worshipped are the progenitors of the royal family, and by extension the ancestors of the nation as a whole. In Siberia to this day there are ancestral cults presided over by shamans. In Korea there is a parallel to this in the shamanistic ancestral ceremonies which are unrelated to the Confucian ritual system."^
Three Kingdoms of the Buddhism in Korea seems to have been a thoroughgoing amalgamation of the foreign religion and indigenous local cults. Autochthonous snake and dragon cults, for example, merged with the Mahayana belief in dragons as protectors of the Dharma, forming the unique variety of hoguk pulgyo ("state-protection Buddhism") that was thereafter to characterize Korean Buddhism. One of the earliest examples of this amalgamation was the vow of the Shilla king Mun-mu (r. 661-681) to be reborn as a sea dragon after his death in order to guard his country and its new faith from foreign invasion. Buddhism and the state subsequently evolved a symbiotic relationship in which the monks entreated the Buddhas and bodhisattvas to protect the state and the state provided munificent support for the dissemination of the religion throughout the empire. Buddhist monks also sought to demonstrate correspondences between Korean ancestral heroes and the new religion, thereby accelerating the assimilation of the religion among Koreans. Attempts were made, for example, to prove that Hwanin, the Celestial Emperor, was identical to Sakro Devanam Indra (Chesok-ch'on), the Indian and Buddhist king of the gods, and that Tan'gun, the progenitor of the Korean race, was the theosophy of SrT MahadevT (Kilsang-ch'on). Vestiges of the dispensations of previous Buddhas were alleged to have been uncovered in Korea, and the advent of the future Buddha, Maitreya, was prophesied to occur in the south of the peninsula."'^
Here may be seen the old man, San-sin, "Spirit of the Mountain," the gods of the Northern Bear, Ch'il-song(seven star), and the Kitchen god, as they have been adopted into the Buddhist pantheon, and side by side with them are the seven Buddhas, like flames of a seven-branched candlestick."^ The primal religion of the ancient period did not disappear with the advent of Buddhism in the fourth century. Rather, it became the substratum of all Korean religious experience and has shaped the development of all religions and philosophies which have been transmitted to Korea, including Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and even modem Christianity.
In Koguryo Kingdom, which was the first to make Buddhism its official religion, the king instructed his people to "believe in Buddhism to obtain good fortune. From the onset Buddhism was seen as a new method for obtaining health and good luck, and for providing good weather and protection from conquerors. Throughout its history in Korea, Buddhism has been known as the "nation protector." Buddhism underpinned the unification and secured its place for the rest of history as one of the prime Korean religions
' '"* -Edited by Joseph M. Kitagawa and Mark D. Cummings, "Buddhism and Asian History", pp-152,153 3.2. Arrival of Buddhism in Korea
Buddhism gradually spread over India, Central Asia, China and other countries. Korean Buddhism was introduced from China, by land, by sea, by northern, southern China or by India or another country.
In the ancient time there were three kingdoms (57 B.C.-668 A.D.) in Korea, namely, Koguryo in the north, Paekje in the southwest and Shilla in the southeast. According to tradition the Koguryo Pon-gi (l^ilfi, annals) section of Samguk Sagi ( •.tS'i!lS, Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms), in the second year of King Sosurim Koguryo (372 A.D.) at that time King Fu- chien(^^) of Ch'ien-Chin {m^, one of the evanescent states which appeared in China following the breakup of the Han Empire) sent an envoy tO Koguryo with a Buddhist image and scriptures and also a monk named Sundo ()ii;i, in Chinese Shun-tao), from his capital of Changan (S'^)." '^' Buddhism was firstly introduced into Korean peninsula through China in the second half of the fourth century A.D., or the late 4th century.
Paekje admitted Buddhism in 384 A.D., 12 years later than Koguryo. The Samguk yusa says: In the first year of King Ch'imnyu's(ttiI5E) reign (384 A.D.), an Indian monk, Maranant'a(^SilP'£), came from Eastern China and was brought to the court where he received homage. In the next year, (385 A.D.) ten Buddhist monasteries were built in the new capital, Hansan (iliii), and monks were installed in them. This was the beginning of Paekje Buddhism. In the first year of King Asin's reign (392) the King ordered the people to believe in Buddhism and seek happiness. The introduction of Buddhism in Paekje therefore was similar to that in Koguryo. After this date there are no
"^ -Written by Ilyon Translated by Tae-Hung Ha Garfton K. Mintz, "SAMGUK YUSA Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea", YONSEl UNIVERSITY PRESS Seoul, Korea, p-177 pertinent records in the Samguk yusa or the Samgiik sagi until the reign of King Song (523-554 A.D). During this reign it appears that Buddhism made great strides, activated in large part, by the return of the monk Kyomik (li^) from India in 526 A.D."
The Shilla Pon-gi (official records of Shilla) contains the following account. During the reign of King Nulji (nineteenth Shilla ruler, 417-458 A.D.) a famous Indian monk {Sramana in Sanscrit) named Mukhoja came to Ilson-gun (district) in Shilla from Koguryo and began to preach Buddhism. But the Shilla people, far from believing his strange teachings about Buddha and the Lotus Paradise, resented its denial of ancestor worship and of their traditional customs. The poor monk would have been killed by an angry mob but for the protection of Morye, a kindly villager who invited the stranger to live in a cave in his garden.
At that time, the Liang Emperor in China sent an envoy with Chinese clothing and a parcel of incense to the King of Shilla. However, nobody in the court knew what the incense was or how to use it. The King therefore sent a messenger to travel throughout the kingdom with the incense to see if he could find anyone who knew what it was. Eventually, he came to Morye's village. (On hearing of his mission, Morye consulted Mukhoja.)
"Listen, my good monk," Morye said, "a bundle of pink sticks has arrived in Shilla from China. They have a strong scent which makes all the court officials feel strange, and neither King nor courtiers can tell what they are called or how they should be used. Have you an idea what they are?"
I 1 7 -Edited by Lewis R. Lancaster and C.S.Yu, "Introduction of Buddhism to Korea New Cultural Patterns'', ASIAN HUMANITIES PRESS Berkeley, Caligounia, pp- "When the rose-colored sticks are burned," Mukhoja repHed, "everyone will smell the sweet fragrance of Buddha Dharma (Buddhist doctrine) and if they pray with clasped hands before the curling smoke they will see gods and goddesses of great love and mercy who sill fulfill their wishes." ^ ^^^g^
At that time the King's young daughter fell ill with a strange malady, and no medicine would cure her. Mukhoja was summoned to the palace. He burned incense and conducted a Buddhist ceremony before the princess, chanting a strange litany. Soon the princess rose from her bed with her health completely restored. Overjoyed, the King gave the monk a large reward, but Mukhoja gave it to Morye and disappeared."**
This indicates that Buddhism was accepted by the rulers of Shilla before it was widely accepted by the people. Traditional history attributes the shift in popular attitudes toward Buddhism to the martyrdom of one Ich'adon in 529 A.D. Ich'adon was a court official who served under King Pophung (r. 514-540), whose reign title means "Flourishing of Dharma." According to traditional sources, Ich'adon conspired with the king to dupe the anti-Buddhist court aristocracy by surreptitiously approving the construction of a Buddhist monastery. When officials at court discovered the ruse, the king was either powerless or disinclined to protect Ich'adon, and he was beheaded. At the public execution, Ich'adon's blood flowed as white as milk, and his head flew through the air and alighted on a mountain peak. No doubt these events would have moved the assembly to reconsider their opposition toward Buddhism."^
"* -Written by Ilyon Translated by Tae-Hung Ha Garfton K. Mintz, "SAMGUK YUSA Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea"", YONSEI UNIVERSITY PRESS Seoul, Korea, pp-179-180 "^ -General Editor: Noble Ross Reat. "Buddhism A History", JAIN PUBLISHING After Ich'adon was martyred, Buddhism gradually diffused among the general population, and the royal family sought to obtain official recognition for the new religion; this was opposed by aristocrats. Contrary to Shilla society, the ancient tribal system remained strong. The clan was still an important social unit, and indigenous beliefs and customs were powerful and deep-rooted; Buddhism could not gain acceptance among the people. The Shilla kingdom was the most isolated region and was at first not ready to accept Buddhism. The people held firmly to their traditional religious beliefs. There was such strong opposition to Buddhism but eventually, even the Shilla people accepted Buddhism.
Former to the arrival of Buddhism, the main religious practice in Korea was that of Shamanism which still holds a significant place in Korean life. Shamanism holds that human beings as well as natural forces and inanimate objects all possess spirits which must be appeased. Even the highly educated and devout Buddhist Koreans have a strong belief in spirits and regularly visit the Shainan for a protective ritual. Since Shamanism was not seen to be morally in conflict with Buddhism, the two religions blended to produce a form of Buddhism that is uniquely Korean.
The duration of the sixth and seventh centuries, saw the introduction of many Chinese schools of Buddhism, particularly when the practice of sending Korean monks to China became widespread. At that time many Korean monks went to China to study and brought back with them the teachings of the various Chinese schools of Buddhism. Towards the end of the seventh century, the three kingdoms were unified under the powerful Shilla rulers. From then onwards. Buddhism flourished under their royal patronage. Great works of art were created and magnificent monasteries were built. Buddhism exerted great influence on the life of the Korean people. In the tenth century, Shilla rule ended with the founding of the Koryo Dynasty. Under this new rule, Buddhism reached the height of its importance. With royal support, more monasteries were built and more works of art produced. The whole of the Tri-pitaka in Chinese translation was also carved onto wooden printing blocks. Thousands of these blocks were made in the thirteenth century and have been carefully preserved to the present day as a part of Korea's national treasures.
From the seventh to the mid-tenth centuries Korea was unified as a single political entity under the Shilla kingdom, in the course of which Buddhism became an established social institution. This period also saw the first introduction of Ch'an Buddhism from China. The Koryo period was that of the greatest expansion and influence of Buddhism within Korea.
Monasteries were patronized by the state, and the entire Chinese Buddhist canon was collected and reproduced. However, the end of the fourteenth century saw the introduction of a new dynasty of kings, the Yi, who were generally Confucian in allegiance and who initiated five centuries of increasing repression.
According to the history of Korean Buddhism, when Buddhism first came from China to the Korean peninsula, Shamanism was the native religion. This Shamanism was the ancient religion of animism and nature- spirit worship and its origins in Korea are lost in antiquity. This is based on the belief that human beings as well as natural forces and inanimate objects all possess spirits. Since Buddhism was not seen to be in conflict with the rites of nature worship, it was able to naturally blend in with Shamanism. And so many of the special mountains believed to be the residences of spirits in pre-Buddhist times, soon became the sites of Buddhist temples. And thus Chinese Buddhism was combined with Korean Shamanism to produce a unique form which means 'Korean Buddhism'. As in other Buddhist countries, the bass teachings of the Buddha remained the same, even though the form was uniquely Korean.
Korea has three ancient kingdoms, namely Koguryo, Paekje and Shilla. Buddhism arrived firstly in the northern kingdom of Koguryo and gradually spread to Paekje, in the south west, finally to southeastern Shilla in the fifth century. A Korean monk went to China according to invitation from China, and brought Chinese texts and statues with him. Buddhism was quickly accepted by the Koguryo royalty and their subjects. Therefore, we have to say that Buddhism in China at the time was elementary in form.
Between the fourth and sixth centuries of the Christian Era, the tribal states or confederations into which the Korean people were organized reached a critical point in their development which made them unusually open to outside cultural influences; Buddhism, which entered Korea as the religious component of Chinese civilization, did not enter a vacuum, but had to build upon the religious and cultural traditions of the pre-existent culture. Although scholars contend that the basic structure and form of the religion of the ancient states and modem Korean shamanism (Musokgyo) are identical, we must not assume that the form of shamanism called Korean folk religion represents totally the religion of earlier times. It is an ecstatic religion where the spirit addressed takes possession of the hierophants body and speaks through him. Certain animals such as the bird, bear, horse, and especially the tiger are associated with the shamanic spirits and are believed to act as the messengers of the spirits.'^"
'^' -WFB/WFBY Seoul Conference Report, 1990, p-175 '^^ -Edited by Nagendra Kr. Singh, "INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF BUDDHISM" Vol. 46 KOREA, ANMOL PUBLICATIONS PVT. LTD. New The belief in a high god, Chon-shin (^#) or the Lord of Heaven, was a key concept in ancient Korean rehgion. He was the creator and sustainer of the world and his descendants were the ruling families of the tribal and ancient states. An examination of the royal regalia, especially those excavated from the royal tomb of Shilla, shows that the pattern of the crowns and belts worn by the kings are comparable in form with the regalia of modem Siberian shamans. The kings performed on behalf of the state various intercessory ceremonies, in which role they were known as Ch 'on- gun (^^)or Prince of Heaven. When they assumed this role of supreme intercessor with Heaven for their people they became in effect the supreme shaman of the nation. In an ancient Korean book, the Samguk yusa {Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms), there is a legend told about a figure known as Tan-gun, the grandson of the Lord of Heaven and the founder of the earliest Korean state.'^^
Buddhism brought with it a Universalist world view that was completely different in many ways from that of ancient Koreans belief systems. They had primiti\ e religious belief systems, not much different from the primitive religions in other ancient societies; with worship of the power of nature and the spiritual beings that were supposed to preside, every human or natural affair. Buddhism introduced a new message that human beings had the potential to obtain infinite power including that of presiding over their own destiny. The ultimate goal of Buddhist discipline is Enlightenment, and everybody is said to have the ability to attain it. Above all, there occurred a shift from worship of external powers to concern in innate power of human beings that would enable them to master their destinies when cultivated fiilly to the point of Enlightenment. The people in Korea believed in the law of cause and effect, the Buddhist concept of "karma"and "cause and effect. This event may have been a reason for the quick assimilation of Buddhism by the local people of Koguryo.
However, the chief consequence of Korean Buddhism lies in the role it played as an intermediary between China and Japan, for, although Buddhism received royal patronage almost throughout its history in Korea, there was no prominent development in its principle. But Shilla was the last hold of Buddhism which came nearly thirty years after it had been introduced in Koguryo. In Shilla period. Buddhism flourished strongly through the whole Korean place; mainly some of the finest statues such as Sokkuram Buddha in Kyongju were made in this time. A huge temple, Hwangnyong-sa, was built during this period; later on this became the center of Buddhism for Shilla. At that time, many learned monks went to China to study, and look for teachers.
Among them Wonh)'0 and his close friend, Uisang, also set out for China together, both wanted to study Buddhism there. On their way, Wonhyo had a curious experience. One night during a rainstorm the two friends took shelter in a cave and went to sleep. In the middle of the night, being thirsty, Wonhyo got up and drank some water from a vessel which he found in the cave. In the morning, the two monks arose to discover that they had slept in a grave which had been opened by robbers. To his horror, Wonhyo realized that he had drunk out of the skull of the deceased. He immediately felt a sense of revulsion and nausea overtaking him -when suddenly, he gained enlightenment. Wonhyo said afterwards that from this incident he learned the relativity of everything. Things are what we imagine them to be. Reality is based upon our perceptions. Having grasped this great insight, he decided not to go to T'ang, for in his new state of knowledge he felt that there was nothing that he coXild learn from the Chinese. Wonhyo returned home, but his unenlightened friend Uisang continued his journey to China.'^'^ Wonhyo realized that everything depends on the mind and without mind there is not being and stopped his journey for study to China and came back to Shilla because there was no need to look for the teachers and to study.
When Shilla conquered the other kingdoms Buddhism became the central artistic cultural force uniting the cape. Throughout the United Shilla period, Buddhism continued to prosper and promote; both academically and culturally. This was the time of the creation of some of the finest Korean art and the chief temples of Korea were built at this time, pagodas, shrines and beautiful statues fashioned. All of this was of profound and reflective significance to the national Buddhist heritage. The famous rock statue of the Buddha in Sokkuram cave in Kyongju was carved in 732A.D, Today it still evokes a sense of wonder. Furthennore, Avatamsaka Sutra and the Lotus Sutra were much studied while the people worshipped Amitabha Buddha (the Buddha of unlimited Light) and Avalokitesvara (the Bodhisattva of Compassion).
One of the most momentous developments in the history of Korean Buddhism occurred during the Unified Shilla period: the introduction of the Ch'an teachings, known in Korea as Seon. The earliest transmission of Seon to the peninsula is attributed to the monk Fa-lang(?i;0J, Korean; Pomnang, fl, 632-646A.D.), a Korean who is said to have trained with the fourth patriarch of the Chinese Ch'an school, Tao-hsin (580-646A.D.). While little is known of pomnang's life or thought, there are indications that he attempted to combine the teachings of two distinct Chinese Ch'an lineages—that of Bodhidharma (c. fifth century), Hui-ko (i^; "1,487-592 A.D.), and Seng-ts'an (ft^, d. 606) and that of Tao-hsin and Hung-jen
'^"^ -Janes Huntley Grayson, "KOREA A RELIGIOUS HISTORY", CLARENDON {^U )—^with the syncretic tathagata-garbha theory of the Ta-sheng ch 'i- hsin lun (Awakening of Faith). [See Tathagata-garbha.] A successor in Pomnang's lineage eventually founded the Huiyang-san school, the oldest of the Korean Seon schools.'^^
In the Shilla period, Fa-lang(ii^) of the Shilla monk, the Ch'an school or Seon in Korea or Zen in Japan was introduced from China and this added a new dimension to Korean Buddhism. Seon Buddhism was originated from the Dharma of Indian master Bodhidharma who crossed over to China during the time of the northern and Southern Dynasties in the early sixth century. After that, until the time of the sixth Patriarch Hui- neng(#Jb, 638-713A.D.), this new type of Buddhism had a complicated history of lineage. Seon Buddhism characteristically attaches great importance to the various different faculties of Seon practitioners, so it was natural that there appeared many similar schools in the same Seon families. The tradition was eventually merged into 'the five families and the Seven Orders' during the period of the late Tang Dynasty and the early Five Dynasties.
The above collection was generally known as Chinese Seon Buddhism and then this main stream of Chinese Seon was ftilly introduced to Shilla Dynasty of Korean Peninsula. This Seon tradition was developed and rooted in the Peninsula through the activities of Shilla masters who played important roles in the process of the transmission and establishment of the Seon Order. As we all know, Seon Buddhism has greatly affected the Buddhist history and culture of Korea; Seon Buddhism has been the main stream of Korean Buddhism. The present Jogye Order, being the Biggest Buddhist body in Korea, represents this tradition of Seon Buddhism,
'^^ -Edited by Joseph M. Kitagawa and Mark D. Cummings, "Buddhism and Asian Meditation and direct experience were emphasized over concentration on studying the texts. Nine different schools emerged and they were known as the Nine Mountains of Seon.
According to the history of Korean Buddhist record, in an attempt to purify and renew the spiritual aspect of Buddhism, several monks struggled against the ritualistic tendency. One of these learned monks was Master Uichon in 1055-1101 A.D., who was the son of King Munjong. He collected about 4,000 volumes of Buddhist texts while he was studying in China, from these texts the Korean Tripitaka was produced. This well- known Koryo monk emphasized the importance of bringing Contemplative and Avatamsaka traditions together under a Chinese school named Tien-tai. This alternative gave new life to Koryo Buddhism.
And then, after Uichon's period, another one was Master Chi- nul(^Dlft) (1158-1210), usually known as Pojo-kuksa(tHsy<|fir|,)^ who became the leading monk of Korea. He founded Songgwang-sa (fi^lK ,'j) temple on Mountain Jogye, and this large temple remained the headquarters of the Seon sect for over 300 years. The nine school of Seon (Zen) were unified by Master Taego-Bou {±'^, ^lik) under the name Jogye which has remained the main sect to this day. With the downfall of the Koryo Dynasty in 1392 A.D., Buddhism slowly declined as the new rulers of the Joseon Dynasty adopted Neo-Confucianism. Prior to this, many Buddhist monks had become overly involved in politics, resulting in royal strife. The new interest in Confucianism led to the oppression and restriction of Buddhism by some Joseon kings. Temples could not be built near towns and had to be constructed in the mountains; many temples were pulled down; monks were looked down on and, for some years, not permitted to enter the capital city. The effect of several centuries of denial of access to the capital city, and the impossibility of social advancement for members of the Bhikkhus had encouraged a movement away from cities into isolated mountain monasteries. These provided co-operative condition for the Seon-jong(sect), or Meditation School, which preserved an ancient form of Ch'an and was the dominant form of Buddhism to survive there.'^"^
Buddhism in kaya {MM, or Karak, M'i^) Kingdom, when we consider the early Korean Buddhism of the Three Kingdoms Period, we must take a look at the Kaya Kingdom (T' to 6* century A.D.). It was a kingdom in Kimhae (^'M) area to the south of the Peninsula. A trace of Buddhism to be found there, too.
TTie Samguk-yusa says that there was a stone pagodain Hogyesa in Kimhae. This pagoda had four sides and five storeys, and the carvings on the sides were famous for their magnificence. It is known that this pagoda was brought by sea to Korea by an Indian princess from Ayudhya. She came to marry King Suro (r. 42-199 A.D.) the first king of Karak (Karak, M''^, or fijpii). She was later known as Queen Ho hwang-ok. As far as the records show, until the arrival of the Indian priness, there were no temples and no Buddha statues and the people knew nothing about Buddhism. Because of this, there was no place to keep the pagoda. It was only altering, in 452 A.D. in the 2"^^ year of the 8* Karak King (r. 451-492), that Wanghu-sa was built.
According to the above record. Buddhism was not popular in Karak before the building of the temple; however, this is earlier than the spread of Buddhism in Shilla. Unfortunately, there are only a few legends about Buddhism in Karak. One is about the story of King Suro's decision on where to place the capital of Karak. Another is about Mano-sa (the temple of 10,000 fish). There are also two stories one about Changyu-sa and the other about Ch'ilbul-ahm. But these stories do not necessarily contain any historical truth and so cannot be seriously considered. Til we have certain new historical evidence, we must think of the above stories merely as legends.
There were two routes of transmission of Buddhism to Korea from China: one by land, one by sea. The land route was through Koguryo, the sea route was through Paekje. All started in China. But, if Buddhism was transmitted to Karak, as supposed in the above legends, then the transmission was directly from India or some other southern countries and not through China, and it gives us a new perspective on the transmission of Buddhism to Korea. There is still riow the ancient stupa of south style in Karak Kingdom (r. 42-199 A.D.) area in Korea. But when was that built and by who is unknown.
From the arrival time of Buddhism, it spread out though the whole Korea till now, but mostly Korean Buddhism accepted and adhered to the Northern Buddhism of India which was belonging to Mahayana sect, Theravada and Vajirayana schools are very less in Korea, but they are now starting to accept indigenous or local people because many travelers and workers in Korea from these countries carried and planted the seed of their religious belief to Korea.
3.3. Ancient Buddhist Culture in Korea
There were three Kingdoms Koguryo([Wj^aM), Paekje(a7f) and Shilla(ifli) when Buddhism was first introduced into Korea. Being the nearest to China among the three Kingdoms, the Kingdom of Koguryo was the first to introduce Buddhism. It is neither surely Indian nor an extension of the Chinese style of Buddhism that is Korean Buddhism. This development was such that, having its origin in the Buddha's enlightenment and teachings of wisdom and compassion, took nutrition in the different soils of India and China, and then matured in the Korean soil, bearing the special characteristics of the Korean people.
In the 6* month of 372 A.D.(the 2"^^ year of the King Sosurimwang of Koguryo), the Chinese King Fu-chien of the Former Ch'in (China, mM) sent statues of the Buddha along with Buddhist texts by a Buddhist monk envoy, Master Sundo ()ill;t), to Korea. This was the first official introducing of Buddhism into Korea. Two years later, in 374 A.D. an Indian monk Ahdo (MM) visited Korea through Ch'in (China). In the 2"'' month of the next year temples were built which were known as the Sungmoon-sa (^ H vj) and the Ibullan-sa (if'^M'y). They were the first erected Buddhist temples in Korea in 375 A.D. At that time Sungmoon-sa was built for Sundo, he stayed in Sungmoon-sa temple and Ibullan-sa was built for Ahdo, he stayed in Ibullan-sa temple.
In the 9the month of 384 A.D. (T' year of the King Chimnyuwang, ttU^) 12 years after Master Sundo()liJi) traveled to Koguryo, Buddhism was introduced to Paekje. An Indian monk, Master Marananta (^mW>t) arrived in Paekje through Eastern Chin (China, ^W). King Chimnyu (r.384-385 A.D.) welcomed him, paid his respects to him and invited him to stay in the palace. In Haedong-Kosung-Jon Q^W.MMi^, "Biographies of Eminent Korean Monks"), it is written that "the king went out of the capital to receive the monk. The king took the monk to his palace and served him respectfully." Next year, in the 2"'' month, a temple was built in Han- sna(MiiJ) and ten monks were ordained. It was the beginning of Buddhism in Paekje.'^^
In 527 A.D. (the 14* year of the 23'"'^ King Pophung,(?API^) of Shilla, r. 514-540 A.D.) after Ich'adon (^yX^) was martyred, Buddhism in Shilla was officially recognized. But this was not actually the first time that Buddhism had been heard of in Shilla. Buddhism was introduced through Koguryo far earlier. During the reign of the 19* King Nulchi (.ifjfg;^, 417- 458 A.D.), an Indian monk, Mukhoja (Siy^i^), through Koguryo came to Shilla and stayed in a village in the north. There he propagated Buddhism in secret. At that time an envoy from Liang China brought incense to Shilla, but no one knew how to use it. He taught the people about the use of incense, and he also cured tlie illness of a princess and then left. Buddhism, though known at this time, had very little effect on Shilla society. It was recorded Kyerim-jap-jon{UM^{M) by Kim Tae-mun (^/'^ItH) and was further quoted in the Smguk-sagi, ( •.WliE., Historical Record of tiie thi-ee Kingdoms), Haedong-KoSUng-jon, (/S^iiiMfll, Biographies of Eminent Korean Monks) and Samguk-yusa ( -liiljlJj, Memorabilia and Mirabilia of the Three Kingdoms).
Another story is that "The Koguryo monk, Ahdo, came to Shilla in the 2"'' year (A.D.263) of the reign of the 13* King Mich'u (4
Through the transmission of Buddhism to the Three Kingdoms and the missionaries who had visited these Kingdoms through China, various sects developed in many aspects of Buddhist culture of the Three Kingdoms. The Samnonjong ( -.ira^, sect) was developed in Koguryo; the Yooljong (#^, Vinaya sect) was prevalent in Paekje; the Yoosikjong (ilii^, sect) was first introduced in Shilla and the doctrine of Prajna was also developed there.
In the Kingdom of Koguryo, the Samnonjong (sect) was greatly enhanced by a Korean Monk. During King Kwanggaet'o (ISf/H± H) reign (394-413 A.D.), T'an-shin an Eastern China monk, came to Liao-tung (iS^) province, at that time in Koguryo territory, carrying with him a large collection of Buddhist Text. During the reign of King Munja (>C'^^, A.D.491-518), the study of Buddhism became popular and many scholar- monks investigated the teachings of the Samnon (Three treatises), T'ien- t'ai and Nirvana sutra. Among them, the scholar-monk Sungnang {\^W\) was especially prominent. Bom in Liao-tung {"iMi), most probably in the
'^^ -Edited bv The Korean Buddhist research Institute 'The history and cuhure of middle of the fifth century, he went to China and studied the Samnon: the Madhyamaka-sastra, the Dvadasanikaya-sastra, and the Sata-sastra following the interpretation of Kumarajiva and Seng-chao (fgfSt, 383-414), established a new way of studying the three sastras which no longer relied on the Satyasiddhisastra. He also set up a new epistemological methodology for understanding the sunyata theory. He argued that the Two Truth—^paramartha and samvrti—both illuminate the teachings of the madhyamapratipad (the Middle Way) together. '^" In Koguryo there were many priests who had studied abroad in China and rendered great services to the development of the country's culture through Buddhism.
In the second year of King Kwanffat'o's()Slli±^) reign (393), nine monasteries were founded in P'yongyang (^i|i) and in 498 A.D. (the 3'^'^ year of the King Moonrawang, 'X-^^) Kumgang-sa was built near P'yongyang Deadong-gang River. A monastery site at Ch'ongam-re (it^M) in P'yongyang excavated in 1938 has been identified as the Kumgang-sa Monastery founded in 497. Such construction works as these greatly stimulated and promoted the development of architecture in Koguryo.
There are still many Koguryo Buddhist statues existing. Various images of the Buddha, Buddhist paintings, other works of art contributed much to the development of fine arts such as engraving and painting.
The Samnonjong (sect) was first introduced into Japan by the monks from Koguryo. A large number of eminent priests, including Damjeung (Siij), went over to Japan and introduced not only Buddhism, but also the art of making paper, pigments, millstones, tiles and so forth.
^^° -Edited by Lewis R. Lancaster and C.S. Yu, "Introduction of Buddhism to Korea The famous wall paintings at the Horyuji Temple in Japan were drawn by a Korean priest Damjeung.
Even though Koguryo Buddhism expanded very rapidly with the help of the kings, there was a crisis when Taoism, which was introduced in 624 A.D. in the reign of the King Yongnyu (^^ig^, r. 618-642), was gaining influence. There is a record that states that King Yongnyu sent an envoy to T'ang to learn Buddhism and the teachings of Lao-tzu in 625 A.D. That is all that we find about Taoism in the reign of King Yongnyu. However, elsewhere we find mention of the oppression of Buddhism by Taoists. A historical record says that King Pojang (mi=E, r. 642-668 A.D.), the next and last Koguryo king, accepted Taoism from General Kaesomun (M.M^) and had Buddhist temples changed into Taoist temples, To-gwan (5tit), by force in 643.
There is no precise record about this oppression of Buddhism and support of Taoism by King Pojang(M»i^). But we do know the story of one Master Podok (^iti) from Panyong-sa (Mijji'/) who moved to south, Kodae-san (MAiii) in Wansan (^Mi, present Chonju, ^Jii) in the 9^*" year of king Pojang because the king supported Taoism and did not believe in Buddhism. Master Podok advised the king many times that if only Taoism was worshiped and Buddhism was neglected then the nation would suffer. But as the king did not listen to him, Master Podok left for Kodae-san in Wansan.
There was an interesting story about monk-soldiers in the context of the development of Buddhism in Koguryo. The story tells that, when King Tai-tsung (i:^) from T'ang (IS) invaded Koguryo 30,000 monk-soldiers defeated the T'ang army. The above story is not found in any records made during the Koguryo period. It is found in the saying of General Ch'oe, Yong (1317-1389 A.D.) of the late Koryo period. Therefore, it is difficult
1 -5 1 to know whether the story is true or not.
In the fourth year of King Song's reign (526 A.D.), the monk Kyomik (li^) returned to Paekje from India carrying the Abhidharmapitaka and five versions of the Vinaya, akhough it is not clear which ones they were. With twenty-eight other monks, he translated seventy-two volumes of Vinaya and has been regarded as the founder of the Vinaya School of Paekje. Following Kyomik's work Tamuk( jl JiJi) and Hyein(^t:) wrote thirty-six rolls of commentaries on the Vinaya in Paekje. Vinaya study was popular in Paekje from its introduction.
Twelve years after Kyomik, in 538 A.D. Paekje moved their kingdom from Ungju {$M\, present day Kongju, :/^'Jii) to Sabi (present day Puyo). In 588, several nuns, including Senshinni (gfSit!.), came from Japan and studied the Vinaya for three years; on their return to Japan they greatly contributed to the development of Vinaya study in Japan. Beginning in the middle of the Sabi period much emphasis was diverted to the precepts and manneristic features began to develop: King Pop gave an order to the people in his first year (599 A.D.), not to kill, to release domestic fowl and to burn all hunting and fishing instruments.'^^
In their architectural technique, the temples of Paekje such as the wangheung-sa (5^ <'j), built by King Pop and 30 monks ordained in the V^ month, 600 A.D. Miruk-sa (?i^ ,'j) built by King Mu. The queen of King Mu was the 3"* daughter of the Shilla King Chinp'yong (r. 579-632 A.D.). One day King Mu and queen were going to Yonghwa-san (ij[l^*giii), at that
'^' - Edited by The Korean Buddhist research Institute 'The history and culture of Buddhism in Korea" Dongguk University Press, pp44-45 -Edited by Lewis R. Lancaster and C.S. Yu, "Introduction of Buddhism to Korea New Cultural Patterns'', ASIAN HUMANITIES PRESS Berkeley, California, pp- time they saw a Maitrey triad, the Future Buddha, statues rising from a pond at the base of the mountain. So the queen prayed that a temple be built at the place and the King Mu built a monastery there called it Miruk- sa (In Iksan, Cholla-buk-do province). Sudok-sa (fi^f fe 'j), today situated on Tok-san (feiii) in Ch'ung chongnam-do province, was where Master Hyehyon (MM) used to recite the Saddharmapundarika-sutra (ii^lS) and study the Three Sastras ( •.i™). And other was the ones which could really represent the Korean architecture.
According to Chinese record, Paekje had many temple stupas. However, actual records of these stupas are rare. Among existing stone stupas, the oldest and largest in Korea is on the site of Miruk-sa, together with the stupa of Chongnim-sa site, they show us the excellent technique and style of Paekje stupas. In the making of pagodas in particular, Paekje had many great artists and so they were sent to Shilla.'"^^ It was completed according to the design of Abiji (K^IT^P) of the Paekje and two hundred Paekje architects followed him to Kyongju (ffiJil, capital city) in Shilla in order to help build the nine-story, wooden pagoda at Hwangnyong-sa (Mtti^^).
In 602 A.D. Master of Paekje, Kwanreuk (ll#), introduced books about astronomy, geography, the almanac, the occult arts, and necromancy to Japan. He was proficient in the study of the Three Sastras and non- Buddhist sciences as well; he was also a famous doctor. In particular, he reformed the official discipline of the Japanese Buddhist Order and became the r^ patriarch of Japanese Buddhism.'^"^ Many other monks also went to Japan for working Japanese Buddhism for example Hyemi (lln'ji), Tohum
'^^ - Edited by The Korean Buddhist research Institute "The history and cuUure of Buddhism in Korea" Dongguk University Press, p-71 (mm), Uigak (a«), Xojang (mm), To-nyong {m"¥% Tasang (^Vii'), Wongak (il#), Wonse (11?5) and Pangje (teM) etc, there were many priests.
In kingdom of Shilla, there were considerable difficulties in introducing Buddhism into it, because it was the remotest land from China among the Three Kingdoms, and the situation of its social development was more or less differed from those of the two kingdoms -Koguryo and Paekje. Besides, Shilla had its own culture which had already developed to a considerable degree. That is why, the fact that there was difficulty between Buddhism a foreign culture-and the national culture of Shilla shows that the people of Shilla did not blindly introduce a foreign culture into their country. However, once Buddhism began to spread over the country, it developed in perfect harmony with the national culture of Shilla.
The structure of the Hungnyun-sa (Wlm -'j), which was finished in 545 A.D., the 5'*" year of the reign of the King Chinhung, was probably the first and the largest Shilla temple. Yonghung-sa (yyM .'j) and Hwangnyong- sa (Mttl^'j) which were completed in 566 A.D., had been commenced 13 years earlier and were buih at the same time as were Kiwon-sa (IfiH 'j) and Shilje-sa (KF^'/) temples. In 574 A.D., the king Chinhung made three Buddha statues at Hwangnyong-sa. This and other temples in Shilla show the magnificent, great architectural style and fine building techniques which were used enormously at that time. This shows how well developed were the arts in those days. The image of the Buddha which is sixteen feet tall and the nine-storied stupa at Hwangyong-sa (Mfjii'/), (this means Yellow Dragon Temple, but it was also called King Dragon Temple since the words for yellow (hwang) and king (wang) are pronounced almost the same in Korean.), are the proud treasures of ancient culture in Korea. The nine story pagoda at Hwangnyong-sa (temple), was built on the site of its present ruins in the heart of Kyongju in the fifth year of Queen Sondok (#^0- The Paekje artist named Abiji (M4\-^Q) was sent to Shilla to build the Stupa (wooden pagoda) at Hwangnyong-sa, the oldest, recorded, Shilla Stupa. Master Cahjang (MM) made a recommendation that it be built for the security of the nation.
The members of the aristocratic families called hwarang (lESr^ flower Boys) became the backbone of national defense as they practiced what is called hwarangdo, or the Way of Flower}^ Princes, epitomized by chivalry, bravery, fidelity, and righteousness. In Shilla, in addition to shaman priests and priestesses, a group of young men as Hwang seem to have played an important role in promoting music and dance. These young men, who were the scions of the nobility, visited sacred places such as mountains, valleys, and rivers throughout the kingdom and prayed for national safety and prosperity while fostering their spirit and physical strength, mutual trust, and composing songs and creating dances. General Kim Yushin is one of the most famous hwarang, who masterminded the unification of the Three Kingdom.
They abided by sesok ogye (The five ethical laws of secular life), taught by Won'gang Popsa(Master). Samguk sagi lists them as follows:
(1) One should serve the king with loyalty. (2) One should serve one's parents with filial piety. (3) One shpuld associate with friends with trust. (4) One should never retreat in war. (5) One should kill only with discrimination.
The above can be summed up as ch 'ung {^., loyalty), hyo (#, filial piety), shin (fa, trust), yong (^, courage) and in (fz, benevolence). The first three qualities are reminiscent of Confucian Samgang ( -M). The fifth has been obviously derived from Buddhism which prohibits the killing of all living things. The fourth is the unique Shilla warrior quality which contributed to the strengthening of the national military force, and enabled Shilla to defeat Koguryo and Paekje.
P'algwanhoe (A|l#) was held for religious as well as practical reasons. This remembrance of those who died in war had been achieved through indigenous religion rituals before they were replaced by the p'algwanhoe ritual. In the later year, the close relationship between the court and Buddhism was highlighted when King Chinhung became a monk and took the name Popkong (S^ or SS, popuhn). With the growth of Confucian and Buddhist cultures, new rituals, music and dance developed, establishing a new cultural tradition. Buddhist festivals such as p 'algwanhoe and assemblies for Sutra Recitation by One Hundred Monks and shrine rituals associated with Confticianism enriched cultural life. At the same time, new costumes, new musical instruments such as five- stringed zither called komungo of Koguryo and the twelve-stringed zither named kayagum of Kaya became two major string instruments of Korea.
The only existing records of the structure of the Buddhist order of the Three Kingdoms Period come from the Shilla kingdom. Apart from these records, we can only guess at the structure and hierarchy of the order. The geological condition and the route of transmission enable us to guess that Koguryo adopted the system oisungt'ong {{^^rji, or kukt'ong, VMvt) as in the case of Shilla and Paekje adopted who sungjong ((tjE) and sungdo (ftfp). As Japan received Buddhism from Paekje, they must have adopted the same system. The structure of the Shilla Buddhist order included such position as kukt'ong (ti^), taegukt'ong (AlySI^), taedoyuna {k%\MW^), and toyunarang {t\MMWC) for the senior monks. Let us take a look at these offices.
Kukt'ong (lilf^), the title of State Monk or kukt'ong, also called sungt'ong or saju (.'j i) and taegukt'ong originated from King Chinhung's appointment, in 551, of Master Hyeryang (B-fE). Later, Master Chajang {MM) was appointed to the position of taegukt'ong, "Great State Monk, under Queen Sondok. The function of kukt 'ong or taegukt 'ong, was to build the Order by improving the moral fiber of the Buddhist, and also to
1 ^^ supervise and control different activities of the Order.
Temple servants, saye ('yB), literally means temple slaves. We only have records of such servants from Shilla; nothing is known about them in Koguryo or Paekje. Temple servants were very different from ordinary slaves because they were not from ordinary families, for, from the beginning, they were from royal and aristocratic families, and hence were not considered as low as any other servants. Later on, members of traitors' families also became temple servants and these were considered low, in the same category as ordinary servants. Saye were lay people who worked for the monks in the temples helping them with management and other jobs. There were male, sano, and female, sabi, servants.
There are two kinds of temple servants. One kind came from the family and relatives of the royal family. The practice of making family member into temple servants began under King Pophung who introduced Buddhism to Shilla. When he became a monk in Hungnyun-sa, he made some relatives of his royal family into temple servants. From that time, temple servants were called "royal descendants." There is a record from the reign of King (T'aejong) Muyol (r. 654-661). One minister, Kim, Yang- do(:^^|pil)5 froiii the royal family, donated his two daughters, Hwabo and Yonbo, to be temple servants. The other kind of temple servants came from traitors' families. One recorded case was that of Moch'ok's (€)v) family in the time of King (T'aejong) Muyol.'^^
The Unified Shilla period is 668-935 A.D. In 668 A.D. the kingdom of Shilla finally managed to unite the peninsula. The process of unification was greatly aided by the hwarang. Flower Boys. It was a system of moral and political training for young boys and was founded by King Chinhung (r. 540-576). These young men once trained went to organize and run the nation according to Buddhist ideals. The hwarang were educated to keep Sedok-ogye (five precepts of laymen). These were rules based on the basic precepts of all Buddhists, the avoidance of: taking life, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxicants. The entire system of the hwarang revolved around Maitreya, the Future Buddha.'^^
The political unification of the peninsula ushered in a golden age of Korean Buddhist scholasticism. Many monks traveled to T'ang China or even to distant India to study the Way of Buddhism. The monk Wonchuk {MM, 613-696 A.D.), is particularly noteworthy for the major contributions he made to Buddhism in Korea through his sutra translations and other writings during a long sojourn in T'ang China. The monk Hyecho went to India and described his pilgrimage to Buddhist holy places in a well-known account called Record of a Journey to the Five Indian Kingdom. The monks who went abroad for their part studied hard and also tried their best to impart what they had leamed to the people when they returned to Shilla.
'^^ -Ibid,p-69 ^" Ibid,p-77 '^* -Mu Soeng, "THOUSAND PEAKS Korean Zen-Tradition and Teachers'\ Primary The masters kept the Buddhist rules strictly and so were able to influence the people guiding them in the right way. They believed in the imminent birth of the Future Buddha, Maitreya, and wished to make Shilla into the Buddha Land.
Master Cha-jang was a member of the royal family who went to China in 636 to study and returned in 643 A.D. At that time, Queen Sondok was first queen to rule Shilla. Master's idea was that there is very strong relationship between the Shilla Kingdom and Buddhism. His idea influenced the people greatly and made them proud of living in such a nation. This was the foundation for unification. He founded the T'ongdo- sa (JIS-V) Temple as the place where Buddhist Ordination would be permitted to be performed. Master Chajang tried his best to unify the people by guiding them in the principles of Buddhism.
During the unified Shilla period of Master Wonhyo (617-686 A.D.) and Uisang (625-702 A.D.), the greatest achievement of early Korean philosophy occurred, forged approaches to Buddhist philosophy that would become the hallmarks of the Korean Temple from that time onwards.
Buddhism made the biggest contribution to architecture and sculpture. Pulguk-sa Temple epitomizes the spirit of Shilla, bearing witness to the great architectural achievements of that period and showing highly refined aesthetic beauty. There are two stone pagodas which stand complementing each other symbolizing the Buddha's contemplation and detachment. They are the Tabo and Sakyamuni Pagoda and both were created in the United Shilla period and now are National Treasure. Sukkurahm, "Cave of the Buddha," was made at the same time as Pulguk- sa Temple—about 751 A.D. The manmade cave-house has one of the most beautiful Buddha-statues in the world. High up on Mt. T'oham, behind Pulguk-sa Temple, this 30 foot, domed rotunda also contains an eleven-headed Avalokitesvara statue which is famous for its exquisite beauty. Bodhisattvas, the Buddha Sakyamuni's enlightened disciples and guardians are also found in the cave. The whole cave was built to represent the Buddhist world.
Nearly thirty years after the demise of Koguryo, a new state arose in Manchuria called Parhae (WM), the three kingdoms competed for hegemony on Korean peninsula and wars among them never stopped until Shilla finally defeated Paekche in 660 A.D., and Koguryo in 668 A.D. However, Shilla failed to recover the whole territory of Koguryo.
At that time exiled Koguryo aristocrats established a new kingdom named Chin, whose territory consisted of the northern part of Korean peninsula and large part of Manchuria. It was renamed Parhae in 713 and lasted until 926 when it was defeated by Khitan tribes (WiFf, a Tungustic people in Manchuria).
Parhae was a multi-ethnic nation, consisting of a Korean ruling class and a subject race of Malgal (l^$l) Tribesmen. Studies of its culture began only recently and they are still far from full-scale due to many obstacles involved in the international relationship between China and Korea. There we have few information of Parhae's Buddhist culture.
So far we have made no mention of the extent of Buddhism in Parhae. As Yi Hong-jik correctly points out, one of the problems of studying Parhae history is that it left no records of its own. Thus, information must be gleaned from secondary written sources and archaeological artifacts. The physical presence of Buddhism is clearly indicated bv the sites of four RuHrihist temnlf^c in i-Vip rnnitfil tVip* numerous Buddhist statues which have been excavated there, and various stone lanterns. The lantern at the Namdae-myo in particular is remarkable for its form.'^^
One of the General of Koguryo army, Tae Cho-yong, laid the foundation of Parhae, with organizing several of the Manchurian tribes, after Buddhism in the area which had formerly composed Koguryo had not faded away. Monks went to China for study, and even members of the royal house were devout followers. Whatever the ups and downs of its fate at the royal court may have been. Buddhism survived the collapse of Koguryo to nourish the culture of its successor state, Parhae.
Koryo Buddhism (937-1392 A.D.) was the principal contribution of Koryo Buddhists to the evolution of the Korean temple. It was the reconciliation they effected between the Seon and scholastic schools. It was Uich'on (1055-1101 A.D.) who made the first such attempt, by seeking to combine both the Nine Mountains and Scholastic schools into a revived Ch'on'tae school. Chinul (1158-1210 A.D.) was a charismatic Seon master who was similarly motivated by a syncretic vision of the unity of Seon and the scholastic teachings. A Sean master of the alter Koryo period, t'aego pou (1301-1382 A.D.) worked prodigiously to merge the remnants of ths Nine Mountains Seon schools with the new Chogye-chong.
The founder of the Koryo Dynasty, Wang Geon, admired Buddhism and ensured that it was protected and encouraged by the state. From the year of his coronation (918 A.D.), Palgwanhoe or the Buddhist
'^^ -Edited by Nagendra Kr. Singh, "International Encyclopedia of BUDDHISM Vol. 46 KOREA", ANMOL PUBLICATIONS PVT. LTD. New Delhi-110002 (INDIA), ?•• Festival of Eight vows was held annually and throughout the country, the construction of pagodas and other Buddhist structures preceded apace.
Shortly before Wang Geon died, he wrote Hunyo Sipjo or Ten Testamentary Articles of Instruction for the guidance of his successors. In the first article, he emphasized faith in Buddhism and the erection of temples, while in the second he urged his successors not to construct temples thoughtlessly in locations other than those that had been deemed appropriate by the state priest Doseon.
Buddhism served as the ideal spiritual paradigm to support the monarch and central state control, thus the Koryo Dynasty adopted it officially. Each successive king maintained this respect for Buddhism, creating a Buddhist golden age. But in the late Koryo period, Buddhism became tainted by all kinds of corrupt practices. Monks became deeply involved in politics and abused their powers, producing ill effects through the breakdown of Order among monks and lay people alike. Through the efforts of reformers such as Jeong dojeon (1342-1398 A.D.,), anti- Buddhism grew, winning widespread support among the populace for its strong opposition to the moral corruption of Buddhist monks and believers.
In a swirl of chaos, Koryo fell and the Joseon Dynasty took over. Yi Seong-gye, who rose to the throne backed by the nascent gentry, was a devout Buddhist and intimate with high priests of the time such as Muhak. On his accession, he appointed Muhak as Royal Priest and granted the monks many favors. He rebuilt the pagoda of Yeonboksa Temple and held a ceremony there. He also repaired the old pagoda of Haeinsa Temple and enshrined in the temple the woodblocks of Buddhist sutras and the Tripitaka Koreana with his prayers for the nation's prosperity and the well-being of the people.
The anti-Buddhist movement that grew in the late Koryo period ripened in the Joseon period. Monks were allowed to enter the capital for divination of auspicious geomantic sites, holding ceremonies for the success of large construction projects and the like. Other times, however, they were treated as outcasts or criminals.
Nevertheless, Buddhism exercised a far-reaching influence on Korean culture throughout its long history. Throughout the country, its invaluable heritage abides in buildings, sculptures, paintings and handicrafts.
3.4. Seon Buddhism in Korea
3.4.1. BojoJinul
Bojo Jinul (1158-1210 A.D.) was bom to a gentry and his family name was Jeong; his ordination name, Junul; his pen name, Moguja (literally, 'an ox herder'); the name given to him after his death by the nation was Buril.
He left his family at the age of 15 in 1173, the third year of King Myeongiong's (0/5^) reign, and received precepts from Seon Master Jonghwi {n Pojo Jinul succeeded the tradition of the Nine Mountain Schools of Korean Seon (Ch'an; China, Zen; Japan) and led the Textual School to be involved in the Seon School. He received Ganhwaseon (investigation of a topic of Seon meditation) from Chinese master Dahui Zonggao {kM'^-M, China; Ta-hui Tsung-kao, 1089-1163 A.D.), that he was the first person to teach Ganhwaseon with the question and answer system based on Gohng- ahn(:2^^, kung-an; China, koan; Japan), a methodology that had been conventionally practiced in the Chinese Chan lineages (Five Families and Seven Orders). Master Bojo Jinul introduced this Ganhwaseon to Korea and re-refounded Korean Seon Buddhism by settling the Seon tradition of the Jogye Order that later was further developed by his disciples. Master Bojo Jinul felt that as meditation and wisdom are central factors in the practice of Buddhism, they should be keenly practiced by everyone. Master Bojo Jinul's movement was practical one which aimed at "the wholesome practice of both Samadhi and prajna, or "holding oneself in the equanimity of clearness and calmness," in the seclusion of the mountains. He claimed that we should practice even after attaining sudden enlightenment. He formed a system of three gates (approaches) know as Bojo-Seon (the Seon of Bojo Jinul). The claim of "sudden enlightenment and gradual practice" along with "the wholesome practice of both meditation and wisdom" formed the T' gate of "holding oneself in the equanimity of clearness and calmness." The 2"^^ gate consisted in the thought of Hwaeom, "complete and sudden faith and interpretation." The 3*^^ gate of "short cut," was adapted by him from the traditional Seon essence outside the conventional ideas of Buddhism. Bojo-seon consisted in uniting the ideas of Seon with the ideas of the teachings oiKyo, the doctrine. Up to this time Seon and Kyo (teaching) were in great conflict with each other ever since the later period of the Shilla Dynasty. It was this blending that made the Seon of Koryo, Bojo-seon, so very meaningful. 3.4.3. Master Bodhidharma Seon (Ch'an or Zen) Buddhism was introduced to Shilla from China in the late Shilla Dynasty. At first called the Seon-jong (115^?), or Talma-jong (ji^^, the order of Bodhidharma), it connoted an order opposite to Kyo~jong, the order of teaching. In China, the founder of the Ch'an School was the Indian Master Bodhidharma. Dhyana (Seon) Buddhism penetrated into Korea beginning in the Shilla dynasty and spread widely there. During the late Shilla Dynasty until the early Koryo Dynasty, the Nine Mountains of Seon, the nine different orders of Seon (Dhyana) were founded. 3.4.4. Master Pomnang introduced Seon School to Shilla Dhyana Buddhism was introduced from China to Shilla by Shilla Master Pomnang (i£A)J). During the reign of Queen Sondok (-Itii), he went to T'ang and studied with Master Tao-hsin, the 4* patriarch of Chinese Ch'an Buddhism. In order to understand the history of Seon, it is necessary to know the lineage of teachers and disciples. In China the founder of the Ch'an School was the Indian Master Bodhidharma. He passed his teachings to Hu-k'o (SnJ, 487-593 A.D.), who passed it to Seng-ts'an (MM, d. 606 A.D.) and then to Tao-hsin (3tft, 580-651 A.D.), and on to Hung-jen (?i^;S, 601-674 A.D) one after the other. From the 5* Chinese patriarch, Hung-jen, the two schools were deveded into the Northern School of Master Shen-hsiu (#^, 605-706) and the Southern School of the 6* patriarch, Hui-neng (BtB, 638-713 A.D. ). Among the disciples of Hui-neng, Master Ch'ing-yuan Hsing-ssu (Jti^tT&l, 660-740 A.D.) formed the T' main line and Master Nan-yuan Huai- jang (Its ti^, 677-744 A.D.,) the 2"^* main line. The history of Chinese Buddhism is divided into two periods. The early period is that of research of the Buddhist doctrine and the later period is that of the practice of Buddhism based on Ch'an Buddhism and the ideology of the Pure Land. Ch'an Buddhism secured its footing with the 6"" patriarch, Hui-neng, which greatly changed the current of history. Shilla Buddhism, whose foundation was doctrinal research according to the time of its transmission from China, was also influenced by Ch'an Buddhism and converted to a new perspective. Later it was systematically organized in Seon-jong in the Koryo Dynasty. Up until today Seon Buddhism has been the keystone of Korean Buddhism.''^'^ The foundation had no connection with the five main Orders of Seon and two schools of Buddhism in China. This is because the Nine Mountains were founded before the establishment of the five Chinese Orders; therefore Shilla monks did not use the names of the Chinese Orders but instead used the names of Seon-jong. Northern School of Shen-hsiu (#51) was short lived in Korea. Instead, the Southern School of Hui-neng {WM) was introduced to Shilla after the Northern School had died out in Korea. The Northern School only remained until the early Koryo period. The Southern Ch'an School was introduced to Shilla during reign of Kong Hondok (.^^S, r. 809-826) and around the time of the reign of King Hungdok (Pltii, r 826-836 A.D.). -Edited by The Korean Buddhist Research Institute, "The History and Culture of Buddhism in Korea", Dongguk University Press, p-113 3.4.5. The Nine Mountains Seon School The Nine Mountains were: 1. Shilssang-san (S'l-lliii), 2. Kaji-san (^f III), 3.Tongni-san(l^ffiiii), 4. Sagul-san ('/Jidliii), 5. Songju-san (^^UJ ili), 6. Saja-san (flfl^T-ili), 7. Pongnim-san ()ll4^iii), 8. Sumi-san (S-jTliii), 9. Huiyang-san (BiPiiii). The first seven Mountains were founded during the late Shilla Dynasty. In the early Koryo Dynasty the last two Mountains, Sumi-san and Huiyang-san, were founded. In the early K0170 Dynasty, many more important mountains and temples were founded. But the period of the Nine Mountains covers the later Shilla Dynasty and the very early Koryo Dynasty. 3.5. Conclusion In order to understand Korean Buddhism we must first take a look at its history. When Buddhism first came from China to the Korean peninsula in aroun^:^i7-2-A.D., Shamanism was the indigenous religion. Shamanism is the '^ricie'nt religion from Siberia and Central Asia which came to Korea with Korean ancestor Tan'gun that is animism and nature- spirit worship and its origins in Korea are in antiquity. Buddhism in Korea includes four features Shamanism, Protecting the Nation, Harmonization of all Buddhism, and Seon Buddhism. The transmission of Buddhism to Korea brought significant development in many aspects of national culture. Buddhism contributed to the development of the spiritual civilization greatly.